V. REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE
1. The Scientific Method.
2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photographing, Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique.
3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and Proof Reading.
1. The Scientific Method
Chamberlin, T. C.
1897. The Method of Multiple Working Hypotheses. Jour. Geol., Vol. V, pp. 837-848.
1906. The Method of the Earth Sciences. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXVI, pp. 66-75. Inter. Cong. of Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. IV, pp. 477-487.
Very important papers and worthy of careful study.
Gilbert, G. K.
1886. The Inculcation of Scientific Method by Example, with an Illustration drawn from the Quaternary Geology of Utah. Amer. Jour. Sci., (3), Vol. XXXI, pp. 284-299.
1887. Special Processes of Research. Amer. Jour. Sci., (3), Vol. XXXIII, pp. 452-473.
Meldola, R.
1895. The Speculative Method in Entomology. Trans. Ent. Soc., London, 1895, pp. XLVIII-LXXIII.
Van Hise, C. R.
1902. The Training and Work of a Geologist. Science, N. S., Vol. XVI, pp. 321-334.
Keyes, C. R.
1898. The Genetic Classification of Geological Phenomena. Jour. Geol., Vol. VI, pp. 809-815.
Valuable for its discussion of the criteria used in genetic studies.
Van Hise, C. R.
1904. The Problems of Geology. Jour. Geol., Vol. XII, pp. 589-616; Inter. Cong. Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. IV, pp. 525-548. 1906.
An excellent discussion of the energy, agent, and process method of investigation. I have seen no similar discussion applied to biological or zoölogical subjects.
Boas, F.
1896. The Limitations of the Comparative Method of Anthropology. Science, N. S., Vol. IV, pp. 901-908.
A suggestive paper for the student of ecology who uses the comparative method in his own work.
1904. The History of Anthropology. Science, N. S., Vol. XX, pp. 513-524.
Application of the genetic and historical method to the study of man.
Mill, J. S.
1881. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive: Being a Connected View of the Principles of Evidence and the Methods of Scientific Investigation. Eighth Edition, pp. 659. New York.
Pearson, K.
1900. The Grammar of Science. Second Edition, pp. 548. London.
Jevons, S.
1879. Principles of Science. Third Edition, pp. 786. London.
Certain chapters are of special interest.
Cramer, F.
1896. The Method of Darwin. A Study in Scientific Method, pp. 232. Chicago.
MacDougal, Robt.
1905. On the Discrimination of Critical and Creative Attitudes. Jour. Philos. Psy. and Sci. Methods, Vol. II, pp. 287-293.
Lebon, G.
1898. The Life History of Scientific Ideas. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LII, pp. 251-254.
2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photographing, Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique
There is such an abundance of literature on the technique of collecting and preserving specimens, and so much of it can easily be secured by any earnest student, that space will not be taken to discuss these subjects in detail. Reference will simply be made to the main convenient sources of information. It should perhaps be mentioned that very few of these papers have been especially prepared from the standpoint of the animal ecologist. The student must select and devise his methods from all available sources.
I have included in this list a few references on the subject of camping, photography, and the use of instruments needed in the determination of the physical features of the environment. A few miscellaneous papers which are suggestive on methods of technique are also added.
Many Authors.
1891-1899. Bulletin 39, U. S. National Museum. Parts A to O.
Contain directions for collecting and preserving a great variety of animals, including marine animals, mollusks, insects, spiders, myriapods, reptiles, amphibians, birds, birds’ eggs and nests, mammals, etc.
Anonymous.
1896. Manual for Army Cooks, pp. 306. Washington.
The Manual used by the cooks in the U. S. Army. It includes chapters on camp cooking, a subject of much importance in certain ecological surveys.
1905. Terms used in Forestry and Logging. Bull. 61, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 53.
Useful in the descriptions of forest conditions.
1904. Instructions to Field Parties and Descriptions of Soil Types. Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 198.
Useful in the description of soils in the study of subterranean animals.
Banks, N.
1907. A “Census of Four Square Feet.” Science, N. S., Vol. XXVI, p. 637.
A criticism of McAtee (1907).
1909. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects. Bull. 67, U. S. Nat. Mus. pp. 135.
An excellent manual. Should be in the hands of every student of insects.
Bretscher, K.
1902. Beobachtung über die Oligochaeten der Schweiz, VI. Folge. Rev. Suisse de Zoöl., Ann. Soc. Zoöl. Suisse et du Mus. d’His. Nat. de Geneve, Tome 10, pp. (1-29).
1904. Die xerophilen Enchytraeiden der Schweiz. Biol, Centralbl., Bd. XXIV, pp. 501-513.
Quantitative studies of earthworms in the soil.
Brunner, J.
1912. Tracks and Tracking, pp. 219. New York. Outing Publishing Co.
An illustrated guide for the identification of mammal and bird tracks or foot prints. Devoted mainly to game and fur-bearing animals. Very valuable to the student of live animals in nature. Many of our smaller species are worthy of similar treatment.
Burns, F. L.
1901. A Sectional Bird Census. Wilson Bulletin, N. S., Vol. VIII, pp. 84-103.
A quantitative study of the birds found breeding on an area of one square mile. Other similar studies should be made.
Chapman, F. M.
1900. Bird Studies with a Camera. With Introductory Chapters on the Outfit and Methods of the Bird Photographer, pp. 218. New York.
The title clearly indicates the character of this book.
Comstock, J. H.
1897. Insect Life. pp. 349. New York.
Directions for the study of insects.
Clements, F. E.
1905. Research Methods in Ecology. pp. 334. Lincoln, Nebraska.
Important for methods of study in plant ecology, partly also applicable to animals; photography, and instruments for the study of environments.
Dahl, F.
1901. Was ist ein Experiment, was Statistik in der Ethologie? Biol. Centralbl., Bd. XXI, pp. 675-681.
1903. Winke für ein wissenschaftlicher Sammeln von Thieren. Sitzungs-Ber. der Gesell. naturfor. Freunde zu Berlin. Jahrg. 1903, pp. 444-475.
This contains, in addition to its suggestions on collecting, an interesting outline or classification of animal habitats (Cf. also Enderlein, 1908, pp. 72-77). This is not a genetic classification. Dahl’s list of habitats will prove very suggestive to the student who wishes to develop the genetic system of classification. Ultimately we must, of course, develop the latter system.
1904. Kurze Anleitung zum wissenschaftlichen Sammeln und zum Conservieren von Thieren. pp. 59. Jena.
An enlarged edition of the preceding paper.
Davenport, C. B.
1904. Statistical Variation with Special Reference to Biological Variation. Second, Revised Edition. pp. 223. New York.
Forbes, S. A.
1907. An Ornithological Cross-Section of Illinois in Autumn. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. His., Vol. VII, pp. 305-335.
1908. The Mid-Summer Bird Life of Illinois: A Statistical Study. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLII, pp. 505-519.
Flahault, C., and Schröter, C.
1910. Phytogeographical Nomenclature. Reports and Propositions, IIIᵉ Cong. Inter. de Bot. 1910. Bruxelles. pp. 28. Zurich.
A very valuable discussion of ecological nomenclature for plants. Defines the use of such terms as biology, ecology, habitat, association, formation, etc. It is very desirable that the plant and animal ecologists coöperate as much as possible in this subject.
Gibson, W. H.
1905. Camp Life in the Woods and the Tricks of Trapping and Trap Making. pp. 300. New York.
A book for boys, but not without value to the older student of live animals.
Hensen, V.
1887. Ueber die Bestimmung des Plankton’s oder des in Meere treibenden Materials an Pflanzen und Thieren; nebst Anhang. Fünfter Ber. der Komm. zur wissensch. Untersuch. d. deutschen Meere in Kiel für die Jahre 1882 bis 1886, pp. 1-107, III-XVIII, Berlin.
This appears to be the original account of quantitative studies as applied to plants and animals of an association. These methods have been extended to the sea bottom by Petersen, to fresh water by many students, to land animals mainly by Dahl, and in recent years to plants by Clements and others.
Herrick, C. L.
1905. Home Life of Wild Birds. Revised Edition, pp. 255. New York.
Very valuable for suggestions on the study of live birds and how to photograph them.
Hopkins, A. D.
1893. Note and Record Keeping for the Economic Entomologist. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Insect Life, Vol. VI, pp. 103-108.
Job, H. K.
1910. How to Study Birds. A Practical Guide for Amateur Bird-Lovers and Camera-Hunters, pp. 272. New York. Outing Publishing Co.
Intended primarily for beginners in bird study, but contains valuable practical advice on methods of studying and photographing live birds which will aid the ecologist. Consult also Kearton (1907), Chapman (1900), and Herrick (1905).
Kearton, R.
1907. Wild Life at Home: How to Study and Photograph It. New and Revised Edition, pp. 204. London.
Kephart, H.
1912. The Book of Camping and Woodcraft. pp. 331. Fifth Edition. Outing Publishing Co.
This is the best all-round book on the technique of camping and living in the wilderness which I have seen. It includes direction for selecting outfits, making camps, cookery, pests in the woods, blazes and survey lines, rations, emergency foods, getting lost, accidents, etc.
Knauthe, K.
1907. Das Süsswasser, chemische, biologische, und bakteriologische Untersuchungsmethoden unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Biologie und der fischereiwirtschaftlichen Praxis. pp. 663. Neudamm.
A very important work on the technique of fresh water biology.
Lee, A. B.
1900. The Microscopist’s Vade Mecum. A Handbook on the Methods of Microscopic Anatomy. Fifth Edition, pp. 532. Phila.
Very useful for methods of preserving delicate animals, and those in which the detailed structure of the animal must be studied.
Livingston, B. E.
1906. The Relation of Desert Plants to Soil Moisture and to Evaporation. Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 50. pp. 78.
Methods of determination of moisture content of the soil and the air.
McAtee, W. L.
1907. Census of Four Square Feet. Science, N. S., Vol. XXVI, pp. 447-449.
A quantitative study of the species of invertebrates and seeds found on the forest floor and on a meadow.
1912. Methods of Estimating the Contents of Bird Stomachs. The Auk, Vol. XXIX, pp. 449-464.
1912. The Experimental Method of Testing the Efficiency of Warning and Cryptic Coloration in Protecting Animals from their Enemies. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1912, pp. 281-364.
An important critical study of the value of feeding experiments, conducted in captivity, as a method of determining normal food habits. The method is strongly condemned. Valuable series of references.
Neumayer, G. von.
1906. Anleitung zu Wissenschaftlichen Beobachtungen auf Reisen. Dritte Auflage, Bd. 1, pp. 842; Bd. 2, pp. 880. Hanover.
A very important work, particularly for the traveling naturalist. Chapters by specialists, valuable references on collecting natural history specimens, and other phases of scientific exploration.
Pearl, R.
1911. Biometric Ideas and Methods in Biology; their Significance and Limitations. Scientia, Vol. X, pp. 101-119.
Petersen, C. G. Joh., and Jensen, P. B.
1911. Valuation of the Sea. 1. Animal Life of the Sea-Bottom, its Food and Quantity. Rep. of the Danish Biol. Sta. to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. XX. pp. 76. Translated from Fiskeri-Beretning for 1910. Copenhagen.
Methods and results of a quantitative study of animals on the sea-bottom. A very important paper. Descriptions and figures of the apparatus used.
Reighard, J.
1908. Methods of Studying the Habits of Fishes, with an Account of the Breeding Habits of the Horned Dace. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries Bull., Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1111-1136.
1908. The Photography of Aquatic Animals in their Natural Environment. Bull. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 41-68.
These papers also contain references to others on the habits of fishes.
King, L. A. L., and Russell, E. S.
1909. A Method for the Study of the Animal Ecology of the Shore. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. of Edinburgh, Vol. XVII, No. 6, pp. 225-253.
Sanderson, E. D.
1904. A Card-Index System for Entomological Records. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. 46, pp. 26-34.
Contains references to other methods of recording notes.
Simpson, C. B.
1903. Photographing Nets of Hydropsyche. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. V, pp. 93-95.
Sumner, F. B.
1910. An Intensive Study of the Fauna and Flora of a Restricted Area of the Sea Bottom. Bull. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1225-1263.
A study on our coast along lines similar to those of C. G. J. Petersen’s “Det Videnskabelige Udbytte af Kanonbaaden ‘Hauchs’ Togter I de Danske Have Indenfor Skagen I Aarene” 1883-1886. 1893. pp. 464. Atlas. Copenhagen.
Transeau, E. N.
1908. The Relation of Plant Societies to Evaporation. Bot. Gaz., Vol. XLV, pp. 217-231.
Methods of studying the relative humidity of the air in various plant associations, also applicable to certain studies of animals.
Wainwright, D. B.
1905. A Plane Table Manual. Department of Commerce and Labor, Report U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1905. Appendix No. 7, pp. 295-341.
In making local studies the plane table may be very helpful.
Wright, A. H.
1907. A Graphic Method of Correlating Fish Environment and Distribution. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLI, pp. 351-354.
Wilson, H. M.
1905. Topographical Surveying. Second Edition. New York.
Directions for camping, emergency surgery, photography, etc., pp. 811-884.
In concluding this list of references I would suggest to the student the desirability of securing the following catalogues or lists of publications. A glance at the lists in this volume will show that a surprisingly large number of the papers or works are governmental publications, many of which have long been out of print, but many may still be secured from the different departments or from the Superintendent of Documents at Washington, D.C.
1. U. S. Geological Survey. List of Publications, including maps. Washington, D.C.
2. Superintendent of Documents. Lists of publications of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C.
3. Smithsonian Institution. List of publications. Washington, D.C.
4. U. S. National Museum. List of publications. Washington, D.C.
5. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries (formerly U. S. Fish Commission). List of publications. Washington, D.C.
6. For list of dealers in second-hand books see Banks’ Bull. 81, U. S. National Museum, pp. 117-118. This is one of the best methods of securing many publications which are out of print.
3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and on Proof Reading
The preparation of papers for publication is a practical phase of study and an art, or form of technique, about which the zoölogical student is liable to hear but little. There may be a great economy of effort, and much time saved, if early in his work the student realizes the need of cultivating the habit of preparing all manuscripts in a form suitable for publication. While there is much variation in details, yet within certain limits there is a certain amount of standardization which should become habitual. Departures from such a standard necessitate much loss of time which must be devoted to revisions and corrections. One may work for years and fail to realize this fact, until he attempts to adjust his habits of writing to the requirements of the editors of scientific publications. The following references are intended to cover the main aspects of the preparation of manuscripts and the reading of proof.
Lewes, George Henry (Edited by F. N. Scott).
1891. The Principles of Success in Literature, pp. 163. Boston. Allyn and Bacon.
A very sane little book on writing, a subject on which it is difficult to receive and apply advice.
Wendell, B.
1899. English Composition. pp. 316. New York.
Fernald, J. C.
1896. English Synonyms and Antonyms with Notes on the Correct Use of Prepositions. Tenth Edition. pp. 564. New York.
1904. Connectives of English Speech. The Correct Usage of Prepositions, Conjunctions, Relative Pronouns and Adverbs Explained and Illustrated. pp. 324. New York.
Allbutt, T. C.
1905. Notes on the Composition of Scientific Papers. pp. 164. London. Macmillan Company.
This book is by an experienced medical editor and contains many practical suggestions.
Rickard, T. A.
1910. A Guide to Technical Writing. Second Edition. pp. 172. San Francisco. Mining and Scientific Press.
Intended primarily for writers on mining, and yet it contains much that is useful and suggestive to zoologists particularly the chapters on the need of simplicity in the language of science, and on the value of standardization.
Warman, P. C.
1903. A Plea for Better English in Science. Science, N. S., Vol. XVIII, pp. 563-568. Reprinted with revision, 1910. Washington.
Davis, W. M.
1911. The Disciplinary Value of Geography. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXVIII, pp. 105-119, 223-240.
An illuminating paper on the “art of presentation” of scientific results in oral and written form.
1909. The Systematic Description of Land Forms. Geogr. Jour., Vol. XXXIV, pp. 300-318.
1909. Glacial Erosion in North Wales. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. LXV, pp. 281-350.
1910. Experiments in Geographical Description. Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., Vol. XLII, pp. 401-435.
1911. The Colorado Front Range. A Study in Physiographic Presentation. Ann. Associa. Amer. Geogr., Vol. I, pp. 21-83.
The four preceding papers are in many respects models of presentation. They exemplify the process method applied to regions, a phase of much importance in certain ecologic studies, particularly ecological surveys. The last two papers are rather detailed applications of the same ideas. A very profitable study may be made of the method of presentation in these papers.
Devinne, T. L.
1902. The Practice of Typography. Correct Composition. A Treatise on Spelling, Abbreviations, the Compounding and Division of Words, the Proper Use of Figures and Numerals, Italic and Capital Letters, Notes, etc., with Observations on Punctuation and Proof-reading. Second Edition, pp. 476. New York.
Perhaps the highest American authority on all the subjects discussed.
Wood, G. M.
1909. Suggestions to Authors of Papers Submitted for Publication by the United States Geological Survey with Directions to Typewriters. U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 50. Washington.
Can be secured gratis from the Survey.
Anonymous.
1903. Government Printing Office Manual of Style for Use in Composition and Proof Reading, pp. 191. Washington, D.C.
Vaux, C. B.
1910. How to Prepare a Paper for Publication. Bull. No. 4. Wistar Inst. Anat. and Biology, pp. 20. Phila.
1910. Style Brief. A Guide for Authors in Preparing Copy and Correcting Proof of Professional Papers and for the Use of Editors and Printer, adopted as the Standard of the Journals Published by the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia. pp. 32. First Edition. Baltimore.
The Wistar Institute publishes the “Journal of Experimental Zoölogy,” which is devoted to “original researches of an experimental or analytical nature” on many branches of zoölogy, including ecology and general physiology. The “Style Brief” can be secured from the Institute.
Orcutt, W. D.
1912. The Writer’s Desk Book. pp. 184. New York. F. A. Stokes Co.
A useful handbook on punctuation, capitalization, spelling, abbreviations, numerals, etc., and with an appendix on weights and measures.
Woolley, E. C.
1907. Handbook of Composition. A Compendium of Rules Regarding Good English, Grammar, Sentence Structure, Paragraphing, Manuscript Arrangement, Punctuation, Spelling, Essay Writing and Letter Writing. pp. 239. Boston.