The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, Vol. II (1st Edition)

by Charles Darwin

CHAPTER XXI.

General Summary and Conclusion.

Main conclusion that man is descended from some lower form—Manner of development—Genealogy of man—Intellectual and moral faculties—Sexual selection—Concluding remarks.

A brief summary will here be sufficient to recall to the reader’s mind the more salient points in this work. Many of the views which have been advanced are highly speculative, and some no doubt will prove erroneous; but I have in every case given the reasons which have led me to one view rather than to another. It seemed worth while to try how far the principle of evolution would throw light on some of the more complex problems in the natural history of man. False facts are highly injurious to the progress of science, for they often long endure; but false views, if supported by some evidence, do little harm, as every one takes a salutary pleasure in proving their falseness; and when this is done, one path towards error is closed and the road to truth is often at the same time opened.

The main conclusion arrived at in this work, and now held by many naturalists who are well competent to form a sound judgment, is that man is descended from some less highly organised form. The grounds upon which this conclusion rests will never be shaken, for the close similarity between man and the lower animals in embryonic development, as well as in innumerable points of structure and constitution, both of high and of the most trifling importance,—the rudiments which he retains, and the abnormal reversions to which he is occasionally liable,—are facts which cannot be disputed. They have long been known, but until recently they told us nothing with respect to the origin of man. Now when viewed by the light of our knowledge of the whole organic world, their meaning is unmistakeable. The great principle of evolution stands up clear and firm, when these groups of facts are considered in connection with others, such as the mutual affinities of the members of the same group, their geographical distribution in past and present times, and their geological succession. It is incredible that all these facts should speak falsely. He who is not content to look, like a savage, at the phenomena of nature as disconnected, cannot any longer believe that man is the work of a separate act of creation. He will be forced to admit that the close resemblance of the embryo of man to that, for instance, of a dog—the construction of his skull, limbs, and whole frame, independently of the uses to which the parts may be put, on the same plan with that of other mammals—the occasional reappearance of various structures, for instance of several distinct muscles, which man does not normally possess, but which are common to the Quadrumana—and a crowd of analogous facts—all point in the plainest manner to the conclusion that man is the co-descendant with other mammals of a common progenitor.

We have seen that man incessantly presents individual differences in all parts of his body and in his mental faculties. These differences or variations seem to be induced by the same general causes, and to obey the same laws as with the lower animals. In both cases similar laws of inheritance prevail. Man tends to increase at a greater rate than his means of subsistence; consequently he is occasionally subjected to a severe struggle for existence, and natural selection will have effected whatever lies within its scope. A succession of strongly-marked variations of a similar nature are by no means requisite; slight fluctuating differences in the individual suffice for the work of natural selection. We may feel assured that the inherited effects of the long-continued use or disuse of parts will have done much in the same direction with natural selection. Modifications formerly of importance, though no longer of any special use, will be long inherited. When one part is modified, other parts will change through the principle of correlation, of which we have instances in many curious cases of correlated monstrosities. Something may be attributed to the direct and definite action of the surrounding conditions of life, such as abundant food, heat, or moisture; and lastly, many characters of slight physiological importance, some indeed of considerable importance, have been gained through sexual selection.

No doubt man, as well as every other animal, presents structures, which as far as we can judge with our little knowledge, are not now of any service to him, nor have been so during any former period of his existence, either in relation to his general conditions of life, or of one sex to the other. Such structures cannot be accounted for by any form of selection, or by the inherited effects of the use and disuse of parts. We know, however, that many strange and strongly-marked peculiarities of structure occasionally appear in our domesticated productions, and if the unknown causes which produce them were to act more uniformly, they would probably become common to all the individuals of the species. We may hope hereafter to understand something about the causes of such occasional modifications, especially through the study of monstrosities: hence the labours of experimentalists, such as those of M. Camille Dareste, are full of promise for the future. In the greater number of cases we can only say that the cause of each slight variation and of each monstrosity lies much more in the nature or constitution of the organism, than in the nature of the surrounding conditions; though new and changed conditions certainly play an important part in exciting organic changes of all kinds.

Through the means just specified, aided perhaps by others as yet undiscovered, man has been raised to his present state. But since he attained to the rank of manhood, he has diverged into distinct races, or as they may be more appropriately called sub-species. Some of these, for instance the Negro and European, are so distinct that, if specimens had been brought to a naturalist without any further information, they would undoubtedly have been considered by him as good and true species. Nevertheless all the races agree in so many unimportant details of structure and in so many mental peculiarities, that these can be accounted for only through inheritance from a common progenitor; and a progenitor thus characterised would probably have deserved to rank as man.

It must not be supposed that the divergence of each race from the other races, and of all the races from a common stock, can be traced back to any one pair of progenitors. On the contrary, at every stage in the process of modification, all the individuals which were in any way best fitted for their conditions of life, though in different degrees, would have survived in greater numbers than the less well fitted. The process would have been like that followed by man, when he does not intentionally select particular individuals, but breeds from all the superior and neglects all the inferior individuals. He thus slowly but surely modifies his stock, and unconsciously forms a new strain. So with respect to modifications, acquired independently of selection, and due to variations arising from the nature of the organism and the action of the surrounding conditions, or from changed habits of life, no single pair will have been modified in a much greater degree than the other pairs which inhabit the same country, for all will have been continually blended through free intercrossing.

By considering the embryological structure of man,—the homologies which he presents with the lower animals,—the rudiments which he retains,—and the reversions to which he is liable, we can partly recall in imagination the former condition of our early progenitors; and can approximately place them in their proper position in the zoological series. We thus learn that man is descended from a hairy quadruped, furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in its habits, and an inhabitant of the Old World. This creature, if its whole structure had been examined by a naturalist, would have been classed amongst the Quadrumana, as surely as would the common and still more ancient progenitor of the Old and New World monkeys. The Quadrumana and all the higher mammals are probably derived from an ancient marsupial animal, and this through a long line of diversified forms, either from some reptile-like or some amphibian-like creature, and this again from some fish-like animal. In the dim obscurity of the past we can see that the early progenitor of all the Vertebrata must have been an aquatic animal, provided with branchiæ, with the two sexes united in the same individual, and with the most important organs of the body (such as the brain and heart) imperfectly developed. This animal seems to have been more like the larvæ of our existing marine Ascidians than any other known form.

The greatest difficulty which presents itself, when we are driven to the above conclusion on the origin of man, is the high standard of intellectual power and of moral disposition which he has attained. But every one who admits the general principle of evolution, must see that the mental powers of the higher animals, which are the same in kind with those of mankind, though so different in degree, are capable of advancement. Thus the interval between the mental powers of one of the higher apes and of a fish, or between those of an ant and scale-insect, is immense. The development of these powers in animals does not offer any special difficulty; for with our domesticated animals, the mental faculties are certainly variable, and the variations are inherited. No one doubts that these faculties are of the utmost importance to animals in a state of nature. Therefore the conditions are favourable for their development through natural selection. The same conclusion may be extended to man; the intellect must have been all-important to him, even at a very remote period, enabling him to use language, to invent and make weapons, tools, traps, &c.; by which means, in combination with his social habits, he long ago became the most dominant of all living creatures.

A great stride in the development of the intellect will have followed, as soon as, through a previous considerable advance, the half-art and half-instinct of language came into use; for the continued use of language will have reacted on the brain, and produced an inherited effect; and this again will have reacted on the improvement of language. The large size of the brain in man, in comparison with that of the lower animals, relatively to the size of their bodies, may be attributed in chief part, as Mr. Chauncey Wright has well remarked,[472] to the early use of some simple form of language,—that wonderful engine which affixes signs to all sorts of objects and qualities, and excites trains of thought which would never arise from the mere impression of the senses, and if they did arise could not be followed out. The higher intellectual powers of man, such as those of ratiocination, abstraction, self-consciousness, &c., will have followed from the continued improvement of other mental faculties; but without considerable culture of the mind, both in the race and in the individual, it is doubtful whether these high powers would be exercised, and thus fully attained.

The development of the moral qualities is a more interesting and difficult problem. Their foundation lies in the social instincts, including in this term the family ties. These instincts are of a highly complex nature, and in the case of the lower animals give special tendencies towards certain definite actions; but the more important elements for us are love, and the distinct emotion of sympathy. Animals endowed with the social instincts take pleasure in each other’s company, warn each other of danger, defend and aid each other in many ways. These instincts are not extended to all the individuals of the species, but only to those of the same community. As they are highly beneficial to the species, they have in all probability been acquired through natural selection.

A moral being is one who is capable of comparing his past and future actions and motives,—of approving of some and disapproving of others; and the fact that man is the one being who with certainty can be thus designated makes the greatest of all distinctions between him and the lower animals. But in our third chapter I have endeavoured to shew that the moral sense follows, firstly, from the enduring and always present nature of the social instincts, in which respect man agrees with the lower animals; and secondly, from his mental faculties being highly active and his impressions of past events extremely vivid, in which respects he differs from the lower animals. Owing to this condition of mind, man cannot avoid looking backwards and comparing the impressions of past events and actions. He also continually looks forward. Hence after some temporary desire or passion has mastered his social instincts, he will reflect and compare the now weakened impression of such past impulses, with the ever present social instinct; and he will then feel that sense of dissatisfaction which all unsatisfied instincts leave behind them. Consequently he resolves to act differently for the future—and this is conscience. Any instinct which is permanently stronger or more enduring than another, gives rise to a feeling which we express by saying that it ought to be obeyed. A pointer dog, if able to reflect on his past conduct, would say to himself, I ought (as indeed we say of him) to have pointed at that hare and not have yielded to the passing temptation of hunting it.

Social animals are partly impelled by a wish to aid the members of the same community in a general manner, but more commonly to perform certain definite actions. Man is impelled by the same general wish to aid his fellows, but has few or no special instincts. He differs also from the lower animals in being able to express his desires by words, which thus become the guide to the aid required and bestowed. The motive to give aid is likewise somewhat modified in man: it no longer consists solely of a blind instinctive impulse, but is largely influenced by the praise or blame of his fellow men. Both the appreciation and the bestowal of praise and blame rest on sympathy; and this emotion, as we have seen, is one of the most important elements of the social instincts. Sympathy, though gained as an instinct, is also much strengthened by exercise or habit. As all men desire their own happiness, praise or blame is bestowed on actions and motives, according as they lead to this end; and as happiness is an essential part of the general good, the greatest-happiness principle indirectly serves as a nearly safe standard of right and wrong. As the reasoning powers advance and experience is gained, the more remote effects of certain lines of conduct on the character of the individual, and on the general good, are perceived; and then the self-regarding virtues, from coming within the scope of public opinion, receive praise, and their opposites receive blame. But with the less civilised nations reason often errs, and many bad customs and base superstitions come within the same scope, and consequently are esteemed as high virtues, and their breach as heavy crimes.

The moral faculties are generally esteemed, and with justice, as of higher value than the intellectual powers. But we should always bear in mind that the activity of the mind in vividly recalling past impressions is one of the fundamental though secondary bases of conscience. This fact affords the strongest argument for educating and stimulating in all possible ways the intellectual faculties of every human being. No doubt a man with a torpid mind, if his social affections and sympathies are well developed, will be led to good actions, and may have a fairly sensitive conscience. But whatever renders the imagination of men more vivid and strengthens the habit of recalling and comparing past impressions, will make the conscience more sensitive, and may even compensate to a certain extent for weak social affections and sympathies.

The moral nature of man has reached the highest standard as yet attained, partly through the advancement of the reasoning powers and consequently of a just public opinion, but especially through the sympathies being rendered more tender and widely diffused through the effects of habit, example, instruction, and reflection. It is not improbable that virtuous tendencies may through long practice be inherited. With the more civilised races, the conviction of the existence of an all-seeing Deity has had a potent influence on the advancement of morality. Ultimately man no longer accepts the praise or blame of his fellows as his chief guide, though few escape this influence, but his habitual convictions controlled by reason afford him the safest rule. His conscience then becomes his supreme judge and monitor. Nevertheless the first foundation or origin of the moral sense lies in the social instincts, including sympathy; and these instincts no doubt were primarily gained, as in the case of the lower animals, through natural selection.

The belief in God has often been advanced as not only the greatest, but the most complete of all the distinctions between man and the lower animals. It is however impossible, as we have seen, to maintain that this belief is innate or instinctive in man. On the other hand a belief in all-pervading spiritual agencies seems to be universal; and apparently follows from a considerable advance in the reasoning powers of man, and from a still greater advance in his faculties of imagination, curiosity and wonder. I am aware that the assumed instinctive belief in God has been used by many persons as an argument for His existence. But this is a rash argument, as we should thus be compelled to believe in the existence of many cruel and malignant spirits, possessing only a little more power than man; for the belief in them is far more general than of a beneficent Deity. The idea of a universal and beneficent Creator of the universe does not seem to arise in the mind of man, until he has been elevated by long-continued culture.

He who believes in the advancement of man from some lowly-organised form, will naturally ask how does this bear on the belief in the immortality of the soul. The barbarous races of man, as Sir J. Lubbock has shewn, possess no clear belief of this kind; but arguments derived from the primeval beliefs of savages are, as we have just seen, of little or no avail. Few persons feel any anxiety from the impossibility of determining at what precise period in the development of the individual, from the first trace of the minute germinal vesicle to the child either before or after birth, man becomes an immortal being; and there is no greater cause for anxiety because the period in the gradually ascending organic scale cannot possibly be determined.[473]

I am aware that the conclusions arrived at in this work will be denounced by some as highly irreligious; but he who thus denounces them is bound to shew why it is more irreligious to explain the origin of man as a distinct species by descent from some lower form, through the laws of variation and natural selection, than to explain the birth of the individual through the laws of ordinary reproduction. The birth both of the species and of the individual are equally parts of that grand sequence of events, which our minds refuse to accept as the result of blind chance. The understanding revolts at such a conclusion, whether or not we are able to believe that every slight variation of structure,—the union of each pair in marriage,—the dissemination of each seed,—and other such events, have all been ordained for some special purpose.

Sexual selection has been treated at great length in these volumes; for, as I have attempted to shew, it has played an important part in the history of the organic world. As summaries have been given to each chapter, it would be superfluous here to add a detailed summary. I am aware that much remains doubtful, but I have endeavoured to give a fair view of the whole case. In the lower divisions of the animal kingdom, sexual selection seems to have done nothing: such animals are often affixed for life to the same spot, or have the two sexes combined in the same individual, or what is still more important, their perceptive and intellectual faculties are not sufficiently advanced to allow of the feelings of love and jealousy, or of the exertion of choice. When, however, we come to the Arthropoda and Vertebrata, even to the lowest classes in these two great Sub-Kingdoms, sexual selection has effected much; and it deserves notice that we here find the intellectual faculties developed, but in two very distinct lines, to the highest standard, namely in the Hymenoptera (ants, bees, &c.) amongst the Arthropoda, and in the Mammalia, including man, amongst the Vertebrata.

In the most distinct classes of the animal kingdom, with mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, insects, and even crustaceans, the differences between the sexes follow almost exactly the same rules. The males are almost always the wooers; and they alone are armed with special weapons for fighting with their rivals. They are generally stronger and larger than the females, and are endowed with the requisite qualities of courage and pugnacity. They are provided, either exclusively or in a much higher degree than the females, with organs for producing vocal or instrumental music, and with odoriferous glands. They are ornamented with infinitely diversified appendages, and with the most brilliant or conspicuous colours, often arranged in elegant patterns, whilst the females are left unadorned. When the sexes differ in more important structures, it is the male which is provided with special sense-organs for discovering the female, with locomotive organs for reaching her, and often with prehensile organs for holding her. These various structures for securing or charming the female are often developed in the male during only part of the year, namely the breeding season. They have in many cases been transferred in a greater or less degree to the females; and in the latter case they appear in her as mere rudiments. They are lost by the males after emasculation. Generally they are not developed in the male during early youth, but appear a short time before the age for reproduction. Hence in most cases the young of both sexes resemble each other; and the female resembles her young offspring throughout life. In almost every great class a few anomalous cases occur in which there has been an almost complete transposition of the characters proper to the two sexes; the females assuming characters which properly belong to the males. This surprising uniformity in the laws regulating the differences between the sexes in so many and such widely separated classes, is intelligible if we admit the action throughout all the higher divisions of the animal kingdom of one common cause, namely sexual selection.

Sexual selection depends on the success of certain individuals over others of the same sex in relation to the propagation of the species; whilst natural selection depends on the success of both sexes, at all ages, in relation to the general conditions of life. The sexual struggle is of two kinds; in the one it is between the individuals of the same sex, generally the male sex, in order to drive away or kill their rivals, the females remaining passive; whilst in the other, the struggle is likewise between the individuals of the same sex, in order to excite or charm those of the opposite sex, generally the females, which no longer remain passive, but select the more agreeable partners. This latter kind of selection is closely analogous to that which man unintentionally, yet effectually, brings to bear on his domesticated productions, when he continues for a long time choosing the most pleasing or useful individuals, without any wish to modify the breed.

The laws of inheritance determine whether characters gained through sexual selection by either sex shall be transmitted to the same sex, or to both sexes; as well as the age at which they shall be developed. It appears that variations which arise late in life are commonly transmitted to one and the same sex. Variability is the necessary basis for the action of selection, and is wholly independent of it. It follows from this, that variations of the same general nature have often been taken advantage of and accumulated through sexual selection in relation to the propagation of the species, and through natural selection in relation to the general purposes of life. Hence secondary sexual characters, when equally transmitted to both sexes can be distinguished from ordinary specific characters only by the light of analogy. The modifications acquired through sexual selection are often so strongly pronounced that the two sexes have frequently been ranked as distinct species, or even as distinct genera. Such strongly-marked differences must be in some manner highly important; and we know that they have been acquired in some instances at the cost not only of inconvenience, but of exposure to actual danger.

The belief in the power of sexual selection rests chiefly on the following considerations. The characters which we have the best reason for supposing to have been thus acquired are confined to one sex; and this alone renders it probable that they are in some way connected with the act of reproduction. These characters in innumerable instances are fully developed only at maturity; and often during only a part of the year, which is always the breeding-season. The males (passing over a few exceptional cases) are the most active in courtship; they are the best armed, and are rendered the most attractive in various ways. It is to be especially observed that the males display their attractions with elaborate care in the presence of the females; and that they rarely or never display them excepting during the season of love. It is incredible that all this display should be purposeless. Lastly we have distinct evidence with some quadrupeds and birds that the individuals of the one sex are capable of feeling a strong antipathy or preference for certain individuals of the opposite sex.

Bearing these facts in mind, and not forgetting the marked results of man’s unconscious selection, it seems to me almost certain that if the individuals of one sex were during a long series of generations to prefer pairing with certain individuals of the other sex, characterised in some peculiar manner, the offspring would slowly but surely become modified in this same manner. I have not attempted to conceal that, excepting when the males are more numerous than the females, or when polygamy prevails, it is doubtful how the more attractive males succeed in leaving a larger number of offspring to inherit their superiority in ornaments or other charms than the less attractive males; but I have shewn that this would probably follow from the females,—especially the more vigorous females which would be the first to breed, preferring not only the more attractive but at the same time the more vigorous and victorious males.

Although we have some positive evidence that birds appreciate bright and beautiful objects, as with the Bower-birds of Australia, and although they certainly appreciate the power of song, yet I fully admit that it is an astonishing fact that the females of many birds and some mammals should be endowed with sufficient taste for what has apparently been effected through sexual selection; and this is even more astonishing in the case of reptiles, fish, and insects. But we really know very little about the minds of the lower animals. It cannot be supposed that male Birds of Paradise or Peacocks, for instance, should take so much pains in erecting, spreading, and vibrating their beautiful plumes before the females for no purpose. We should remember the fact given on excellent authority in a former chapter, namely that several peahens, when debarred from an admired male, remained widows during a whole season rather than pair with another bird.

Nevertheless I know of no fact in natural history more wonderful than that the female Argus pheasant should be able to appreciate the exquisite shading of the ball-and-socket ornaments and the elegant patterns on the wing-feathers of the male. He who thinks that the male was created as he now exists must admit that the great plumes, which prevent the wings from being used for flight, and which, as well as the primary feathers, are displayed in a manner quite peculiar to this one species during the act of courtship, and at no other time, were given to him as an ornament. If so, he must likewise admit that the female was created and endowed with the capacity of appreciating such ornaments. I differ only in the conviction that the male Argus pheasant acquired his beauty gradually, through the females having preferred during many generations the more highly ornamented males; the æsthetic capacity of the females having been advanced through exercise or habit in the same manner as our own taste is gradually improved. In the male, through the fortunate chance of a few feathers not having been modified, we can distinctly see how simple spots with a little fulvous shading on one side might have been developed by small and graduated steps into the wonderful ball-and-socket ornaments; and it is probable that they were actually thus developed.

Everyone who admits the principle of evolution, and yet feels great difficulty in admitting that female mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish, could have acquired the high standard of taste which is implied by the beauty of the males, and which generally coincides with our own standard, should reflect that in each member of the vertebrate series the nerve-cells of the brain are the direct offshoots of those possessed by the common progenitor of the whole group. It thus becomes intelligible that the brain and mental faculties should be capable under similar conditions of nearly the same course of development, and consequently of performing nearly the same functions.

The reader who has taken the trouble to go through the several chapters devoted to sexual selection, will be able to judge how far the conclusions at which I have arrived are supported by sufficient evidence. If he accepts these conclusions, he may, I think, safely extend them to mankind; but it would be superfluous here to repeat what I have so lately said on the manner in which sexual selection has apparently acted on both the male and female side, causing the two sexes of man to differ in body and mind, and the several races to differ from each other in various characters, as well as from their ancient and lowly-organised progenitors.

He who admits the principle of sexual selection will be led to the remarkable conclusion that the cerebral system not only regulates most of the existing functions of the body, but has indirectly influenced the progressive development of various bodily structures and of certain mental qualities. Courage, pugnacity, perseverance, strength and size of body, weapons of all kinds, musical organs, both vocal and instrumental, bright colours, stripes and marks, and ornamental appendages, have all been indirectly gained by the one sex or the other, through the influence of love and jealousy, through the appreciation of the beautiful in sound, colour or form, and through the exertion of a choice; and these powers of the mind manifestly depend on the development of the cerebral system.

Man scans with scrupulous care the character and pedigree of his horses, cattle, and dogs before he matches them; but when he comes to his own marriage he rarely, or never, takes any such care. He is impelled by nearly the same motives as are the lower animals when left to their own free choice, though he is in so far superior to them that he highly values mental charms and virtues. On the other hand he is strongly attracted by mere wealth or rank. Yet he might by selection do something not only for the bodily constitution and frame of his offspring, but for their intellectual and moral qualities. Both sexes ought to refrain from marriage if in any marked degree inferior in body or mind; but such hopes are Utopian and will never be even partially realised until the laws of inheritance are thoroughly known. All do good service who aid towards this end. When the principles of breeding and of inheritance are better understood, we shall not hear ignorant members of our legislature rejecting with scorn a plan for ascertaining by an easy method whether or not consanguineous marriages are injurious to man.

The advancement of the welfare of mankind is a most intricate problem: all ought to refrain from marriage who cannot avoid abject poverty for their children; for poverty is not only a great evil, but tends to its own increase by leading to recklessness in marriage. On the other hand, as Mr. Galton has remarked, if the prudent avoid marriage, whilst the reckless marry, the inferior members will tend to supplant the better members of society. Man, like every other animal, has no doubt advanced to his present high condition through a struggle for existence consequent on his rapid multiplication; and if he is to advance still higher he must remain subject to a severe struggle. Otherwise he would soon sink into indolence, and the more highly-gifted men would not be more successful in the battle of life than the less gifted. Hence our natural rate of increase, though leading to many and obvious evils, must not be greatly diminished by any means. There should be open competition for all men; and the most able should not be prevented by laws or customs from succeeding best and rearing the largest number of offspring. Important as the struggle for existence has been and even still is, yet as far as the highest part of man’s nature is concerned there are other agencies more important. For the moral qualities are advanced, either directly or indirectly, much more through the effects of habit, the reasoning powers, instruction, religion, &c., than through natural selection; though to this latter agency the social instincts, which afforded the basis for the development of the moral sense, may be safely attributed.

The main conclusion arrived at in this work, namely that man is descended from some lowly-organised form, will, I regret to think, be highly distasteful to many persons. But there can hardly be a doubt that we are descended from barbarians. The astonishment which I felt on first seeing a party of Fuegians on a wild and broken shore will never be forgotten by me, for the reflection at once rushed into my mind—such were our ancestors. These men were absolutely naked and bedaubed with paint, their long hair was tangled, their mouths frothed with excitement, and their expression was wild, startled, and distrustful. They possessed hardly any arts, and like wild animals lived on what they could catch; they had no government, and were merciless to every one not of their own small tribe. He who has seen a savage in his native land will not feel much shame, if forced to acknowledge that the blood of some more humble creature flows in his veins. For my own part I would as soon be descended from that heroic little monkey, who braved his dreaded enemy in order to save the life of his keeper; or from that old baboon, who, descending from the mountains, carried away in triumph his young comrade from a crowd of astonished dogs—as from a savage who delights to torture his enemies, offers up bloody sacrifices, practises infanticide without remorse, treats his wives like slaves, knows no decency, and is haunted by the grossest superstitions.

Man may be excused for feeling some pride at having risen, though not through his own exertions, to the very summit of the organic scale; and the fact of his having thus risen, instead of having been aboriginally placed there, may give him hopes for a still higher destiny in the distant future. But we are not here concerned with hopes or fears, only with the truth as far as our reason allows us to discover it. I have given the evidence to the best of my ability; and we must acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin.

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[1] Yarrell’s ‘Hist. of British Fishes,’ vol. ii. 1836, p. 417, 425, 436. Dr. Günther informs me that the spines in R. clavata are peculiar to the female.

[2] See Mr. R. Warington’s interesting articles in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ Oct. 1852 and Nov. 1855.

[3] Noel Humphreys, ‘River Gardens,’ 1857.

[4] Loudon’s ‘Mag. of Natural History,’ vol. iii. 1830, p. 331.

[5] ‘The Field,’ June 29th, 1867. For Mr. Shaw’s statement, see 'Edinburgh Review,’ 1843. Another experienced observer (Scrope’s 'Days of Salmon Fishing,’ p. 60) remarks that the male would, if he could, keep, like the stag, all other males away.

[6] Yarrell, ‘History of British Fishes,’ vol. ii. 1836, p. 10.

[7] ‘The Naturalist in Vancouver’s Island,’ vol. i. 1866, p. 54.

[8] ‘Scandinavian Adventures,’ vol. i. 1854, p. 100, 104.

[9] See Yarrell’s account of the Rays in his ‘Hist. of British Fishes,’ vol. ii. 1836, p. 416, with an excellent figure, and p. 422, 432.

[10] As quoted in ‘The Farmer,’ 1868, p. 369.

[11] I have drawn up this description from Yarrell’s ‘British Fishes,’ vol. i. 1836, p. 261 and 266.

[12] ‘Catalogue of Acanth. Fishes in the British Museum,’ by Dr. Günther, 1861, p. 138-151.

[13] ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ &c., 1867, p. 466.

[14] With respect to this and the following species I am indebted to Dr. Günther for information: see also his paper on the Fishes of Central America, in ‘Transact. Zoolog. Soc.’ vol. vi. 1868, p. 485.

[15] Dr. Günther makes this remark; ‘Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum,’ vol. iii. 1861, p. 141.

[16] See Dr. Günther on this genus, in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1868, p. 232.

[17] F. Buckland, in ‘Land and Water,’ July, 1868, p. 377, with a figure.

[18] Dr. Günther, ‘Catalogue of Fishes,’ vol. iii. p. 221 and 240.

[19] See also ‘A Journey in Brazil,’ by Prof. and Mrs. Agassiz, 1868, p. 220.

[20] Yarrell, ‘British Fishes,’ vol. ii. 1836, p. 10, 12, 35.

[21] W. Thompson, in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,’ vol. vi. 1841, p. 440.

[22] ‘The American Agriculturist,’ 1868, p. 100.

[23] ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ Oct. 1852.

[24] Loudon’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. v. 1832, p. 681.

[25] Bory de Saint Vincent, in ‘Dict. Class. d’Hist. Nat.’ tom. ix. 1826, p. 151.

[26] Owing to some remarks on this subject, made in my work ‘On the Variation of Animals under Domestication,’ Mr. W. F. Mayers (‘Chinese Notes and Queries,’ Aug. 1868, p. 123) has searched the ancient Chinese encyclopedias. He finds that goldfish were first reared in confinement during the Sung Dynasty, which commenced a.d. 960. In the year 1129 these fishes abounded. In another place it is said that since the year 1548 there has been “produced at Hang-chow a variety called the fire-fish, from its intensely red colour. It is universally admired, and there is not a household where it is not cultivated, in rivalry as to its colour, and as a source of profit.”

[27] ‘Westminster Review,’ July, 1867, p. 7.

[28] “Indian Cyprinidæ,” by Mr. J. M’Clelland, ‘Asiatic Researches,’ vol. xix. part ii. 1839, p. 230.

[29] ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1865, p. 327, pl. xiv. and xv.

[30] Yarrell, ‘British Fishes,’ vol. ii. p. 11.

[31] According to the observations of M. Gerbe; see Günther’s ‘Record of Zoolog. Literature,’ 1865, p. 194.

[32] Cuvier, ‘Règne Animal,’ vol. ii. 1829, p. 242.

[33] See Mr. Warington’s most interesting description of the habits of the Gasterosteus leiurus, in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ November, 1855.

[34] Prof. Wyman, in ‘Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.’ Sept. 15, 1857. Also W. Turner, in ‘Journal of Anatomy and Phys.’ Nov. 1, 1866, p. 78. Dr. Günther has likewise described other cases.

[35] Yarrell, ‘Hist. of British Fishes,’ vol. ii. 1836, p. 329, 338.

[36] Dr. Günther, since publishing an account of this species in ‘The Fishes of Zanzibar,’ by Col. Playfair, 1866, p. 137, has re-examined the specimens, and has given me the above information.

[37] The Rev. C. Kingsley, in ‘Nature,’ May, 1870, p. 40.

[38] Bell, ‘History of British Reptiles,’ 2nd edit. 1849, p. 156-159.

[39] Bell, ibid. p. 146, 151.

[40] ‘Zoology of the Voyage of the “Beagle,”’ 1843. “Reptiles,” by Mr. Bell, p. 49.

[41] ‘The Reptiles of India,’ by Dr. A. Günther, Ray Soc. 1864, p. 413.

[42] Bell, ‘History of British Reptiles,’ 1849, p. 93.

[43] J. Bishop, in ‘Todd’s Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.’ vol. iv. p. 1503.

[44] Bell, ibid. p. 112-114.

[45] Mr. C. J. Maynard, ‘The American Naturalist,’ Dec. 1869, p. 555.

[46] See my ‘Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the “Beagle,”’ 1845, p. 384.

[47] ‘Travels through Carolina,’ &c., 1791, p. 128.

[48] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. i. 1866, p. 615.

[49] Sir Andrew Smith, ‘Zoolog. of S. Africa: Reptilia,’ 1849, pl. x.

[50] Dr. A. Günther, ‘Reptiles of British India,’ Ray Soc. 1864, p. 304, 308.

[51] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. i. 1866, p. 615.

[52] The celebrated botanist Schleiden incidently remarks (‘Ueber den Darwinismus: Unsere Zeit,’ 1869, s. 269), that Rattle-snakes use their rattles as a sexual call, by which the two sexes find each other. I do not know whether this suggestion rests on any direct observations. These snakes pair in the Zoological Gardens, but the keepers have never observed that they use their rattles at this season more than at any other.

[53] “Rambles in Ceylon,” ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ 2nd series, vol. ix. 1852, p. 333.

[54] ‘Westminster Review,’ July 1st, 1867, p. 32.

[55] Mr. N. L. Austen kept these animals alive for a considerable time, see ‘Land and Water,’ July, 1867, p. 9.

[56] All these statements and quotations, in regard to Cophotis, Sitana and Draco, as well as the following facts in regard to Ceratophora, are taken from Dr. Günther’s magnificent work on the ‘Reptiles of British India,’ Ray Soc. 1864, p. 122, 130, 135.

[57] Bell, ‘History of British Reptiles,’ 2nd edit. 1849, p. 40.

[58] For Proctotretus see ‘Zoology of the Voyage of the “Beagle:” Reptiles,’ by Mr. Bell, p. 8. For the Lizards of S. Africa, see ‘Zoology of S. Africa: Reptiles,’ by Sir Andrew Smith, pl. 25 and 39. For the Indian Calotes, see ‘Reptiles of British India,’ by Dr. Günther, p. 143.

[59] ‘Ibis,’ vol. iii. (new series) 1867, p. 414.

[60] Gould, ‘Handbook to the Birds of Australia,’ 1865, vol. ii. p. 383.

[61] Quoted by Mr. Gould, ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 29.

[62] Gould, ibid. p. 52.

[63] W. Thompson, ‘Nat. Hist. of Ireland: Birds,’ vol. ii. 1850, p. 327.

[64] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ 1863, vol. ii. p. 96.

[65] Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ vol. iv. 1852, p. 177-181.

[66] Sir R. Schomburgk, in ‘Journal of R. Geograph. Soc.’ vol. xiii. 1843, p. 31.

[67] ‘Ornithological Biography,’ vol. i. p. 191. For pelicans and snipes, see vol. iii. p. 381, 477.

[68] Gould, ‘Handbook of Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 395; vol. ii. p. 383.

[69] Mr. Hewitt in the ‘Poultry Book by Tegetmeier,’ 1866, p. 137.

[70] Layard, ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. xiv. 1854, p. 63.

[71] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 574.

[72] Brehm, ‘Illust. Thierleben,’ 1867, B. iv. s. 351. Some of the foregoing statements are taken from L. Lloyd, ‘The Game Birds of Sweden,’ &c., 1867, p. 79.

[73] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India:’ on Ithaginis, vol. iii. p. 523; on Galloperdix, p. 541.

[74] For the Egyptian goose, see Macgillivray, ‘British Birds,’ vol. iv. p. 639. For Plectropterus, ‘Livingstone’s Travels,’ p. 254. For Palamedea, Brehm’s ‘Thierleben,’ B. iv. s. 740. See also on this bird Azara, 'Voyages dans l’Amérique mérid.’ tom. iv. 1809, p. 179, 253.

[75] See, on our peewit, Mr. R. Carr in ‘Land and Water,’ Aug. 8th, 1868, p. 46. In regard to Lobivanellus, see Jerdon’s ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 647, and Gould’s ‘Handbook of Birds of Australia,’ vol. ii. p. 220. For the Hoplopterus, see Mr. Allen in the ‘Ibis,’ vol. v. 1863, p. 156.

[76] Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 492; vol. i. p. 4-13.

[77] Mr. Blyth, ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 212.

[78] Richardson, on Tetrao umbellus, ‘Fauna Bor. Amer.: Birds,’ 1831, p. 343. L. Lloyd, ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 22, 79, on the capercailzie and black-cock. Brehm, however, asserts (‘Thierleben,’ &c., B. iv. s. 352) that in Germany the grey-hens do not generally attend the Balzen of the black-cocks, but this is an exception to the common rule; possibly the hens may lie hidden in the surrounding bushes, as is known to be the case with the grey-hens in Scandinavia, and with other species in N. America.

[79] ‘Ornithological Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 275.

[80] Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ &c., B. iv. 1867, p. 990. Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 492.

[81] ‘Land and Water,’ July 25th, 1868, p. 14.

[82] Audubon’s ‘Ornitholog. Biography;’ on Tetrao cupido, vol. ii. p. 492; on the Sturnus, vol. ii. p. 219.

[83] ‘Ornithological Biograph.’ vol. v. p. 601.

[84] The Hon. Daines Barrington, ‘Philosoph. Transact.’ 1773, p. 252.

[85] ‘Ornithological Dictionary,’ 1833, p. 475.

[86] ‘Naturgeschichte der Stubenvögel,’ 1840, s. 4. Mr. Harrison Weir likewise writes to me:—“I am informed that the best singing males generally get a mate first when they are bred in the same room.”

[87] ‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1773, p. 263. White’s ‘Natural History of Selborne,’ vol. i. 1825, p. 246.

[88] ‘Naturges. der Stubenvögel,’ 1840, s. 252.

[89] Mr. Bold, ‘Zoologist,’ 1843-44, p. 659.

[90] D. Barrington, ‘Phil. Transact.’ 1773, p. 262. Bechstein, ‘Stubenvögel,’ 1840, s. 4.

[91] This is likewise the case with the water-ouzel, see Mr. Hepburn in the ‘Zoologist,’ 1845-1846, p. 1068.

[92] L. Lloyd, ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 25.

[93] Barrington, ibid. p. 264. Bechstein, ibid. s. 5.

[94] Dureau de la Malle gives a curious instance (‘Annales des Sc. Nat.’ 3rd series, Zoolog. tom. x. p. 118) of some wild blackbirds in his garden in Paris which naturally learnt from a caged bird a republican air.

[95] Bishop, in ‘Todd’s Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.’ vol. iv. p. 1496.

[96] As stated by Barrington in ‘Philosoph. Transact.’ 1773, p. 262.

[97] Gould, ‘Handbook to the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. 1865, p. 308-310. See also Mr. T. W. Wood in the ‘Student,’ April, 1870, p. 125.

[98] See remarks to this effect in Gould’s ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 22.

[99] ‘The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,’ by Major W. Ross King, 1866, p. 144-146. Mr. T. W. Wood gives in the ‘Student’ (April, 1870, p. 116) an excellent account of the attitude and habits of this bird during its courtship. He states that the ear-tufts or neck-plumes are erected, so that they meet over the crown of the head.

[100] Richardson, ‘Fauna Bor. Americana: Birds,’ 1831, p. 359. Audubon, ibid. vol. iv. p. 507.

[101] The following papers have been lately written on this subject:—Prof. A. Newton, in the ‘Ibis,’ 1862, p. 107; Dr. Cullen, ibid. 1865, p. 145; Mr. Flower, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1865, p. 747; and Dr. Murie, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1868, p. 471. In this latter paper an excellent figure is given of the male Australian Bustard in full display with the sack distended.

[102] Bates, ‘The Naturalist on the Amazons,’ 1863, vol. ii. p. 284; Wallace, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1850, p. 206. A new species, with a still larger neck-appendage (C. penduliger), has lately been discovered, see 'Ibis,’ vol. i. p. 457.

[103] Bishop, in Todd’s ‘Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.’ vol. iv. p. 1499.

[104] The spoonbill (Platalea) has its trachea convoluted into a figure of eight, and yet this bird (Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 763) is mute; but Mr. Blyth informs me that the convolutions are not constantly present, so that perhaps they are now tending towards abortion.

[105] ‘Elements of Comp. Anat.’ by R. Wagner, Eng. translat. 1845, p. 111. With respect to the swan, as given above, Yarrell’s ‘Hist. of British Birds,’ 2nd edit. 1845, vol. iii. p. 193.

[106] C. L. Bonaparte, quoted in the ‘Naturalist Library: Birds,’ vol. xiv. p. 126.

[107] L. Lloyd, ‘The Game Birds of Sweden,’ &c., 1867, p. 22, 81.

[108] Jenner, ‘Philosoph. Transactions,’ 1824, p. 20.

[109] For the foregoing several facts see, on Birds of Paradise, Brehm, 'Thierleben,’ Band iii. s. 325. On Grouse, Richardson, ‘Fauna Bor. Americ.: Birds,’ p. 343 and 359; Major W. Ross King, ‘The Sportsman in Canada,’ 1866, p. 156; Audubon, ‘American Ornitholog. Biograph.’ vol. i. p. 216. On the Kalij pheasant, Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 533. On the Weavers, ‘Livingstone’s Expedition to the Zambesi,’ 1865, p. 425. On Woodpeckers, Macgillivray, ‘Hist. of British Birds,’ vol. iii. 1840, p. 84, 88, 89, and 95. On the Hoopoe, Mr. Swinhoe, in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ June 23, 1863. On the Night-Jar, Audubon, ibid. vol. ii. p. 255. The English Night-Jar likewise makes in the spring a curious noise during its rapid flight.

[110] See M. Meves’ interesting paper in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1858, p. 199. For the habits of the snipe, Macgillivray, ‘Hist. British Birds,’ vol. iv. p. 371. For the American snipe, Capt. Blakiston, ‘Ibis,’ vol. v. 1863, p. 131.

[111] Mr. Salvin, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1867, p. 160. I am much indebted to this distinguished ornithologist for sketches of the feathers of the Chamæpetes, and for other information.

[112] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 618, 621.

[113] Gould, ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 49. Salvin, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1867, p. 160.

[114] Sclater, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1860, p. 90, and in ‘Ibis,’ vol. iv. 1862, p. 175. Also Salvin, in ‘Ibis,’ 1860, p. 37.

[115] ‘The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,’ 1867, p. 203.

[116] For Tetrao phasianellus, see Richardson, ‘Fauna Bor. America,’ p. 361, and for further particulars Capt. Blakiston, ‘Ibis,’ 1863, p. 125. For the Cathartes and Ardea, Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 51, and vol. iii. p. 89. On the White-throat, Macgillivray, ‘Hist. British Birds,’ vol. ii. p. 354. On the Indian Bustard, Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 618.

[117] Gould, ‘Handbook to the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 444, 449, 455. The bower of the Satin Bower-bird may always be seen in the Zoological Society’s Gardens, Regent’s Park.

[118] See remarks to this effect, on the “Feeling of Beauty among Animals,” by Mr. J. Shaw, in the ‘Athenæum,’ Nov. 24th, 1866, p. 681.

[119] Mr. Monteiro, ‘Ibis,’ vol. iv. 1862, p. 339.

[120] ‘Land and Water,’ 1868, p. 217.

[121] Jardine’s ‘Naturalist Library: Birds,’ vol. xiv. p. 166.

[122] Sclater, in the ‘Ibis,’ vol. vi. 1864, p. 114. Livingstone, ‘Expedition to the Zambesi,’ 1865, p. 66.

[123] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 620.

[124] Wallace, in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. xx. 1857, p. 416; and in his ‘Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. 1869, p. 390.

[125] See my work on ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 289, 293.

[126] Quoted from M. de Lafresnaye, in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. xiii. 1854, p. 157: see also Mr. Wallace’s much fuller account in vol. xx. 1857, p. 412, and in his Malay Archipelago.

[127] Wallace, ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. 1869, p. 405.

[128] Mr. Sclater, ‘Intellectual Observer,’ Jan. 1867. ‘Waterton’s Wanderings,’ p. 118. See also Mr. Salvin’s interesting paper, with a plate, in the ‘Ibis,’ 1865, p. 90.

[129] ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 394.

[130] Mr. D. G. Elliot, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1869, p. 589.

[131] ‘Nitzsch’s Pterylography,’ edited by P. L. Sclater. Ray Soc. 1867, p. 14.

[132] The brown mottled summer plumage of the ptarmigan is of as much importance to it, as a protection, as the white winter plumage; for in Scandinavia, during the spring, when the snow has disappeared, this bird is known to suffer greatly from birds of prey, before it has acquired its summer dress: see Wilhelm von Wright, in Lloyd, ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 125.

[133] In regard to the previous statements on moulting, see, on snipes, &c., Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ vol. iv. p. 371; on Glareolæ, curlews, and bustards, Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 615, 630, 683; on Totanus, ibid, p. 700; on the plumes of herons, ibid, p. 738, and Macgillivray, vol. iv. p. 435 and 444, and Mr. Stafford Allen, in the ‘Ibis,’ vol. v. 1863, p. 33.

[134] On the moulting of the ptarmigan, see Gould’s ‘Birds of Great Britain.’ On the honey-suckers, Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 359, 365, 369. On the moulting of Anthus, see Blyth, in ‘Ibis,’ 1867, p. 32.

[135] For the foregoing statements in regard to partial moults, and on old males retaining their nuptial plumage, see Jerdon, on bustards and plovers, in ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 617, 637, 709, 711. Also Blyth in ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 84. On the Vidua, ‘Ibis,’ vol. iii. 1861, p. 133. On the Drongo shrikes, Jerdon, ibid. vol. i. p. 435. On the vernal moult of the Herodias bubulcus, Mr. S. S. Allen, in ‘Ibis,’ 1863, p. 33. On Gallus bankiva, Blyth, in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. i. 1848, p. 455; see, also, on this subject, my ‘Variation of Animals under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 236.

[136] See Macgillivray, ‘Hist. British Birds’ (vol. v. p. 34, 70, and 223), on the moulting of the Anatidæ, with quotations from Waterton and Montagu. Also Yarrell, ‘Hist. of British Birds,’ vol. iii. p. 243.

[137] On the pelican, see Sclater, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1868, p. 265. On the American finches, see Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 174, 221, and Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. ii. p. 383. On the Fringilla cannabina of Madeira, Mr. E. Vernon Harcourt, ‘Ibis,’ vol. v., 1863, p. 230.

[138] See also ‘Ornamental Poultry,’ by Rev. E. S. Dixon, 1848, p. 8.

[139] ‘Birds of India,’ introduct. vol. i. p. xxiv.; on the peacock, vol. iii. p. 507. See Gould’s ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 15 and 111.

[140] ‘Journal of R. Geograph. Soc.’ vol. x. 1840, p. 236.

[141] ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. xiii. 1854, p. 157; also Wallace, ibid. vol. xx. 1857, p. 412, and ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. 1869, p. 252. Also Dr. Bennett, as quoted by Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. iii. s. 326.

[142] Mr. T. W. Wood has given (‘The Student,’ April, 1870, p. 115) a full account of this manner of display, which he calls the lateral or one-sided, by the gold pheasant and by the Japanese pheasant, Ph. versicolor.

[143] ‘The Reign of Law,’ 1867, p. 263.

[144] For the description of these birds, see Gould’s ‘Handbook to the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. 1865, p. 417.

[145] ‘Birds of India,’ vol. ii. p. 96.

[146] On the Cosmetornis, see Livingstone’s ‘Expedition to the Zambesi,’ 1865, p. 66. On the Argus pheasant, Jardine’s ‘Nat. Hist. Lib.: Birds,’ vol. xiv. p. 167. On Birds of Paradise, Lesson, quoted by Brehm, 'Thierleben,’ B. iii. s. 325. On the widow-bird, Barrow’s ‘Travels in Africa,’ vol. i. p. 243, and ‘Ibis,’ vol. iii. 1861, p. 133. Mr. Gould, on the shyness of male birds, ‘Handbook to Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. 1865, p. 210, 457.

[147] Tegetmeier, ‘The Poultry Book,’ 1866, p. 139.

[148] Nordmann describes (‘Bull. Soc. Imp. des Nat. Moscow,’ 1861, tom. xxxiv. p. 264) the balzen of Tetrao urogalloides in Amur Land. He estimated the number of assembled males at above a hundred, the females, which lie hid in the surrounding bushes, not being counted. The noises uttered differ from those of the T. urogallus or the capercailzie.

[149] With respect to the assemblages of the above named grouse see Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. iv. s. 350; also L. Lloyd, ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 19, 78. Richardson, ‘Fauna Bor. Americana,’ Birds, p. 362. References in regard to the assemblages of other birds have previously been given. On Paradisea see Wallace, in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. xx. 1857, p. 412. On the snipe, Lloyd, ibid. p. 221.

[150] Quoted by Mr. T. W. Wood in the ‘Student,’ April, 1870, p. 125.

[151] Gould, ‘Handbook of Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 300, 308, 448, 451. On the ptarmigan, above alluded to, see Lloyd, ibid. p. 129.

[152] On magpies, Jenner, in ‘Phil. Transact.’ 1824, p. 21. Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds,’ vol. i. p. 570. Thompson, in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. viii. 1842, p. 494.

[153] On the peregrine falcon see Thompson, ‘Nat. Hist. of Ireland: Birds,’ vol. i. 1849, p. 39. On owls, sparrows, and partridges, see White, 'Nat. Hist. of Selborne,’ edit. of 1825, vol. i. p. 139. On the Phœnicura, see Loudon’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. vii. 1834, p. 245. Brehm, 'Thierleben,’ B. iv. s. 991) also alludes to cases of birds thrice mated during same day.

[154] See White (‘Nat. Hist. of Selborne,’ 1825, vol. i. p. 140) on the existence, early in the season, of small coveys of male partridges, of which fact I have heard other instances. See Jenner, on the retarded state of the generative organs in certain birds, in ‘Phil. Transact.’ 1824. In regard to birds living in triplets, I owe to Mr. Jenner Weir the cases of the starling and parrots, and to Mr. Fox, of partridges; on carrion-crows, see the ‘Field,’ 1868, p. 415. On various male birds singing after the proper period, see Rev. L. Jenyns, ‘Observations in Natural History,’ 1846, p. 87.

[155] The following case has been given (‘The Times,’ Aug. 6th, 1868) by the Rev. F. O. Morris, on the authority of the Hon. and Rev. O. W. Forester. “The gamekeeper here found a hawk’s nest this year, with five young ones in it. He took four and killed them, but left one with its wings clipped as a decoy to destroy the old ones by. They were both shot next day, in the act of feeding the young one, and the keeper thought it was done with. The next day he came again and found two other charitable hawks, who had come with an adopted feeling to succour the orphan. These two he killed, and then left the nest. On returning afterwards he found two more charitable individuals on the same errand of mercy. One of these he killed; the other he also shot, but could not find. No more came on the like fruitless errand.”

[156] For instance, Mr. Yarrell states (‘Hist. British Birds,’ vol. iii. 1845, p. 585) that a gull was not able to swallow a small bird which had been given to it. The gull “paused for a moment, and then, as if suddenly recollecting himself, ran off at full speed to a pan of water, shook the bird about in it until well soaked, and immediately gulped it down. Since that time he invariably has had recourse to the same expedient in similar cases.”

[157] ‘A Tour in Sutherlandshire,’ vol. i. 1849, p. 185.

[158] ‘Acclimatization of Parrots,’ by C. Buxton, M.P. ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ Nov. 1868, p. 381.

[159] ‘The Zoologist,’ 1847-1848, p. 1602.

[160] Hewitt on wild ducks, ‘Journal of Horticulture,’ Jan. 13, 1863, p. 39. Audubon on the wild turkey, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 14. On the mocking thrush, ibid. vol. i. p. 110.

[161] The ‘Ibis,’ vol. ii. 1860, p. 344.

[162] On the ornamented nests of humming-birds, Gould, ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 19. On the bower-birds, Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,’ 1865, vol. i. p. 444-461. Mr. Ramsay in the ‘Ibis,’ 1867, p. 456.

[163] ‘Hist. of British Birds,’ vol. ii. p. 92.

[164] ‘Zoologist,’ 1853-1854, p. 3946.

[165] Waterton, ‘Essays on Nat. Hist.’ 2nd series, p. 42, 117. For the following statements, see on the wigeon, Loudon’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. ix. p. 616; L. Lloyd, ‘Scandinavian Adventures,’ vol. i. 1854, p. 452; Dixon, ‘Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,’ p. 137; Hewitt, in ‘Journal of Horticulture,’ Jan. 13, 1863, p. 40; Bechstein, ‘Stubenvögel,’ 1840, s. 230.

[166] Audubon, ‘Ornitholog. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 191, 349; vol. ii. p. 42, 275; vol. iii. p. 2.

[167] ‘Rare and Prize Poultry,’ 1854, p. 27.

[168] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 103.

[169] Boitard and Corbié, ‘Les Pigeons,’ 1824, p. 12. Prosper Lucas (‘Traité de l’Héréd. Nat.’ tom. ii. 1850, p. 296) has himself observed nearly similar facts with pigeons.

[170] ‘Die Taubenzucht,’ 1824, s. 86.

[171] ‘Ornithological Biography,’ vol. i. p. 13.

[172] ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1835, p. 54. The japanned peacock is considered by Mr. Sclater as a distinct species, and has been named Pavo nigripennis.

[173] Rudolphi, ‘Beyträge zur Anthropologie,’ 1812, s. 184.

[174] ‘Die Darwin’sche Theorie, und ihre Stellung zu Moral und Religion,’ 1869, s. 59.

[175] In regard to peafowl, see Sir R. Heron, ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1835, p. 54, and the Rev. E. S. Dixon, ‘Ornamental Poultry,’ 1848, p. 8. For the turkey, Audubon, ibid. p. 4. For the capercailzie, Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 23.

[176] Mr. Hewitt, quoted in ‘Tegetmeier’s Poultry Book,’ 1866, p. 165.

[177] Quoted in Lloyd’s ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ p. 345.

[178] According to Dr. Blasius (‘Ibis,’ vol. ii. 1860, p. 297), there are 425 indubitable species of birds which breed in Europe, besides 60 forms, which are frequently regarded as distinct species. Of the latter, Blasius thinks that only ten are really doubtful, and that the other fifty ought to be united with their nearest allies; but this shews that there must be a considerable amount of variation with some of our European birds. It is also an unsettled point with naturalists, whether several North American birds ought to be ranked as specifically distinct from the corresponding European species.

[179] ‘Origin of Species,’ fifth edit. 1869, p. 104. I had always perceived, that rare and strongly-marked deviations of structure, deserving to be called monstrosities, could seldom be preserved through natural selection, and that the preservation of even highly-beneficial variations would depend to a certain extent on chance. I had also fully appreciated the importance of mere individual differences, and this led me to insist so strongly on the importance of that unconscious form of selection by man, which follows from the preservation of the most valued individuals of each breed, without any intention on his part to modify the characters of the breed. But until I read an able article in the ‘North British Review’ (March, 1867, p. 289, et seq.), which has been of more use to me than any other Review, I did not see how great the chances were against the preservation of variations, whether slight or strongly pronounced, occurring only in single individuals.

[180] ‘Introduct. to the Trochilidæ,’ p. 102.

[181] Gould, ‘Handbook of Birds of Australia,’ vol. ii. p. 32 and 68.

[182] Audubon, ‘Ornitholog. Biography,’ 1838, vol. iv. p. 389.

[183] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 108; and Mr. Blyth, in ‘Land and Water,’ 1868, p. 381.

[184] Graba, ‘Tagebuch, Reise nach Färo,’ 1830, s. 51-54. Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds,’ vol. iii. p. 745. ‘Ibis,’ vol. v. 1863, p. 469.

[185] Graba, ibid. s. 54. Macgillivray, ibid. vol. v. p. 327.

[186] ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 92.

[187] On these points see also ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 253; vol. ii. p. 73, 75.

[188] See, for instance, on the irides of a Podica and Gallicrex in ‘Ibis,’ vol. ii. 1860, p. 206; and vol. v. 1863, p. 426.

[189] See also Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 243-245.

[190] ‘Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle,’ 1841, p. 6.

[191] Bechstein, ‘Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,’ B. iv. 1795, s. 31, on a sub-variety of the Monck pigeon.

[192] This woodcut has been engraved from a beautiful drawing, most kindly made for me by Mr. Trimen; see also his description of the wonderful amount of variation in the coloration and shape of the wings of this butterfly, in his, ‘Rhopalocera Africæ Australis,’ p. 186. See also an interesting paper by the Rev. H. H. Higgins, on the origin of the ocelli in the Lepidoptera in the ‘Quarterly Journal of Science,’ July, 1868, p. 325.

[193] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 517.

[194] ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 254.

[195] When the Argus pheasant displays his wing-feathers like a great fan, those nearest to the body stand more upright than the outer ones, so that the shading of the ball-and-socket ocelli ought to be slightly different on the different feathers, in order to bring out their full effect, relatively to the incidence of the light. Mr. T. W. Wood, who has the experienced eye of an artist, asserts (‘Field,’ Newspaper, May 28, 1870, p. 457) that this is the case; but after carefully examining two mounted specimens (the proper feathers from one having been given to me by Mr. Gould for more accurate comparison) I cannot perceive that this acme of perfection in the shading has been attained; nor can others to whom I have shewn these feathers recognise the fact.

[196] ‘The Reign of Law,’ 1867, p. 247.

[197] ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 110.

[198] Fourth edition, 1866, p. 241.

[199] ‘Westminster Review,’ July, 1867. ‘Journal of Travel,’ vol. i. 1868, p. 73.

[200] Temminck says that the tail of the female Phasianus Sœmmerringii is only six inches long, ‘Planches coloriées,’ vol. v. 1838, p. 487 and 488: the measurements above given were made for me by Mr. Sclater. For the common pheasant, see Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ vol. i. p. 118-121.

[201] Dr. Chapuis, ‘Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,’ 1865, p. 87.

[202] Bechstein, ‘Naturgesch. Deutschlands,’ 1793, B. iii. s. 339.

[203] Daines Barrington, however, thought it probable (‘Phil. Transact.’ 1773, p. 164) that few female birds sing, because the talent would have been dangerous to them during incubation. He adds, that a similar view may possibly account for the inferiority of the female to the male in plumage.

[204] Mr. Ramsay, in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1868, p. 50.

[205] ‘Journal of Travel,’ edited by A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 78.

[206] ‘Journal of Travel,’ edited by A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 281.

[207] Audubon, ‘Ornithological Biography,’ vol. i. p. 233.

[208] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. ii. p. 108. Gould’s ‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 463.

[209] For instance, the female Eupetomena macroura has the head and tail dark blue with reddish loins; the female Lampornis porphyrurus is blackish-green on the upper surface, with the lores and sides of the throat crimson; the female Eulampis jugularis has the top of the head and back green, but the loins and the tail are crimson. Many other instances of highly conspicuous females could be given. See Mr. Gould’s magnificent work on this family.

[210] Mr. Salvin noticed in Guatemala (‘Ibis,’ 1864, p. 375) that humming-birds were much more unwilling to leave their nests during very hot weather, when the sun was shining brightly, than during cool, cloudy, or rainy weather.

[211] I may specify, as instances of obscurely-coloured birds building concealed nests, the species belonging to eight Australian genera, described in Gould’s ‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 340, 362, 365, 383, 387, 389, 391, 414.

[212] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 244.

[213] On the nidification and colours of these latter species, see Gould’s 'Handbook,’ &c., vol. i. p. 504, 527.

[214] I have consulted, on this subject, Macgillivray’s ‘British Birds,’ and though doubts may be entertained in some cases in regard to the degree of concealment of the nest, and of the degree of conspicuousness of the female, yet the following birds, which all lay their eggs in holes or in domed nests, can hardly be considered, according to the above standard, as conspicuous: Passer, 2 species; Sturnus, of which the female is considerably less brilliant than the male; Cinclus; Motacilla boarula (?); Erithacus (?); Fruticola, 2 sp.; Saxicola; Ruticilla, 2 sp.; Sylvia, 3 sp.; Parus, 3 sp.; Mecistura; Anorthura; Certhia; Sitta; Yunx; Muscicapa, 2 sp.; Hirundo, 3 sp.; and Cypselus. The females of the following 12 birds may be considered as conspicuous according to the same standard, viz., Pastor, Motacilla alba, Parus major and P. cæruleus, Upupa, Picus, 4 sp., Coracias, Alcedo, and Merops.

[215] ‘Journal of Travel,’ edited by A. Murray, vol. i. p. 78.

[216] See many statements in the ‘Ornithological Biography.’ See, also, some curious observations on the nests of Italian birds by Eugenio Bettoni, in the ‘Atti della Società Italiana,’ vol. xi. 1869, p. 487.

[217] See his ‘Monograph of the Trogonidæ,’ first edition.

[218] Namely Cyanalcyon. Gould’s ‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 133; see, also, p. 130, 136.

[219] Every gradation of difference between the sexes may be followed in the parrots of Australia. See Gould’s ‘Handbook,’ &c., vol. ii. p. 14-102.

[220] Macgillivray’s ‘British Birds,’ vol. ii. p. 433. Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. ii. p. 282.

[221] All the following facts are taken from M. Malherbe’s magnificent 'Monographie des Picidées,’ 1861.

[222] Audubon’s ‘Ornithological Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 75; see also the 'Ibis,’ vol. i. p. 268.

[223] Gould’s ‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. ii. p. 109-149.

[224] See remarks to this effect in my work on ‘Variation under Domestication,’ vol. ii. chap, xii.

[225] The ‘Ibis,’ vol. vi. 1864, p. 122.

[226] On Ardetta, Translation of Cuvier’s ‘Règne Animal,’ by Mr. Blyth, footnote, p. 159. On the Peregrine Falcon, Mr. Blyth, in Charlesworth’s 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. i. 1837, p. 304. On Dicrurus, ‘Ibis,’ 1863, p. 44. On the Platalea, ‘Ibis,’ vol. vi. 1864, p. 366. On the Bombycilla, Audubon’s ‘Ornitholog. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 229. On the Palæornis, see, also, Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 263. On the wild turkey, Audubon, ibid. vol. i. p. 15: I hear from Judge Caton that in Illinois the female very rarely acquires a tuft.

[227] Mr. Blyth has recorded (Translation of Cuvier’s ‘Règne Animal,’ p. 158) various instances with Lanius, Ruticilla, Linaria, and Anas. Audubon has also recorded a similar case (‘Ornith. Biog.’ vol. v. p. 519) with Tyranga æstiva.

[228] See Gould’s ‘Birds of Great Britain.’

[229] In regard to thrushes, shrikes, and woodpeckers, see Mr. Blyth, in Charlesworth’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. i. 1837, p. 304; also footnote to his translation of Cuvier’s ‘Règne Animal,’ p. 159. I give the case of Loxia from Mr. Blyth’s information. On thrushes, see also Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 195. On Chrysococcyx and Chalcophaps, Blyth, as quoted in Jerdon’s ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 485. On Sarkidiornis, Blyth, in ‘Ibis,’ 1867, p. 175.

[230] See, for instance, Mr. Gould’s account (‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 133) of Cyanalcyon (one of the Kingfishers) in which, however, the young male, though resembling the adult female, is less brilliantly coloured. In some species of Dacelo the males have blue tails, and the females brown ones; and Mr. R. B. Sharpe informs me that the tail of the young male of D. Gaudichaudi is at first brown. Mr. Gould has described (ibid. vol. ii. p. 14, 20, 37) the sexes and the young of certain Black Cockatoos and of the King Lory, with which the same rule prevails. Also Jerdon (‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 260) on the Palæornis rosa, in which the young are more like the female than the male. See Audubon (‘Ornith. Biograph.’ vol. ii. p. 475) on the two sexes and the young of Columba passerina.

[231] I owe this information to Mr. Gould who shewed me the specimens; see also his ‘Introduction to the Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 120.

[232] Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ vol. v. p. 207-214.

[233] See his admirable paper in the ‘Journal of the Asiatic Soc. of Bengal,’ vol. xix. 1850, p. 223; see also Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. introduction, p. xxix. In regard to Tanysiptera, Prof. Schlegel told Mr. Blyth that he could distinguish several distinct races, solely by comparing the adult males.

[234] See also Mr. Swinhoe, in ‘Ibis,’ July, 1863, p. 131; and a previous paper, with an extract from a note by Mr. Blyth, in ‘Ibis,’ Jan. 1861, p. 52.

[235] Wallace, ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. 1869, p. 394.

[236] These species are described, with coloured figures, by M. F. Pollen, in ‘Ibis,’ 1866, p. 275.

[237] ‘Variation of Animals, &c., under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 251.

[238] Macgillivray, ‘Hist. British Birds,’ vol. i. p. 172-174.

[239] See, on this subject, chap. xxiii. in the ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.’

[240] Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 193. Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ vol. iii. p. 85. See also the case before given of Indopicus carlotta.

[241] ‘Westminster Review,’ July, 1867, and A. Murray, ‘Journal of Travel,’ 1868, p. 83.

[242] For the Australian species, see Gould’s ‘Handbook,’ &c., vol. ii. p. 178, 180, 186, and 188. In the British Museum specimens of the Australian Plain-wanderer (Pedionomus torquatus) may be seen, shewing similar sexual differences.

[243] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 596. Mr. Swinhoe, in ‘Ibis,’ 1865, p. 542; 1866, p. 131, 405.

[244] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 677.

[245] Gould’s ‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. ii. p. 275.

[246] ‘The Indian Field,’ Sept. 1858, p. 3.

[247] ‘Ibis,’ 1866, p. 298.

[248] For these several statements, see Mr. Gould’s ‘Birds of Great Britain.’ Prof. Newton informs me that he has long been convinced, from his own observations and from those of others, that the males of the above-named species take either the whole or a large share of the duties of incubation, and that they “shew much greater devotion towards their young, when in danger, than do the females.” So it is, as he informs me, with Limosa lapponica and some few other Waders, in which the females are larger and have more strongly contrasted colours than the males.

[249] The natives of Ceram (Wallace, ‘Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. p. 150) assert that the male and female sit alternately on the eggs; but this assertion, as Mr. Bartlett thinks, may be accounted for by the female visiting the nest to lay her eggs.

[250] ‘The Student,’ April, 1870, p. 124.

[251] See the excellent account of the habits of this bird under confinement, by Mr. A. W. Bennett, in ‘Land and Water,’ May, 1868, p. 233.

[252] Mr. Sclater, on the incubation of the Struthiones, ‘Proc. Zoo. Soc.’ June 9, 1863.

[253] For the Milvago, see ‘Zoology of the Voyage of the “Beagle,”’ Birds, 1841, p. 16. For the Climacteris and nightjar (Eurostopodus), see Gould’s ‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 602 and 97. The New Zealand shieldrake (Tadorna variegata) offers a quite anomalous case: the head of the female is pure white, and her back is redder than that of the male; the head of the male is of a rich dark bronzed colour, and his back is clothed with finely pencilled slate-coloured feathers, so that he may altogether be considered as the more beautiful of the two. He is larger and more pugnacious than the female, and does not sit on the eggs. So that in all these respects this species comes under our first class of cases; but Mr. Sclater (‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1866, p. 150) was much surprised to observe that the young of both sexes, when about three months old, resembled in their dark heads and necks the adult males, instead of the adult females; so that it would appear in this case that the females have been modified, whilst the males and the young have retained a former state of plumage.

[254] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 598.

[255] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 222, 228. Gould’s ‘Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. 124, 130.

[256] Gould, ibid. vol. ii. p. 37, 46, 56.

[257] Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. ii. p. 55.

[258] ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 79.

[259] Charlesworth, ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. i. 1837, p. 305, 306.

[260] ‘Bulletin de la Soc. Vaudoise des Sc. Nat.’ vol. x. 1869, p. 132. The young of the Polish swan, Cygnus immutabilis of Yarrell, are always white; but this species, as Mr. Sclater informs me, is believed to be nothing more than a variety of the Domestic Swan (Cygnus olor).

[261] I am indebted to Mr. Blyth for information in regard to this genus. The sparrow of Palestine belongs to the sub-genus Petronia.

[262] For instance, the males of Tanagra æstiva and Fringilla cyanea require three years, the male of Fringilla ciris four years, to complete their beautiful plumage. (See Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 233, 280, 378.) The Harlequin duck takes three years (ibid. vol. iii. p. 614). The male of the Gold pheasant, as I hear from Mr. J. Jenner Weir, can be distinguished from the female when about three months old, but he does not acquire his full splendour until the end of the September in the following year.

[263] Thus the Ibis tantalus and Grus Americanus take four years, the Flamingo several years, and the Ardea Ludovicana two years, before they acquire their perfect plumage. See Audubon, ibid. vol. i. p. 221; vol. iii. p. 133, 139, 211.

[264] Mr. Blyth, in Charlesworth’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. i. 1837, p. 300. Mr. Bartlett has informed me in regard to gold pheasants.

[265] I have noticed the following cases in Audubon’s ‘Ornith. Biography. The Redstart of America’ (Muscicapa ruticilla, vol. i. p. 203). The Ibis tantalus takes four years to come to full maturity, but sometimes breeds in the second year (vol. iii. p. 133). The Grus Americanus takes the same time, but breeds before acquiring its full plumage (vol. iii. p. 211). The adults of Ardea cærulea are blue and the young white; and white, mottled, and mature blue birds may all be seen breeding together (vol. iv. p. 58): but Mr. Blyth informs me that certain herons apparently are dimorphic, for white and coloured individuals of the same age may be observed. The Harlequin duck (Anas histrionica, Linn.) takes three years to acquire its full plumage, though many birds breed in the second year (vol. iii. p. 614). The White-headed Eagle (Falco leucocephalus, vol. iii. p. 210) is likewise known to breed in its immature state. Some species of Oriolus (according to Mr. Blyth and Mr. Swinhoe, in ‘Ibis,’ July, 1863, p. 68) likewise breed before they attain their full plumage.

[266] See the last footnote.

[267] Other animals, belonging to quite distinct classes, are either habitually or occasionally capable of breeding before they have fully acquired their adult characters. This is the case with the young males of the salmon. Several amphibians have been known to breed whilst retaining their larval structure. Fritz Müller has shewn (‘Facts and Arguments for Darwin,’ Eng. trans. 1869, p. 79) that the males of several amphipod crustaceans become sexually mature whilst young; and I infer that this is a case of premature breeding, because they have not as yet acquired their fully-developed claspers. All such facts are highly interesting, as bearing on one means by which species may undergo great modifications of character, in accordance with Mr. Cope’s views, expressed under the terms of the “retardation and acceleration of generic characters;” but I cannot follow the views of this eminent naturalist to their full extent. See Mr. Cope, “On the Origin of Genera,” from the ‘Proc. of Acad. Nat. Sc. of Philadelphia,’ Oct. 1868.

[268] Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 507, on the peacock. Audubon, ibid. vol. iii. p. 139, on the Ardea.

[269] For illustrative cases see vol. iv. of Macgillivray’s ‘Hist. Brit. Birds;’ on Tringa, &c., p. 229, 271; on the Machetes, p. 172; on the Charadrius hiaticula, p. 118; on the Charadrius pluvialis, p. 94.

[270] For the goldfinch of N. America, Fringilla tristis, Linn., see Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 172. For the Maluri, Gould’s 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,’ vol. i. p. 318.

[271] I am indebted to Mr. Blyth for information in regard to the Buphus; see also Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. iii. p. 749. On the Anastomus, see Blyth, in ‘Ibis,’ 1867, p. 173.

[272] On the Alca, see Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ vol. v. p. 347. On the Fringilla leucophrys, Audubon, ibid. vol. ii. p. 89. I shall have hereafter to refer to the young of certain herons and egrets being white.

[273] ‘History of British Birds,’ vol. i. 1839, p. 159.

[274] Blyth, in Charlesworth’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. i. 1837, p. 362; and from information given to me by him.

[275] Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. i. p. 113.

[276] Mr. C. A. Wright, in ‘Ibis,’ vol. vi. 1864, p. 65. Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 515.

[277] The following additional cases may be mentioned: the young males of Tanagra rubra can be distinguished from the young females (Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. iv. p. 392), and so it is with the nestlings of a blue nuthatch, Dendrophila frontalis of India (Jerdon, 'Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 389). Mr. Blyth also informs me that the sexes of the stonechat, Saxicola rubicola, are distinguishable at a very early age.

[278] ‘Westminster Review,’ July, 1867, p. 5.

[279] ‘Ibis,’ 1859, vol. i. p. 429, et seq.

[280] No satisfactory explanation has ever been offered of the immense size, and still less of the bright colours, of the toucan’s beak. Mr. Bates (‘The Naturalist on the Amazons,’ vol. ii. 1863, p. 341) states that they use their beak for reaching fruit at the extreme tips of the branches; and likewise, as stated by other authors, for extracting eggs and young birds from the nests of other birds. But as Mr. Bates admits, the beak “can scarcely be considered a very perfectly-formed instrument for the end to which it is applied.” The great bulk of the beak, as shewn by its breadth, depth, as well as length, is not intelligible on the view, that it serves merely as an organ of prehension.

[281] Ramphastos carinatus, Gould’s ‘Monograph of Ramphastidæ.’

[282] On Larus, Gavia, and Sterna, see Macgillivray, ‘Hist. Brit. Birds,’ vol. v. p. 515, 584, 626. On the Anser hyperboreus, Audubon, ‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. iv. p. 562. On the Anastomus, Mr. Blyth, in ‘Ibis,’ 1867, p. 173.

[283] It may be noticed that with vultures, which roam far and wide through the higher regions of the atmosphere, like marine birds over the ocean, three or four species are almost wholly or largely white, and many other species are black. This fact supports the conjecture that these conspicuous colours may aid the sexes in finding each other during the breeding-season.

[284] ‘The Journal of Travel,’ edited by A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 286.

[285] See Jerdon on the genus Palæornis, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. p. 258-260.

[286] The young of Ardea rufescens and A. cærulea of the U. States are likewise white, the adults being coloured in accordance with their specific names. Audubon (‘Ornith. Biography,’ vol. iii. p. 416; vol. iv. p. 58) seems rather pleased at the thought that this remarkable change of plumage will greatly “disconcert the systematists.”

[287] I am greatly indebted to the kindness of Mr. Sclater for having looked over these four chapters on birds, and the two following ones on mammals. By this means I have been saved from making mistakes about the names of the species, and from giving any facts which are actually known to this distinguished naturalist to be erroneous. But of course he is not at all answerable for the accuracy of the statements quoted by me from various authorities.

[288] See Waterton’s account of two hares fighting, ‘Zoologist,’ vol. i. 1843, p. 211. On moles, Bell, ‘Hist. of British Quadrupeds,’ 1st edit. p. 100. On squirrels, Audubon and Bachman, ‘Viviparous Quadrupeds of N. America,’ 1846, p. 269. On beavers, Mr. A. H. Green, in ‘Journal of Lin. Soc. Zoolog.’ vol. x. 1869, p. 362.

[289] On the battles of seals, see Capt. C. Abbott in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1868, p. 191; also Mr. R. Brown, ibid. 1869, p. 436; also L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 412; also Pennant. On the sperm-whale, see Mr. J. H. Thompson, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1867, p. 246.

[290] See Scrope (‘Art of Deer-stalking,’ p. 17) on the locking of the horns with the Cervus elaphus. Richardson, in ‘Fauna Bor. Americana,’ 1829, p. 252, says that the wapiti, moose, and reindeer have been found thus locked together. Sir A. Smith found at the Cape of Good Hope the skeletons of two gnus in the same condition.

[291] Mr. Lamont (‘Seasons with the Sea-Horses,’ 1861, p. 143) says that a good tusk of the male walrus weighs 4 pounds, and is longer than that of the female, which weighs about 3 pounds. The males are described as fighting ferociously. On the occasional absence of the tusks in the female, see Mr. R. Brown, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1868, p. 429.

[292] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 283.

[293] Mr. R. Brown, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1869, p. 553.

[294] Owen on the Cachalot and Ornithorhynchus, ibid. vol. iii. p. 638, 641.

[295] On the structure and shedding of the horns of the reindeer, Hoffberg, 'Amœnitates Acad.’ vol. iv. 1788, p. 149. See Richardson, ‘Fauna Bor. Americana,’ p. 241, in regard to the American variety or species; also Major W. Ross King, ‘The Sportsman in Canada,’ 1866, p. 80.

[296] Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, ‘Essais de Zoolog. Générale,’ 1841, p. 513. Other masculine characters, besides the horns, are sometimes similarly transferred to the female; thus Mr. Boner, in speaking of an old female chamois (‘Chamois Hunting in the Mountains of Bavaria,’ 1860, 2nd edit. p. 363), says, “not only was the head very male-looking, but along the back there was a ridge of long hair, usually to be found only in bucks.”

[297] On the Cervulus, Dr. Gray, ‘Catalogue of the Mammalia in British Museum,’ part iii. p. 220. On the Cervus Canadensis or Wapiti see Hon. J. D. Caton, ‘Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences,’ May, 1868, p. 9.

[298] For instance the horns of the female Ant. Euchore resemble those of a distinct species, viz. the Ant. Dorcas var. Corine, see Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,’ p. 455.

[299] Gray, ‘Catalogue Mamm. Brit. Mus.’ part iii. 1852, p. 160.

[300] Richardson, ‘Fauna Bor. Americana,’ p. 278.

[301] ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 346.

[302] Sir Andrew Smith, ‘Zoology of S. Africa,’ pl. xix. Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 624.

[303] Sir J. Emerson Tennent, ‘Ceylon,’ 1859, vol. ii. p. 274. For Malacca, ‘Journal of Indian Archipelago,’ vol. iv. p. 357.

[304] ‘Calcutta Journal of Nat. Hist.’ vol. ii. 1843, p. 526.

[305] Mr. Blyth, in ‘Land and Water,’ March, 1867, p. 134, on the authority of Capt. Hutton and others. For the wild Pembrokeshire goats see the ‘Field,’ 1869, p. 150.

[306] M. E. M. Bailly, “sur l’usage des Cornes,” &c., ‘Annal. des Sc. Nat.’ tom. ii. 1824, p. 369.

[307] Owen, on the Horns of Red-deer, ‘British Fossil Mammals,’ 1846, p. 478; ‘Forest Creatures,’ by Charles Boner, 1861, p. 76, 62. Richardson on the Horns of the Reindeer, ‘Fauna Bor. Americana,’ 1829, p. 210.

[308] Hon. J. D. Caton (‘Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Science,’ May, 1868, p. 9), says that the American deer fight with their fore-feet, after “the question of superiority has been once settled and acknowledged in the herd.” Bailly, “Sur l’usage des Cornes,” ‘Annales des Sc. Nat.’ tom. ii. 1824, p. 371.

[309] See a most interesting account in the Appendix to Hon. J. D. Caton’s paper, as above quoted.

[310] ‘The American Naturalist,’ Dec. 1869, p. 552.

[311] Pallas, ‘Spicilegia Zoologica,’ fasc. xiii. 1779, p. 18.

[312] Lamont, ‘Seasons with the Sea-Horses,’ 1861, p. 141.

[313] See also Corse (‘Philosoph. Transact.’ 1799, p. 212) on the manner in which the short-tusked Mooknah variety of the elephant attacks other elephants.

[314] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 349.

[315] See Rüppell (in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ Jan. 12, 1836, p. 3) on the canines in deer and antelopes, with a note by Mr. Martin on a female American deer. See also Falconer (‘Palæont. Memoirs and Notes,’ vol. i. 1868, p. 576) on canines in an adult female deer. In old males of the musk-deer the canines (Pallas, ‘Spic. Zoolog.’ fasc. xiii. 1779, p. 18) sometimes grow to the length of three inches, whilst in old females a rudiment projects scarcely half an inch above the gums.

[316] Emerson Tennent, ‘Ceylon,’ 1859, vol. ii. p. 275; Owen, ‘British Fossil Mammals,’ 1846, p. 245.

[317] Richardson, ‘Fauna Bor. Americana,’ on the moose, Alces palmata, p. 236, 237; also on the expanse of the horns ‘Land and Water,’ 1869, p. 143. See also Owen, ‘British Fossil Mammals,’ on the Irish elk, p. 447, 455.

[318] ‘Forest Creatures,’ by C. Boner, 1861, p. 60.

[319] See the very interesting paper by Mr. J. A. Allen in ‘Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of Cambridge; United States,’ vol. ii. No. 1, p. 82. The weights were ascertained by a careful observer, Capt. Bryant.

[320] ‘Animal Economy,’ p. 45.

[321] See also Richardson’s ‘Manual on the Dog,’ p. 59. Much valuable information on the Scottish deerhound is given by Mr. McNeill, who first called attention to the inequality in size between the sexes, in Scrope’s ‘Art of Deer Stalking.’ I hope that Mr. Cupples will keep to his intention of publishing a full account and history of this famous breed.

[322] Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. ii. s. 729-732.

[323] See Mr. Wallace’s interesting account of this animal, ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ 1869, vol. i. p. 435.

[324] ‘The Times,’ Nov. 10th, 1857. In regard to the Canada lynx, see Audubon and Bachman, ‘Quadrupeds of N. America,’ 1846, p. 139.

[325] Dr. Murie, on Otaria, ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1869, p. 109. Mr. J. A. Allen, in the paper above quoted (p. 75), doubts whether the hair, which is longer on the neck in the male than in the female, deserves to be called a mane.

[326] Mr. Boner in his excellent description of the habits of the red-deer in Germany (‘Forest Creatures,’ 1861, p. 81) says, “while the stag is defending his rights against one intruder, another invades the sanctuary of his harem, and carries off trophy after trophy.” Exactly the same thing occurs with seals, see Mr. J. A. Allen, ibid. p. 100.

[327] Mr. J. A. Allen in ‘Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of Cambridge, United States,’ vol. ii. No. 1, p. 99.

[328] ‘Dogs: their Management,’ by E. Mayhew, M.R.C.V.S., 2nd edit. 1864, p. 187-192.

[329] Quoted by Alex. Walker ‘On Intermarriage,’ 1838, p. 276; see also p. 244.

[330] ‘Traité de l’Héréd. Nat.’ tom. ii. 1850, p. 296.

[331] ‘Amœnitates Acad.’ vol. iv. 1788, p. 160.

[332] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 585.

[333] Ibid. p. 595.

[334] See, for instance, Major W. Ross King (‘The Sportsman in Canada,’ 1866, p. 53, 131) on the habits of the moose and wild reindeer.

[335] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 600.

[336] Mr. Green, in ‘Journal of Linn. Soc.’ vol. x. Zoology, 1869, p. 362.

[337] C. L. Martin, ‘General Introduction to the Nat. Hist. of Mamm. Animals,’ 1841, p. 431.

[338] ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 15, 21.

[339] On the sea-elephant, see an article by Lesson, in ‘Dict. Class. Hist. Nat.’ tom. xiii. p. 418. For the Cystophora or Stemmatopus, see Dr. Dekay, ‘Annals of Lyceum of Nat. Hist. New York,’ vol. i. 1824, p. 94. Pennant has also collected information from the sealers on this animal. The fullest account is given by Mr. Brown, who doubts about the rudimentary condition of the bladder in the female, in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1868, p. 435.

[340] As with the castoreum of the beaver, see Mr. L. H. Morgan’s most interesting work, ‘The American Beaver,’ 1868, p. 300. Pallas (‘Spic. Zoolog.’ fasc. viii. 1779, p. 23) has well discussed the odoriferous glands of mammals. Owen (‘Anat. of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 634) also gives an account of these glands, including those of the elephant, and (p. 763) those of shrew-mice.

[341] Rengger, ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 355. This observer also gives some curious particulars in regard to the odour emitted.

[342] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 632. See, also, Dr. Murie’s observations on their glands in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1870, p. 340. Desmarest, On the Antilope subgutturosa, ‘Mammalogie,’ 1820, p. 455.

[343] Pallas, ‘Spicilegia Zoolog.’ fasc. xiii. 1799, p. 24; Desmoulins, 'Dict. Class. d’Hist. Nat.’ tom. iii. p. 586.

[344] Dr. Gray, ‘Gleanings from the Menagerie at Knowsley,’ pl. 28.

[345] Judge Caton on the wapiti, ‘Transact. Ottawa Acad. Nat. Sciences,’ 1868, p. 36, 40; Blyth, ‘Land and Water,’ on Capra ægagrus, 1867, p. 37.

[346] ‘Hunter’s Essays and Observations,’ edited by Owen, 1861, vol. i. p. 236.

[347] See Dr. Gray’s ‘Cat. of Mammalia in British Museum,’ part iii. 1852, p. 144.

[348] Rengger, ‘Säugethiere,’ &c., s. 14; Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ p. 66.

[349] See the chapters on these several animals in vol. i. of my ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication;’ also vol. ii. p. 73; also chap. xx. on the practice of selection by semi-civilised people. For the Berbura goat, see Dr. Gray, ‘Catalogue,’ ibid. p. 157.

[350] Osphranter rufus, Gould, ‘Mammals of Australia,’ vol. ii. 1863. On the Didelphis, Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ p. 256.

[351] ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ Nov. 1867, p. 325. On the Mus minutus, Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ p. 304.

[352] J. A. Allen, in ‘Bulletin of Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of Cambridge, United States,’ 1869, p. 207.

[353] Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ 1820, p. 223. On Felis mitis, Rengger, ibid. s. 194.

[354] Dr. Murie on the Otaria, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1869, p. 108. Mr. R. Brown, on the P. groenlandica, ibid. 1868, p. 417. See also on the colours of seals, Desmarest, ibid. p. 243, 249.

[355] Judge Caton, in ‘Trans. Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences,’ 1868, p. 4.

[356] Dr. Gray, ‘Cat. of Mamm. in Brit. Mus.’ part iii. 1852, p. 134-142; also Dr. Gray, ‘Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley,’ in which there is a splendid drawing of the Oreas derbyanus: see the text on Tragelaphus. For the Cape Eland (Oreas canna), see Andrew Smith, 'Zoology of S. Africa,’ pl. 41 and 42. There are also many of these antelopes in the Zoological Society’s Gardens.

[357] On the Ant. niger, see ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1850, p. 133. With respect to an allied species, in which there is an equal sexual difference in colour, see Sir S. Baker, ‘The Albert Nyanza,’ 1866, vol. ii. p. 327. For the A. sing-sing, Gray, ‘Cat. B. Mus.’ p. 100. Desmarest, Mammalogie,’ p. 468, on the A. caama. Andrew Smith, ‘Zoology of S. Africa,’ on the Gnu.

[358] ‘Ottawa Academy of Sciences,’ May 21, 1868, p. 3, 5.

[359] S. Müller, on the Banteng, ‘Zoog. Indischen Archipel.’ 1839-1844, tab. 35; see also Raffles, as quoted by Mr. Blyth, in ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 476. On goats, Dr. Gray, ‘Cat. Brit. Mus.’ p. 146; Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,’ p. 482. On the Cervus paludosus, Rengger, ibid. s. 345.

[360] Sclater, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1866, p. 1. The same fact has also been fully ascertained by MM. Pollen and van Dam.

[361] On Mycetes, Rengger, ibid. s. 14; and Brehm, ‘Illustrirtes Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 96, 107. On Ateles, Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ p. 75. On Hylobates, Blyth, ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 135. On the Semnopithecus, S. Müller, ‘Zoog. Indischen Archipel.’ tab. x.

[362] Gervais, ‘Hist. Nat. des Mammifères,’ 1854, p. 103. Figures are given of the skull of the male. Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ p. 70. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, ‘Hist. Nat. des Mamm.’ 1824, tom. i.

[363] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ 1868, vol. ii. p. 102, 103.

[364] ‘Essays and Observations by J. Hunter,’ edited by Owen, 1861, vol. i. p. 194.

[365] Sir S. Baker, ‘The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,’ 1867.

[366] Fiber zibethicus, Audubon and Bachman, ‘The Quadrupeds of N. America,’ 1846, p. 109.

[367] ‘Novæ species Quadrupedum e Glirium ordine,’ 1778, p. 7. What I have called the roe is the Capreolus Sibiricus subecaudatus of Pallas.

[368] See the fine plates in A. Smith’s ‘Zoology of S. Africa,’ and Dr. Gray’s ‘Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley.’

[369] ‘Westminster Review,’ July 1, 1867, p. 5.

[370] ‘Travels in South Africa,’ 1824, vol. ii. p. 315.

[371] Dr. Gray, ‘Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley,’ p. 64. Mr. Blyth, in speaking (‘Land and Water,’ 1869, p. 42) of the hog-deer of Ceylon, says it is more brightly spotted with white than the common hog-deer, at the season when it renews its horns.

[372] Falconer and Cautley, ‘Proc. Geolog. Soc.’ 1843; and Falconer’s 'Pal. Memoirs,’ vol. i. p. 196.

[373] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ 1868, vol. i. p. 61-64.

[374] ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1862, p. 164. See, also, Dr. Hartmann, ‘Ann. d. Landw.’ Bd. xliii. s. 222.

[375] I observed this fact in the Zoological Gardens; and numerous cases may be seen in the coloured plates in Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, ‘Hist. Nat. des Mammifères,’ tom. i. 1824.

[376] Bates, ‘The Naturalist on the Amazons,’ 1863, vol. ii. p. 310.

[377] I have seen most of the above-named monkeys in the Zoological Society’s Gardens. The description of the Semnopithecus nemæus is taken from Mr. W. C. Martin’s ‘Nat. Hist. of Mammalia,’ 1841, p. 460; see also p. 475, 523.

[378] Schaaffhausen, translation in ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 419, 420, 427.

[379] Ecker, translation in ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 351-356. The comparison of the form of the skull in men and women has been followed out with much care by Welcker.

[380] Ecker and Welcker, ibid. p. 352, 355; Vogt, ‘Lectures on Man,’ Eng. translat. p. 81.

[381] Schaaffhausen, ‘Anthropolog. Review,’ ibid. p. 429.

[382] Pruner-Bey, on negro infants, as quoted by Vogt, ‘Lectures on Man,’ Eng. translat. 1864, p. 189: for further facts on negro infants, as quoted from Winterbottom and Camper, see Lawrence, ‘Lectures on Physiology,’ &c. 1822, p. 451. For the infants of the Guaranys, see Rengger, ‘Säugethiere,’ &c. s. 3. See also Godron, ‘De l’Espèce,’ tom. ii. 1859, p. 253. For the Australians, Waitz, ‘Introduct. to Anthropology,’ Eng. translat. 1863, p. 99.

[383] Rengger, ‘Säugethiere,’ &c. 1830, s. 49.

[384] As in Macacus cynomolgus (Desmarest, ‘Mammalogie,’ p. 65) and in Hylobates agilis (Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, ‘Hist. Nat. des Mamm.’ 1824, tom. i. p. 2).

[385] ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 353.

[386] Mr. Blyth informs me that he has never seen more than one instance of the beard, whiskers, &c., in a monkey becoming white with old age, as is so commonly the case with us. This, however, occurred in an aged and confined Macacus cynomolgus, whose moustaches were “remarkably long and human-like.” Altogether this old monkey presented a ludicrous resemblance to one of the reigning monarchs of Europe, after whom he was universally nick-named. In certain races of man the hair on the head hardly ever becomes grey; thus Mr. D. Forbes has never seen, as he informs me, an instance with the Aymaras and Quechuas of S. America.

[387] This is the case with the females of several species of Hylobates, see Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, ‘Hist. Nat. des Mamm.’ tom. i. See, also, on H. lar. ‘Penny Encyclopedia,’ vol. ii. p. 149, 150.

[388] The results were deduced by Dr. Weisbach from the measurements made by Drs. K. Scherzer and Schwarz, see ‘Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,’ 1867, s. 216, 231, 234, 236, 239, 269.

[389] ‘Voyage to St. Kilda,’ (3rd edit. 1753) p. 37.

[390] Sir J. E. Tennent, ‘Ceylon,’ vol. ii. 1859, p. 107.

[391] Quatrefages, ‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’ Aug. 29, 1868, p. 630; Vogt, ‘Lectures on Man,’ Eng. translat. p. 127.

[392] On the beards of negroes, Vogt, ‘Lectures,’ &c. ibid. p. 127; Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,’ Engl. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 96. It is remarkable that in the United States (‘Investigations in Military and Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers,’ 1869, p. 569) the pure negroes and their crossed offspring seem to have bodies almost as hairy as those of Europeans.

[393] Wallace, ‘The Malay Arch.’ vol. ii. 1869, p. 178.

[394] Dr. J. Barnard Davis on Oceanic Races, in ‘Anthropolog. Review,’ April, 1870, p. 185, 191.

[395] Catlin, ‘North American Indians,’ 3rd edit. 1842, vol. ii. p. 227. On the Guaranys, see Azara, ‘Voyages dans l’Amérique Mérid.’ tom. ii. 1809, p. 58; also Rengger, ‘Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ s. 3.

[396] Prof. and Mrs. Agassiz (‘Journey in Brazil,’ p. 530) remark that the sexes of the American Indians differ less than those of the negroes and of the higher races. See also Rengger, ibid. p. 3, on the Guaranys.

[397] Rütimeyer, ‘Die Grenzen der Thierwelt; eine Betrachtung zu Darwin’s Lehre,’ 1868, s. 54.

[398] ‘A Journey from Prince of Wales Fort,’ 8vo. edit. Dublin, 1796, p. 104. Sir J. Lubbock (‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 69) gives other and similar cases in North America. For the Guanas of S. America see Azara, ‘Voyages,’ &c. tom. ii. p. 94.

[399] On the fighting of the male gorillas, see Dr. Savage, in ‘Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.’ vol. v. 1847, p. 423. On Presbytis entellus, see the ‘Indian Field,’ 1859, p. 146.

[400] J. Stuart Mill remarks (‘The Subjection of Women,’ 1869, p. 122), “the things in which man most excels woman are those which require most plodding, and long hammering at single thoughts.” What is this but energy and perseverance?

[401] An observation by Vogt bears on this subject: he says, it is a “remarkable circumstance, that the difference between the sexes, as regards the cranial cavity, increases with the development of the race, so that the male European excels much more the female, than the negro the negress. Welcker confirms this statement of Huschke from his measurements of negro and German skulls.” But Vogt admits (‘Lectures on Man,’ Eng. translat. 1864, p. 81) that more observations are requisite on this point.

[402] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 603.

[403] ‘Journal of the Anthropolog. Soc.’ April, 1869, p. lvii. and lxvi.

[404] Dr. Scudder, “Notes on Stridulation,” in ‘Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. xi. April, 1868.

[405] Given in W. C. L. Martin’s ‘General Introduct. to Nat. Hist. of Mamm. Animals,’ 1841, p. 432; Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 600.

[406] Helmholtz, ‘Théorie Phys. de la Musique,’ 1868, p. 187.

[407] Mr. R. Brown, in ‘Proc. Zoo. Soc.’ 1868, p. 410.

[408] ‘Journal of Anthropolog. Soc.’ Oct. 1870, p. clv. See also the several later chapters in Sir John Lubbock’s ‘Prehistoric Times,’ second edition, 1869, which contain an admirable account of the habits of savages.

[409] Since this chapter has been printed I have seen a valuable article by Mr. Chauncey Wright (‘North Amer. Review,’ Oct. 1870, page 293), who, in discussing the above subject, remarks, “There are many consequences of the ultimate laws or uniformities of nature through which the acquisition of one useful power will bring with it many resulting advantages as well as limiting disadvantages, actual or possible, which the principle of utility may not have comprehended in its action.” This principle has an important bearing, as I have attempted to shew in the second chapter of this work, on the acquisition by man of some of his mental characteristics.

[410] See the very interesting discussion on the Origin and Function of Music, by Mr. Herbert Spencer, in his collected ‘Essays,’ 1858, p. 359. Mr. Spencer comes to an exactly opposite conclusion to that at which I have arrived. He concludes that the cadences used in emotional speech afford the foundation from which music has been developed; whilst I conclude that musical notes and rhythm were first acquired by the male or female progenitors of mankind for the sake of charming the opposite sex. Thus musical tones became firmly associated with some of the strongest passions an animal is capable of feeling, and are consequently used instinctively, or through association, when strong emotions are expressed in speech. Mr. Spencer does not offer any satisfactory explanation, nor can I, why high or deep notes should be expressive, both with man and the lower animals, of certain emotions. Mr. Spencer gives also an interesting discussion on the relations between poetry, recitative, and song.

[411] Rengger, ‘Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ s. 49.

[412] See an interesting discussion on this subject by Häckel, ‘Generelle Morph.’ B. ii. 1866, s. 246.

[413] A full and excellent account of the manner in which savages in all parts of the world ornament themselves is given by the Italian traveller, Prof. Mantegazza, ‘Rio de la Plata, Viaggi e Studi,’ 1867, p. 525-545; all the following statements, when other references are not given, are taken from this work. See, also, Waitz, ‘Introduct. to Anthropolog.’ Eng. transl. vol. i. 1863, p. 275, et passim. Lawrence also gives very full details in his ‘Lectures on Physiology,’ 1822. Since this chapter was written Sir J. Lubbock has published his 'Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, in which there is an interesting chapter on the present subject, and from which (p. 42, 48) I have taken some facts about savages dyeing their teeth and hair, and piercing their teeth.

[414] Humboldt, ‘Personal Narrative,’ Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 515; on the imagination shewn in painting the body, p. 522; on modifying the form of the calf of the leg, p. 466.

[415] ‘The Nile Tributaries,’ 1867; ‘The Albert N’yanza,’ 1866, vol. i. p. 218.

[416] Quoted by Prichard, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ 4th. edit. vol. i. 1851, p. 321.

[417] On the Papuans, Wallace, ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. p. 445. On the coiffure of the Africans, Sir S. Baker, ‘The Albert N’yanza,’ vol. i. p. 210.

[418] ‘Travels,’ p. 533.

[419] ‘The Albert N’yanza,’ 1866, vol. i. p. 217.

[420] Livingstone, ‘British Association,’ 1860; report given in the 'Athenæum,’ July 7, 1860, p. 29.

[421] Sir S. Baker (ibid. vol. i. p. 210) speaking of the natives of Central Africa says, “every tribe has a distinct and unchanging fashion for dressing the hair.” See Agassiz (‘Journey in Brazil,’ 1868, p. 318) on the invariability of the tattooing of the Amazonian Indians.

[422] Rev. R. Taylor, ‘New Zealand and its Inhabitants,’ 1855, p. 152.

[423] Mantegazza, ‘Viaggi e Studi,’ p. 542.

[424] ‘Travels in S. Africa,’ 1824; vol. i. p. 414.

[425] See, for references, ‘Gerland über das Aussterben der Naturvölker,’ 1868, s. 51, 53, 55; also Azara, ‘Voyages,’ &c. tom. ii. p. 116.

[426] On the vegetable productions used by the North-Western American Indians, ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ vol. x.

[427] ‘A Journey from Prince of Wales Fort,’ 8vo. edit. 1796, p. 89.

[428] Quoted by Prichard, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ 3rd edit. vol. iv. 1844, p. 519; Vogt, ‘Lectures on Man,’ Eng. translat. p. 129. On the opinion of the Chinese on the Cingalese, E. Tennent, ‘Ceylon,’ vol. ii. 1859, p. 107.

[429] Prichard, as taken from Crawfurd and Finlayson, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ vol. iv. p. 534, 535.

[430] “Idem illustrissimus viator dixit mihi præcinctorium vel tabula fæminæ, quod nobis teterrimum est, quondam permagno æstimari ab hominibus in hac gente. Nunc res mutata est, et censet talem conformationem minime optandam est.”

[431] ‘The Anthropological Review,’ November, 1864, p. 237. For additional references, see Waitz, ‘Introduct. to Anthropology,’ Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 105.

[432] ‘Mungo Park’s Travels in Africa,’ 4to. 1816, p. 53, 131. Burton’s statement is quoted by Schaaffhausen, ‘Archiv für Anthropolog.’ 1866, s. 163. On the Banyai, Livingstone, ‘Travels,’ p. 64. On the Kafirs, the Rev. J. Shooter, ‘The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country,’ 1857 p. 1.

[433] For the Javanese and Cochin-Chinese, see Waitz, ‘Introduct. to Anthropology,’ Eng. translat. vol. i. p. 305. On the Yura-caras, A. d’Orligny, as quoted in Prichard, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ vol. v. 3rd edit. p. 476.

[434] ‘North American Indians,’ by G. Catlin, 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p. 49; vol. ii. p. 227. On the natives of Vancouver Island, see Sproat, 'Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,’ 1868, p. 25. On the Indians of Paraguay, Azara, ‘Voyages,’ tom. ii. p. 105.

[435] On the Siamese, Prichard, ibid. vol. iv. p. 533. On the Japanese, Veitch in ‘Gardeners’ Chronicle,’ 1860, p. 1104. On the New Zealanders Mantegazza, ‘Viaggi e Studi,’ 1867, p. 526. For the other nations mentioned, see references in Lawrence, ‘Lectures on Physiology,’ &c. 1822, p. 272.

[436] Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 321.

[437] Dr. Barnard Davis quotes Mr. Pritchard and others for these facts in regard to the Polynesians, in ‘Anthropological Review,’ April, 1870, p. 185, 191.

[438] Ch. Comte has remarks to this effect in his ‘Traité de Législation,’ 3rd edit. 1837, p. 136.

[439] The Fuegians, as I have been informed by a missionary who long resided with them, consider European women as extremely beautiful; but from what we have seen of the judgment of the other aborigines of America, I cannot but think that this must be a mistake, unless indeed the statement refers to the few Fuegians who have lived for some time with Europeans, and who must consider us as superior beings. I should add that a most experienced observer, Capt. Burton, believes that a woman whom we consider beautiful is admired throughout the world, 'Anthropological Review,’ March, 1864, p. 245.

[440] ‘Personal Narrative,’ Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 518, and elsewhere. Mantegazza, in his ‘Viaggi e Studi,’ 1867, strongly insists on this same principle.

[441] On the skulls of the American tribes, see Nott and Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,’ 1854, p. 440; Prichard, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ vol. i. 3rd edit. p. 321; on the natives of Arakhan, ibid. vol. iv. p. 537. Wilson, ‘Physical Ethnology,’ Smithsonian Institution, 1863, p. 288; on the Fijians, p. 290. Sir J. Lubbock (‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. 1869, p. 506) gives an excellent résumé on this subject.

[442] On the Huns, Godron, ‘De l’Espèce,’ tom. ii. 1859, p. 300. On the Tahitians, Waitz, ‘Anthropolog.’ Eng. translat. vol. i. p. 305. Marsden, quoted by Prichard, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ 3rd edit. vol. v. p. 67. Lawrence, ‘Lectures on Physiology,’ p. 337.

[443] This fact was ascertained in the ‘Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,’ Dr. Weisbach, 1867, s. 265.

[444] ‘Smithsonian Institution, 1863, p. 289. On the fashions of Arab women, Sir S. Baker, ‘The Nile Tributaries,’ 1867, p. 121.

[445] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 214; vol. ii. p. 240.

[446] Schaaffhausen, ‘Archiv für Anthropologie,’ 1866, s. 164.

[447] Mr. Bain has collected (‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868, p. 304-314) about a dozen more or less different theories of the idea of beauty; but none are quite the same with that here given.

[448] These quotations are taken from Lawrence (‘Lectures on Physiology,’ &c. 1822, p. 393), who attributes the beauty of the upper classes in England to the men having long selected the more beautiful women.

[449] “Anthropologie,” ‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’ Oct. 1868, p. 721.

[450] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 207.

[451] Sir J. Lubbock, ‘The Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, chap. iii. especially p. 60-67. Mr. M’Lennan, in his extremely valuable work on 'Primitive Marriage,’ 1865, p. 163, speaks of the union of the sexes “in the earliest times as loose, transitory, and in some degree promiscuous.” Mr. M’Lennan and Sir J. Lubbock have collected much evidence on the extreme licentiousness of savages at the present time. Mr. L. H. Morgan, in his interesting memoir on the classificatory system of relationship (‘Proc. American Acad. of Sciences,’ vol. vii. Feb. 1868, p. 475) concludes that polygamy and all forms of marriage during primeval times were essentially unknown. It appears, also, from Sir J. Lubbock’s work, that Bachofen likewise believes that communal intercourse originally prevailed.

[452] Address to British Association ‘On the Social and Religious Condition of the Lower Races of Man,’ 1870, p. 20.

[453] ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 86. In the several works above quoted there will be found copious evidence on relationship through the females alone, or with the tribe alone.

[454] Brehm (‘Illust. Thierleben,’ B. i. p. 77) says Cynocephalus hamadryas lives in great troops containing twice as many adult females as adult males. See Rengger on American polygamous species, and Owen (‘Anat. of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 746) on American monogamous species. Other references might be added.

[455] Dr. Savage, in ‘Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.’ vol. v. 1845-47, p. 423.

[456] ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 1869, p. 424.

[457] Mr. M’Lennan, ‘Primitive Marriage,’ 1865. See especially on exogamy and infanticide, p. 130, 138, 165.

[458] Dr. Gerland (‘Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvölker,’ 1868) has collected much information on infanticide, see especially s. 27, 51, 54. Azara (‘Voyages,’ &c. tom. ii. p. 94, 116) enters in detail on the motives. See also M’Lennan (ibid. p. 139) for cases in India.

[459] ‘Primitive Marriage,’ p. 208; Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ p. 100. See also Mr. Morgan, loc. cit., on former prevalence of polyandry.

[460] ‘Voyages,’ &c. tom. ii. p. 92-95.

[461] Burchell says (‘Travels in S. Africa, vol. ii. 1824, p. 58), that among the wild nations of Southern Africa, neither men nor women ever pass their lives in a state of celibacy. Azara (‘Voyages dans l’Amérique Merid.’ tom. ii. 1809, p. 21) makes precisely the same remark in regard to the wild Indians of South America.

[462] ‘Anthropological Review,’ Jan. 1870, p. xvi.

[463] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 210-217.

[464] An ingenious writer argues, from a comparison of the pictures of Raphael, Rubens, and modern French artists, that the idea of beauty is not absolutely the same even throughout Europe: see the ‘Lives of Haydn and Mozart,’ by M. Bombet, English translat. p. 278.

[465] Azara, ‘Voyages,’ &c. tom. ii. p. 23. Dobrizhoffer, ‘An Account of the Abipones,’ vol. ii. 1822, p. 207. Williams on the Fiji Islanders, as quoted by Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 79. On the Fuegians, King and Fitzroy, ‘Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle,’ vol. ii. 1839, p. 182. On the Kalmucks, quoted by M’Lennan, 'Primitive Marriage,’ 1865, p. 32. On the Malays, Lubbock, ibid. p. 76. The Rev. J. Shooter, ‘On the Kafirs of Natal,’ 1857, p. 52-60. On the Bushwomen, Burchell, ‘Travels in S. Africa,’ vol. ii. 1824, p. 59.

[466] ‘Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,’ 1870, p. 346. Mr. Wallace believes (p. 350) “that some intelligent power has guided or determined the development of man;” and he considers the hairless condition of the skin as coming under this head. The Rev. T. R. Stebbing, in commenting on this view (‘Transactions of Devonshire Assoc. for Science,’ 1870) remarks, that had Mr. Wallace “employed his usual ingenuity on the question of man’s hairless skin, he might have seen the possibility of its selection through its superior beauty or the health attaching to superior cleanliness. At any rate it is surprising that he should picture to himself a superior intelligence plucking the hair from the backs of savage men (to whom, according to his own account it would have been useful and beneficial), in order that the descendants of the poor shorn wretches might after many deaths from cold and damp in the course of many generations,” have been forced to raise themselves in the scale of civilisation through the practice of various arts, in the manner indicated by Mr. Wallace.

[467] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. 1868, p. 327.

[468] ‘Investigations into Military and Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers,’ by B. A. Gould, 1869; p. 568:—Observations were carefully made on the pilosity of 2129 black and coloured soldiers, whilst they were bathing; and by looking to the published table, “it is manifest at a glance that there is but little, if any, difference between the white and the black races in this respect.” It is, however, certain that negroes in their native and much hotter land of Africa, have remarkably smooth bodies. It should be particularly observed, that pure blacks and mulattoes were included in the above enumeration; and this is an unfortunate circumstance, as in accordance with the principle, the truth of which I have elsewhere proved, crossed races would be eminently liable to revert to the primordial hairy character of their early ape-like progenitors.

[469] “Ueber die Richtung der Haare am Menschlichen Körper,” in Müller’s ‘Archiv für Anat. und Phys.’ 1837, s. 40.

[470] Mr. Sproat (‘Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,’ 1868, p. 25) suggests, with reference to the beardless natives of Vancouver’s Island, that the custom of plucking out the hairs on the face, “continued from one generation to another, would perhaps at last produce a race distinguishable by a thin and straggling growth of beard.” But the custom would not have arisen until the beard had already become, from some independent cause, greatly reduced. Nor have we any direct evidence that the continued eradication of the hair would lead to any inherited effect. Owing to this cause of doubt, I have not hitherto alluded to the belief held by some distinguished ethnologists, for instance M. Gosse of Geneva, that artificial modifications of the skull tend to be inherited. I have no wish to dispute this conclusion; and we now know from Dr. Brown-Séquard’s remarkable observations, especially those recently communicated (1870) to the British Association, that with guinea-pigs the effects of operations are inherited.

[471] ‘Ueber die Richtung,’ ibid. s. 40.

[472] On the “Limits of Natural Selection,” in the ‘North American Review,’ Oct. 1870, p. 295.

[473] The Rev. J. A. Picton gives a discussion to this effect in his ‘New Theories and the Old Faith,’ 1870.