Introduction to the History of Religions / Handbooks on the History of Religions, Volume IV

by Crawford Howell Toy

FOOTNOTES:

[1] That is, phenomena regarded as special acts of a superhuman Power; in the larger conception of religion all phenomena are at once natural and divine acts.

[2] In early religion they are usually ghosts, beasts, plants, or inanimate objects; rarely living men. Cf. Marett's remarks on pre-animistic religion in his Threshold of Religion.

[3] Appeal to the Powers carries with it a certain sense of oneness with them, in which we may reasonably recognise the germ of the idea of union with God, which is the highest form of religion. This idea is not consciously held by the savage—it takes shape only in highly developed thought (Plato, the New Testament, Christian and other mysticism). If the impulse to religion be thought to be love of life (so Leuba, in the Monist, July, 1901), this is substantially desire for safety and happiness.

[4] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 170.

[5] Gen. xxviii, 20-22; Hos. ii; Ezek. xxxvi; and the Psalter passim.

[6] The classic expression of this view is given by Statius (Th. 3, 661): primus in orbe deos fecit timor. Cf. L. Marillier, in International Monthly, ii (1900), 362 ff.

[7] For numerous examples of the belief in supernatural birth see E. S. Hartland, Primitive Paternity.

[8] Modern civilised nations, after victories in war, commonly assume that God has thus pronounced in favor of the justice and right of their side, and sing Te Deums.

[9] This vagueness reappears in some systems of late philosophic speculation. On the question whether a sense of the divine exists anterior to conscious experience cf. Marett, Threshold of Religion.

[10] This is only a particular application of the general assumption that all human powers exist in germ in the lowest human forms. Discussions of the sense of the infinite are found in the Gifford Lectures of F. Max Müller and Tiele, and in Jastrow's Study of Religion. But early man thinks only of the particular objects with which he comes into contact; the later belief in an Infinite is a product of experience and reflection.

[11] Cf. Année sociologique, iii (1898-1899), 205 ff.

[12] On the Fuegians cf. R. Fitzroy, in Voyages of the Adventure and the Beagle, ii (1831-1836), 179 ff.; on the African Pygmies, A. de Quatrefages, The Pygmies (Eng. tr., 1895), p. 124 ff.; W. Schmidt, Pygmäenvölker, p. 231 ff.; on Ceylon, T. H. Parker, Ancient Ceylon, iv; and on the Guaranis and Tapuyas (Botocudos) of Brazil, Waitz-Gerland, Anthropologie, iii, 418, and the references in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 837 f. The Fuegians are said to stand in awe of a "black man" who, they believe, lives in the forest and punishes bad actions. On the people of New Guinea see C. G. Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, chaps. 16, 25, 48, 55.

[13] Such relations exist between men and the vague force variously called mana, manitu, wakonda; but the conception of this force is scientific rather than religious, though it is brought into connection with religious ideas and usages.

[14] The evidence is summed up in G. d'Alviella's Hibbert Lectures. Cf. Brinton, Religion of Primitive Peoples, p. 30 ff.

[15] The question whether the religious sense exists in the lower animals is discussed by Darwin, Descent of Man (1871), p. 65 ff., 101 f., and others. The question is similar to that respecting conscience; in both cases there is in beasts a germ that appears never to grow beyond a certain point. On the genesis of the moral sense see (besides the works of Aristotle, Spinoza, Kant, and their successors) G. H. Palmer, The Field of Ethics; L. T. Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution; E. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas. In regard to religious feeling we observe in certain animals, especially in the domesticated dog, an attitude of dependence and devotion toward the master as a superior Power that is similar to the attitude of man toward a deity, only with more affection and self-surrender. But in the animal, so far as we can judge, the intellectual and ethical conceptions do not come to their full rights—there is no idea of a Power possessing moral qualities and controlling all phenomena. The beast, therefore, is not religious in the proper sense of the term. But between the beast and the first man the difference may have been not great.

[16] The Central Australians, however, have an elaborate marriage law with the simplest political organization and the minimum of religion.

[17] Cf. L. M. Keasbey, in International Monthly, i (1900), 355 ff.; I. King, The Development of Religion, Introduction.

[18] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, chap. xi f.

[19] Beasts, plants, and what we call inanimate objects, also are held, in early stages of civilization, to have souls—a natural inference from the belief that these last are alive and that all things have a nature like that of man.

[20] So Semitic nafs 'soul,' ruh 'spirit'; Sanskrit diman 'soul,' 'self'; Greek psyche, pneuma; Latin anima, spiritus; possibly English ghost (properly gost 'spirit'); and so in many low tribes. See Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 432 f.; O. Schrader, in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 15.

[21] The expression 'to receive the last breath' (Æneid, iv, 684 f.), used by us to represent the last pious duty paid to a dying man, was thus originally understood in a strictly literal sense.

[22] So the Delaware Indians (Brinton, The Lenâpé, p. 67).

[23] Cf. the name 'shade' (Greeks, Redmen, and others) for the denizens of the Underworld.

[24] Photographs are now looked on by some half-civilized peoples with suspicion and fear as separate personalities that may be operated on by magical methods. A similar feeling exists in regard to the name of a man or a god—it is held to be somehow identical with the person, and for this reason is often concealed from outsiders.

[25] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 402; Fraser, Golden Bough, 1st ed., i, 178 f.; article "Blood" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[26] So in the Old Testament, in the later ritual codes: Deut. xii, 23; Lev. xvii, 14; Gen. ix, 4; and so Ps. lxxii, 14; cf. Koran, xcvi, 2 (man created of blood).

[27] Iliad, xiv, 518; xvii, 86; cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 40 n. (Arabic expression: "Life flows on the spear-point").

[28] R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 259.

[29] So friendly (fraternal) compacts between individuals are sealed by exchange of blood, whereby the parties to the covenant become one; many examples are given in H. C. Trumbull's Blood-Covenant, 2d ed.

[30] In many languages (Semitic, Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, English, German, etc.) the word for 'soul' is used in the sense of 'person' or 'self.' But the conception of "life" was in early times broader than that of "person" or that of "soul."

[31] An incorporeal or immaterial soul has never been conceivable.

[32] For old-German examples see Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 297; for Guiana, E. F. im Thurn, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xi, 368; compare the belief in the hidden soul, spoken of below, and article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[33] So the bush-soul or beast-soul among the Eẃe-speaking peoples of West Africa (A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 103) and in Calabar (Kingsley, West African Studies). Spirits (Castrén, Finnische Mythologie, p. 186) and demons (as in witchcraft trials) sometimes take the form of beasts. For American Indian examples see Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 294.

[34] See the Egyptian representations of the soul as bird (Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible and Homer, pl. cvi, 2; cix, 4, etc.); Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 183, compare p. 109. Other examples are given by H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 355 ff.; N. W. Thomas, in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, i, 488. On siren and ker as forms of the soul see Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, pp. 139, 197-217. Cf. Hadrian's address to the soul:

Animula vagula blandula Hospes comesque corporis Quae nunc abibis in loca Pallidula rigida nudula Nec ut soles dabis jocos?

[35] The body is spoken of as the person, for example, in Iliad, i. 4; Ps. xvi, 9.

[36] Hence various means of preserving the body by mummification, and the fear of mutilation.

[37] On the cult of skulls in the Torres Straits and Borneo see Haddon, Head-hunters, chap. xxiv.

[38] J. H. Bernan, British Guiana, p. 134.

[39] See Old Testament passim, and lexicons of the various Semitic languages.

[40] An elaborate account of the loci of qualities is given by Plato in the Timæus, 69 ff.

[41] On the importance attached to the liver as the seat of life see Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, p. 149 ff.

[42] Diels, Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, 2d ed., i, 101 f., quoted in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, article "Brain and Mind."

[43] Phædo, 96 B; Timæus, 44.

[44] Tusc. Disp. i, 9, 19; cf. Plautus, Aulul. ii, 1, 30.

[45] Arabic dimaĝ appears to mean 'marrow,' but how early it was employed for 'brain' is uncertain.

[46] Waitz, Anthropologie, iii, 225; cf. Roger Williams, Languages of America, p. 86.

[47] Journal of the American Oriental Society, iv (the Karens).

[48] Cranz, Greenland (Eng. tr.) i, 184.

[49] Examples in Frazer, Golden Bough, chap. ii.

[50] § 25.

[51] For folk-tales of the hidden 'external' soul see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 389 ff.

[52] The coyote (in Navaho Legends, by W. Matthews, p. 91) kept his vital soul in the tip of his nose and in the end of his tail.

[53] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xviii, 310.

[54] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 124. Andrew Lang (in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor) holds that this Australian view comes not from ignorance but from the desire to assign a worthy origin to man in distinction from the lower animals. Some tribes in North Queensland think that the latter have not souls, and are born by sexual union, but the human soul, they say, can come only from a spiritual being. Decision on this question must await further information.

[55] Spencer and Gillen, loc. cit.

[56] Journal of American Folklore, xvii, 4.

[57] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 530 (the child is the returned soul of an ancestor).

[58] Codrington, Melanesians, p. 154 (a spirit child enters a woman); cf. Journal of the American Oriental Society, viii, 297 (the Nusairi), and Lyde, in Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion To-day, p. 115; Hartland, Primitive Paternity, i, 50, and chap. 3 passim.

[59] A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 15; The Tshi-speaking Peoples, p. 18.

[60] For the belief that the soul of the child comes from the shades see Journal of American Folklore, xiv, 83. Further, Tylor, Primitive Culture, chap. xii; Lang, in article cited above; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii. 96.

[61] Possibly a survival of the theory is to be recognized in the custom, prevalent among some peoples, of naming a male child after his grandfather; examples are given in Gray, Hebrew Proper Names, p. 2 f. All such theories appear to rest on a dim conception of the vital solidarity of the tribe or clan—the vital force is held to be transmissible; cf. the idea of mana, a force inherent in things.

[62] Gen. ii, 7; cf. Ezek. xxxvii, 10.

[63] Timæus, 34 f.

[64] De Sen. 21, 77; Tusc. Disp. v, 13, 38.

[65] The term 'sacred' in early thought has no ethical significance; it involves only the idea that an object is imbued with some superhuman quality, and is therefore dangerous and not to be touched.

[66] On modes of burial, see article "Funérailles" in La Grande Encyclopédie. Other considerations, however (hygienic, for example), may have had influence on the treatment of corpses.

[67] In the Talmud the books of the Sacred Scriptures are said to "defile the hands," that is, they are taboo (Yadaim, Mishna, 3, 5).

[68] The lower animals also are sometimes credited with more than one soul: so the bear among the Sioux (Charlevoix, Nouvelle France, vi, 28; Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States, iii, 229).

[69] Williams, Fiji, i, 241; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 434, cf. Brinton, Lenâpé, p. 69; Cross, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, iv, 310 (Karens); W. Ellis, Madagascar, i, 393; A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 114, and The Tshi-speaking Peoples, p. 149 ff.; Kingsley, West African Studies, p. 200 ff.; Skeat, Malay Magic, p. 50.

[70] Journal of the American Oriental Society, iv, 310.

[71] Cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 530.

[72] See below, § 46 ff.

[73] See Maspero (1897), Dawn of Civilization, p. 108 f.; W. M. Müller in Encyclopædia Biblica, article "Egypt"; Petrie, Religion and Conscience in Ancient Egypt, pp. 30 ff., 48 ff.; Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 63 f.; Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, pp. 86 f., 108; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 234 ff.

[74] R. H. Charles in his Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian, p. 153, holds that the Hebrews made a distinction between soul and spirit (the former being "living" only when the latter is present), and that the recognition of this distinction is necessary for the understanding of the Old Testament conception of immortality. His discussion is valuable if not convincing.

[75] 1 Kings xxii, 21 f.

[76] For the New Testament usage see 1 Cor. vi, 17; 2 Cor. iv, 21; xii, 18; Luke ix, 53 (in some MSS.); Rev. xix, 10; John vi, 63. Cf. Grimm, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, ed. J. H. Thayer, s. vv. pneuma and psyche.

[77] Cf. Rohde, Psyche, 3d ed., i, 45 n.; ii, 141, n. 2.

[78] In philosophical thought the two are sometimes distinguished: the anima is the principle of life, and the animus of thinking mind (Lucretius, iii, 94-141).

[79] A curious resemblance to the cult of the 'genius' is found in the Eẃe (Dahomi) custom of consecrating a man's birthday to his "indwelling spirit" (A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, 105). Compare Horace's designation of the genius as 'naturae deus humanae' (Ep. ii, 2, 188), and Servius on Verg., Georg. i, 302.

[80] So in Plato and Aristotle, and in Brahmanism.

[81] The evidence for this belief is found in hundreds of books that record observations of savage ideas, and it is unnecessary to cite particular examples.

[82] Ellis, The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 108. Cf. Hinde, The Last of the Masai, p. 99.

[83] D. Macdonald, Africana, i, 58 f.

[84] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, x, 283; cf. Codrington, Melanesians, p. 277.

[85] Rink, Tales of the Eskimo, p. 36.

[86] See above, § 41.

[87] Thomas Williams, Fiji, i, 244. Cf. W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i, 303.

[88] Gill, Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, p. 160.

[89] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix, 118 f.

[90] Jarves, History of the Sandwich Islands, p. 42. Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 2d ed., ii, 22 f., and Codrington, The Melanesians p. 256 ff.

[91] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 530 f.

[92] Kingsley, Travels, p. 444.

[93] Polynesian Researches, p. 218.

[94] Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, pp. 112, 185.

[95] Tailtiriya Brahmana, 3, 11, 8, 5; Çatapatha Brahmana, 12, 9, 3, 12. Cf. Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 253.

[96] The same remark holds of later conceptions of the departed soul and of deities.

[97] Mariner, Tonga, pp. 328, 343. Gods also die, as in the Egyptian religious creed (Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 111), in Greek myths and folk-beliefs (the grave of Zeus, etc.), and in the Norse myth of the combat of the gods with the giants.

[98] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, chap. xxv.

[99] 1 Sam. xxvii, 11 f.; Ezek. xxxii, 17 f.; Isa. xiv, 9 f. Eccl. iii, 19 f., ix, 5, 6, 10, which are sometimes cited in support of the opposite opinion, belong not to the Jewish popular belief, but to a late academic system which is colored by Greek skeptical philosophy. All other late Jewish books (Apocrypha, New Testament, Talmud) assume the continued existence of the soul in the other world.

[100] See above, § 43.

[101] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 130, 143 ff., 396; Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 111 ff.; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthiunskunde, ii, 161 ff.; Wiedemann, Egyptian Doctrine of Immortality; De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chap. iii.

[102] On the Homeric usage see Rohde, Psyche, as cited above, § 43.

[103] Several early Christian writers (Tatian, Address to the Greeks, 13; Justin, Trypho, cap. vi) held that souls are naturally mortal, but these views did not affect the general Christian position.

[104] Such as Ezek. xviii, 4. This view appears in Clementine Homilies, vii, 1.

[105] Cf. W. R. Alger, Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life; Harvard Ingersoll Lectures on "The Immortality of Man."

[106] Cf. H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, chap. xv; article "Blest, abode of the," in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[107] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, chap. xii f.

[108] Cf. Hartland, Primitive Paternity, i, 254, and chap. iii.

[109] In Primitive Culture, chap. xii.

[110] In La survivance de l'âme, passim.

[111] See also the discussion of the subject in Alger, op. cit. (in § 53), p. 62 f. This work contains a bibliography of the future state (by Ezra Abbot) substantially complete up to the year 1862.

[112] Cf. Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 295 f.

[113] M. Kingsley, Studies, p. 122; Travels, p. 445.

[114] Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 179 ff.

[115] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, Index, s.v. Alcheringa; id., Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 271.

[116] A. B. Ellis, Yoruba, p. 128.

[117] Cf. especially the Central Australian conception.

[118] It is involved in all monistic systems. It appears also to be silently made in the Old Testament: the lower animals, like man, are vivified by the "breath of God" (Ps. civ, 29, 30; cf. Gen. ii, 7; vii, 22), and are destroyed in the flood because of the wickedness of man (Gen. vi, 5-7); cf. also Rom. viii, 22.

[119] So in the Upanishads (but not in the poetic Veda); see Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 227; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 257. Tylor (Primitive Culture, ii, 18) points out that in this conception we have a suggestion of the theory of development in organic life.

[120] So the Central Australians (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 514), the Californian Maidu (Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 246). Cf. the cases in which precautions are taken against a ghost's entering its old earthly abode.

[121] Rig-Veda, 15.

[122] Spencer and Gillen, loc. cit. and p. 516 f.

[123] Probably the Greek ker (κήρ) and the Teutonic 'nightmare,' French cauchemar (mara, an incubus, or succuba), belong in this class of malefic ghosts.

[124] See below, § 92.

[125] Steinmetz, Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe, i, 141 ff.

[126] For West Africa see above, § 43, n. 2; for the Norse fylgja ('follower') cf. Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 292 ff.

[127] § 38, n. 2.

[128] A transitional stage is marked by the theory, in a polypsychic system, that one soul remains near the body while another goes to the distant land.

[129] So, perhaps, among the eastern Polynesians (W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i, 303) and the Navahos (Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 38).

[130] Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, chap. iii, 183 ff.; Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 85; Rink, Tales of the Eskimo, p. 40.

[131] Odyssey, xi (by the encircling Okeanos); Williams, Fiji, p. 192; Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 288 f.; Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 290; Rig-Veda, x, 63, 10; ix, 41, 2.

[132] Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 65; Charon; Saussaye, op. cit., p. 290; Rohde, Psyche, 3d ed., i, 306. For the story given by Procopius (De Bell. Goth. iv, 20) see Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 64 f.

[133] Saussaye, op. cit., p. 291.

[134] Rig-Veda, x, 154, 4, 5; Lister in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi, 51 (moon). Cf. Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 64; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 129, 206; Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 284 ff.; Müller, Amerikanische Urreligionen, i, 288 ff.; Saussaye, op. cit., p. 291; Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 232 f.

[135] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 185 f.; Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 78.

[136] Turner, Samoa, p. 257; Lawes (on New Guinea), in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, viii, 371; Callaway, Zulu Nursery Tales, p. 316; Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 215; Rink, Tales of the Eskimo, p. 37; Sir G. S. Robertson, The Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush, p. 380 f.

[137] Æneid, vi.

[138] Odyssey, xi, 489; Isa. xxxviii, 10 ff.; Prov. iii, 16, etc.

[139] 1 Sam. xxviii, 14; Ezek. xxxii, 19-32; Isa. xiv, 9-15; xxxviii, 18. For the early Babylonian conception of the Underworld see the Descent of Ishtar (in Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, chap. xxv); S. H. Langdon, "Babylonian Eschatology," in Essays in Modern Theology and Related Subjects (the C. A. Briggs Memorial).

[140] Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 175.

[141] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 83 ff.

[142] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia; Callaway, Amazulus, pp. 12, 151 f.; W. Ellis, Madagascar, i, 393 (cf. J. Sibree, Madagascar, p. 312); A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe, p. 107 f., and The Tshi, p. 156 ff.; M. Kingsley, Travels, pp. 461, 480; R. B. Dixon, The Shasta, p. 469.

[143] Williams, Fiji, p. 194.

[144] Ezek. xxxii, 23, 27; Isa. xiv, 15.

[145] Jastrow, op. cit., p. 601; Ezek. xxxii.

[146] Iliad, xxiii, 71.

[147] Jastrow, op. cit., p. 602; Iliad, i, 3 ff.; 2 Sam. xxi, 10; Prov. xxx, 17.

[148] Hence special desire for sons, who were the natural persons to perform funeral rites for fathers.

[149] So also Plato, Gorgias, 80 (524).

[150] Hesiod, Works and Days, 110.

[151] Marillier, La survivance de l'âme.

[152] W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, chap. ix.

[153] Marillier, op. cit.

[154] Smith, Virginia, p. 36.

[155] Will and Spinden, The Mandans (Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, Harvard University), p. 133.

[156] So among the Betsileos and the Zulus (Marillier, op. cit.)

[157] So in Madagascar. Cf. Ezek. xxxii, 18 ff.; Isa. xiv, 4 ff.

[158] Journal of the American Oriental Society, iv, 312 f.

[159] S. St. John, The Far East, 2d ed., i, 182 f.; cf., i, 184.

[160] Marillier, op. cit. Here suicide appears to be regarded as a heroic act, and the women in question perish in doing a service to the tribe.

[161] Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 261; Westermarck, Moral Ideas, Index, s. v. Future Life; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, ii, 271 ff.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 83 ff.

[162] Castrén, Finnische Mythologie, p. 126; Turner, Samoa, p. 259; Lawes, "New Guinea," in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, viii, 370; Rochas, Nouvelle Calédonie (Bulletin de la Société d'anthropologie, 1860), p. 280; Lister, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi, 51; Dixon, op. cit., p. 262; Müller, Amerikanische Urreligionen, p. 289 (Brazil).

[163] See Westermarck, loc. cit.

[164] Hawkins, Creek Country, p. 80.

[165] For details on this point see L. Marillier, La survivance de l'âme.

[166] Williams and Calvert, Fiji, p. 193 f.

[167] Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1842, p. 172, and 1852, p. 211; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 530 f.

[168] Sepulchral inscriptions of Tabnit and Eshmunazar, and the inscriptions of Antipatros (Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, vol. i, part i, p. 9 ff.; Lidzbarski, Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epigraphik, part ii, pl. iv, 1, 2; part i, p. 117; Rawlinson, Phœnicia, p. 394 f.).

[169] Breasted, Egypt, p. 173 ff.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 252; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 336, 380, 443; Texts of Taoism, ed. J. Legge, ii, 6 f. (in Sacred Books of the East, vol. 40); Legge, Religions of China, p. 82; De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, pp. 6, 25, 54, 70 ff., 117; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 158 ff.; Plato, Republic, 614 (story of Er); Book of Enoch passim.

[170] W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, chap. xv; Will and Spinden, The Mandans, p. 133; Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 261; Rig-Veda, i, 356; vii, 104. Cf. article "Blest, abode of the" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[171] Tartarus is as far below Hades as the earth is below the sky (Iliad, viii, 16).

[172] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 379 ff.

[173] Wiedemann, Egyptian Doctrine of Immortality, p. 50 f.; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 183 ff.; Breasted, History of Egypt, pp. 64, 173 ff. Different conceptions, however, appear in different stages of eschatological thought. Probably the older view was that all the dead descended to the Underworld. According to another view, the good ascended to heaven and accompanied the sun on his daily voyage over the heavenly ocean.

[174] Revue archéologique, 1903, and Reinach, Orpheus (Eng. tr.), p. 88 f.

[175] Gorgias, 523-526; Republic, x, 614; Laws, x, 904 f.; Phædo, 113 f.

[176] Isa. lxv, 17-21; lxvi, 24; Enoch, x, 12-22.

[177] Enoch, xxii.

[178] Enoch, civ, 6; xcix, 11.

[179] Secrets of Enoch, chaps. vii-x. For the third heaven cf. 2 Cor. xii, 2-4. Varro also (quoted in Augustine, De Civ. Dei, vii, 6) assigned the souls of the dead to a celestial space beneath the abode of the gods.

[180] Matt. xxv, 46; 1 Thess. iv, 17; 2 Pet. ii, 4; iii, 13; Rev. xx, 15; xxi, 1; 2 Cor. xii, 2-4.

[181] See, for example, the Revelation of the Monk of Evesham, Eng. tr. by V. Paget (New York, 1909).

[182] Republic, x, 614.

[183] Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopädie, Index, s.v. Fegfeuer; Jewish Encyclopedia, article "Purgatory."

[184] American Indians (H. C. Yarrow, Introduction to the Study of Mortuary Customs among the North American Indians, p. 5 ff.); Egypt (Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians, chap. x); see article "Funérailles" in La Grande Encyclopédie. Grant Allen, in The Evolution of the Idea of God, chap. iii, connects the idea of bodily resurrection with the custom of inhumation and the idea of immortality with cremation, but this view is not borne out by known facts.

[185] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2nd ed., i, 262, 278.

[186] The doctrine of reincarnation in India followed on that of Hades, and stood in a certain opposition to it. Cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 204 ff., 530 n. 3; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, pp. 211, 252 ff.

[187] Zoroastrian Studies, p. 236. Prexaspes says that "if the dead rise again" Smerdis maybe the son of Cyrus. He may mean that this is not probable. Smerdis, he would in that case say, is certainly dead, and this pretender can be the son of Cyrus only in case the dead come to life.

[188] Diogenes Laertius in Müller, Fragmenta Historicorum Gracorum, i, 289; cf. Plutarch, Isis and Osiris, 47, and Herodotus, i, 131-140. See Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii 158 ff.

[189] Occasional reincarnation in human form is found elsewhere. The Mazdeans made it universal.

[190] There is no certain or probable reference to it in the Old Testament before this. Ezek. xxxvii, 1-14, is obviously a figurative prediction of national (not individual) resuscitation, and the obscure passage Isa. xxvi, 19 seems to refer to the reëstablishment of the nation, and in any case is not earlier than the fourth century B.C. and may be later.

[191] Dan. xii; 2 Macc. vii, 14; Enoch, xci, 10; xxii.

[192] 1 Cor. xv, 23; Rom. vi, 4; viii, 11; John vi, 54.

[193] Acts xxiv, 15; John v, 28 f.

[194] Apokatastasis (Col. i, 20; cf. Rom. xi, 32).

[195] Cf. Steinmetz, Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strase.

[196] Westermarck, Moral Ideas, ii, 234, 245 f.

[197] See below, on necromancy, § 927.

[198] See § 360 ff. (ancestor-worship) and § 350 ff. (divinization of deceased persons).

[199] In Egypt there grew up also an elaborate system of charms for the protection of the dead against hostile animals, especially serpents,—a body of magical texts that finally took the form of the "Book of the Dead" (Breasted, History of Egypt, pp. 69, 175; Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 153 ff.).

[200] Çatapatha Brahmana, xii, 9, 3, 12. Cf. W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i, 193 f.

[201] Breasted, op. cit., p. 249.

[202] 1 Cor. xv, 29.

[203] 2 Macc. xii, 40 ff. Possibly the custom came to the Jews from Egypt. For later Jewish ideas on this point see Jewish Encyclopedia, article "Kaddish."

[204] Smith and Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, article "Canon of the Liturgy"; Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, article "Prayers for the Dead."

[205] On savage logic cf. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, chap. iv.

[206] See § 18 ff.

[207] See § 635 ff.

[208] As to the efficiency of such tradition, compare the way in which mechanical processes are transmitted by older workmen to younger, always with the possibility of gradual improvement. In literary activity, also, tradition plays a great part; a young people must serve an apprenticeship before it can produce works of merit.

[209] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, sec. 35; Westermarck, Human Marriage, p. 43 ff.; Pridham, Ceylon, i, 454 (Veddas); United States Exploring Expedition, i, 124 (Fuegians); Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, p. 278 (Australian Grounditch); Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas, p. 328 (Bushmen); Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States, i, 207 (North American Snake tribes); Rivet, in The American Anthropologist, 1909 ("The Jivaros of Ecuador").

[210] Cf. I. King, The Development of Religion, p. 66 ff.

[211] Even in higher forms of religion, as the Vedic, sacrifice and other ceremonies are supposed to have a magical power over the gods.

[212] This is a part of the belief in the mysterious energy (mana) potentially resident in all things.

[213] See, for example, the bird dances described by Haddon (Head-hunters, p. 358); compare W. Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 83 al. Dances are now often given for the amusement of the public. Clowns often form a feature of such ceremonies; see Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 230; R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu (Bulletin of American Museum of Natural History, xvii, part iii, p. 315 ff.).

[214] Howitt, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xvi, 327 ff.

[215] Miss Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies, p. 263 n.

[216] Miss Kingsley, Studies, p. 126.

[217] E. F. im Thurn, Indians of Guiana, vii, iv, 5.

[218] E. F. im Thurn, op. cit., vi.

[219] Of the same simple festive nature as dances are the plays or sports that are not infrequent among savages and half-civilized tribes. In the Areoi dramatic performances priests are ridiculed (W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, p. 187).

[220] Miss Fletcher, "Emblematic Use of the Tree in the Dakotan Group" (in Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1896).

[221] So among the hill tribes of North Arracan (Journal of the Anthropological Institute, ii, 239) and the North American Indians (Featherman, Races of Mankind, division iii, part i, p. 37 etc.). Such dances are performed by the Tshi women in the absence of the men (A. B. Ellis, The Tshi, p. 226).

[222] See below, § 903, on imitative magic.

[223] Riedel, in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xvii.

[224] Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 139.

[225] Journal of American Folklore, xvii, 32. Cf. the dance for the benefit of a sick man (R. B. Dixon, "Some Shamans of Northern California," op. cit., xvii, 23 ff.).

[226] Journal of American Folklore, iv, 307. Cf. Will and Spinden, The Mandans, pp. 129 ff., 143 ff. The gods themselves, also, have their festive dances (W. Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 83), and are sometimes represented as the authors of the sacred chants (ibid. p. 225).

[227] See W. Matthews, loc. cit.

[228] See, further, Journal of American Folklore, iii, 257; iv, 129; xii, 81 (basket dances); R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 183 ff. (numerous and elaborate, and sometimes economic); Robertson, Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush, chap. 33; N. W. Thomas, Australia, chap. 7. Thomas describes many Australian games, and Dixon (The Shasta, p. 441 ff.) Californian games. For stories told by the natives of Guiana see above, § 106.

[229] 2 Sam. vi, 5.

[230] Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 133 f., 409 f.

[231] A. B. Ellis, The Tshi, p. 226.

[232] So, probably, the Old-Hebrew ark.

[233] See the references in article "Circumambulation" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[234] Westermarck, Human Marriage, 3d ed., p. 542. This sexual instinct is carried back by Darwin (Descent of Man, chap. xii) to the lower animals.

[235] Cf. Gen. iii, 7. There is no conclusive evidence that the concealment of parts of the body by savages is prompted by modesty (cf. Ratzel, History of Mankind, i, 93 ff.), but it may have contributed to the development of this feeling.

[236] Cf. Y. Him, Origins of Art, chap. xvi. For the Maori usage see R. Taylor, New Zealand and its Inhabitants, chap. xviii.

[237] Cf. Lucien Carr, "Dress and Ornaments of Certain American Indians" (in Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, 1897).

[238] Ratzel, op. cit., Index, s.v. Tattooing; Boas, The Central Eskimo, p. 561; Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. ii. Among some tribes (as the Fijians) untattooed persons are denied entrance into the other world. Naturally the origin of tattoo is by some tribes referred to deities: see Turner, Samoa, p. 55 f.; Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix, 100 (New Zealand); xvii, 318 ff. (Queen Charlotte Islands and Alaska). The Ainu hold that it drives away demons (Batchelor, The Ainu, p. 22).

[239] Turner, op. cit., p. 141.

[240] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, chap. vi.

[241] Frobenius, Childhood of Man, p. 31 ff.; cf. chap. i.

[242] Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., chap. vii.

[243] On a possible connection between tattoo marks and stigmata cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 3d ed., p. 334.

[244] See § 23. Blood of men is sometimes drunk, simply to assuage thirst, or as a curative (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 462, 464).

[245] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, Index, s.v. Art, decorative; Journal of American Folklore, vol. xviii, no. 69 (April, 1905).

[246] So the dress of the Jewish high priest (Ex. xxviii), that of the Lamas of Tibet (Abbé Huc, Travels in Tartary, Tibet and China, ii, chap. ii; Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 250), and costumes in some Christian bodies.

[247] Of the same nature is Jeremy Taylor's view (An Apology for authorized and set forms of Liturgy, Question 1, § 7 ff.) that, as earthly monarchs are not addressed in the language of everyday familiar intercourse, so it is not proper that the deity should be approached with other than choice and dignified words—public prayers should be carefully worded.

[248] Cf. A. C. Haddon, article "Art" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[249] A. de Quatrefages, The Pygmies, p. 157.

[250] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, Index, s.v. Hunting.

[251] Batchelor, The Ainu (the hunting of the bear); and so many American tribes, and, in part, some half-civilized peoples, as the Arabs of North Africa.

[252] Teit, in Jesup North Pacific Expedition, ii, 280.

[253] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 291 ff.

[254] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 8 (cf. p. 24).

[255] Hollis (op. cit., p. 6 f.) relates that on a certain occasion when his party was driven from its wagons by a swarm of bees, a Nandi man appeared, announced that he was of the bee totem, and volunteered to restore quiet, which he did, going stark naked into the swarm. His success was doubtless due to his knowledge of the habits of bees.

[256] So in the Tsimshian ceremony in eating the first fish caught (Boas, in Fifth Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, vol. lix, p. 51). Cf. the Jewish rule (Ex. xii, 46), which may have had a similar origin.

[257] Teit, in Jesup North Pacific Expedition, ii, 282. A similar provision is mentioned in Ex. xvi, 16-20.

[258] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 167 f., and Native Tribes of Northern Australia, p. 308 etc.; Strehlow, Die Aranda-und Loritjastämme in Zentralaustralien, part ii, p. 39 etc.

[259] Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 285 f.

[260] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 177 f.

[261] Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. 149.

[262] Seligmann, op. cit., p. 291 ff.

[263] Here again the taboos are precautions against injurious supernatural influences.

[264] He is said also to imitate the cries of animals—that is, he combines natural means with supernatural.

[265] Spencer and Gillen, and Strehlow, loc. cit.

[266] This feeling for the tribal life may be called germinal public spirit. Cf. above, § 103.

[267] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., ii, 238 ff.

[268] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 526.

[269] Frazer (Golden Bough, 2d. ed., ii, 43 ff.) refers to B. Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, ii, 311; Strachey, Historie, p. 84; Krapf, Travels, p. 69 f.; Mone, Geschichte des Heldenthums im nördlichen Europa, i, 119. See, further, T. Williams and Calvert, Fiji, p. 181 f.; W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, ii, 169.

[270] Ex. xxii, 29 [28]; xiii, 12, 13.

[271] Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., chap. vi.

[272] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxv, 104 ff.

[273] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 78.

[274] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiii, 18; xxvi, 30. Other examples are given by Frazer in his Golden Bough, 2d. ed., i, 81 ff., 163; he cites cases of persons (priests and kings) held responsible for rain, and put to death if they failed to supply it.

[275] Turner, Samoa, p. 145. On certain Roman ceremonies (that of the lapis manalis and others) that have been supposed to be connected with rain making see Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer, p. 106; W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic, iii.

[276] Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 23.

[277] Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 454; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, i, 52 ff.; ii, 532 ff.

[278] There is, of course, another side to the character of ghosts—sometimes they are friendly.

[279] Ploss, Das Kind, 2d ed., i, chap. iv.

[280] Numb. xix.

[281] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 39 ff.

[282] J. J. M. de Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chap. ii.

[283] Batchelor, The Ainu, new ed., p. 321 f.

[284] Josh. vii (story of Achan).

[285] Examples are given in Frazer's Golden Bough, loc. cit.

[286] Lev. xiv, 1-9.

[287] Lev. xvi. Cf. the vision (Zech. v, 5 ff.) in which wickedness (or guilt), in the shape of a woman, is represented (in no brotherly spirit) as being transferred from Jewish soil to Shinar (Chaldea).

[288] Miss J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 95 ff.

[289] Later the festival was certainly connected with the driving forth of winter, but its earlier form was, probably, as given above.

[290] W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals, Index, s.v. Mamurius, Lupercalia. The beating was supposed also to have fertilizing power; cf. S. Hartland, Primitive Paternity, i, 100 ff.

[291] Deut. xvi; Ex. xii.

[292] In some savage tribes the older men seem to have nothing to do but arrange ceremonies.

[293] There is a faint survival, perhaps, in the use of incense in churches.

[294] A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart, ed. E. H. Meyer, Index; J. H. King, The Supernatural, i, 111 ff.

[295] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xii, 129 ff. (Andaman Islands); ibid. xxv, 188 (East Africa); Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. iii; Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 422 ff.

[296] A. L. Kroeber, in University of California Publications in American Archæology and Ethnology, ii, viii; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xliii (on homosexual relations).

[297] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 326; iii, 204 ff.; Hartland, Primitive Paternity, Index, s.v. Puberty; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 55.

[298] See below, under "Taboo."

[299] Emasculation, of course, does not belong here; it is not a custom of initiation proper.

[300] Cf. Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 135.

[301] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxvii, 406 (Omahas). On mutilation as a general religious rite see H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 189, 290, and as punishment, Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Mutilation.

[302] Roscher, Lexikon, articles "Attis," "Kybele." Origen is a noteworthy example in Christian times; cf. Matt. xix, 12.

[303] For details of diffusion, methods, etc., see article "Circumcision" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[304] This is an incision of the penis from the meatus down to the scrotal pouch.

[305] Herodotus, ii, 37.

[306] Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 137 f.

[307] Ploss, Das Kind, 2d ed., i, 368 f.

[308] On phallic cults see below, § 388 ff.

[309] Gen. xxiv, 2 f.

[310] A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba, p. 66.

[311] J. G. Frazer, in the Independent Review, iv, 204 ff.

[312] Circumcision of females is the removal of the clitoris and the labia minora; introcision is the enlargement of the vaginal orifice by tearing it downwards; infibulation is the closing of the labia just after circumcision. Cf. Ploss, Das Weib, 2d ed., i, chap. v.

[313] Cf. also the great extent to which masturbation prevails among savages. Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xliii.

[314] A rod is thrust through the glans of the penis; see Roth, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxii, 45 (the palang); cf. Ploss, Das Weib, 2d ed., i, chap. xi; J. Macdonald, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xx, 116.

[315] Cf. the defloration of young women (by certain officially appointed men) on the occasion of their arriving at the age of puberty; Rivers, The Todas, p. 503; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 93; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 347.

[316] Gen. xvii. Islam has no divine sanction for circumcision; it is not mentioned in the Koran, doubtless because Mohammed took it for granted as a current usage.

[317] 1 Sam. xvii, 26.

[318] Article "Circumcision (Egyptian)" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, and the literature there cited.

[319] Deut. x, 16; Jer. ix, 25 f.; Rom. ii, 28 f.

[320] Article "Brotherhood (artificial)" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[321] Cf. H. C. Trumbull, The Blood-Covenant, passim; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, new ed., Index, s.v. Blood Covenant.

[322] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 422 ff.; cf. Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 185 f.

[323] Alice Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies, p. 278.

[324] §§ 533, 1095 ff., 1161 ff.

[325] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxv, 295 (South Australia); Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 531 f.

[326] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii, 296 (Queensland); Howitt, loc. cit.; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 221, 223, and Native Tribes of Northern Australia, p. 361.

[327] H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, chap. ii ff.

[328] The office of sponsor exists in embryonic form in many savage communities; for boys the sponsor is the father or other near relation, for girls an old woman. The duties of savage sponsors usually continue only during the period of initiation.

[329] Westermarck, Human Marriage; H. N. Hutchinson, Marriage Customs in Many Lands; Ch. Letourneau, The Evolution of Marriage and of the Family; Crawley, The Mystic Rose; and the references in G. E. Howard's History of Matrimonial Institutions, i, chaps. i-iv; cf. Hartland, Primitive Paternity.

[330] See below, § 429 ff.

[331] Similar restrictions existed in Greece and Rome. An Athenian citizen was not allowed to marry a foreign woman. In Rome connubium held in the first instance between men and women who were citizens, though it might be extended to include Latins and foreigners. In India marriage came to be controlled by caste. These local and national rules gradually yielded to rules based on degrees of consanguinity. Marriage between near relations was looked on with disfavor in Greece and Rome and by the Hebrews, and the Old Testament law on this point has been adopted (with some variations) by Christian nations. For the Arab customs see W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. iii.

[332] Cf. Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 462 ff.; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, 1st ed., p. 62 ff.; Hartland, Primitive Paternity, chaps. v, vi.

[333] In some cases, among the Todas of South India for example, the defloration takes place shortly before the girl reaches the age of puberty (Rivers, The Todas, p. 703); more generally it is performed when she reaches this age. This difference of time is not essential as regards the significance of the ceremony.

[334] Cf. Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 224. For the Old Testament Song of Songs see Budde's commentary on that book.

[335] Sacrifices to local or other deities formed a part of marriage ceremonies in Greece and Rome; Hera and Juno were guardians of the sanctity of marriage. No religious ceremony in connection with marriage is mentioned in the Old Testament; a trace of such a ceremony occurs in the book of Tobit (vii, 13).

[336] The Mystic Rose, p. 322, etc.

[337] Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, article "Marriage."

[338] The danger might continue into early childhood and have to be guarded against; for a Greek instance see Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 299.

[339] For details see Ploss, Das Kind, and works on antiquities, Hebrew, Greek, and Roman.

[340] Cf. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, i, 72 ff.; iv, 244 ff.

[341] Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 228 ff.; and The Shasta, p. 453 ff.; Rivers, The Todas, p. 313 ff.; Hollis, The Nandi, p. 64 f.; D. Kidd, Savage Childhood, p. 7; Lev. xii; article "Birth" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[342] See above, § 55 f.

[343] Tylor (Primitive Culture, ii, 3 ff.) suggests that such an idea may have been supposed to account for the general resemblance between parents and children.

[344] R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa, p. 212.

[345] Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 353 ff.

[346] Turner, Samoa, chap. iii. In some Christian communities the saint on whose festival day a child is born is adopted as the child's patron saint. In the higher ancient religions there were religious observances in connection with the birth and rearing of children, special divine care being sought; see, for example, the elaborate Roman apparatus of divine guardians.

[347] Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 231; H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, p. 40 f.

[348] For methods of burial see article "Funérailles" in La Grande Encyclopédie.

[349] Robertson, The Kafirs, chap. xxxiii; Batchelor, The Ainu, chap. xlviii (the goddess of fire is asked to take charge of the spirit of the deceased).

[350] The food and drink (of which only the soul is supposed to be consumed by the deceased) are often utilized by the surviving friends; such funeral feasts have played a considerable part in religious history and survive in some quarters to the present day.

[351] A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe (Dahomi), chap. viii; A. G. Leonard, The Lower Niger and its Tribes, p. 160 f.; Herodotus, iv, 71 f. (Scythians); v, 5 (Thracians). Cf. the Greek Anthesteria and the Roman Parentalia.

[352] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi, 121.

[353] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 498.

[354] For elaborate Sioux ceremonies on the death of a child see Miss Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies (the Shadow or Ghost Lodge).

[355] On the disposal of the corpse, by inhumation, cremation, exposure, etc., see article "Funérailles" cited above; O. Schrader, in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 16 ff.

[356] This may be in part a hygienic precaution.

[357] Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 91. Cf. G. L. Kittredge, "Disenchantment by Decapitation," in Journal of American Folklore, vol. xviii, no. 68 (January, 1905).

[358] De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chap. iii.

[359] Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xxxvii ff.; Saussaye, Science of Religion (Eng. tr.), chap. xviii; and the references given in these works.

[360] See below, on removal of taboos.

[361] Fraser, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 306 f.

[362] Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, index, s.v. Homicide.

[363] See below, § 201; cf. the Athenian Anthesteria and Thargelia.

[364] In Ex. iv, 24 f., Yahweh is about to kill Moses, apparently for neglecting a ritual act.

[365] Examples in Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 429 ff.; cf. Knox, Religion in Japan, p. 39.

[366] See the practices described by Rivers, in The Todas, Index, s.vv. Bathing, Purification.

[367] Schneckenburger, Proselytentaufe; article "Proselyten" in Herzog, Real-Encyklopädie.

[368] In the New Testament baptism is said to be "for the remission of sins" (Acts ii, 38), and is called "bath of regeneration" (Tit. iii, 3); a quasi-magical power is attributed to it in 1 Cor. xv, 29.

[369] For the Mazdean use of urine see Vendidad, Fargard v, 160; xvi, 27, etc.; for use of buffalo's dung, Rivers, The Todas, pp. 32, 173 f., etc.

[370] Rivers, op. cit., p. 367.

[371] Compare, however, the use of natural pigments for decorative and religious purposes; see above, § 115 ff.

[372] The Toda ceremony of burning a woman's hand in the fifth month of pregnancy, and a child's hand on the occasion of a funeral (Rivers, The Todas, pp. 315, 374), may be purificatory, but this is not clear; cf. Frazer, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xi.

[373] Lev. xv, 30; xvi, 15 ff.

[374] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 196.

[375] Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, p. 888 ff,; Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, p. 375; Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 150 ff.

[376] Lev. xvi.

[377] Fowler, Roman Festivals, Index, s.v.

[378] The native name of the festival, puskita (busk), is said to mean 'a fast,' but the ceremonies are largely purificatory; Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 177 ff.

[379] Rivers, The Todas, p. 300 ff.

[380] Odyssey, iv, 730.

[381] Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 352; Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 269 f.

[382] H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, chap. ix; G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, pp. 60-78.

[383] Lev. viii; cf. Copleston, Buddhism, chap. xviii; Lippert, Priesterthum (see references in the headings to the chapters).

[384] So in some Christian bodies.

[385] The details are given at great length by Westermarck, op. cit., chap. xxxvii, with references to authorities.

[386] It is by nature nonsacred, and so remains so long as it has not been made sacred by the special ceremonies that abound in savage communities. We have here the germ of the dualistic conception of man's constitution—the antagonism between spirit and body.

[387] Hollis, The Nandi, pp. 58, 92.

[388] Cf. the danger to a common man of eating a chief's food; see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 321 f.

[389] Frazer, In Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xv, 94, quoted by Westermarck.

[390] H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, § 140.

[391] In Christianity in connection with the eucharistic meal and other observances.

[392] The true principle is stated in Isa. lviii, 3 ff.

[393] Cf. article "Calendar" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[394] For a series of dance seasons see Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 283 ff.; cf. Basset, in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 513.

[395] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 94 ff.

[396] Hollis, The Masai, Index, s.v. Moon.

[397] Rivers, The Todas, Index, s.v. Moon.

[398] Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 835.

[399] 1 Sam. xx, 6 (clan festival); Isa. i, 13; Numb. xxviii, 11.

[400] Hastings, op. cit., ii, 555.

[401] Lev. xxiii, 33; Ps. lxxxi, 4 [3]. On the Sabbath as perhaps full-moon day, see below, § 608.

[402] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 449 ff.

[403] Buckley, in Saussaye's Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed., p. 83.

[404] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 677 ff.

[405] Lev. xxiii, 23 f.; Numb. xxix, 1 ff. The Hebrew text of Ezek. xl, 1, makes the year begin on the tenth day of some month unnamed; but the Hebrew is probably to be corrected after the Greek. Cf. Nowack, Hebräische Archäologie, ii, 158 f.

[406] Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 278.

[407] Cf. A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898), p. 55.

[408] J. W. Fewkes, "The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi" (in The American Anthropologist, xi).

[409] Prescott, Peru, i, 104, 127.

[410] A Saracen cult is described in Nili opera quædam (Paris, 1639), pp. 28, 117.

[411] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 100; Rivers, The Todas, p. 593 ff.; cf. Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xviii f.; Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, iii, 132 f.

[412] For some fasting observances in astral cults see Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 312 f.

[413] As food is the most pressing need.

[414] Judg. ix, 27; Neh. viii, 10.

[415] A. Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen (1898), Index, s.vv.; Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, pp. 287 f., 290, 292.

[416] Fowler, Roman Festivals, pp. 95 ff., 157 ff., 268 ff., 114, 124 ff., 241 ff.; cf. article "Mars" in Roscher, Lexikon, col. 2416 f.

[417] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 453 ff.

[418] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 78 f.

[419] A Babylonian festival of this sort (Sakea) is mentioned by Athenæus (in Deipnosophistæ, xiv, 639) on the authority of Berosus, and "Sakea" has been identified with "zakmuk," the Babylonian New Year's Day (cf. the story in Esth. vi); but the details of the festival and of the Persian Sakæa (Strabo, xi, 8) are obscure.

[420] Lev. xxiii.

[421] see above, § 128.

[422] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 46 f.

[423] Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 177 ff.

[424] Cf. the ceremony of the pharmakos in the festival of the Thargelia (Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 95 ff.).

[425] Frazer, Golden Bough 2d ed., ii, 337 ff.

[426] This period has been generally held to be calendary. Its calendary reality is denied by Legge (in Recueil des travaux, xxxi) and Foucart (in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, article "Calendar [Egyptian]").

[427] A noteworthy instance of this persistence appears in the history of the Bene-Israel, a body of Jews living in the Bombay Presidency (article "Bene-Israel" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics); they preserve the Jewish religious festivals, but under Indian names.

[428] See above, §§ 4, 7.

[429] The word "fetish" (from Portuguese feitiço, 'artificial', then 'idol, charm,'), devised originally as a name of charms used by the natives of the West African coast, is often employed as a general name for early religious practices. Its proper use is in the sense of a dead object, as a piece of clay or a twig, in which, it is held, a spirit dwells. The fetish is often practically a god, often a household god; the interesting thing about it is that the spirit, generally a tutelary spirit, can enter the object or depart at will, may be brought in by appropriate ceremonies, and may be dismissed when it is no longer considered useful.

[430] Algonkin manito or manitu (W. Jones, in Journal of American Folklore, xviii, 190); Iroquois orenda; Siouan wakonda; Chickasa hullo (Journal of American Folklore, xx, 57); cf. the Masai n'gai, 'the unknown, incomprehensible' (Hinde, The Last of the Masai, p. 99), connected with storms and the telegraph. Other names perhaps exist.

[431] Codrington, The Melanesians, Index, s.v. Mana.

[432] W. Jones, op. cit.

[433] It has therefore been compared to the modern idea of force as inherent in matter.

[434] The American manitu is an appellation of a personal supernatural being. The Siouan wakonda is invoked in prayer (Miss Fletcher, The Tree in the Dakotan Group).

[435] Judg. xiv, 19; 1 Sam. xix, 23; Ezek. xxxix, 29. Fury also is said to be poured out. Cf. Mark v, 30, where power (δύναμις) is said to go out of Jesus.

[436] Cf. the Greek energeia and entelecheia.

[437] Cf. I. King, The Development of Religion, chap. vi.

[438] Examples in J. H. King, The Supernatural. Cf. T. S. Knowlson, Origins of Popular Superstitions, etc.; T. Keightley, Fairy Mythology.

[439] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 3d ed., ii, 229 ff.: article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[440] This may have been simply the transference to them of human custom, or it may also have been suggested by the obvious social organization of such animals as bees, ants, goats, deer, monkeys.

[441] Turner, Samoa, pp. 21, 26.

[442] Batchelor, The Ainu, p. 27.

[443] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, (new ed., see p. 106) p. 128 f.

[444] A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i, 117 ff.

[445] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 389, 401. Some Australians believed in an original gradual transformation of animals and plants into human beings.

[446] On the conception of animals as ancestors see below, § 449 f.

[447] A demon may be defined as a supernatural being with whom, for various reasons, men have not formed friendly relations. Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, new ed., p. 119 ff., on the Arabian jinn; De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, p. 13 ff., for the Chinese belief in demonic animals. On the origin, names, and functions of demons and on exorcismal ceremonies connected with them see below, § 690 ff., and above, § 138 ff.

[448] So the Eskimo, the Ainu, the Redmen, and modern Arabs in Africa; many other instances are cited by Frazer in his Golden Bough, 2d ed., ii, 386 ff.

[449] Examples are found in many folk-stories of savages everywhere.

[450] For other sacred animals see N. W. Thomas, article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[451] Turner, Samoa, p. 238.

[452] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., ii, 430 ff.; Thomas, article "Animals" cited above; Shortland, Traditions of New Zealand, iv; Marsden, Sumatra, p. 292; Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, i, 34; v, 652; Waitz, Anthropologie, iii, 190; Callaway, Amazulus, p. 196; A. B. Ellis, The Tshi, p. 150; Mouhot, Indo-China, i, 252; J. Wasiljev, Heidnische Gebräuche der Wotyaks, pp. 26, 78, etc.; G. de la Vega, Comentarios Reales, bk. i, chap. ix, etc. (Peru); Miss Kingsley, Travels, p. 492.

[453] Turner, op. cit., p. 242; Castrén, Finnische Mythologie, pp. 106, 160, 189, etc.; Parkman, Jesuits in North America (1906), pp. 61 f., 66; Brinton, Myths of the New World, pp. 3, 105, 127, 161, 175, 272; cf. Acosta, Historia de las Indias, bk. v, chap. iv.

[454] So Zeus and bull, Artemis and bear, Aphrodite and dove, and many other examples. In such cases it is generally useless to try to discover a resemblance between the character of the god and that of the associated animal. There is simply, as a rule, a coalescence of cults, or an absorption of the earlier cult in the later.

[455] The particular conditions that induced this cult in Egypt escape us. See the works on Egyptian religion by Maspero, Wiedemann, Erman, Steindorff, and others.

[456] On the curious attitude of medieval Europe toward animals as legally responsible beings see E. P. Evans, The Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals.

[457] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, chap. x. Two superhuman creators are said to have transformed themselves into lizards (ibid. p. 389 ff.).

[458] Batchelor, The Ainu, p. 35 ff.

[459] Matthews, Navaho Legends, pp. 80, 223; Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 263.

[460] Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 269; cf. article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopædia Of Religion and Ethics.

[461] See above, § 253, for the Egyptian cult.

[462] References to Stow's Native Races of South Africa and Merensky's Beiträge are given in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, i, 522.

[463] Cushing, in The Century Magazine, 1883; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 243 f.

[464] Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, ii, 213.

[465] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 527, 539; Crooke, op. cit.; Fewkes, "The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi," p. 17 ff.

[466] For a fanciful connection between the sun-myth and the spider see Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. xxiii.

[467] A somewhat vague Naga (snake) being of this sort is noted (Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 539). The relation between the Australian supernatural being Bunjil (or Punjil) and the eagle-hawk is not clear. Cf. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, Index; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, Index.

[468] See below, § 635 f.

[469] A special form of man's relations with animals is considered below under "Totemism."

[470] For example, in Sumatra, offerings are made to the "soul of the rice"; there is fear of frightening the rice-spirit, and ceremonies are performed in its honor; see Wilken, Het Animisme bij de Volken van den Indischen Archipel; Kruyt, De Rijstmoeder van den Indischen Archipel, 389. It has been suggested that the prohibition of yeast in the Hebrew mazzot (unleavened bread) festival may have come originally from fear of frightening the spirit of the grain. It may have been, however, merely the retention of an old custom (if the grain was eaten originally without yeast), which later (as sometimes happened in the case of old customs) was made sacred by its age, was adopted into the religious code, and so became obligatory.

[471] This conception survives in the expressions "spirit of wine," etc., and Cassio's "invisible spirit of wine" easily passes into a "devil."

[472] This distinction is made in a somewhat formal way by the Ainu, a very rude people (Batchelor, The Ainu, chap. xxxiii).

[473] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 132 f.

[474] Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, Index, s.vv. totems, ancestors.

[475] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 112, 116. Many other plant totems are mentioned by Frazer in his Totemism and Exogamy.

[476] Turner, Samoa, pp. 32, 39, 43, 72.

[477] This relation was not necessarily totemic—it may have been of a general character, of which totemism is a special form.

[478] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 179 ff.

[479] Cf. articles "Asylum" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, and Jewish Encyclopedia.

[480] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 133, 195; Hopkins, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxx (1910), 4, p. 352.

[481] Miss Godden, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxvi, 186 ff.

[482] W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, new ed., ii, 85 ff.; cf. Hopkins, "Mythological Aspects of Trees, etc.," in Journal of the American Oriental Society, September, 1910.

[483] Rig-Veda, ix al.; Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, v; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, i, 450; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 112 ff.

[484] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 114 ff.; Tiele-Gehrich, Geschichte der Religion im Alterium, ii, ii, p. 234 ff.

[485] Mannhardt, Baumkultus and Antike Wald- und Feldkulte; Frazer, Golden Bough, Index, s.v. Corn-spirit.

[486] Cf. below, § 751 ff.

[487] The connection between such posts and the North-Semitic goddess Ashera is uncertain.

[488] Ward, Seal-cylinders of Western Asia.

[489] Cf. the suggestion of A. Réville (in his Prolégomènes de l'histoire des religions) that images arose in part from natural woods bearing a fancied resemblance to the human form.

[490] Boas, The Kwakiutl; Swanton, "Seattle Totem Pole," in Journal of American Folklore vol. xviii, no. 69 (April, 1905).

[491] See below, "Totemism," § 449 f.

[492] Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, ii, 115 ff.

[493] Pausanias, x, 31, 4; Roscher, Lexikon, article "Meleagros."

[494] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 391 ff.

[495] Gen. iii; cf. Hopkins, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, September, 1910. Whether the golden apples of the Hesperides had the life-giving quality is doubtful.

[496] This appears from a comparison of Gen. iii, 3 with ii, 17.

[497] Gen. iii, 5, 22.

[498] He is, perhaps, a diminished and conventionalized form of the old chaos dragon.

[499] On the various names and characters of this cosmic tree see Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 347 ff.

[500] Rig-Veda, x, 81, 4.

[501] 2 Sam. v, 24.

[502] Judg. ix, 37.

[503] See below, § 935 ff.

[504] This is the case with all spirits that social needs do not force man to give names to.

[505] Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 232.

[506] See above, § 252 f.

[507] Ex. iii, 2 ff.; Deut. xxxiii, 16; Acts vii, 30, 35.

[508] See Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxx, 353 f., for possible examples.

[509] A list of such titles is given by C. Boetticher in his Baumkultus der Hellenen und Römer, chap. iv.

[510] Dionysos is a bull-god as well as a tree-god.

[511] Dawn of Civilization, p. 12.

[512] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 533.

[513] On the Soma cult see above, § 270.

[514] § 271.

[515] Lev. xvi.

[516] Gruppe, Culte und Mythen; Roscher, Lexikon. Cf. the developed cults of Vishnu and Çiva.

[517] On Osiris and Isis see below, § 728 f.

[518] Some instances of worship are given in Frazer's Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 181, 189, 191. Frazer sometimes uses the term 'tree worship' where all that is meant is respect for trees as powerful things.

[519] See § 253 ff.

[520] See Revue de l'histoire des religions, 1881.

[521] So in Central Australia (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 123 f., 137).

[522] The rock whence came the stones thrown by Deucalion and Pyrrha (the origin of the human race) also gave birth to Agdistis mugitibus editis multis, according to Arnobius, Adversus Nationes, v, 5. Mithra's birth from a rock (Roscher, Lexikon) is perhaps a bit of late poetical or philosophical imagery.

[523] For various powers of stones, involving many human interests, see indexes in Tylor's Primitive Culture, Frazer's Golden Bough, and Hartland's Primitive Paternity, s.v. Stone or Stones.

[524] Festus, p. 2; see the remarks of Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung; Aust, Religion der Römer, p. 121; and Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 232 f. On the relation between the lapis and Juppiter Elicius, see Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer, p. 106; cf. Roscher, Lexikon, article "Iuppiter," col. 606 ff.

[525] See above, § 97 ff.

[526] On processes of capturing a god in order to inclose him in an object, or of transferring a god from one object to another, see W. Crooke, "The Binding of a God," in Folklore, viii.

[527] In pre-Islamic Arabia many gods were represented by stones, the stone being generally identified with the deity; so Al-Lât, Dhu ash-Shara (Dusares), and the deities represented by the stones in the Meccan Kaaba.

[528] Livy, xxix, 10 f.

[529] 1 Sam. iv.

[530] Head, Historia Numorum, p. 661.

[531] Tacitus, Hist. ii, 3; it was conical in shape.

[532] Fowler, Roman Festivals p. 230 ff.; cf. above, the "lapis manalis," § 289.

[533] Herodian, v, 3, 10.

[534] Pausanias, vii, 22. Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 160 ff.

[535] H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 335; Saussaye, Manual of the Science of Religion (Eng. tr.), p. 85 ff.

[536] Gen. xxviii, 18; cf. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 203 f.

[537] Hos. iii, 4.

[538] The reference in Jer. ii, 27, Hab. ii, 19 (stones as parents and teachers), seems to be to the cult of foreign deities, represented by images.

[539] On the interpretation of the masseba as a phallus or a kteis see below, §§ 400, 406.

[540] And so in Assyrian and Arabic.

[541] There is no Greek etymology for baitulos, and if it came from without, a Semitic origin is the most probable.

[542] Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, i, 10, 18.

[543] Hist. Nat., bk. xxxvii, chap. 51.

[544] Cf. F. Lenormant, in Revue de l'histoire des religions, iii, 31 ff.; Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, p. 775 f.

[545] For Phœnician customs see Pietschmann, Phönisier, p. 204 ff.

[546] Cf. Deut. x, 2; Ex. xxv, 16; 2 Chr. v, 10, where the stone in the ark seems to have become two stone tables on which the decalogue was written by the finger of Yahweh—an example, if the view mentioned above be correct, of the transformation of a thing originally divine in itself into an accessory of a god.

[547] Cf. Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, s.v. Kaaba; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, pp. 99, 171.

[548] On the relation between the stone heaps and the Hermes pillars cf. Welcker, Griechische Götterlehre, ii, 455, and Roscher, Lexikon, i, 2, col. 2382. With Hermes as guide of travelers cf. the Egyptian Khem (Min), of Coptos, as protector of wanderers in the desert, and perhaps Eshmun in the Sardinian trilingual inscription (see Roscher, Lexikon, article "Esmun"; Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet).

[549] See below, § 1080.

[550] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 202, 341; cf. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, chap. xi; article "Altar" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[551] Lev. xvi, 19.

[552] For some methods of such introduction see W. Crooke, in Folklore, viii.

[553] Herodotus, ii, 44; he identifies Melkart with Herakles.

[554] 1 Kings, vii, 15-22; Ezek. xl, 49.

[555] Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de l'art, vol. iii; cf. Pletschmann, Phönizier, p. 203 ff.; Rawlinson, Phœnicia, p. 338.

[556] Cf. below, § 399 ff.

[557] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 487 ff.

[558] Strabo, iii, 5, 5.

[559] Those of Solomon's temple are described as being 27 feet in height, and without stairways. Cf. the structures connected with the Hierapolis temple (Lucian, De Syria Dea, 28).

[560] Desire for height appears also in the Egyptian pyramid and the Babylonian ziggurat, but both these had means of ascent to the higher levels. Cf. below, § 1085.

[561] Maspero, Egyptian Archæology, p. 100 ff.

[562] The movement from aniconic to anthropomorphic forms is seen in the image of the Ephesian Artemis, the upper half human, the lower half a pillar (Roscher, Lexikon, i, 1, cols. 588, 595).

[563] Examples in Tylor's Primitive Culture, 2d ed., ii, 170 f.; cf. his Early History of Mankind, chap. vi.

[564] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 188, etc.

[565] Matthews, Navaho Legends, index, s.v. Mountains; article "Bengal" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 260; Hollis, The Nandi, p. 48.

[566] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 358 ff., 537, and Journal of the American Oriental Society, September, 1910.

[567] On a general relation between gods and local hills see Rivers, The Todas, p. 444.

[568] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 541, 638; cf. Isa. xiv, 13. Many Babylonian temples, considered as abodes of gods, were called "mountains."

[569] Hopkins, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, loc. cit., where the mythical mountains of the Mahabharata are described.

[570] Iliad viii, 2 al.

[571] Bastian, "Vorstellungen von Wasser und Feuer," in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, i; Tylor, Primitive Culture, 2d ed., ii, 209 ff., 274 ff.; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, lecture v.

[572] Polybius, vii, 9.

[573] Num. v.

[574] Job vii, 12.

[575] Herodotus, vi, 76.

[576] Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, x, 179; Bell, Maldive Islands, p. 73.

[577] In Titus iii, 5, the reference seems to be to baptism.

[578] De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, p. 10 f.; cf. the German Lorelei.

[579] Frazer (in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor) sees a river-god in the figure mentioned in Gen. xxxii, 24.

[580] Cf. John v, 4 (in some MSS.).

[581] This is W. R. Smith's contention in Religion of the Semites, lecture v. See his account of Semitic water-gods in general.

[582] Turner, Samoa, p. 345 f. Cf. the Roman lapis manalis; see above, § 136.

[583] A large number of examples are given by Frazer in his Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 81 f., al.

[584] Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 17; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 189 f.

[585] One signification (not a probable one) proposed for the name Yahweh is, 'he who causes (rain) to fall.'

[586] Examples of such gods, in Africa, America, and Asia, are given in Tylor's Primitive Culture, ii, 259 ff.

[587] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 99 ff.

[588] So in the Secrets of Enoch (ed. R. H. Charles), chaps. iv-vi, the treasuries of rain and dew in the lowest heaven are guarded by angels.

[589] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.vv.

[590] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 37; Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. 8; Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 56 f.; R. Taylor, New Zealand and its Inhabitants, p. 130; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 168, n. 1; Roscher, Lexikon, article "Prometheus." Accounts of the original production or the theft of fire are found in savage mythology the world over; see Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chaps. xxv-xxvii; Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 379; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 277 ff.; O. T. Mason, Origins of Invention, chap. iii.

[591] So among the Todas (Rivers, The Todas, p. 437) and the Nandi (Hollis, The Nandi, p. 85).

[592] On an identification of Agni with fire see Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 158 ff.

[593] See Chap. VI.

[594] Shahrastani (12th century), Kitab al-Milal wa'l-Nihal, a sketch of religions and philosophical sects, Moslem and other (Germ. tr. by Haarbrücker, p. 298 f.).

[595] Hopkins observes (Religions of India, p. 105) that originally fire (Agni), in distinction from sun and lightning, is the fire of sacrifice. Cf. Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 157.

[596] Rivers, The Todas, p. 437; cf. the ceremony described on page 290 f.

[597] A. M. Tozzer, Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones, p. 133.

[598] Prescott, Peru, i, 106 f.

[599] Plutarch, Aristides, 20.

[600] The Hebrew expression, rendered in the English version "cause to pass through fire," means simply 'devote by fire.'

[601] Ex. xix, 18; Ezek. i, 4; Ps. xviii, 9 [8]; Rig-Veda, iii, 26, 7 (Indra).

[602] Rivers, The Todas, p. 437. In Gen. i, 3, light appears before the creation of the heavenly bodies.

[603] So in Carinthia, the Tyrol, and neighboring districts (Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart, p. 86).

[604] Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xix.

[605] See below, § 662, etc.

[606] Ps. xviii, 11 [10]; civ, 3 f.

[607] Iliad, xxiii, 194 ff.

[608] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, chap. xviii; Rivers, The Todas, p. 595.

[609] W. Matthews, Navaho Legends, pp. 80, 223.

[610] Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 55; Taylor, New Zealand, p. 119; Hollis, The Masai, p. 279; cf. Turner, Samoa, p. 283.

[611] Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 55 (the present sun is the daughter of a man sun).

[612] See examples in Tylor's Primitive Culture, i, 290 ff.

[613] On the position of the sun and moon in the later cults see below, Chap. VI.

[614] Teit, op. cit., p. 54.

[615] See the elaborate Pawnee history of gods (Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee).

[616] See Chap. VI f.

[617] On the genesial (urano-chthonic) conception of the world in Polynesia see Tautain, in Anthropologie, vii (1896).

[618] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 113.

[619] Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 363; ii, 262.

[620] Ps. xxix, 3; xviii, 14, 15 [13, 14].

[621] Iliad, viii, 76 f.; xxi, 198, etc. The thunderbolt of Zeus is said in Hesiod, Theogonia, 140 f., to be forged by the Cyclops.

[622] Bastian, Beiträge; H. Spencer, Principles of Sociology and Principles of Ethics; Grant Allen, Evolution of the Idea of God; Waitz-Gerland, Anthropologie der Naturvölker; Lippert, Allgemeine Geschichte des Priesterthums; Tylor, Primitive Culture; Codrington, The Melanesians; Frazer, Golden Bough; Wilken, Handleiding voor de Vergelykende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië; Steinmetz, Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.vv. Kings, Man-gods; Religions of Egypt (Maspero, Meyer, Wiedemann, Breasted, Steindorff), Babylonia (Jastrow), India (Barth, Hopkins), China (De Groot), Greece (Gruppe), Rome (Auer), etc.

[623] Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 139 ff.

[624] Rivers, The Todas, p. 448.

[625] Monier-Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, p. 259. See the cases mentioned by Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 522 n.

[626] For the documents see Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt.

[627] Rawlinson, Egypt, ii, 40 f., 84; Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens, p. 252.

[628] When in a compound name the name of a god stands first, the determinative may refer simply to the god; it is evidence for the man only when it stands immediately before the nondivine element of the royal name. The inscriptions are given in Schrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, III, i; Thureau-Dangin, Sumerisch-Akkadische Königsinschriften. In the Code of Hammurabi (ca. 2000 B.C.) the king in one place (col. 5, ll. 4, 5) calls himself "the Shamash of Babylon," but this is of course a figure of speech; the code is given him by Shamash, the god of justice, and he assumes to be no less just than the god whom he here represents.

[629] For a different view see S. H. Langdon, article "Babylonian Eschatology" in Essays in Modern Theology and Related Subjects (the C. A. Briggs memorial volume).

[630] Cf. the Chinese and Japanese views mentioned above. Among the Mongols there seems to be no trace of such a cult (Buckley, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed.), but a similar one is found in Tibet in Lamaism.

[631] Ex. xxii, 28 [27]. Cursing the deity (that is, the national or the local god) is mentioned several times in the Old Testament. Eli's sons committed this offense (1 Sam. iii, 13, corrected text), and Job feared that his sons might have been guilty of it (Job i, 5, where the old Jewish scribes, causa reverentiae, have changed "curse" into "bless,"—so also in i, 11; ii, 5, 9).

[632] Adonis Attis Osiris, p. 15 ff.

[633] 2 Sam. xiv, 17.

[634] Isa. ix, 6 [5].

[635] Ps. lviii, 1 [2]; lxxxii, 1, 6. This last passage, however, is understood in John x, 34 f., to refer to Jewish men. The Hebrew text of Ps. xiv, 7 [6], is corrupt.

[636] De Groot, Religion of the Chinese. This is the philosophical form of the dogma. The root of the conception is to be found, doubtless, in the old (savage) view that the chief of the tribe has quasi-divine attributes.

[637] Knox, Religion in Japan, p. 64.

[638] In Alexander, 28. In the case of Alexander the influence of Egypt is apparent, and it may be suspected that this influence affected the later Greek and Roman custom.

[639] Appian, De Rebus Syriacis, lxv.

[640] Acts xii, 22.

[641] Boissier, La religion romaine (1878), i, 131 ff.

[642] Suetonius, Caligula, xxii.

[643] On the demand for a universal religion in the Roman Empire, and the preparation in the earlier cults for the worship of the emperors, see J. Iverach's article "Cæsarism" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics; Boissier, op. cit., bk. i, chap. ii.

[644] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, bk. iv, chap. iii.

[645] See the story of the power and fall of a great muni in Lassen's Anthologia Sanscritica.

[646] So, many Christian and Moslem saints have been wonder-workers without being divinized.

[647] Monier-Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, p. 510 f.

[648] Fortnightly Review, 1872.

[649] Stair, Samoa, p. 221; article "Bengal" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics (Brahmans often become evil spirits).

[650] The Todas, pp. 193, 203, 446.

[651] The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 88 ff.

[652] Breasted, Records of Ancient Egypt.

[653] § 357.

[654] Here, as in the case of the divinization of living men (§ 347 n., above), outside suggestion is probable.

[655] Cf. article "Cæsarism" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[656] Boissier, La religion romaine, i, 182. An illustration of religious ideas in the third century is afforded by the enrollment of Caracalla among the heroes, a divinizing decree of the Senate having been extorted by the turbulent and mercenary soldiery (Dio Cassius, ed. Boissevain [Eng. tr. by H. B. Foster], lxxix, 9).

[657] A. Müller, Islam, i, 494; W. Muir, The Caliphate, p. 553 ff.

[658] In Isa. lxiii, 16, 'Abraham' appears to be a synonym of 'Israel,' and the reference then is to the nonrecognition of certain Jews by the national leaders.

[659] The narratives of the Pentateuch; Herodotus, v, 66; Pausanias, i, 5, 1.

[660] Article "Romulus" in Roscher's Lexikon.

[661] See below, § 652.

[662] Herodotus, v, 66 al.

[663] Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, pp. 163, 170, 206.

[664] The Ojibwa god Manabozho (described in Schoolcraft's Algic Researches) by some inadvertence got the name 'Hiawatha,' and so appears in Longfellow's poem. The real Hiawatha was a distinguished Iroquois statesman (supposed to be of the fifteenth century), the founder of the Iroquois League, honored as a patriot, but never worshiped as a god. See H. Hale, Iroquois Book of Rites, Index, s.v. Hiawatha; Beauchamp, in Journal of American Folklore, October, 1891.

[665] F. Pfister, Der Reliquienkult im Altertum.

[666] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i; Grant Allen, Evolution of the Idea of God. See below, § 631 ff.

[667] Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Dead; Grant Allen, op. cit.; article "Ancestor-worship" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[668] Cf. above, Chap. II.

[669] Steinmetz (Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe, p. 280 ff.) has attempted a collection and interpretation of the usages of nearly two hundred tribes, but his reckoning is not satisfactory—his enumeration is not complete, and the facts are not sufficiently well certified. He concludes that cases of fear are twice as numerous as those of love.

[670] Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xiv.

[671] Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes Of Central Australia, pp. 516 f., 520 f.

[672] Cf. Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 271 f.

[673] The conception of such meals as physical and spiritual communion with the dead was a later development.

[674] The buffoonery that was sometimes practiced at Roman funerals seems to have come from the natural love of fun, here particularly, also, through the reaction from the oppressive solemnity of the occasion.

[675] Howitt and Fison, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, p. 246 ff.

[676] Taylor, New Zealand, pp. 104, 108.

[677] Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 194, 253 f.; Powell, Wanderings, p. 170.

[678] Ellis, Madagascar, i, 23, 423.

[679] Callaway, The Amazulu, pp. 145, 151.

[680] A. B. Ellis, The Eẃe, p. 102 f.

[681] Steinmetz, Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe. A. L. Kroeber (in Journal of American Folklore, 1904) gives an account of a 'ghost-dance' in Northwest California, the object of which was said to be that the dead might return, though the details are obscure.

[682] Some such custom seems to be referred to in Deut. xxvi, 14.

[683] Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas.

[684] Mariner, Tonga, p. 149.

[685] Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 162 f.; Goldziher, in Revue de l'histoire des religions, x. So the Egyptian fellahin to-day.

[686] Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 219 f.; Bonney, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii, 122 ff.; Haddon, Head-hunters, pp. 91 f., 183; G. Allen, Evolution of the Idea of God, chap. iii.

[687] Sir G. S. Robertson, The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush, pp. 645 ff., 615 ff., 414 f.

[688] Breasted, Egypt, p. 421, etc.

[689] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 604 f.

[690] Deut. xxvi, 14; Hos. ix, 4; Ezek. xxiv, 17 (revised text); Isa. viii, 19; 1 Sam. xxviii, 13.

[691] Rig-Veda, x, 15; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 143 f.

[692] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 91 ff.

[693] Odyssey, xi, 74 ff.; cf. xxiv, 63 ff.

[694] Odyssey, x, 519 ff.; xi, 25 ff.

[695] Stengel and Oehmichen, Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer, p. 99 f.

[696] Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 158 ff.; Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, Index, s.v. Heros; Deneken, article "Heros" in Roscher, Lexikon. Lists of heroes are given by F. Pfister, in Der Reliquienkult im Altertum.

[697] Thucydides, v, 11; Pausanias, i, 32. For other examples, and for the details of the cult, see Stengel and Oehmichen, Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer, p. 96 ff.

[698] Similar functions are performed by saints in some Buddhist, Christian, and Moslem communities.

[699] Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft; Miss J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. ii, and the references in these works. On the Keres as ghosts see Crusius, in Roscher's Lexikon, s.v. Keren, and Harrison, op. cit., chap. v.

[700] Ovid, Fasti, v, 439 ff., manes exite paterni; cf. the Greek proverbial expression θύραζε κᾶρες (Suidas, s.v. θύραζε).

[701] De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chap. iii.

[702] Aston, Shinto; Knox, Religion in Japan, p. 66 f.

[703] 1 Sam. xxviii.

[704] Cf. also the Teutonic valkyrs and nornas.

[705] See above, § 359. The wide prevalence of the theory in ancient times is indicated by its adoption in the Græco-Jewish Wisdom of Solomon (of the first century B.C.), chap. xiv, and by some Roman writers.

[706] § 262 ff.

[707] For example, in Australia, Fiji, New Guinea, and India.

[708] Greece, Rome (Lupercalia), Egypt, and apparently in Israel (Ex. xxxii, 6; Numb. xxv).

[709] In carnivals and many less elaborate customs.

[710] See above, § 34.

[711] It was observable in the lower animals, but in their case was not regarded as religiously important. See below, § 419, for the connection of animals with phallic cults.

[712] § 158 ff.

[713] Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 361.

[714] See Ratzel, History of Mankind; Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker; Müller, Amerikanische Urreligionen; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia; Codrington, The Melanesians; W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches; Hartland, article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics; Callaway, Amazulus; Featherman, Races of Mankind; Grünwedel, "Lamaismus" in Die orientalischen Religionen (I, iii, 1 of Die Kultur der Gegenwart); Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 149; Matthews, Dorsey, Teit, Boas, Hill-Tout, opp. cit. (on American Indians).

[715] § 34.

[716] A. B. Ellis, Yoruba and Eẃe. Ellis does not say that the cult exists in Ashanti, where we should expect it to be found; its absence there is not accounted for. On phallic worship in Congo see H. H. Johnston, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiii.

[717] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 453, 470.

[718] Cf. Crooke, article "Bengal" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[719] Griffis, Religions of Japan; Aston, Shinto; Buckley, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed.; Florens, in Die Kultur der Gegenwart.

[720] Herodotus, ii, 48 f.

[721] Isis and Osiris, 51.

[722] An example of naïve popular festivities is given in Herodotus, ii, 60.

[723] The Gilgamesh epic (Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 477); Amos ii, 7; Deut. xxiii, 17 f.; Herodotus, i, 199; Strabo, xvi, 1, 20; Epistle of Jeremy, 42 f.; Lucian, De Syria Dea, 6 ff. But Hos. ii, Ezek. xvi, xxiii, Isa. lvii, 8, are descriptions of Hebrew addiction to foreign idolatrous cults.

[724] Isa. lvii, 8: "Thou didst love their bed, the yad thou sawest." The renderings in the English Revised Version are not possible.

[725] Lucian, op. cit., 28, cf. 16.

[726] The Aramean Atargatis, properly Attar-Ate, is substantially identical with Ashtart and Ishtar.

[727] Lucian, De Syria Dea, 15.

[728] J. P. Peters, Nippur, Index, s.v. Phallic symbols; Bliss and Macalister, Excavations in Palestine, p. 136; Macalister, Bible Side-lights, p. 72 f.

[729] These objects (Hebrew masseba) are denounced by the prophets because they were connected with the Canaanite non-Yahwistic worship. The same thing is true of the sacred wooden post (the ashera) that stood by shrines; Deut. xvi, 21 f., etc.

[730] Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. Priapos. Diodorus Siculus, iv, 6, mentions also Ithyphallos and Tychon.

[731] Roscher, Lexikon.

[732] S. Seligmann, Der böse Bück und Verwandtes, ii, 191 ff.

[733] Diodorus Siculus, i, 88.

[734] Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. Indigitamenta. Muto is 'phallos.'

[735] So Augustine, De Civitate Dei, iv, II, 34 al.

[736] S. Seligmann, Der böse Blick und Verwandtes, ii, 196 ff.

[737] Cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 490, n. 4.

[738] On the yoni as amulet see Seligmann, Der böse Blick und Verwandtes, ii, 203.

[739] Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 491 f., and the references there to Gait's Assam and other works.

[740] III Rawlinson, pl. i, no. 12155, and IV Rawlinson, col. 2, II. 25-28. The androgynous sense is maintained by G. A. Barton, in Journal Of the American Oriental Society, xxi, second half, p. 185 ff. Other renderings of the first inscription are given by Thureau-Dangin in Revue d'Assyriologie, iv, and Radau, Early Babylonian History, p. 125.

[741] Text in Craig, Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts, i, pl. vii, obv. 6, and by Meek, in American Journal of Semitic Languages, xxvi; translation in Jastrow's Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens, i, 544 f., and discussion by him in article "The 'Bearded' Venus" in Revue archéologique, 1911, i.

[742] See for Lenormant's view Gazette archéologique, 1876 and 1879, and Jastrow's criticism in the article cited in the preceding note.

[743] Lajard, Recherches sur le culte de Vénus. He is followed by A. Jeremias, The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East (Eng. tr.), i, 123.

[744] Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, l, i, p. 13.

[745] 1 Sam. xii, 28; Deut. xxviii, 10. The angel in whom is Yahweh's name (Ex. xxiii, 21) has the authority of the deity.

[746] Cf. Dillmann, in Monatsbericht der Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin, 1881). The feminine form given to Baal in Rom. xi, 3 f., may refer to the disparaging term 'shame' (Heb. boshet, for which the Greek would be aischunē) often substituted by the late editors of the Old Testament for Baal. Saul's son Ishbaal ('man of Baal') is called Ishbosheth, Jonathan's son Meribbaal is called Mephibosheth, etc.

[747] Dillmann (loc. cit.) combines shamē with Ashtart, as if the sense were 'the heavenly Ashtart of Baal'—an impossible rendering; but he also interprets the phrase to mean 'Ashtart the consort of the heavenly Baal.' Halévy, Mélanges, p. 33; Ed. Meyer, in Roscher's Lexikon, article "Astarte."

[748] Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, i, i, no. 195; i, ii, no. 1, al. Tanit appears to be identical in character and cult with Ashtart.

[749] See below, § 411 f.: cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 478.

[750] A similar interpretation is given by Bæthgen in his Semitische Religionsgeschichte, p. 267 f. His "monistic" view, however, that various deities were regarded as manifestations of the supreme deity is not tenable.

[751] Servius, Commentary on Vergil, Æn. ii, 632; Macrobius, Saturnalia, iii, 8 on the same passage.

[752] There are manuscript variations in the text of Servius, but these do not affect the sense derived from the two authors, and need not be considered here.

[753] Cf. Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris p. 428 ff.

[754] Servius, "they call her"; Macrobius, "Aristophanes calls her." But who this Aristophanes is, or where he so calls her, we are not informed.

[755] So Jastrow, in the article cited above. Remarking on the statement of Lydus (in De Mensibus, ii, 10) that the Pamphylians formerly worshiped a bearded Venus, he calls attention to the Carian priestess of Athene (Herodotus, i, 175; viii, 104), who, when misfortune was impending, had (or grew) a great beard—a mark of power, but presumably not a genuine growth. Exactly what this story means it is hard to say.

[756] Pausanias, vii, 17; Amobius, v, 5.

[757] Roscher, Lexikon, articles "Agdistis," "Attis"; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, p.219 f.; H. Hepding, Attis; cf. Pseudo-Lucian, De Syria Dea, 15 (Attis assumes female form and dress).

[758] This practice seems to be an exaggerated form of the savage custom of self-wounding in honor of the dead (to obtain their favor), interpreted in developed cults as a sacrifice to the deity or as a means of union with him.

[759] On the wide diffusion of cults of mother-goddesses see below, §§ 729, 734, 762, etc.

[760] Cf. Pseudo-Lucian, De Syria Dea 15; Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alteriums, 2d ed., i, 649, 651; Lagrange, Études sur les religions sémitiques, 2d ed., p. 241; Hepding, Attis, p. 162.

[761] See above, § 411.

[762] In Theophrastus, Characters, article 16 (Roscher, Lexikon, 8. v. Hermaphroditos).

[763] Roscher, article cited.

[764] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 447, 492.

[765] H. Ellis, Psychology of Sex, i, passim.

[766] Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xliii.

[767] Cf. § 251 ff.

[768] Dulaure, Des divinités génératrices. Cf. Hartland, Primitive Paternity, chap. ii.

[769] See below, Chap. XI.

[770] J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy; A. Lang, Social Origins; A. E. Crawley, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor; N. W. Thomas, ibid.

[771] Fraser (Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 135), thinks it possible that exogamy of totemic clans is always exogamy in decay.

[772] L. H. Morgan (the discoverer of the system), Ancient Society; W. H. R. Rivers in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor.

[773] For the supposition of promiscuity are Morgan (op. cit., p. 54), Spencer and Gillen (Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 100 ff.), and others; against are Westermarck (Human Marriage, chap. iv), Crawley (The Mystic Rose, p. 479 ff.), and others.

[774] Cf. Morgan, op. cit., p. 27, and part ii, chap. i.

[775] Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 269 ff.

[776] Gen. xx, 12; the rule was later abrogated (Ezek. xxii, 11; Lev. xviii, 9).

[777] J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History, first series, p. 90 ff.; second series, chap. vii.

[778] L. H. Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 424 ff.; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, i, 164 ff.

[779] Westermarck, Human Marriage, chaps. xiv-xvi; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 222. Cf. Darwin, Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, ii, 103 f.

[780] J. J. Atkinson, Primal Law (in volume with Lang's Social Origins, p. 210 ff.).

[781] E. Durkheim, in Année sociologique, i, 1-70.

[782] Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 75 ff.

[783] See references in § 426.

[784] H. Ellis, Psychology of Sex, i, 36 f.; Crawley, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor.

[785] See above, § 431.

[786] See above, § 429, and compare Howard, History of Matrimonial Institutions, i, 121 ff.

[787] Details are given in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy.

[788] Cf. below, § 442.

[789] On two supposed human totems, Laughing Boys and Nursing Mothers, see Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, i, 160, 253; ii, 520 f.

[790] § 436.

[791] So, apparently, among the Nandi (Hollis, The Nandi, pp. 6, 61).

[792] As among the Australian Arunta (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 116, 125 ff.).

[793] Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 136; iii, 321; Boas, The Kwakiutl, p. 328 ff.

[794] Haddon and Rivers, Expedition to Torres Straits, v, 158 ff.; Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, pp. 51, 320.

[795] Fraser, Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 200; iii, 40, 227, 267, 281, 322.

[796] Swanton, Tlingit Myths (Bulletin 39, Bureau of American Ethnology).

[797] See below, § 544 ff.

[798] For the details of totemic customs reference may be made, once for all, to Frazer's encyclopedic Totemism and Exogamy.

[799] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 415, 423, etc.

[800] Rivers, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxix; Man, viii.

[801] Brinton, The Lenâpé, p. 39.

[802] E. F. im Thurn, Indians of Guiana, p. 184.

[803] For the Mandingos of Senegambia see Revue d'ethnographie, v, 81, cited in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 544.

[804] Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 95.

[805] Swanton, Tlingit Myths, and Jesup North Pacific Expedition, v, 231; Boas, The Kwakiutl, pp. 323, 336 f.

[806] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 679; in the Louisiade group belief in direct descent is said to exist (p. 743).

[807] Cf. the remarks of Boas in the Introduction to Teit's Thompson River Indians.

[808] On the other hand, the Kurnai, who are not totemic, refrain, apparently, from eating their sex-patrons.

[809] This report was made in 1841, before the natives had come in contact with the whites.

[810] In the Banks Islands the restrictions of eating relate to the patrons of individual persons; see Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxix, 165 f.

[811] Rivers, The Todas, Index, s.v. Food, restriction on.

[812] Cf. Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 239, note 169; Franciscan Fathers, Ethnologic Dictionary p. 507.

[813] Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 77.

[814] Cf. A. M. Tozzer, Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones (of Yucatan), and the literature given in articles "America, South" and "Brazil" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[815] J. W. Fewkes is of opinion that the great Snake dance (an economic function) was formerly conducted by the Snake clan (Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 304).

[816] The choice of the object is determined by local conditions that are not known to us. Sometimes, probably, the object is the one most important for the welfare of the community; sometimes it may have come from accident. See below, § 554 ff.

[817] The artificial objects that are regarded, in a few cases, as totems are probably of late origin, the product of reflection, and thus differing from the old totems, which arise in an unreflective time. However, the artificial totems are doubtless sometimes looked on as powerful; in some cases they may be little more than badges.

[818] This is Frazer's definition (in his Totemism p. 1), supplemented by the words "not worshiped." Cf., on the whole subject, Tylor, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii, 144; F. Boas, in American Journal of Psychology, xxi; A. A. Goldenweiser, "Totemism," in Journal of American Folklore, xxiii (1910).

[819] For a preciser definition of totemism see below, § 520.

[820] The details are given in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy.

[821] Certain Arunta traditions appear to point to a time when the totem was freely eaten. The bird-mates of the clans may be regarded as secondary totems—perhaps a survival from a time when a clan might have more than one totem.

[822] Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 173, 318.

[823] The clan-names may formerly have been totemic, but data for the decision of this point are lacking.

[824] So Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 173.

[825] Cf. H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, pp. 1, 121 ff.; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, pp. 41 f., 45, 350, 454 ff.; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 28 ff.; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, i, 183 ff., 188 ff.

[826] C. G. Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, chaps. xxxv, 1.

[827] Such a belief is said to exist in the Aru archipelago (Papuan) west of New Guinea. There the family, and not the clan, is the social unit; every family has its badge or crest.

[828] Melanesia is here taken to include the Bismarck Archipelago (New Britain, New Ireland, and adjacent islands) and the islands lying to the eastward as far as the 180th meridian of longitude, though in this area there is in some places Polynesian influence.

[829] So Reverend George Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 28.

[830] This usage is reported for Florida Island.

[831] On the question whether these gods are a development out of totem animals see below, § 577.

[832] On the relation of this idea to Frazer's theory of "conceptional totemism" see below, § 548.

[833] It might then seem that the deity was originally the animal; see below, § 577.

[834] As to the significance of this fact cf. below, § 529 ff.

[835] W. H. Furness, 3d, The Island of Stone-Money.

[836] On the large theistic material of the Pelews see Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, pp. 386, 428 ff., with references to J. Kubary, "Die Religion der Pelauer" (in A. Bastian's Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde).

[837] Cf. below, § 577.

[838] Exogamy is said to exist in the atoll Lua Niua, in the Lord Howe group; the population is described as Polynesian (Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 414 ff.); Dr. Brown thinks it probable that exogamous classes formerly existed in Samoa, to which place the Lua Niua people, he holds, are ultimately to be traced.

[839] Certain septs (among the Telugus and others) are named from inanimate (some times artificial) objects.

[840] The usages mentioned in article "Burma" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, iii, 24, do not necessarily show totemism.

[841] The Iroquois stock occupied an immense territory, partly in Canada, partly in the region now including the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and the Carolinas.

[842] Cf. Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 24 ff.

[843] The Wyandots, who were allied to the Iroquois, dwelt in the district north of Lake Ontario.

[844] The Algonkins formerly ranged over a large territory extending along the Atlantic coast as far south as North Carolina and reaching westward to the Mississippi.

[845] It was from the Ojibwas that our word 'totem' was taken.

[846] A similar rôle, somewhat vague, is assigned to two supernatural beings in Australia (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 388; cf. p. 246).

[847] Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 177 ff. It was expiatory, and was accompanied by a moral reconstruction of society, a new beginning, with old scores wiped out. Cf. the Cherokee Green Corn dance (see article "Cherokees" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics).

[848] Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xviii. The Pawnee had a fairly well-developed pantheon, and a civil government based on rank (chiefs, warriors, priests, magicians). They lived in endogamous villages; in every village there was a sacred bundle, and all the people of the village were considered to be descendants of the original owner of the bundle.

[849] Will and Spinden, The Mandans (Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, Harvard University, vol. iii, 1906), p. 129 ff.

[850] J. W. Fewkes, The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi (reprint from The American Anthropologist, vol. xi, 1898), with bibliography.

[851] Fewkes, Journal of American Ethnology and Archæology, iv, and Journal of American Folklore, iv.

[852] The stocks or groups are, going from north to south: the Déné or Athabascans (middle of Alaska and running east and west); the Tlingit (Southern Alaska); the Haidas (Queen Charlotte Islands and adjacent islands); the Tsimshians (valleys of the Nass and Skeena rivers and adjacent islands); the Kwakiutl (coast of British Columbia, from Gardiner Channel to Cape Mudge, but not the west coast of Vancouver Island); the Nootkas (west coast of Vancouver Island); the Salish (eastern part of Vancouver Island, and parts of British Columbia, Washington, Idaho, and Montana); the Kootenay (near Kootenay Lake and adjoining parts of the United States). See the authorities cited by Frazer in Totemism and Exogamy.

[853] § 445 f.

[854] Cf. the divergent native accounts of the Melanesian buto (Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 31 ff.).

[855] In North America, in the Iroquois, Algonkin, Maskoki (Creek), and Siouan stocks; in Central America and South America; in Borneo and East Africa; and elsewhere.

[856] R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu (Central California), p. 223; id., The Shasta (Northern California and Oregon), p. 451; id., The Chimariko Indians (west of the Shasta, on Trinity River), p. 301; A. L. Kroeber, article "California" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[857] Article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[858] Hollis, The Masai, Index, and The Nandi, p. 5 f.

[859] A hint of an earlier usage is given in a legend which relates that totemic clans were ordained by a king to the end that certain sorts of food might be taboo to certain families, and thus animals might have a better chance to multiply.

[860] See the volumes of A. B. Ellis on these countries (chapters on "Gods" and on "Government").

[861] A. van Gennep, Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar, p. 314.

[862] On this point see below, § 522 ff.

[863] For the details see W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (includes the Hebrews); Joseph Jacobs, "Are there Totem-clans in the Old Testament?" (in Archæological Review, vol. iii); A. Lang, Custom and Myth (on the Greek genos), and Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i, 266 ff.; ii, 226; S. Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions (Greek and Celtic); Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 68 ff., etc.; Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 84 f.; G. L. Gomme, "Totemism in Britain" (in Archæological Review, vol. iii); N. W. Thomas, "La survivance du culte totémique des animaux et les rites agraires dans le pays de Galles" (in Revue de l'histoire des religions, vol. xxxviii).

[864] Names are omitted that appear to belong only to individuals or to places.

[865] G. B. Gray, Hebrew Proper Names, p. 86 ff.

[866] Strabo, Geographica, xiii, 588.

[867] Herodotus, ii, 37, 42; Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheke Historike, i, 70.

[868] Lev. xi; Deut. xiv.

[869] Stengel and Oehmichen, Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer, p. 27.

[870] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 241 f.

[871] Cæsar, De Bello Gallico, v, 12.

[872] Herodotus, ii, 42.

[873] Pausanias, i, 24, 4. On the death of the god cf. Frazer, The Dying God.

[874] Herodotus, ii, 39 ff., W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., additional note G; the Roman Lupercalia.

[875] Diodorus Siculus, i, 86 (Egypt); cf. Pliny, Historia Naturalis, x, 4 f.

[876] W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. viii (Semites).

[877] See above, §§ 441 ff., 466, and below, § 526; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, Index, s.vv. Animals and Totems.

[878] See above, § 443 ff.

[879] So, also, in Northeastern Asia, in the Japan archipelago (the Ainu), and in low African tribes.

[880] Where sexual license before marriage prevails, young girls are allowed to go to these houses.

[881] H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies.

[882] G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 60 ff.

[883] Mary Kingsley, West African Studies, p. 384, and Travels in West Africa, p. 532 ff.; Ellis, Yoruba, p. 110.

[884] H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, p. 164 ff.

[885] Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, i, 495 ff.

[886] Frazer, loc. cit. Cf. A. Lang, Secret of the Totem, p. 138.

[887] Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vi, i, 32 ff., 43 ff.

[888] So worship was offered to the Roman genius (Horace, Carm. iii, 17; Epist. i, 7, 94).

[889] A. B. Ellis, Eẃe, p. 105; Tshi, p. 156; Yoruba, chap. vii.

[890] Turner, Samoa, p. 78 f. So the κουροτρόφος (Farnell, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor).

[891] W. H. Dall, Alaska and its Resources, p. 145, cited by Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iii, 442 f.

[892] The acquisition of a supernatural inspirer by a shaman is analogous to this custom, but belongs in a somewhat different category: see below, § 540.

[893] Miss Alice Fletcher, "Indian Ceremonies" (in Report of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 1883).

[894] F. Boas, The Kwakiutl, p. 393 f.

[895] Cf. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iii, 450 ff.

[896] This process is similar to the gradual reduction of the European independent barons to the position of royal officers.

[897] See below, § 633 f.

[898] As, for example, by the Marathas of the Bombay Presidency (Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 276 ff.).

[899] Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), Prehistoric Times, 2d ed., p. 598, and 6th ed., p. 610; id., Origin of Civilisation (1902), p. 275 ff.; and his Marriage, Totemism, and Religion.

[900] Herbert Spencer, Fortnightly Review, 1870, and Principles of Sociology i, § 171.

[901] This view is provisionally indorsed by E. B. Tylor, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii.

[902] One such case is mentioned in Codrington's Melanesians, p. 33.

[903] Frazer, Golden Bough (1890), ii, 332 ff. This theory has since been abandoned by Frazer (Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 54 f.).

[904] Frazer, Fortnightly Review, July and September, 1905, pp. 154-172 (reprinted in Totemism and Exogamy, i); Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 89 ff.; iv, 57 ff.

[905] Rivers, "Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia" (in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxix [1909], 172); Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 59 ff.

[906] This is the theory adopted by Frazer in his latest work on the subject.

[907] The widespread belief that birth may be independent of the union of the sexes does not, of course, carry with it an explanation of totemism.

[908] Lippert, Die Religionen der europäischen Culturvölker, p. 12; G. A. Wilken, "Het Animisme bij de Volken van den Indischen Archipel," in De Indische Gids, 1884 (cf. Tylor, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii, 1899); G. M. Theal, Records of South-eastern Africa, vii, and History and Ethnography of South Africa, i. 90.

[909] F. B. Jevons, Introduction to the History Of Religion, 1st ed., p. 101.

[910] F. M. Müller, Anthropological Religion, p. 121 ff.; Pikler and Somló, Ursprung des Totemismu, p. 7 ff.; A. K. Keane, Ethnology, p. 10; cf. G. M. Theal, History and Ethnography Of South Africa, i, 17.

[911] A. C. Haddon, in Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1902.

[912] A. Lang, The Secret of the Totem, chap. vi.

[913] Lists are given in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy.

[914] Lang, The Secret of the Totem, loc. cit.; Theal, History and Ethnography of South Africa, i, 92.

[915] Cf. A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 154.

[916] Frazer, in Fortnightly Review, 1899 (this theory was afterwards abandoned by him); B. Spencer, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii (1899).

[917] Cf. Durkheim, in Année sociologique, v.

[918] Durkheim, in Année sociologique, v.

[919] See below, § 577.

[920] Frazer, in his Totemism (this view is now given up by him); F. B. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, Index; S. Reinach, Cultes, mythes et religions, i, 86 ff.; Hahn, Die Haustiere, pp. 28 ff., 42, and his Demeter und Baubo, p. 19 ff. (domestication of cattle and use of milk as food connected with moon-cult). Cf. H. Ling Roth, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xvi, 102 ff.

[921] The totem belongs not to a tribe (Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, p. 114 f.) but to a clan.

[922] Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 19.

[923] W. E. Roth, quoted in Frazer's Totemism and Exogamy, i, 532.

[924] See above, § 529 ff.

[925] W. E. Roth, North Queensland Ethnography; Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 226 ff.

[926] See below, § 635 ff.; cf. A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, ii, 197, etc.; S. Relnach, Orpheus (Eng. tr.), p. 81 ff.; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 30 ff.

[927] Haddon, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tyler, 183 ff.

[928] Rivers, in Man, viii (1908).

[929] Cf. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, iv, 31 ff. The Bushman god Cagn, who has the form of a mantis, and the Hindu monkey-god Hanuman seem to have no connection with totemism.

[930] Cf. the remarks of Haddon, op. cit.

[931] So Zeus and other Greek gods.

[932] See below, § 1041 ff.

[933] See below, § 635.

[934] The moral perfection of the individual is an ideal that has arisen out of social relations; it is demanded by the deity because the moral standard of a deity is that of his human society.

[935] In international relations this tendency appears in the demand for arbitration.

[936] N. W. Thomas, article "Taboo" in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed.; Codrington, The Melanesians; Thomson, Story of New Zealand; A. van Gennep, Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar; Wallace, Malay Archipelago, p. 149 f.; J. G. Frazer, Early History of the Kingship; Marett, "Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" (in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor).

[937] Cf. the Chickasa hullo, said to mean 'mysterious' (Speck, in Journal of American Folklore, xx, 57).

[938] The danger from such objects is referred to a supernatural presence, whose attitude toward human beings may be doubtful; only, when the phenomenon observed is thought to be nonnatural and is afflictive (as in the case of death, for example), this attitude is judged to be hostile.

[939] Purely economic and other social considerations are sometimes combined with the mana conception.

[940] The physical unity produced by contact may be brought about, according to savage philosophy, in other ways.

[941] Ploss-Bartels, Das Weib, i, 591; cf. E. S. Hartland, Primitive Paternity; Avesta, Vendidad, xv, 8.

[942] Article "Birth" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[943] Ploss-Bartels, Das Weib, ii, 345 ff.

[944] Lev. xii. In the modern Parsi usage a woman after giving birth is secluded forty days.

[945] On the relation between birth customs and systems of relationship (patrilineal and matrilineal) see the references in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 636.

[946] Numb. xix, 11 ff. For the Mazdean rules see Tiele-Gehrich, Geschichte der Religion im Altertum, ii, 340 ff.

[947] Sanitary purposes may have entered into such customs.

[948] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, chap. xxiii, p. 138, etc.; Turner, Samoa, p. 145 f.; Kidd, The Essential Kafir, p. 253.

[949] Ellis, The Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 160.

[950] Cicero, De Legibus, ii, 26 (Athens); Roman Digests, xlvii, 12; Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, i, 13 (Phœnician); and so among many savage and half-civilized peoples.

[951] Crawley, The Mystic Rose, chap. iii.

[952] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 140.

[953] Ploss-Bartels, Das Weib, i, 296, 302, 374, 618.

[954] Frazer, article "Taboo" in Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed.

[955] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 466; Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 52 ff.

[956] G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 241; W. H. Furness, 3d, The Island of Stone-Money, p. 38 f.

[957] Crawley, The Mystic Rose, p. 399 ff.

[958] A physiological basis for this view seems to lie outside the resources of savage observation, but prohibition of intercourse just after childbirth may have a humanitarian basis.

[959] G. Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, pp. 68, 80, 200; Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, p. 292; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, additional note C.

[960] Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 406 ff.; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, Index, s.v. Chastity.

[961] See below, § 895 ff.; Westermarck, op. cit., i, 620 ff.

[962] Ezek. xliv, 19. The term "sanctify" of the English Version means 'make ritually sacred,' not to be touched. Cf. Shortland, Southern Districts of New Zealand, p. 293 f.; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 106 f.

[963] For Jewish rules see Lev. xxi. The onerous restrictions on the Roman flamen dialis and his wife are given in Frazer's Golden Bough (see Index, s.v. Flamen dialis) and the authorities cited by him.

[964] The prohibition of the products of the grapevine to the Nazirite (Numb. vi, 3 f.) seems to have been originally part of the attempt to follow the old pastoral life, in contrast with the Canaanite agricultural life; later it received a religious coloring. The prohibition might begin at the moment of the child's conception (Judg. xiii, 4, 14).

[965] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 299 ff.

[966] Turner, Samoa.

[967] Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

[968] R. Taylor, New Zealand, chap. viii.

[969] Furness, Home Life of the Borneo Head-hunters, p. 160 ff.

[970] C. S. Hurgronje, The Achehnese, p. 262 ff.

[971] T. C. Hodson, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvi.

[972] Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 215 ff.

[973] Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, pp. 50, 96 ff.; Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 106 ff.

[974] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 76 f.

[975] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii; Frazer, op. cit., iii, 80.

[976] T. C. Hodson, "The Genna amongst the Tribes of Assam" (in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvi).

[977] Lev. xxiii; Numb. xxviii f.

[978] Stengel and Oehmichen, Griechische Sakralaltertümer, p. 170.

[979] Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 365 ff.

[980] Numb. xxviii, 26.

[981] The Thargelia; Harrison, op. cit., chap. iii.

[982] Mariner, Tonga, p. 483

[983] W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, iv, 388, etc.

[984] Cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 448 ff.

[985] Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, additional note C.

[986] Rivers, The Todas, p. 405 ff.

[987] Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 288, 354.

[988] For details see Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, bk. iii, chap. viii f.

[989] Hollis, The Nandi p. 95 f.

[990] Rhys Davids, Buddhism (in Non-Christian Religious Systems), p. 140 f. Thus, as the author remarks, uposatha is a weekly festival; and there is an approach to a true seven-day week.

[991] Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

[992] Details of the week are given in the article "Calendar" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, with references to authorities.

[993] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 79; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, pp. 370 ff., 375.

[994] See the noteworthy Yoruban rest day, the first day of the five-day week (A. B. Ellis, Yoruba).

[995] For the literature on the sabbath see Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopädie; Jastrow, in American Journal of Theology for 1898; Cheyne, Encyclopædia Biblica; Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible; Jewish Encyclopedia; F. Bohn, Der Sabbat im Alten Testament; Benzinger, Hebräische Archäologie; Nowack, Hebräsche Archäologie; C. H. Toy, "The Earliest Form of the Sabbath," in Journal of Biblical Literature for 1899 (in which, so far as appears, the view that the Hebrew sabbath is a taboo day is stated for the first time).

[996] Any taboo day might be the occasion of placative ceremonies; but this is not a distinctive feature of the day.

[997] T. G. Pinches, in Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology, xxvi, 51 ff.; Zimmern, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, lviii, 199 ff., 458 ff.; J. Meinhold, Sabbat und Woche im Alten Testament. There is no good reason to doubt that this Babylonian term is formally identical with Hebrew shabat.

[998] 2 Kings iv, 23; Amos viii, 5; Isa. i, 13.

[999] Exod. xxiii, 6.

[1000] Deut. v, 12 ff.; Exod. xx, 8 ff.; the term 'holy' here means set apart ritually, that is, taboo.

[1001] Ezek. xx, 12 f., 16, 20 f., 24; Isa. lviii, 13 f.; cf. article "Sabbath" in Jewish Encyclopedia.

[1002] The Hebrew stem shabat means 'to cease,' a signification that accords well with the character of a taboo day. But this sense has not been certainly found for the Babylonian stem, and the original force of the term sabbath may be left undecided.

[1003] Exod. xxiii, 12.

[1004] Chabas, Le calendrier des jours fastes et néfastes; Maspero, Études égyptiennes, i, 28 ff.; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, chap. x.

[1005] IV Rawlinson, plates, 32 f.; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 373 ff.

[1006] Hesiod, Works and Days, 763 ff.

[1007] Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 365 ff.; Fowler, Roman Festivals, Index. The Romans, with their thoroughness where public religion was concerned, divided all the days of the year into the three classes, dies festi (festive, for worship), dies profesti (for ordinary business), and dies intercisi (mixed, partly for religion, partly for ordinary affairs).

[1008] Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, iii, 29 (Burma).

[1009] J. H. King, The Supernatural, Index, s.v. Luck.

[1010] Many examples are given in Westermarck's Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xxxvii f.; cf. above, § 204 ff., on fasting.

[1011] Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 630 ff.

[1012] E. A. Gait, article "Caste" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1013] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 321.

[1014] Taboo thus helps the growth of civil law (especially of penal codes) by its collection of offenses, though only on condition of retiring from the field. Cf. Frazer, Psyche's Task, p. 17 ff.

[1015] Lev. xiv, 48-53.

[1016] Lev. xii.

[1017] So in many popular festivals; see Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 453 ff.; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, chap. xlii.

[1018] Examples are given in Crawley's Mystic Rose, pp. 223, 480 ff., chap. x ff.

[1019] Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 3d ed., p. 129 ff.; Hubert and Mauss, in Année sociologique, vii; Frazer, Early History of the Kingship, lecture ii, especially p. 52 ff. (he defines taboo as "negative magic," magic, that is, employed to avoid malefic influences); cf. Crawley, The Mystic Rose, chap. ix, for the transmission of sex characteristics.

[1020] Cf. R. R. Marett, "Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" (reply to Frazer), in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor.

[1021] Cf. Marett, op. cit.

[1022] R. Taylor, New Zealand, chap. viii; Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

[1023] Shortland, Maori Religion.

[1024] Exod. xxiii, 10 f.

[1025] Livy, i, 31.

[1026] Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 215 ff.; George Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians, p. 273 ff.

[1027] Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea, Index, s.v. Taboo.

[1028] H. Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo, i, 98.

[1029] On permontong see W. H. Furness, 3d, Home Life of the Borneo Head-hunters, p. 160 ff.

[1030] Manu, v, 62.

[1031] Miss Alice Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies, p. 297 f.

[1032] Miss Mary Kingsley, Travels, Index.

[1033] T. C. Hodson, "Genna amongst the Tribes of Assam," in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvi (1906).

[1034] Kidd, The Essential Kafir, Index.

[1035] Boas, in Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and Bulletin XV, American Museum of Natural History.

[1036] Lev. xii-xv.

[1037] Deut. xiv; Lev. xi; Diogenes Laertius, Pythagoras, xvii.

[1038] On tabu (or tapu) see E. Tregear, Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary; W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, iv, 385.

[1039] Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 215.

[1040] A. van Gennep, Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar.

[1041] R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa, p. 211.

[1042] The taboo sense proper is not found in ἄγιος (ἄγος), ἐναγής, and Latin sacer which rather mean what is accursed, detestable on account of wrong committed.

[1043] Sacred books "defile the hands."

[1044] Cf. articles "Taboo" in Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed. (by Frazer) and 11th ed. (by Thomas).

[1045] The relation between totemism and man's attitude toward beasts and plants is discussed above, §§ 524 ff., 564 ff.

[1046] A. B. Ellis, Yoruba, p. 167.

[1047] Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People, chap. xxii.

[1048] On the question whether a germinal sense of moral obligation is found in the lower animals see above, § 12.

[1049] Naturally, the origin of all the particular taboos escapes us; it depends in most cases on unknown conditions.

[1050] 1 Cor. xi, 27-30.

[1051] On the social organization of law cf. Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 108; article "Aryan Religion" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1052] See above, § 240 ff.

[1053] In a cannibal community, for example, the gods will be cannibal; see A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, new ed., i, 6, 263 f.

[1054] Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, i, 414 f.; ff., 85, 506; Breasted, History of Egypt, pp. 46, 575; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 368, 502; ibid., p. 538 f.

[1055] They sometimes coalesce in functions with ghosts and spirits.

[1056] Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 19 ff.

[1057] L. Farrand, "Traditions of the Chilcotin Indians" in Jesup North Pacific Expedition (vol. ii of Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History), i, 14 ff.; Farrand and Kahnweiler, "Traditions of the Quinault Indians," ibid., iii, 111; Boas, Indianische Sagen, p. 194 ff.; C. Hill-Tout, articles in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vols. xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvii.

[1058] Boas, Introduction to Teit's Thompson River Indians, p. 16, and "Reports on the Indians of British Columbia" in Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, vols. lix, lx, lxi, lxiv, lxv. A tricksy character is ascribed to Loki in some of the Norse stories (Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 263). Loki, however, as he appears in the literature, is a highly complex figure.

[1059] See Boas's Introduction in Teit's Thompson River Indians.

[1060] R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 263.

[1061] A. C. Hollis, The Masai, p. 264 f.; Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, 1st ed., ii, 4 f.

[1062] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 123 ff.

[1063] W. Matthews, Navaho Legends, pp. 69 ff., 73 ff.

[1064] See Brinton, Myth of the New World and American Hero-Myths; Journal of American Folklore, passim. On the 'Hiawatha' myth see Hale, Iroquois Book of Rites, p. 180 ff., and Beauchamp, in Journal of American Folklore, October, 1891.

[1065] Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 28, 167, and Index, s.v. Qat.

[1066] He is called also the "Big Raven," belonging under this title in the cycle of raven myths of the North Pacific Ocean (both in Asia and in America); see Jochelson, in Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vi, i, 17 f.

[1067] Hollis, The Nandi, p. 98 f.; Callaway, The Amazulu, p. 1 ff.; cf. the Japanese mythical emperor Jimmu (Knox, Development of Religion in Japan, pp. 46, 63).

[1068] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.v.; Gen. iv; articles in Roscher's Lexikon, s.vv.; Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, Index, s.vv.

[1069] It is noteworthy that among the numerous ætiological myths there seems to be no attempt to account for the origin of language. Language was thought of as so simple and natural a thing that no explanation of its beginnings was necessary. Adam, in Gen. ii, is able, as a matter of course, to give names to the animals. In early myths beasts have the power of speech. In a Nandi folk-story (Hollis, The Nandi, p. 113) what excites the wonder of the thunder and the elephant is not man's capacity of speech, but the fact that he can turn over when asleep without first getting up.

[1070] For female deities the title "grandmother" occurs (Batchelor, The Ainu [1901], p. 578). The devil's grandmother figures in Teutonic folk-stories; see Journal of American Folklore, xiii, 278 ff.; Frazer, Golden Bough, 1st ed., i, 336.

[1071] Attempts to prove a primitive monotheism usually fail to take this distinction into account.

[1072] Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 488 ff.

[1073] Boas, Introduction to Teit's Thompson River Indians, p. 7.

[1074] Callaway, The Amazulu, p. 1 ff.

[1075] Kidd, The Essential Kafir, p. 101 ff.

[1076] A. B. Ellis, Tshi, chaps. v-vii; Eẃe, chap. v; Yoruba, chap. iii. Cf. C. Partridge, Cross River Natives (South Nigeria), p. 282 ff.

[1077] W. Crooke, The Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (1907), chap. ii.

[1078] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 537 f.

[1079] Rivers, The Todas, chap. xix.

[1080] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 35 ff.

[1081] Jochelson, in Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vi, i, 36-43.

[1082] Aston, Shinto, Index, s.v. Kami; Knox, Religion in Japan, p. 27 ff.

[1083] Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 255; cf. ii, 337.

[1084] Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xix; Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 34 f.

[1085] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 532.

[1086] Spence, in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 835.

[1087] A. B. Ellis, Eẃe (Dahomi), p. 104.

[1088] On the ascription of divinity to men in great civilized religious systems see above, § 351 ff.

[1089] Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 120 ff.; Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens, p. 31 ff.; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 109; Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, pp. 21 f., 39.

[1090] Cf. W. von Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, i, 28 f.

[1091] R. Smend, Alttestamentliche Religionsgeschichte, p. 33 f. In regard to the original home of Yahweh and the diffusion of his cult among other peoples than the Hebrews exact information is lacking.

[1092] Pietschmann, Phönizier, pp. 170 f., 182 ff.

[1093] Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, i, 664.

[1094] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.vv.; articles in Roscher's Lexikon; "Eshmun" in Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet.

[1095] See, for example, Pausanias, i, 37, 3 (Zeus Meilichios); ii, 19, 3 (Apollo Lykios); iii, 13, 2 (Kore Soteira—Persephone, the protectress); v, 25, 6 f. (Heracles); viii, 12, 1 (Zeus Charmon).

[1096] Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 15 ff.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 90.

[1097] Sir C. R. Markham, The Incas of Peru, p. 104.

[1098] L. Spence, The Mythologies of Ancient Mexico and Peru, p. 24 f.

[1099] See above, § 647.

[1100] Roscher, Lexikon, article "Heros," col. 2473 ff.

[1101] Works and Days, 155 ff.

[1102] He appears to be usually beneficent; but, like all the dead, he might sometimes be maleficent.

[1103] But these origins, going far back into prehistoric times, are obscure.

[1104] Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 132.

[1105] Tregear, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix, 97 ff.; Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 164.

[1106] Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

[1107] E. H. Gomes, Southern Departments of Borneo.

[1108] Skeat, Malay Magic, chap. iv; Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, ii, 245 ff.

[1109] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 529 f.; Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, i, chap. ii.

[1110] Hollis, The Masai, p. 264. The related Nandi worship the sun (Asista) mainly, but have also a thunder-god (Hollis, The Nandi, p. 40 f.).

[1111] Hollis, op. cit., p. 279.

[1112] With them, as everywhere else, there is occasional discrimination in the functions of magicians, different men healing or inflicting different sicknesses; cf. article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1113] A. B. Ellis, Eẃe, chap. v; Tshi, chap. v; Yoruba, p. 45.

[1114] Jochelson, in Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vi, i, 33 ff., 27 ff.

[1115] Batchelor, The Ainu, chap. li.

[1116] Herodotus, iv, 94.

[1117] Demetrius Klementz, article "Buriats" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1118] Brinton, The Lenâpé, p. 65 ff.; Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xviii ff. On gods of air and winds see J. H. Keane, in article "Air and Gods of the Air" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1119] Hastings, op. cit., i, 382 ff., and ii, 837.

[1120] Brinton, American Hero-Myths, chap. iv; A. M. Tozzer, Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones (of Yucatan), pp. 80, 93 ff.; H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, ii, chap. xx ff.

[1121] J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 577 ff.; Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, chap. xiv; L. Spence, Mythologies of Ancient Mexico and Peru; E. Seler, Gesammelte Abhandlungen. For earlier authorities see Winsor, Narrative and Critical History Of America, vol. i, chaps. iii, iv.

[1122] J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 313 ff.; Prescott, Peru, i, 91 ff.; C. R. Markham, The Incas of Peru, chap. viii; and see preceding note.

[1123] Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, ii, 81, note 2; p. 82, notes 1 and 2.

[1124] Usener, Götternamen p. 122 ff.; L. R. Farnell, "The Place of the 'Sonder-Götter' in Greek Polytheism" (in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor).

[1125] Farnell, op. cit.; cf. T. R. Glover, Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire, p. 12.

[1126] Roscher, Lexikon, s.v.

[1127] Augustine, De Civitate Dei, vii, 22; cf. bks. vi, vii, passim.

[1128] Cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, pp. 15, 145 ff.

[1129] Judg. viii, 33.

[1130] The name occurs only once, in 2 Kings, i, 2. It is incorrectly adopted in the English Version of the New Testament.

[1131] Found only in the Synoptic Gospels, Mk. iii, 22; Matt. x, 25; xii, 24, 27; Luke xi, 15, 18, 19.

[1132] Isa. lxiii, 15.

[1133] On these Semitic titles see articles "Baal" and "Baalzebub" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics; article "Beelzebul" in Cheyne, Encyclopædia Biblica; various articles in Brown, Driver, Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicons.

[1134] Batchelor, The Ainu, chap. x; Furness, Home life of the Borneo Head-hunters, p. 64 f.; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 530, note 2; De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, p. 129 f.

[1135] Turner, Samoa, p. 18 f.; Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa, pp. 67, 163 ff.

[1136] On "manitu" see Handbook of American Indians, s.v. (and cf. article "Wakonda"); W. Jones, in Journal of American Folklore, xviii, 183 ff. On "nagual" see Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, iii, 458; Brinton, in Journal of American Folklore, viii, 249.

[1137] Journal of American Folklore, viii, 115.

[1138] Cf. M. H. Kingsley, West African Studies, p. 132 f.

[1139] Roscher, Lexikon, i, 2, col. 1616.

[1140] Cf. article "Daimon" in Roscher, op. cit.

[1141] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 91 ff.; Dan. x, 20; xi, 1; xii, 1; Matt. xviii, 10.

[1142] Examples are given above, § 255 f.

[1143] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, chap. x.

[1144] Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 150 f., 158 f., 168 f.; Turner, Samoa, pp. 7, 52.

[1145] Here again a distinction must be made between animals simply sacred and those that are specifically totemic.

[1146] Codrington, The Melanesians, pp. 248 f., 253 ff.

[1147] Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, chaps. xii f.

[1148] So the Samoan Tangaloa (Tylor, Primitive Culture, 3d ed., ii, 344 f.).

[1149] St. John, The Far East, i, 180.

[1150] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 528 ff.

[1151] A. B. Ellis, Yoruba, pp. 38 ff., 56 ff.; cf. M. H. Kingsley, West African Studies, p. 117 ff.

[1152] Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, preface to new edition.

[1153] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 34.

[1154] Article "Brazil" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1155] G. Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 1 ff.; Taylor, New Zealand, chap. vi; cf., for Polynesia, W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, chap. xiii. The abstract ideas reported by Taylor are remarkable: from conception came increase, from this came swelling, then, in order, thought, remembrance, desire; or, from nothing came increase and so forth; or, the word brought forth night, the night ending in death. The significance of this scheme (supposing it to be correctly stated) has not been explained. The rôle assigned to "desire" in the Rig-Veda creation-hymn (x, 129) is the product of learned reflection (cf. Schopenhauer's "blind will"), and sounds strange in the mouth of New Zealand savages.

[1156] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 308 ff.

[1157] Williams and Calvert, Fiji, p. 193 f.

[1158] Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 15; Castrén, Finnische Mythologie, p. 1.

[1159] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (English and German editions), Index, s.vv. Allatu, Nergal; id., Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, p. 368 ff.; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 217; Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, p. 94 ff.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, pp. 171 ff., 169 ff.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 144 f.; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 128 ff.; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthianskunde, ii, 163 (but the old Persian god of the Underworld, if there was one, was absorbed, in Zoroastrianism, by Ahura Mazda); Jackson, in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii, 652, § 52; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, ii, 513 ff.; iii, chap. v; Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 187 ff.; Aust, Religion der Römer, p. 52; Rohde, Psyche, 3d ed. i, 205, ff.; articles on Hades, Plutos, Hermes, Dionysos, Nergal, and related deities, in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1160] Cf. Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 356 f., 372 f.; F. Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode, p. 65 ff.; R. H. Charles, Eschatology, p. 18 f. For the Arabs see Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, iii, 22 ff., 42 ff.; Nöldeke, article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics; for the Phœnicians, Pietschmann, Phönizier, p. 191 f.

[1161] Ps. cxxxix.

[1162] See article "Celts" in Hastings, op. cit.; Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed.; Usener, Götternamen; article "Aryan Religion" in Hastings, op. cit., p. 38 f. and passim.

[1163] Hollis, The Masai, p. 264. The neighboring Nandi, according to Hollis (The Nandi, p. 41), have a similar pair.

[1164] A. C. Dixon, The Northern Maidu (Bulletin of the American Museum Of Natural History, xviii, iii), p. 263. For other such conceptions see Tylor's discussion in Primitive Culture, ii, 320 ff.

[1165] Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 63; H. Hale, Iroquois Book of Rites, p. 74.

[1166] A possible exception is the Khond myth of the struggle between the sun-god (Boora Pennu), the giver of all good things, and the earth-goddess (Tari), the author of evil things (Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 529 f.; Macpherson, India, p. 84); but the origin of this myth is uncertain.

[1167] 1 Kings xxii, 19-23.

[1168] Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens, p. 71 f.; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, pp. 172, 177.

[1169] R. Taylor, New Zealand, pp. 114 ff., 132; Jean A. Owen, The Story of Hawaii, p. 70 f.

[1170] Mills, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, xx, 31 ff.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 123 ff.

[1171] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 21 ff., 121 ff.

[1172] Zech. iii, 1-3; Job i, ii.

[1173] 1 Chr. xxi, 1.

[1174] 2 Cor. iv, 4.

[1175] The Greek daimon, properly simply a deity, received its opprobrious sense when Jews and Christians identified foreign deities with the enemies of the supreme God.

[1176] Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 318 ff.

[1177] Great gods also send suffering, but only when they are angered by men's acts, as by disrespect to a priest (Apollo, in Iliad, i) or to a sacred thing (Yahweh, 1 Sam. vi, 19; 2 Sam. vi, 7). In the high spiritual religions suffering is treated as educative, or is accepted as involving some good purpose unknown to men.

[1178] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 126 f.

[1179] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 260 ff.; O. Weber, Dämonenbeschwörung bei den Babyloniern und Assyriern (in Der Alte Orient, 1906).

[1180] The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (ed. R. H. Charles), chaps. liii, vi-x; the Slavonic Enoch, or Secrets of Enoch (ed. R. H. Charles), chap. xxxi. For the later Jewish view (in Talmud and Midrash) see Jewish Encyclopedia, article "Satan."

[1181] The "demons" of 1 Cor. x, 20 (King James version, "devils") are foreign deities.

[1182] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 416, 492 ff.

[1183] Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopädie, articles "Ophiten," "Kainiten."

[1184] J. Menant, Les Yésidis (in Annales du Musée Guimet); Isya Joseph, Yesidi Texts (reprinted from American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, xxv (1909), no. 2 f.). Cf. the idea of restoration in Col. i, 20.

[1185] So the Christian Satan.

[1186] When, in the reports of travelers and other observers, demons are said to be placated, examination shows that these beings are gods who happen to be mischievous. Of this character, for example, appear to be the "demons" mentioned in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 122.

[1187] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., iii, 39 ff.

[1188] But see below, § 704.

[1189] Baethgen, Beiträge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte; Wellhausen, Skissen, iii, 25; Nöldeke, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 1886, 1888, and article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics; Pinches, article "Gad," and Driver, article "Meni," in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible; Cheyne, article "Fortune" in Encyclopædia Biblica; Commentaries of Delitzsch, Duhm, Marti, Skinner, and Box on Isa. lxv, 11.

[1190] Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, s.v. The Old Testament title "Rock" given to Yahweh (Deut. xxxii, 18, "the Rock that begat thee") is figurative, but may go back to a divine rock.

[1191] On the Hebrew place-name (Job i, 1) and perhaps personal name (Gen. xxxvi, 28) Uṣ (Uz), which seems to be formally identical with 'Auḍ, see W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, 1st ed., p. 260 f., and his Religion of the Semites, p. 43; Wellhausen, Skissen, iii; Nöldeke, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, xl, 183 f.

[1192] Maniya, plural manâyā.

[1193] Isa. lxv, 11; III Rawlinson, 66.

[1194] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 420, 428 (the tablets of fate given to Kingu and snatched from him by Marduk); R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, p. 304 f. (Marduk seizes the tablets of fate from Zu); Ps. cxxxix, 16; Dan. vii, 10; Rev. v, 1, and other passages.

[1195] As far as the forms are concerned, a concrete sense for manāt, manu, meni, seems possible; cf. Wright, Arabic Grammar, 2d ed., i, § 231; Barth, Semitische Nominalbüdungen, p. 163 ff.; Delitzsch, Assyrian Grammar, p. 158 ff.

[1196] The etymologies in Gen. xxx, 11 ff. are popular. In "Baal-Gad" (Josh. xi, 17) Gad may be the name of a place; cf. Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, i, 271, note.

[1197] Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, chap. iii. For a list of other Egyptian gods of abstractions, such as eternity, life, Joy, see Wiedemann, "Religion of Egypt," in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, v, 191.

[1198] Boissier, La religion romaine, i, 4 ff.; Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 46 ff.; Usener, Götternamen, p. 364 ff. (cf. Farnell, in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor); Fowler, Roman Festivals, pp. 190 f., 341; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, p. 169 ff.

[1199] Cf. above, § 679, note.

[1200] Not all of these had public cults.

[1201] See articles in Roscher's Lexicon ("Eros," "Moira," and similar terms); on Phoibos, cf. L. Deubner, in Athenische Mittheilungen, 1903.

[1202] Cicero, De Natura Deorum, ii, 25.

[1203] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 135 f.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, pp. 191, 243 ff.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 115 ff.

[1204] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 34 ff.; A. V. Williams Jackson, Iranische Religion (in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii, 637).

[1205] The six are: Vohumanah (Good Thought or Good Mind), Khshathra Vairya (Best or Wished-for Righteous Realm or Law), Spenta Armaiti (Holy Harmony), Asha Vahista (Perfect Righteousness or Piety), Haurvatat (Well-being), Ameretat (Immortality).

[1206] On these and certain minor divinized conceptions of time see Spiegel, op. cit., ii, 4-17. On the Hindu personification of time see Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 244 ff. In these and similar cases time, containing all things, is conceived of as the producer of all things, and the line between personification and hypostatization is not always clearly defined. For the influence of astrology on the deification of time, see Cumont, Les religions orientates parmi les peuples romains, chap. vii (on astrology and magic), p. 212 f., paragraph on new deities, and notes thereto. Hubert, "La représentation du temps dans la religion et la magie" (in Mélanges de l'histoire des religions), p. 190, distinguishes between the notation of favorable and unfavorable times (and the nonchronological character of mythical histories) and the calendar, which counts moments continuously.

[1207] On a supposed relation between the Amesha-spentas and the Vedic Adityas see Roth, in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, vi, 69 f.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 44; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 134 f. Cf. also L. H. Gray (on the derivation of the Amshaspands from material gods), in Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, vii (1904), 345.

[1208] Cf. J. B. Carter, De Deorum Romanorum Cognominibus.

[1209] Cf. Boissier, La religion romaine, i, 9.

[1210] Cf. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, v, 442 ff.

[1211] They survive in later times to some extent in the form of patron and other local saints, Christian and Moslem.

[1212] Cf. Bloomfield's classification of deities (Religion of the Veda, p. 96) partly according to the degree of clearness with which characters belonging to physical nature appear: "translucent" gods are those whose origin in nature is obvious; "transparent" gods are half-personified nature objects.

[1213] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 285 ff.

[1214] See above, § 328 ff.

[1215] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 561 ff., and Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 182; Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 348; Roth, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi, 125; Boas, The Kwakiutl, p. 410 f.

[1216] Cf. Batchelor, The Ainu (1901), p. 63 f.

[1217] Cf. Aston, Shinto, p. 35.

[1218] J. G. Müller, Amerikanische Urreligionen, p. 58, and Index, s.v. Sonnendienst; Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 33; Brinton, The Lenâpé, p. 65 (cf. his American Hero-Myths, p. 230); Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 216 f.

[1219] Prescott, Mexico, i, 57 ff.; id., Peru, i, 92 ff.; E. J. Payne, History of the New World called America, i, 463, 550 ff.; C. R. Markham, The Incas of Peru, pp. 63, 67, 104 ff.

[1220] Records of the Past, first series, ii, 129 ff.; viii, 105 ff.

[1221] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 71.

[1222] A. B. Ellis, Eẃe, p. 65.

[1223] Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, pp. 30, 32, 29, cf. p. 23; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 86; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 40 ff.

[1224] Yashi, x, 67.

[1225] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 529 f.

[1226] § 710.

[1227] W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, i, 12 ff.; Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xviii, 373 ff. (the Lurka Coles); Hopkins, Religions of India (Dravidians, Kolarians); and for a modern, more civilized cult see Hopkins, op. cit., p. 480, note 3; Payne, History of the New World called America, i, 546 ff.

[1228] Turner, Samoa, Index, s.v. Moon; Matthews, Navaho Legends, pp. 86, 226.

[1229] See above, § 328 ff.; cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 290 f.

[1230] Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, pp. 88, 91.

[1231] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 356 ff., 457.

[1232] De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, p. 5 (cf. J. Edkins, Religion in China, p. 105 ff.).

[1233] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 204, 266, 526.

[1234] Judg. v, 20; Isa. xxiv, 21 ff.; Job xxxviii, 7; Enoch xviii, 12; xxi, 1 (cf. Rev. ix, 1); cf. Neh. ix, 6. See Baudissin, Semitische Religionsgeschichte, i, 118 ff.; article "Astronomy and Astrology" in Hastings Dictionary of the Bible.

[1235] 2 Kings xxiii, 5.

[1236] The corrupt and obscure passage Amos v, 26, cannot be cited as proving a cult of a deity Kaiwan (Masoretic text Kiyyun, Eng. R.V. "shrine") identical with Assyrian kaiwan or kaiman, the planet Saturn; there is no evidence that this planet was worshiped in Assyria.

[1237] Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, i, 660.

[1238] Cf. W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. vi, note 8; Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, loc. cit.

[1239] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 70 ff.

[1240] Cf. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, Index, s.vv. Stern and Sternbilder.

[1241] Cumont, Les religions orientales parmi les peuples romains, chap. vii.

[1242] The Franciscan Fathers, Ethnologic Dictionary of the Navaho Language, Index, s.v.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 293 f.

[1243] This is the full development of what had doubtless been felt vaguely from the beginning of religious history.

[1244] On Kronos and the Titans cf. article "Kronos" in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1245] Cælus (or Cælum) was sometimes called the son of Æther and Dies (Cicero, De Natura Deorum, iii, 17, 24).

[1246] Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens (and cf. his Geschichte des Altertums, 2d ed.); Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, and article "Religion of Egypt" in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, vol. v; Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion; Breasted, History of Egypt.

[1247] Breasted, op. cit., pp. 36, 46; id., Ancient Records of Egypt, under the various kings.

[1248] So Ed. Meyer, in article "Horos" in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1249] So Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 26 f.

[1250] Cf. Steindorff, op. cit., p. 30 f.

[1251] Records of the Past, vi, 105 ff.; Steindorff, op. cit., p. 107 ff.

[1252] See, for example, the hymn in Records of the Past, viii, 105 ff.

[1253] He was, therefore, doubtless a god of fertility.

[1254] Records of the Past, ii, 129 ff. The names of other deities also were combined with that of Ra.

[1255] Egyptian civilization, as appears from recent explorations, began far back of Menes; cf. Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, 2d ed., vol. i, part ii, § 169.

[1256] Cf. Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 58; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, bk. iii, chap. v.

[1257] Plutarch, Isis and Osiris, 18; Frazer, loc. cit.; Breasted, op. cit., p. 171 f.

[1258] His identification by some ancient theologians with the sun (Frazer, op. cit., p. 351 f.) or with the moon (Plutarch, op. cit., 41) is an illustration of the late tendency to identify any great god with a heavenly body.

[1259] Such is the wording given by Proclus. The form in Plutarch (Isis and Osiris, 9) is substantially the same: "I am all that has been and that is and that shall be, and my veil no mortal has lifted." See Roscher, Lexikon, article "Nit," col. 436. Doubts have been cast on the reality of the alleged inscription.

[1260] Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 131.

[1261] So Ed. Meyer, in Roscher, Lexikon, article "Isis," col. 360.

[1262] Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 107 ff.

[1263] See Drexler, in Roscher, Lexikon, article "Isis," col. 424 ff.

[1264] Barth, The Religions of India (Eng. tr.); Hopkins, Religions of India; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda. See the bibliography in Hopkins, op. cit., p. 573 ff.

[1265] Rig-Veda, viii, 41, 1. 7; i, 23, 5 (ṛta, 'order').

[1266] Rig-Veda, x, 121.

[1267] Early imagination apparently connected the future social life of gods and men not with the calm sky, but with the upper region that was the scene of constant and awful movements. But the ground of the choice of Indra as lord of heaven rests in the obscurity of primeval times.

[1268] For economic reasons a rain-god must generally be prominent and popular.

[1269] § 703.

[1270] The history of this distinction between Dyaus and Varuna is lost in the obscurity of the beginnings.

[1271] This conception appears in germinal form in Rig-Veda, v, 84, vi, 515, but is not there or elsewhere developed.

[1272] Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, § 20.

[1273] Cf. Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, article "Bengal," p. 491 ff., and the references there given to authorities.

[1274] One form of Çaktism is described (in Hastings, loc. cit.) as being the general worship of the Mothers of the universe represented as the wives of the gods.

[1275] Rig-Veda, x, 64, 92, 135, 21, 52, 14.

[1276] Ibid., x, 14; ix, 113. However, this title is given to Varuna also (x, 14): Yama and Varuna are the two kings whom the dead man sees when he reaches heaven.

[1277] Ibid., x, 10, 13, 14 (cf. Atharva-Veda, xviii, 13).

[1278] Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, i, 394 ff., but only for the Indo-Iranian period.

[1279] Rig-Veda, x, 64.

[1280] Cf. Müller, Lectures on the Science of Language, second series, p. 534 f.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 314; Bergaigne, La religion védique, ii, 94, note 3; Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. xxii. Cf. the Egyptian conception of Osiris (Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation, p. 195).

[1281] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 80; other examples are given in W. Ellis's Polynesian Researches, i, chap. v, and Tylor, op. cit., ii, 312 ff.

[1282] Ellis, loc. cit.; Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. 6.

[1283] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 128 ff.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, § 77; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, Index, s.v. Yama; and see the references in these works to other authors.

[1284] Jewish Encyclopædia, articles "Adam" and "Adam Kadmon"; Koran, ii, 29 ff.; cf. 1 Cor. xv, 45 ff.

[1285] See above. §§ 67 ff., 82.

[1286] On the relation between the two "first ancestors," Yama and Manu, cf. Bloomfield, op. cit., p. 140 f.

[1287] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 379 ff.

[1288] Tiele-Gehrich, Geschichte der Religion im Altertum, vol. ii, part i.

[1289] See above, § 703. Cf. articles by L. H. Mills in Journal of the American Oriental Society, vols. xx and xxi; L. H. Gray, in Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, vii (1904), p. 345.

[1290] Records of the Past, vols. v, ix.

[1291] Many lesser divine beings are mentioned by Spiegel (in Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 66 ff.); the advance to a real monotheistic cult was not achieved in Persia without many generations of struggle.

[1292] Cf. the similar process in the Arabian treatment of the jinn (W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, new ed., p. 122 f.).

[1293] Cf. A. V. Williams Jackson, Zoroaster, and his sketch in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie; D. Menant, Zoroaster d'après la tradition parsie, in Annales du Musée Guimet, vol xxx.

[1294] De Groot, Religion of the Chinese, chaps. i and iii; pp. 62 ff., 112 f., 129 f.

[1295] With this conception we may compare the similar principles in the Vedic and Mazdean systems.

[1296] The all-controlling order, as is remarked above, is that of the universe, which furnishes the norm for human life; but in the universe the grandest object is heaven.

[1297] Legge, in Sacred Books of the East, xxxix, xl; De Groot, Religious System of China, and his smaller works, Religion of the Chinese and Development of Religion in China.

[1298] W. E. Griffis, Religions of Japan; E. Buckley, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed.; Aston, Shinto; Knox, Development of Religion in Japan; Longford, The Story of Old Japan, chap. ii.

[1299] Whether the worship of ancestors, now so important an element of the national life, is native or borrowed is uncertain.

[1300] W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, new ed., p. 13 ff.

[1301] Compare Baethgen, Beiträge sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, p. 262 f.

[1302] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria; id., Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria; Jeremias, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte; Zimmern, article "Babylonians and Assyrians" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics; Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, i, part ii, 2d book. In our survey of Babylonian deities the question of Sumerian influence may be left out of the account.

[1303] Compare Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 481; id., Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 23, 45, 121.

[1304] Ezek. viii, 16.

[1305] Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, p. 82. The Babylonian and Assyrian triads were loosely constructed, and had, apparently, no significance for the local and royal cults. In this regard they differed from the Egyptian triads and enneads, which were highly elaborated and organised (Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation, p. 104 ff.; Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 56.; Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 29).

[1306] Cf. article "Astarte" (by Ed. Meyer) in Roscher, Lexikon.

[1307] For the cuneiform material see Delitzsch, Assyrisches Handwörterbuch, and, for various etymologies proposed for the name, Barton, Semitic Origins, p. 102 ff.; Haupt, in Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxviii, 112 ff.; Barton, ibid., xxxi, 355 ff. The frequent expression ilani u ishtarâti, 'gods and goddesses,' suggests that the original sense of ishtar is simply 'a deity'; it is not probable that a proper name would become a common noun and have a plural; cf. the treatment of the title ilu, 'a god.'

[1308] As the title bel, 'lord,' became the proper name of a particular god, so the title ishtar, 'mistress,' 'lady,' might become the proper name of a particular goddess; in neither case is the detailed history of the process known to us.

[1309] They were probably local "lords"; in Moab Ashtar was combined with a deity called Kemosh, of whom nothing is known except that he was a Moabite national god (cf. G. F. Moore, article "Chemosh" in Encyclopædia Biblica). For a different view of Ashtar and Athtar see Barton, Semitic Origins, Index, s.vv. Chemosh, Athtar; he regards these deities as transformations of the mother-goddess Ashtart.

[1310] Baethgen, Beiträge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, p. 66 ff.; Jeremias, "Syrien und Phönizien" (in Saussaye's Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte).

[1311] Rawlinson, History of Phœnicia; Pietschmann, Geschichte der Phönizier; Jeremias, op. cit.

[1312] Article "Esmun" in Roscher's Lexikon; article in Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet. Of the vague group known as the Kabiri (the 'great ones,' seven in number, with Eshmun as eighth) we have little information; on the diffusion of their cult in Grecian lands see Roscher, op. cit., article "Megaloi Theoi."

[1313] Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, pp. 21 ff., 45 ff.; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. vi, note 8; chap. viii, note 2; article "Dusares" in the Anthropological Essays presented to F. W. Putnam.

[1314] Mordmann, Himyarische Inschriften; Mordmann and Müller, Sabäische Denkmäler; Barton, Semitic Origins, p. 127 ff.

[1315] His original seat is uncertain; by some scholars he is regarded as an old North Semitic deity, but the grounds for this view are not convincing. The occurrences of the name outside of the Hebrew region throw little or no light on his origin. Cf. Delitzsch, Paradies; Baudissin, Studien sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte; Barton, Semitic Origins, chap. vii.

[1316] On his position in the seventh century cf. W. F. Bade, in Transactions of the American Philological Association, 1908.

[1317] For the Old Testament statements see C. G. Montefiore, Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), Index, s.v. Yahweh.

[1318] He was thus supreme for the particular tribe, though not universal; cf. article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1319] Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie; articles on the various deities in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1320] Formally the names Dyaus, Zeus, and Ju (in Jupiter) are identical; and to these may probably be added the Teutonic Tiu (Tyr).

[1321] In early thought the sky (like the earth) is in itself a powerful thing, a personality, and the god who is later supposed to inhabit and control it is a definite figure, like, for example, a tree-god.

[1322] From the ancient notices of Kronos it is hardly possible to fix definitely the relation between him and Zeus. It is probable that he represents an older cult that was largely displaced by that of Zeus. The custom of human sacrifice in his cult led to the identification of him with the Phœnician (Carthaginian) Melek (Moloch), and his name has been interpreted (from κραίνω) as meaning 'king' (= melek); but this resemblance does not prove a Semitic origin for him. Whether his rôle as king of the Age of Gold was anything more than a late construction is not clear.

[1323] The etymology of his name is doubtful.

[1324] On his titles "earth-shaker" and "earth-upholder" cf. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie p. 1139, note 2.

[1325] Possibly he was originally the ocean itself conceived of as a living and powerful thing, as Zeus (and so Varuna and Ahura Mazda) was originally the physical sky; Okeanos is a great god (Iliad, xiv, 201; Hesiod, Theogony, 133).

[1326] By many writers he is considered to have been originally a wind-god; but wind, though it might suggest swiftness (and, with some forcing, thievishness), cannot account for his other endowments.

[1327] Gen. xxx, 37 ff.; xxxi, 9; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 196; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 17-19.

[1328] Odyssey, xv, 319 f. Lang lays too much stress on this fact (Myth, Ritual, and Religion, 1st ed., ii, 257).

[1329] Gruppe (Griechische Mythologie, p. 1384) thinks (on grounds not clear) that he was originally of Crete.

[1330] So Gruppe, op. cit.

[1331] Homeric Hymn to Pan.

[1332] Servius on Vergil, Eclogue ii, 31.

[1333] Roscher, in Lexikon, article "Pan," col. 1405, and in Festschrift für Joh. Overbeck, p. 56 ff. On the influence of the Egyptian cult of the goat-god of Mendes on the conception of Pan see Roscher, Lexikon, article "Pan," cols. 1373, 1382.

[1334] Mannhardt, Antike Wald und Feldkulte, p. 135 f.; Roscher, op. cit., col. 1406; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, v, 431, and many others. To this etymology Gruppe (op. cit., p. 1385) objects that such a name for a deity is not probable for primitive savage times; he offers nothing in its place.

[1335] Plutarch, De Defectu Oraculorum, 17; Reinach, Orpheus (Eng. tr.), p. 41.

[1336] Pindar, ed. W. Christ, Fragments, 95 ff.

[1337] Theogony, 922 f.

[1338] Euripides, Bacchæ, 131 f. (cf. Æschylus, The Seven against Thebes, 541; Porphyry, De Abstinentia, § 13).

[1339] Nili Opera, p. 27; Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 338 f.; Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 288.

[1340] See above, § 384 ff.

[1341] Iliad, xiv, 325.

[1342] Perhaps the description of him in the Iliad (loc. cit.) as "a joy to mortals" refers to wine; cf. Hesiod, Theogony, 941, where he is called the "bright joyous one."

[1343] As, for example, the Arabian clan god Dusares (Dhu ash-Shara), carried by the Nabateans northward, was brought into relation with the viticulture of that region. Cf. above, § 764.

[1344] On this point cf. Miss J. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 366.

[1345] See above, § 680 f.

[1346] Iliad, xv, 184 ff.; Hesiod, Theogony, 453 ff.

[1347] He is not always in mythological constructions distinct from Zeus—in Iliad, ix, 457, it is Zeus Katachthonios who is lord below.

[1348] Æschylus, Prometheus Bound, 806.

[1349] Cf. the development of Osiris (above, § 728).

[1350] Cf. Greek Horkos, and the oath by the Styx.

[1351] Cf. Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. vi.

[1352] Cf. Roscher, Lexikon, s.v.; Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, p. 271 ff.

[1353] Compare Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, p. 320 ff.; Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., ii, 176 ff.

[1354] Compare Miss Harrison, op. cit., p. 271 ff.

[1355] By her name she is identified with the hearth, as similarly Zeus is identified with the sky. The hearth was the center of the home, and had wide cultic significance. The name Hestia embodies not the divinization of a concrete object, but the recognition of the divine person presiding over the object in question.

[1356] Roscher, Lexikon; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States.

[1357] Odyssey, xx, 71.

[1358] The representation of her as the slayer of women with her "kindly arrows" (Odyssey, xx, 67), that is, by an easy death, is in keeping with the early idea that death was caused by some supernatural Power; so Apollo slays (Iliad, xxiv, 759).

[1359] Leto is a Titaness (Hesiod, Theogony, 404 ff.), an old local goddess, naturally a patron of children, and so of similar nature with Artemis, with whom she was often joined in worship. Her connection with Apollo arose possibly from a collocation of her cult with his in some place; in such collocations the goddess would become, in mythological constructions, the mother, sister, or wife of the god. This relation once established, stories explaining it would spring up as a matter of course. The fact that she was later identified with the Asian Great Mother indicates that she also had a universal character.

[1360] Hesiod, Theogony, 411 ff.

[1361] She was, perhaps, an underground deity, or the product of the fusion of two deities, one of whom was chthonic.

[1362] Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Roscher, Lexikon.

[1363] Thus the Greeks endeavored to embody in divine figures all sides of family life. The division of functions between Hera, Hestia, and Athene is clear.

[1364] As, for example, 'fragile' and 'frail,' 'intension' and 'intention,' 'providential' and 'prudential,' and many other groups of this sort.

[1365] For the view that she was a native Ægean deity see Farnell, Greece and Babylon, p. 97. Later Semitic influences, in any case, must be assumed.

[1366] No satisfactory explanation of the name Aphrodite has as yet been offered.

[1367] See above, § 762.

[1368] Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite; Euripides, Medea, 835 ff.; Lucretius. Ishtar also is the mother of all things, but the idea is not developed by the Semites.

[1369] Compare the details given in J. Rosenbaum's Geschichte der Lustseuche im Alterume.

[1370] Aust, Religion der Römer; Fowler, Roman Festivals; id. The Religious Experience of the Roman People; articles in Roscher's Lexikon; Mommsen, History of Rome (Eng. tr.), bk. i, chap. xii.

[1371] § 702 ff.

[1372] Hence a confusion of names that appears even to-day, and in books otherwise careful, as, for example, in the Bohn translations of Greek works, in which the Greek deities are throughout called by Latin names.

[1373] So written in good manuscripts. The "piter" probably denotes fatherly protection, though it may have meant originally physical paternity. On this point cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, lecture ii, and the various stories of the birth of Jupiter's children.

[1374] On the significance of the doublefaced Janus (Janus Geminus) and of the ancient usage of opening the gates of his temple in time of war and closing them in time of peace, see article "Janus" in Roscher's Lexikon, col. 18 ff.

[1375] With his function as door-god compare the functions of other Roman door-gods, of Vesta, and of Hindu and other house-deities.

[1376] Varro, De Lingua Latina, v, 85; Cato, De Agri Cultura, 141.

[1377] So Roscher and others.

[1378] Cf. Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 35.

[1379] The cult of Mars was widely diffused in Italy and, later, elsewhere. His original seat is uncertain. He was, perhaps, the tribal god of a conquering people.

[1380] Cf. also the Ancillarum Feriæ (July 7).

[1381] See above, § 217 ff.

[1382] Vergil, Eclogues, iv, 6. Cf. above, § 768, note (Kronos).

[1383] Aust, Religion der Römer; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; Fowler, Roman Festivals; articles in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1384] She appears to have been a Greek deity adopted by the Romans.

[1385] See above, § 43.

[1386] Compare the Greek Hestia and the Hindu house-goddess (Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 374, 530).

[1387] On the Arician Diana see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 230 f.

[1388] Or, better, from deiā.

[1389] The prevailing view is that the grove is an opened place into which light enters, and it is thus distinguished from the dark and gloomy forest. The verbs nitere, nitescere, virere, are used by Ovid and other writers to describe this gleaming of leaves, plants, trees, groves, and of the earth.

[1390] An early divine name expressive of intellectual power is not probable.

[1391] On her origin cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 203 ff.

[1392] Varro, De Re Rustica, i, 1.

[1393] See above, § 803.

[1394] In favor of Ardea, twenty miles south of Rome, as her original seat, cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 235.

[1395] Her identification with the Greek goddess was perhaps furthered by a supposed relation between her name and the noun venustas, 'grace, beauty,' the special quality of Aphrodite. If that was the original sense of 'Venus,' it could hardly have indicated an æsthetic perception of nature (Wissowa, op. cit.); such a designation would be foreign to early ways of naming deities. Whether the stem van might mean 'general excellence' (here agricultural) is uncertain; on the Greek epithets 'Kallisto,' 'Kalliste,' and so forth, cf. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, p. 1270 f. The name 'Venus,' if connected with the root of venerari, might mean simply 'a revered object,' a deity; cf. Bona Dea and Ceres (creator).

[1396] Roscher's Lexikon, s.v. "Fortuna," col. 1518; Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 68. On licentious cults of Venus cf. J. Rosenbaum, Geschichte der Lustseuche im Altertume.

[1397] See above, § 671.

[1398] Articles in Roscher, Lexikon, and in Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet.

[1399] Inscriptions of Rammannirari and Nebuchadrezzar (Birs Nimrud); Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.v.; id., Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.v. Adad.

[1400] There is no separate god of Sheol in the Old Testament. On Eve as such a deity see Lidzbarski, Ephmeris, i, 26; cf. Cook, North Semitic Inscriptions, 135.

[1401] Gen. vi, 4, cf. Ezek. xxxii, 27; Philo of Byblos; Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature.

[1402] Isa. lxiii, 16 ("God is our father, though Abraham and Israel do not acknowledge us") is regarded by some commentators as pointing to ancestor-worship. It seems, however, to be nothing more than the complaint of persons who were disowned by the community or by the leaders.

[1403] § 341 ff.

[1404] Jastrow, Religions of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 168: "a pantheon of demons."

[1405] Isa. xxxiv, 14.

[1406] Satan is one of the Elohim-beings, old gods subordinated to Yahweh, and Azazel, if his name contains the divine title el, must be put into this class.

[1407] Wisdom of Solomon, ii, 24.

[1408] Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. v. On Hindu demons see Hopkins, Religions of India, Index, s.v. Devils.

[1409] §§ 698 ff., 398 ff.

[1410] See below, Chapter vii. Here, again, Mazdaism forms an exception, resembling the Semitic scheme rather than the Hindu.

[1411] A partial exception is found in the comparatively late movement from the south of Arabia over into Africa (Abessinia, Ethiopia).

[1412] On the characteristics of the various great religions see Hegel, Religionsphilosphe; Santayana, Reason in Religion (vol. iii of The Life of Reason); E. Caird, Evolution of Religion; R. B. Perry, Approach to Philosophy; S. Johnson, Oriental Religions; J. F. Clarke, Ten Great Religions; S. Reinach, Orpheus. See below, Chapter ix.

[1413] But a certain substratum is usually assumed, no attempt being made to account for its existence.

[1414] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, chaps. viii-x; Jastrow, Study of Religion, Index, s.vv. Myth, Mythology; Lang, Custom and Myth, and Myth, Ritual, and Religion; articles "Mythologie" in La Grande Encyclopédie, and "Mythology" in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed.

[1415] Belief in miracles, which is found in some higher religions, may here be left out of the account as belonging in a separate category.

[1416] Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, chaps. ii-iv.

[1417] So with the theory of universal borrowing from one center advocated by Stucken (Astralmythen), Winckler (Himmels- und Weltensbild der Babylonier als Grundlage der Weltanschauung und Mythologle aller Völker), Jeremias (Das Alte Testament im Lichte des Alten Orients), Jensen (Das Gilgamesch Epos), and others.

[1418] Cf. article "Cosmogony and Cosmology" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1419] § 225 ff.

[1420] Çatapatha Brahmana, xi, 1, 6, 1.

[1421] R. B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 335 f.

[1422] Spiegel (Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 144) ascribes to the Eranians the conception of creation out of nothing. See also the Hawaiian representation of the origin of all things from the primeval void, and the orderly sequence of the various forms of life.

[1423] A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion chap. vi ff.

[1424] See, for example, the two accounts of creation in the Book of Genesis. In the earlier account (chap. ii) the procedure of Yahweh is mechanical, and things do not turn out as he intended; in the later account (chap. i) there is no mention of a process—it is the divine word that calls the world into being.

[1425] Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 263.

[1426] See R. Andree, Die Flutsagen; article "Flood" in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible.

[1427] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 37; cf. Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. 14 ff.

[1428] Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 57 f.; cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 335.

[1429] Callaway, The Amazulu, pp. 3, 4, 100, 138.

[1430] Gen. v; vi, 4; Herodotus, iii, 23; Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. Giganten; cf. Tylor, op. cit., i, 385 ff.; Brinton, American Hero-Myths, p. 88.

[1431] Brinton, Religions of Primitive Peoples, p. 126 f.; Maspero, Dawn, p. 158; Gen. ii, iii; Avesta, Vendidad, Fargard ii; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, i, 463 ff.; Windischmann, Zoroastrische Studien, p. 19 ff.; Hopkins, in Journal of the American Oriental Society (September, 1910), pp. 362, 366; article "Hesperiden" in Roscher's Lexikon; commentaries of Kalisch, Dillmann, Driver, Skinner, and others on Gen. ii, iii; Jewish Encyclopædia, s.v. Paradise; Delitzsch, Wo lag das Paradies? On the character of the abode of the Babylonian Parnapishtim see Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 488, 496.

[1432] 2 Pet. iii, 7, contrast with the old destruction by water; Hindu eschatology.

[1433] The Norse myth of "the twilight of the gods" has perhaps been colored, in its latest form, by Christian eschatology.

[1434] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 421; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, ii, 161; H. Warren, Buddhism in Translations, p. 315 ff.

[1435] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 63 ff.

[1436] Hartland, Primitive Paternity, chap. i.

[1437] Grey, Polynesian Mythology, chap. i.

[1438] Maspero, Dawn, p. 128 f.

[1439] Aitareya Brahmana, iv, 27.

[1440] Hollis, The Masai, p. 279; cf. Turner, Samoa, p. 198.

[1441] Gruppe, Griechische Culte und Mythen. Cf. the birth-myth in Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 71.

[1442] So Heracles, Achilles, Æneas, and the heroes mentioned in Gen. vi, 4.

[1443] Gen. ii, 7.

[1444] So in Polynesia, North America, China, ancient Greece, and among the Hebrews.

[1445] As, for example, the Hebrews (Deut. xxxii, 8 f.)

[1446] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 119 ff.; Taylor, New Zealand, chap. xiv and p. 325; Turner, Samoa, p. 3 ff.; J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, pp. 33 ff., 179 ff., § 61.

[1447] So the Hindu Manu (man), or Father Manu (Rig-Veda, ii, 33, 13), is the progenitor of the human race. Cf. the "first man," Yama. For the Old-Persian genealogical scheme see Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, i, 473, 500 ff.

[1448] Deut. xxxii.

[1449] Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 156 ff.; Réville, Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, p. 64; Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 264, and American Hero-Myths, pp. 186 f., 195 ff.; cf. R. B. Brehm, Das Inka-Reich, p. 24 ff.

[1450] Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, p. 89.

[1451] Gen. iv, 16 ff.

[1452] Gen. vi, 1, 2, 4 (verse 3 is an interpolation).

[1453] Herodotus, v, 57 f.; Roscher, Lexikon, s.v. Kadmos.

[1454] Rig-Veda, i, 93, 6.

[1455] Hesiod, Works and Days, 49 ff.

[1456] In the story in Genesis (ii, 17; iii, 5, 22-24) there is a trace of such jealousy; and it is by violation of the command of the deity that man attains the knowledge of good and evil.

[1457] L. Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. xxv (and cf. chap. xxvi).

[1458] Chapter iii.

[1459] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 394 ff.

[1460] See above, § 153 ff.

[1461] Gen. xvii.

[1462] Ex. iv, 24-26; Josh. v, 2 ff.

[1463] W. Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 40 ff.; J. W. Fewkes, The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi.

[1464] Réville, Native Religions of Mexico and Peru (Hibbert Lectures), pp. 94 f., 110 (cf. ib., p. 224 f., on Peruvian dances). See above, § 109, note 6.

[1465] Gen. xxxii, 24 ff.

[1466] Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 38.

[1467] Fowler, op. cit., p. 99 ff.; for another view see Roscher, Lexikon, article "Maia II"; cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 185.

[1468] Augustine, De Civitate Dei, 18, 9.

[1469] Judg. xi, 30 ff.

[1470] Plutarch, Theseus, 27.

[1471] F. B. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, chap. xxiii f.; Miss J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. x; K. H. E. de Jong, Das antike Mysterienwesen, pp. 14, 16, 18; Preller, "Eleusinia" in Pauly's Realencyclopädie; Reitzenstein, Hellenistische Mysterienreligion.

[1472] In Babylonia such rôles are ascribed to Ea and Marduk (Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 137, 139, 276).

[1473] See above, § 844 f.; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 18, 173 ff., Records of the Past, vi, 108.

[1474] The myths connected with Quetzalcoatl (see Brinton, American Hero-Myths, and L. Spence, Mythologies of Ancient Mexico and Peru) do not relate mostly to the movements and deeds of the sun or the winds, but arose from his character as local deity with universal powers. Social and political events were woven into them. His contest with Tezcatlipoca seems to reflect the struggle between two tribes; his defeat signifies the victory of the conquering tribe, and the expectation of his return (by which the invading Spaniards, it is said, profited) was based on the political hope of his people. Cf. similar expectations among other peoples.

[1475] Gen. xxii.

[1476] B. Beer, Leben Abraham's nach Auffassung der jüdischen Sage, p. 5 and note 34; p. 102, note 30.

[1477] Turner, Samoa, Index.

[1478] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, chap. xviii.

[1479] Pausanias, Description of Greece, passim.

[1480] Semitic and other examples are given in W. R. Smith's Religion of the Semites, p. 173 ff.

[1481] On the complicated myth of Phaëthon see the article in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1482] Isa. xxiv, 21; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 356 ff.

[1483] The Babylonians were the great astronomers and astrologers of antiquity, but their eminence in this regard belongs to their later period. After the fall of the later Babylonian empire (B.C. 539) the term 'Chaldean' became a synonym of 'astrologer' (so in the Book of Daniel, B.C. 165-164); cf. Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, p. 259 f.

[1484] Brinton, Myths of the New World, passim; Hartland, Primitive Paternity, i, 149 f.; Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 1 ff.; Hickson, Northern Celebes; Lane, Arabian Nights, i, 30 ff.; Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 216 f.; Iliad, xxiii, 198 ff.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 360 ff.; Ratzel, History of Mankind (Eng. tr.), passim.

[1485] Iliad, xxiii, 200 f. For some wind-myths see Roscher, Lexikon, articles "Boreaden," "Boreas," "Harpyia." Cf. the Maori myths given in R. Taylor's New Zealand, chap. vi, and for Navaho winds see Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 226, note 75.

[1486] As in Goldziher's Hebrew Mythology (Eng. tr.), a view later abandoned by the author.

[1487] By Mannhardt, in Mythologische Forschungen, p. 224 ff.; Frazer, in Golden Bough, 2d ed. (see Index, s.v. Corn); and others.

[1488] Cf. Frazer, op. cit., chap. iii, § 16 f.; Roscher, Lexikon, articles "Kybele," "Attis," "Persephone," "Ceres"; and Farnell, Cults of the Greek States.

[1489] See above, § 678.

[1490] Gen. i, 2 f.

[1491] Dan. ii, 22; Rev. xxi, 23.

[1492] This is true even in the case of abstract deities; see above, §§ 696, 702 ff.

[1493] A myth is a purely imaginative explanation of phenomena; a legend rests on facts, but the facts are distorted. The two terms are often confused the one with the other.

[1494] Some peculiar combinations appear in the figures of Semiramis and the Kuretes and the Korybantes; see the articles in Roscher's Lexikon under these headings.

[1495] Cf. Gomme, Folklore as an Historical Science; Van Gennep, La formation des légendes.

[1496] See the various folk-lore journals; W. W. Newell, article "Folk-lore" in Johnson's Universal Cyclopædia; cf. Gomme, op. cit., and § 881 below.

[1497] So in the cases of the Australian ancestors, the Polynesian, Teutonic, Finnic, Slavic, Greek, Phrygian, and other heroes and gods, the Hebrew patriarchs, and many other such figures.

[1498] See above, § 859.

[1499] See above, § 649.

[1500] Such were the Greek rhapsodists (Müller and Donaldson, History of the Literature of Ancient Greece, i, 33 ff.), and probably the Hebrew mashalists (Numb. xxi, 27, Eng. tr., "they that speak in proverbs"). Such reciters are found in India at the present day.

[1501] On the value of myths for religious instruction cf. Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Eng. tr. (of 4th German ed.), i, chap. ii.

[1502] Geffcken, article "Allegory" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1503] Phædrus, 229; Cratylus, 406 f.; Republic 378.

[1504] Cf. Müller and Donaldson, History of the Literature of Ancient Greece, chap. xxvi.

[1505] 1 Cor. ix, 9 f.; x, 1-4; Gal. iv, 24 ff.; Heb. vii, 2; Origen, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and commentators generally up to the sixteenth century and later.

[1506] Origine de tous les cultes ou religion universelle (1794).

[1507] Science of Language, 2d series; cf. his Hibbert and Gifford lectures.

[1508] It is elaborated in G. W. Cox's Mythology of the Aryan Nations.

[1509] Op. cit. § 864. Cf. article "Panbabylonianism" in Harvard Theological Review for January, 1910.

[1510] Astralmythen der Hebräer, Babylonier und Aegypter (1896-1907).

[1511] So in folk-tales the same motif appears in a hundred different settings; but this is not necessarily a sign of borrowing.

[1512] Op. cit., p. 190.

[1513] See above, § 826, note.

[1514] No well-defined Arabian myths are known.

[1515] Most of the Old Testament mythical material has been worked over by Hebrew monotheistic editors.

[1516] P. Jensen, Das Gilgamesch Epos in der Weltliteratur.

[1517] Cf. article "Panbabylonianism" cited in § 866, note.

[1518] As, for example, those of New Zealand, Babylonia, and Greece.

[1519] Cf. Keightley, Fairy Mythology, 2d ed., p. 14 f.

[1520] Bacon, Wisdom of the Ancients; in Biblical exposition many recent writers.

[1521] See above, § 864 ff.; cf. Jastrow, Study of Religion, p. 28 ff.

[1522] Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker (1810-1812).

[1523] Antisymbolik (1824-1826).

[1524] Buttmann, Welcker, Lobeck, and others.

[1525] Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie (1825).

[1526] See above, § 865.

[1527] See above, § 359. Cf. Grant Allen, The Evolution of the Idea of God.

[1528] Darwin and Spencer (evolution), Bastian (ethnology), and others.

[1529] In his Early History of Mankind and Primitive Culture. Cf. C. de Brosses (Du culte des dieux fétiches, 1760), who expressed a similar view.

[1530] A. Lang, Custom and Myth and Myth, Ritual, and Religion, and other works; Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d and 3d edd.; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites; and others.

[1531] Mannhardt, Wald- und Feldkulte and Mythologische Forschungen.

[1532] See the bibliography at the end of this book.

[1533] Beginnings for such a survey have been made in the Teutonic, American, and some other areas.

[1534] Confucianism, if it can be called a religion, is an exception.

[1535] See the bibliographies in Johnson's Universal Cyclopædia, article "Fairy-lore," and La Grande Encyclopédie, article "Fée"; Maury, Croyances et légendes du moyen âge, new ed.; Hartland, The Science of Fairy-tales.

[1536] Tylor, Primitive Culture, Index, s.v. Magic; Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., Index, do.; id., Early History of the Kingship, Index, do.; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, Index, do.; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, do.; S. Reinach, Orpheus, Index, do.; Hubert and Mauss, in Année sociologique, vii; Marett, Threshold of Religion; articles "Magie" in La Grande Encyclopédie and "Magic" in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed.; article "Magia" in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines.

[1537] Examples are cited in the works mentioned above.

[1538] On the view that many quasi-magical acts are spontaneous reactions of the man to his environment see I. King, Development of Religion, chap. vii. According to this view the thought suggests the act. The warrior, thinking of his enemy, instinctively makes the motion of hurling something at him (as a modern man shakes his fist at an absent foe), and such an act, a part of the excitation to combat, is believed to be efficacious.

[1539] Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, s.v. The Evil Eye.

[1540] On mana see above, § 231 ff. Though the theory of mana was necessarily vague, the thing itself was quite definite.

[1541] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 85.

[1542] Isis and Osiris, 73.

[1543] Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 154 ff.

[1544] § 6 f.

[1545] Cf. Lord Avebury, Marriage, Totemism, and Religion, p. 135.

[1546] Alexander, Short History of the Hawaiian People.

[1547] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 263.

[1548] Matthews, Navaho Legends, p. 36.

[1549] Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, lecture iii.

[1550] Teit, Thompson River Indians, p. 53 f.

[1551] 1 Cor. x, 20 f.

[1552] Certain ceremonies of the higher religions produce effects that must be regarded as magical.

[1553] Lubbock, Origin of Civilization, p. 188. Similar logic appears in the story of the origin of Goodwin Sands, told by Bishop Latimer (in a sermon preached before Edward VI). An old man, being asked what he thought was the cause of the Sands, replied that he had lived near there, man and boy, fourscore years, and before the neighboring steeple was built there was no Sands, and therefore his opinion was that the steeple was the cause of the Sands.

[1554] So among the old Hebrews, according to 1 Sam. xxviii, 9. For Rome cf. Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, lecture iii.

[1555] Cf. above, § 889.

[1556] In some cases the priest is a magician (Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 114 ff.)—he acts as the mouthpiece of a god, and in sympathy with the god. Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 658. On a connection between the magician and the poet see Goldziher, in Proceedings of the Tenth International Congress of Orientalists.

[1557] Cf. above, § 889.

[1558] Dixon, The Northern Maidu, p. 267 f.; id., The Shasta, 471 ff.

[1559] Ellis, Tshi, p. 120.

[1560] Dixon, The Shasta, loc. cit.; Miss Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies, p. 280.

[1561] M. Kingsley, Studies, p. 136.

[1562] Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. 278.

[1563] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 267 f.

[1564] 1 Sam. xxviii.

[1565] Apuleius, Metamorphoses, bk. ii f.

[1566] Sura cxiii.

[1567] Women, however, are sometimes shamans in such tribes, as in the California Shasta (while in the neighboring Maidu they are commonly men). See Dixon, The Shasta, p. 471; The Northern Maidu, p. 267 f.

[1568] Tiele, Elements of the Science of Religion, ii, 140; cf. Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, iii, 564 f., 587 f.; Jackson, in Geiger and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii, 630, 671, 692.

[1569] Sophocles, Œdipus Tyrannus, 387; Euripides, Orestes, 1498. Hence the term 'magic' as the designation of a certain form of procedure.

[1570] So in the Thousand and One Nights, passim.

[1571] Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 113 ff.; Castrén, Finnische Mythologie, pp. 186 ff., 229; Skeat, Malay Magic, p. 162; Rivers, The Todas, p. 263; Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, ii, 283 ff. For modern usages see Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart, 2d ed., pp. 131, 241.

[1572] A magician, as a man of special social prominence and of extraordinary power over the forces of the world, becomes, in some cases, the political head of his community (as a priest sometimes has a like position). Where the divinization of men is practiced, the magician may be recognized as a god. But no general rule can be laid down. The office of king had its own political development, and a god was the natural product of the reflection of a community. The elevation of the magician to high political or ecclesiastical position was dependent on peculiar circumstances and may be called sporadic. Cf. Frazer, Early History of the Kingship, p. 107 ff. and lecture v.

[1573] Cf. Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., Index, s.v. Kings.

[1574] See Lord Avebury, Marriage, Totemism, and Religion, chap. iv.

[1575] The plant or animal may be a totem, but its magical power is not derived from its totemic character. Magical potency may dwell in nontotemic objects; in magical ceremonies connected with totems (as in Australia) it is the ceremony rather than the totem that is efficacious. Cf. Marett, Threshold of Religion, p. 22 f.

[1576] Cf. Marett, "From spell to prayer," in his Threshold of Religion, p. 33 ff.

[1577] Cf. J. H. King, The Supernatural, Index, s.v. Charm; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 148; article "Charms and Amulets" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1578] Eng. tr. by Bloomfield, in Sacred Books of the East.

[1579] L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery.

[1580] Records of the Past, first series, vols. ii, vi; Griffith, article "Egyptian Literature" in Library of the World's Best Literature; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 212 ff.; Breasted, History of Egypt, Index, s.v. Magic.

[1581] Cf. Macdonald, Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, Index, s.v. Magic.

[1582] Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines, article "Magia"; cf. articles "Medeia" and "Kirke" in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1583] Apuleius, Metamorphoses; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ii, 535 ff.; Friedländer, Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire (Eng. tr.), i, 260 f.; Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People, p. 57 ff.; cf. Cumont, Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans, Index, s.v. Magic.

[1584] 1 Sam. xxviii; Isa. viii, 19.

[1585] In the later Judaism Solomon is the great master of magic; see the story of the Queen of Sheba in the Second Esther Targum; Baring-Gould, Legends of Old Testament Characters. For the Arabian legends of Solomon (borrowed from the Jews) see Koran, sura xxxviii; History of Bilkis, Queen of Sheba, compiled from various Arabic sources, in Socin's Arabic Grammar (Eng. tr., 1885).

[1586] Lecky, History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.vv. Magic and Witches.

[1587] These Powers, including mana, may all be called "divine" as distinguished from the purely "human."

[1588] A superhuman phenomenon, if produced by a deity, is called a "miracle," and is held to be beneficent; if produced by a nontheistic process, it is called "magical," and is looked at doubtfully.

[1589] Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 696; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, Index, s.v. Magic and Morals.

[1590] Ultimately, in early religious theory, all objects are divine or abodes or incarnations of divine beings and capable of independent action; sometimes, doubtless, the recognition of the natural character of a thing (as of courage and other qualities in animals) coalesces with the belief in its guiding power.

[1591] Cf. article "Magia" in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines, p. 1496.

[1592] Rivers, The Todas, p. 254.

[1593] Cf. article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, p. 358.

[1594] 1 Sam. x, 5; xix, 24.

[1595] Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 513 f. The envoy not only failed to procure cedar for the sacred barge of Amon but was ordered by the prince to leave the city; the youth intervened successfully (ca. 1100 B.C.).

[1596] So Teiresias (Odyssey, x, 492 ff.; Œdipus Tyrannus, 92) and Samuel (1 Sam. ix).

[1597] Mic. i, 8; cf. 2 Kings iii, 15 (music as a preliminary condition of inspiration).

[1598] As among the Hebrews, the Greeks, and other ancient peoples.

[1599] Formerly, says Cicero (De Divinatione, i, 16), almost nothing of moment, or even in private affairs, was undertaken without an augury.

[1600] For a tabulation of omens and other signs and of forms of divinatory procedure see article "Divination" in La Grande Encyclopédie.

[1601] Cicero, De Divinatione, i, 1-4; Diodorus Siculus, i, 70, 81; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 216 ff.; Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 113 ff. (cf. Gen. xliv, 5, 15, which may point to an Egyptian custom of divination by cup); Jastrow, Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens, and Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 256, 328; De Groot, Religious System of China, i, 103 ff.; iii, chap. xii; Buckley, in Saussaye's Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed. (China); articles "Divination" in Encyclopædia Biblica, Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, and Jewish Encyclopedia; Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité;; articles "Divinatio" and "Haruspices" in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines; Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, chap. vii; Stengel and Oehmichen, Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer; Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 450 ff.; Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, lecture xiii; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, pp. 126 ff., 148 ff.; article "Celts" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics; Hastings, op. cit., ii, 54 ff.; Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, Index, s.v. Divination.

[1602] Turner, Samoa, Index, s.v. Omens.

[1603] These animals were originally themselves divine, and therefore, by their own knowledge, capable of indicating the course of events; cf. § 905, note.

[1604] Hollis, The Masai, p. 323 f.; id., The Nandi, p. 79.

[1605] Ellis, Tshi, p. 203.

[1606] Conolly, Journey to the North of India, 2d ed., 1838, ii, 137 ff.

[1607] Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 78, etc. For South Africa cf. Callaway, The Amasulu, Index, s.vv. Omens, Divination, Diviners; Kidd, The Essential Kafir, Index, s.v. Divining; article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, p. 362.

[1608] 2 Sam. v, 24.

[1609] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (Eng. and Ger. edd.), in which references to the original documents are given.

[1610] ὄρνις, οίωνός. Iliad, ii, 859; xii, 237; xxiv, 219; Hesiod, Works and Days, 826; cf. Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité, i, 127 ff.

[1611] Birds, 715 ff.

[1612] Iliad, xii, 243.

[1613] In Borneo, which has an elaborate scheme of omens from birds, prayer is sometimes addressed to them. Furness, Home life of the Borneo Head-hunters, Index, s.v. Omen; Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 344.

[1614] The sacrificial animal was regarded as divine, and its movements had the significance of divine counsels.

[1615] Terence, Phormio, IV, iv, 25 ff.

[1616] Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, ii, 137; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 119 f.; Miss Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies, p. 278 ff.

[1617] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 384 ff.

[1618] Turner, Samoa, p. 319; Rivers, The Todas, p. 593; Hollis, The Nandi, p. 100, and The Masai, p. 275 ff.

[1619] On the exaggerated range and importance ascribed by some modern writers to early conceptions of the divinatory function of heavenly bodies see above, §§ 826, 866 ff.

[1620] Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, pp. 163, 180.

[1621] Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, p. 240 ff.; R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, p. 451 ff.

[1622] Persius, vi, 18.

[1623] Cicero, De Divinatione, ii, 42 ff.

[1624] The largest planet was brought into connection with the chief god of Babylon, Marduk; the bright star of morning and evening with Ishtar; the red planet with Nergal, god of war, and the others with Ninib and Nebo respectively. The Romans changed these names into those of their corresponding deities, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, Saturn, and Mercury.

[1625] Cumont, Les religions orientales dans le paganisme romain, chap. vii, and Eng. tr., The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism; id., Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans; Bouché-Leclercq, L'astrologie grecque and Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité.

[1626] Medieval belief in astral power is embodied in the English word 'influence,' properly the inflow from the stars (so in Milton's L'Allegro, 121 f., "ladies whose bright eyes rain influence"). An astrologer was often attached to a royal court or to the household of some great person, his duty being to keep his patron informed as to the future.

[1627] Odyssey, xvii, 541 ff. The fear of a sneeze (which must be followed by some form of 'God bless you!') belongs in a different category; the danger is that a hurtful spirit may enter the sneezer's body, or that his soul may depart.

[1628] Muir, The Caliphate, p. 112.

[1629] Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 362; Ellis, Tshi, p. 202; id., Yoruba, p. 97; cf. Hollis, The Masai, p. 324.

[1630] 1 Sam. xxiii, 2.

[1631] 1 Sam. xiv, 38-42 (see the Septuagint text).

[1632] Ezek. xxi, 21 [26].

[1633] Moallakat of Imru'l-Kais, ver. 22.

[1634] Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité, i, 195 ff.; iv, 153, 159; Augustine, Confessions, iv, 5: de paginis poetae cujuspiam longe allud canentis atque intendentis; if, says Augustine's friend, an apposite verse so appears, it is not wonderful that something bearing on one's affairs should issue from the human soul by some higher instinct, though the soul does not know what goes on within it.

[1635] Cf. Comparetti, Virgilio nel medio evo, i, 64 f. (Eng. tr., p. 47 f.).

[1636] As the Masai (Hollis, The Masai, p. 324).

[1637] Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité; Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines, s.v. Haruspices; Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People, Index, s.v. Haruspices.

[1638] M. Jastrow, "The Liver in Antiquity" (University of Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin, 1908) and Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens.

[1639] Primitive Culture, i, 124.

[1640] See above, § 28. The skull is employed as a means of divination (Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 91 ff.).

[1641] See above, § 24.

[1642] Cf. Roscher, Lexikon, article "Oneiros," col. 904.

[1643] J. H. King, The Supernatural, i, 168 ff.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 121 ff., 440 f.; Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia p. 436; Mrs. K. Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe, pp. 28, 83 f.

[1644] Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, Index, s.v. Dreams.

[1645] Ellis, Tshi, p. 90

[1646] Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 468, and see p. 558.

[1647] Gen. xi f.

[1648] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 349 f.

[1649] Gen. xx, 3; xxviii, 12; xxxi, 11; xxxvii, 5.

[1650] Dan. ii, iv.

[1651] Iliad, ii, 1 ff. So Yahweh, by a lying spirit, sends Ahab to his death (1 Kings, xxii, 19 ff.) and deceives the prophet, who misleads the people (Ezek. xiv, 9). The theory of these ancient writers was that a deity, like an earthly king, had a right to use any means to gain his ends.

[1652] Cf. article "Oneiros" in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1653] 1 Sam. xxviii, 6. The other means used, it is said, were the urim (urim and thummim) and prophets. These all failing, the king had recourse to necromancy.

[1654] See article "Asklepios" in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1655] See the description in Pater's Marius the Epicurean.

[1656] A god might send a dream to a seer for the benefit of some other person. So Ishtar spoke to Assurbanipal through the dream of a seer (George Smith, History of Assurbanipal, p. 123 f.).

[1657] Jastrow, Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens; Dan. ii, 2 ff.; Deut. xiii, 1; Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 258; Aust, Religion der Römer, Index, s.v. Traum, Traumdeutung; Roscher, Lexikon, article "Oneiros."

[1658] So it was in the case of magicians and prophets generally; cf. Ezek. xxxix, 21; Isa. xiiii, 9.

[1659] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 404, and German ed., ii, Index.

[1660] Dream-books exist at the present day. Those who believe in the predictive power of dreams regard them as messages from God or as products of telepathy.

[1661] The Nandi invoke a skull as divine witness (Hollis, The Nandi, p. 76 f.).

[1662] Ellis, Tshi chap. xviii.

[1663] Apparently because he is thus shown to be unsupported by any evil spirit.

[1664] Frobenius, Childhood of Man, p. 190 ff.

[1665] Turner, Samoa, p. 184.

[1666] Purchas, Pilgrimage, ed. Ravenstein, pp. 56 f., 59 f.

[1667] "Code of Hammurabi" (§§ 2, 132), by C. H. W. Johns, in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, extra volume.

[1668] Numb. v.

[1669] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 275 ff.

[1670] She was rejected by the sacred water; cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 179; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i, 140. Cf. Ellis, Yoruba, p. 190 f.; id., Tshi, pp. 198, 201.

[1671] Turner, Samoa, p. 184.

[1672] Similarly, a blessing once uttered remains effective and cannot be recalled; so in the story of Isaac blessing Jacob and Esau, Gen. xxvii.

[1673] Westermarck, "'L-'âr" in Anthropological Essays presented to Tylor; cf. his Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Curses.

[1674] Hence the opposition (now disappearing) to lines of railway and telegraph, which were supposed to interfere with the happy influences of rivers and hills and other natural features.

[1675] De Groot, Religious System of China and Development of Religion in China; and his article "Die Chinesen" in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte. See above, § 747 ff.

[1676] Haddon, Head-hunters, pp. 42, 182 f.; on the sacredness of the head see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., i, 362 ff.; Frobenius, Childhood of Man, chap. xiii.

[1677] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 532.

[1678] So when Rebecca wished to obtain information about her children, soon to be born, it is said simply that she went to inquire of Yahweh (Gen. xxv, 22), as if there was, as a matter of course, a shrine in the neighborhood.

[1679] Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité, ii, 250 ff.; iii.

[1680] Cumont, Les religions orientales dans le paganisme romain, Eng. tr., The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism, pp. 105, 124 f., 168.

[1681] Cf. Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 113 f.

[1682] Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 126 ff.

[1683] 1 Sam. xiv, 36 ff.; xxiii, 2; xxx, 7 f.; Isa. lxv, 1; Ezek. xxxiii, 30 ff.

[1684] 2 Kings, i, 2. The prophet Elijah, who was a zealous Yahwist, was very angry with the king for applying to a foreign deity; but evidently the Philistine shrine enjoyed a greater reputation than any in Israel.

[1685] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.v. Oracles.

[1686] Cf. Aust, Religion der Römer, Index, s.v. Orakel; see below, § 933 ff.

[1687] Friedländer, Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire (Eng. tr.), p. 3, 129 ff.; Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, p. 339.

[1688] Cicero, De Divinatione, i, 34, 37 f.; Plutarch, De Pythiae Oraculis and De Defectu Oraculorum; Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, Index, s.v. Oracles; Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité, Index, and Stengel and Oehmichen, Die greichischen Sakralaltertümer, Index; Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., article "Oracle."

[1689] On the position of women in ancient religion cf. Farnell's article in Archiv für Relgionswissenschaft, 1904.

[1690] Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, pp. 102, 105; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, iv, 187 ff.

[1691] See above, §§ 362, 366.

[1692] See article "Ancestor-worship" and articles on lower tribes in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1693] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 511.

[1694] 1 Sam. xxviii; Isa. viii, 19.

[1695] Ezek. xxi, 26 [21] (King Nebuchadrezzar divines by teraphim).

[1696] Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité, iii, 363 ff.; Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines, article "Divination," p. 308.

[1697] 1 Cor. xv, 49; 2 Cor. v, 8; Cumont, Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans, lecture vi.

[1698] Cranz, Greenland, i, 192 ff.; Rink, Danish Greenland, p. 142 f.

[1699] Brinton, Cakchiquels, p. 47.

[1700] Cf. Nöldeke, article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, i, 667, 671.

[1701] Ellis, Yoruba, p. 56 ff.; id., Tshi, p. 124 ff.

[1702] P. R. Gurden, article "Ahoms" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1703] Rivers, The Todas, p. 249 ff.

[1704] A. Bertrand, La religion des Gaulois, pp. 257, 259, 263.

[1705] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 341.

[1706] On Hebrew divination see articles "Divination" in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, and in the Encyclopædia Biblica.

[1707] Deut. xiii, 1; xviii, 10.

[1708] The Hebrew text is doubtful, and its meaning is not clear; cf. Gray, "The Book Of Isaiah," in The International Critical Commentary.

[1709] Gen. xliv, 5.

[1710] Cf. Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité, ii, 1 ff., 62 ff.

[1711] Timæus, 72.

[1712] Xenophon, Memorabilia, i, 3, 4: τὰ ὑπο τῶν θεῶν σημαινόμενα.

[1713] Originally diviners from the flight of birds, but the area of their divinatory functions was gradually extended. See Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 450 ff.; Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, lecture xiii.

[1714] Charged with the interpretation of the entrails of sacrificed animals, and also of lightning and portents.

[1715] Wissowa, op. cit., p. 474.

[1716] Cf. above, § 895 f.

[1717] This story (connected with Thebes) appears to represent some sort of protest against the Dionysiac cult when it was first brought to Greece; cf. Roscher, Lexikon, article "Pentheus."

[1718] Cf. above, § 927.

[1719] 1 Sam. xix, 24; cf. Mic. i, 8 ff.

[1720] Their "visions" sometimes show literary art (Ezek. xl ff.; Zech. i-viii).

[1721] Roscher, Lexikon, article "Sibylla."

[1722] That is, she was not to be tolerated as a rival of the great oracular god.

[1723] Cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, pp. 239, 462 ff.

[1724] Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité, ii, Index, s.v. Cumes.

[1725] Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 463; Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, p. 339.

[1726] Augustine, De Civitate Dei, x, 27 (in connection with Vergil's verses, Eclogues, iv, 13 f.); xxviii, 23 (the initial letters in Sibylline Oracles, viii, 268-309, giving a title of Christ). So Eusebius, in his report of the Oration of Constantine, xviii; cf. Lactantius, Divinae Institutiones, lib. i, cap. vi.

[1727] Oracula Sibyllina, ed. Alexandre (Greek text, with Latin tr.); ed. Friedlieb (Greek text, with German tr. and additions by Volkmann); ed. Rzack (critical Greek text); Terry, The Sibylline Oracles (Eng. tr., blank verse).

[1728] On the attitude of early Greek philosophers (Pythagoras, Democritus, Empedocles, Thales, Xenophanes) toward divination, and the relation of the latter to the idea of divine providence, see Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité, i, 29 ff.

[1729] See Chapter iii.

[1730] Cf. Barton, Semitic Origins, chap. i.

[1731] Cf. Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt.

[1732] Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, chaps. i, xvi.

[1733] Bertrand, La religion des Gaulois; Rhys, Celtic Heathendom; Usener, Götternamen; articles "Celts" and "Aryan Religion" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1734] Cf. the sketch given above, Chapter vii; Tylor, Primitive Culture; Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., passim.

[1735] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, and Northern Tribes of Central Australia; Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia; Quatrefages, The Pygmies; Hyades and Deniker, Mission scientifique du cap Horn; Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea.

[1736] Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrika's; article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1737] Callaway, The Amazulu.

[1738] See above, § 837.

[1739] Rivers, The Todas.

[1740] Codrington, The Melanesians; W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches; Williams and Calvert, Fiji; Turner, Samoa; Krämer, Die Samoa-Inseln; Taylor, New Zealand; H. Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo.

[1741] Brinton, The Lenâpé; Matthews, Navaho Legends; Dorsey, Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee; Teit, Thompson River Indians; Boas, The Kwakiutl; Dixon, The Northern Maidu and The Shasta; Journal of American Folklore, passim.

[1742] Van Gennep, Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar; A.B. Ellis, Eẃe, Tshi, Yoruba; Skeat, Malay Magic; Skeat and Blagden, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula; Hopkins, Religions of India.

[1743] Aston, Shinto; Knox, Development of Religion in Japan.

[1744] The Kalevala; Castrén, Finnische Mythologie.

[1745] Prescott, Conquest of Mexico and Conquest of Peru; Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of America; Brinton, American Hero-Myths, Index; Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, Index, s.vv. Mexican Divine Myths and Peruvian Myths.

[1746] Ehrenreich, Mythen und Legenden der südamericanischen Urvölker.

[1747] De Groot, Religious System of China.

[1748] The Avesta; Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, vol. ii, bk. iv, chaps. i, ii; De Harlez, Avesta, Introduction, p. lxxxiv ff.; The Shahnameh.

[1749] Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 155 ff.; Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 106 ff.

[1750] Plutarch, Isis and Osiris; Steindorff, op. cit., Index, s.vv. Isis and Osiris; Roscher, Lexikon, articles "Isis," "Usire."

[1751] R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature; Jastrow, Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.v. Myths.

[1752] Job xxvi, 12; Ps. lxxxix, 11 [10]; Isa. li, 9.

[1753] Deut. xxxii, 8 f.

[1754] Gen. iv, 17 ff.; v, vi, 4; Ezek. xxxii, 27 (revised text).

[1755] Gen. iii, 14 ff. On the loss of immortality see above, § 834.

[1756] On the ceremony of mourning for Tammuz (Ezek. viii, 14) see Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 574 ff.; Pseudo-Lucian, De Syria Dea. In Babylonia the ceremony appears to have been an official lament for the loss of vegetation (the women mourners being attached to the temple); in Syria (Hierapolis) it took on orgiastic elements (perhaps an importation from Asia Minor). The women of Ezek. viii were attached, probably, to the service of the temple.

[1757] Barth, Religions of India; Hopkins, Religions of India; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology; Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, Index.

[1758] This is true of all mythical and legendary creations of the thought of communities, but in an especial degree of the Greek.

[1759] Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, Index, s.v. Myths; he distinguishes between the earlier and the later stories; R. M. Meyer, Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte, chaps. iii, iv.

[1760] Folk-lore and legend mingle with the myths.

[1761] See R. M. Meyer, op. cit., p. 444 ff.

[1762] Even in great modern religions nominally monotheistic a virtual polytheism continues to exist.

[1763] See above, § 683 ff.

[1764] This conception survives in the great polytheistic cults, and may be recognized in the later religions of redemption.

[1765] Compare the Brazilian Tapuyas (Botocudos); see article "Brazil" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1766] For West Africa cf. A. B. Ellis, Yoruba, p. 87; Tshi, chaps. iii-viii; Eẃe, chaps. iii-v.

[1767] § 365 ff. On this attitude see the reports of the religions of particular peoples and the summaries of such reports in dictionaries and encyclopedias, and in such works as Steinmetz, Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas; also articles in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, the reports of the American Bureau of Ethnology, and similar publications.

[1768] Theoph. Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, p. 38.

[1769] Hollis, The Masai, p. 264 f.

[1770] Skeat, Malay Magic, pp. 93 ff., 320 ff.

[1771] Batchelor, The Ainu, pp. 193 f., 200.

[1772] Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 135 ff.; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, Index, s.v. Jinn.

[1773] R. C. Temple, article "Andamans" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1774] For example, by Waitz, Anthropologie, iii, pp. 182 f., 330, 334 f.; Waitz expresses doubt (p. 345) as to the correctness of certain accounts of the religious ideas of the Oregon tribes.

[1775] Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 215 f., Brinton, The Lenâpé, p. 67 f.; Dorsey, The Skidi Pawnee, p. xviii f.; Dixon, The Shasta, p. 491 ff.

[1776] On methods of accounting for the existence of death in the world see above, § 834.

[1777] Brébeuf's account is given in Relation des Jésuites dans la nouvelle France, 1635, p. 34; 1636, p. 100; cf. the edition of the Relation by R. G. Thwaites, viii, 116 ff.; x, 126 f. Brébeuf appears to have followed Sagard, Canada (see Troas ed., p. 452 ff.). The story is discussed by Brinton, in Myths of the New World, 3d ed., p. 79 ff., and his criticism is adopted by Tylor, Primitive Culture, 3d ed., ii, 322.

[1778] Brinton, op. cit., p. 77.

[1779] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 334 ff.; article "Algonquins" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, pp. 320, 323.

[1780] Batchelor, The Ainu, and his article in Hastings, op. cit.

[1781] Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 528 ff. The influence of Brahmanism is possible here; but cf. Hopkins, op. cit., p. 530, note 3.

[1782] Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, pp. 172, 202; Breasted, History of Egypt, p. 571; Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 67 ff.

[1783] This myth may have trickled down to them (through the Canaanites or in some other way) in subdued form—it appears, perhaps, in the serpent of Gen. iii; but it seems to have been adopted in full form at a later time, apparently in or after the sixth century B.C.

[1784] Rohde, Psyche, Index, s.v. Erinyen; articles "Ate," "Erinys," in Roscher's Lexikon.

[1785] On the diverse elements in Loki's character, and on his diabolification, see Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 259 ff.; R. M. Meyer, Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte, p. 335 ff. (Loki as fire-god developed out of a fire-demon).

[1786] Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, article "Celts," p. 289. On the anthropinizing or the distinctly euhemerizing treatment of these two personages see Rhys, Celtic Folklore, Index, s.vv.

[1787] Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 367, 377, 414.

[1788] See above, § 857.

[1789] It has been suggested that climatic conditions (sharp contrasts of storm and calm, with consequent strain and peace in life) led to this dual arrangement. But we do not know that there were specially strong contrasts of weather in the Iranian home, and there is no mention of such a situation in the early documents, in which the complaint is of inroads of predatory bands from the steppe.

[1790] See above, § 742 ff.

[1791] According to Diogenes Laertius, Proem, viii.

[1792] To designate the unfriendly supernatural Powers two terms meaning 'divine beings' were available, 'asuras' and 'divas' (daevas); the Hindus chose the former, the Iranians the latter. Cf. Darmesteter, Ormazd et Ahriman, p. 268 ff.; Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 156 ff.

[1793] Zech. iii; Job i, ii; 1 Chron. xxi, 1, contrasted with 2 Sam. xxiv, 1; Enoch xl, 7; liii, 3, etc.; Secrets of Enoch (Slavonic Enoch), xxix, 4, 5; xxxi, 3, 4. The word Satan means 'adversary,' and, as legal adversary, 'accuser.' The germ of the conception is to be sought in the apparatus of spirits controlled by Yahweh, and sometimes employed by him as agents to harm men (1 Kings xxii, 19-23). The idea of an accusing spirit seems to have arisen from the necessity of explaining the misfortunes of the nation (Zech. iii); it was expanded under native and foreign influences.

[1794] 2 Cor. iv, 4.

[1795] Koran, vii, 10 ff.

[1796] So in the ceremonies of the pilgrimage to Mecca and in common life. The "satans" have in part coalesced with the jinn; see Lane's Arabian Nights, "Notes to the Introduction," note 21.

[1797] Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopädie, s.v. "Mani u. Manichäismus."

[1798] On a lack of unity in the world see W. James, A Pluralistic Universe.

[1799] § 643.

[1800] So the Zulu Unkulunkulu, the Fiji Ndengei, the Virginia Ahone, and others.

[1801] Compare Lang's sketch of the gods of the lower races in Myth, Ritual, and Religion, chap. xii f., and Making of Religion, preface and chaps. xii-xiv.

[1802] Strachey, Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannica (1612), p. 98 f. and chap. vii; Winslow, Relation (1624), printed in Young's Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers, see chap. xxiii.

[1803] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 324, 339.

[1804] Callaway, The Amazulu, p. 1 ff.

[1805] Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, Index (cf. Spencer and Gülen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 492); cf. Thomas, Natives of Australia, chap. xiii, and article "Australia" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1806] Temple, article "Andamans" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1807] Williams and Calvert, Fiji, chap. vii.

[1808] Batchelor, The Ainu, chap. xvii; Taylor, New Zealand, chaps. v-vii; Rink, Danish Greenland, p. 204 ff.; Boas, The Kwakiutl, chap. vi.

[1809] The confusion incident to savage theogonic reflection is illustrated by Zulu attempts to explain Unkulunkulu (Callaway, loc. cit.).

[1810] Lang, in the works cited in the preceding paragraph, is right in his contention that the clan god is not always derived from a spirit; but the coloring he gives to the character of this sort of god is not in accordance with known facts.

[1811] See above, § 746 ff.

[1812] It is not probable that the recent abolition of the office of emperor (supposing the present revolutionary movement to maintain itself) will affect the essence of the existing cult.

[1813] In place of the emperor some high official personage will doubtless be deputed to conduct the national sacrifices.

[1814] De Groot, Religious System of China, Religion of the Chinese, and Development of Religion in China.

[1815] Prescott, Conquest of Peru; Spence, Mythologies of Ancient Mexico and Peru.

[1816] An approach to such a system appears in the later cult of Confucius.

[1817] See § 977.

[1818] So later, for example, in Plato, necessity appears as something limiting the deity. See below, § 1001. Cf. Cicero, De Fato.

[1819] Cf. the Chinese conception of the supreme order of the world. Possibly this goes back to the general savage conception of mana.

[1820] Metaphysics, ix, 8; xii, 6 f.

[1821] Timæus, 47 f.

[1822] Stobæus, Elogæ, ed. Wachsmuth, lib. i, cap. i, no. 12; Pearson, Fragments of Zeno and Cleanthes; Eng. tr. in Arnold, Roman Stoicism, p. 85 ff. The quotation in Acts xvii, 28, may be from Cleanthes or from Aratus. On the Græco-Roman Stoicism and the relation between it and Christianity see Arnold, op. cit.

[1823] Apuleius, Metamorphoses, bk. xi; Roscher, Lexikon, article "Isis"; Cumont, Mysteries of Mithra; id., Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans, Index, s.vv. Isis and Serapis and Mithra.

[1824] Metaphysics, i, 5: "The one is god."

[1825] So in Goethe, Wordsworth, and other modern poets.

[1826] In certain regions, especially in Tibet and Japan, Buddhism coalesces with popular nature-cults and shamanistic systems, and loses its nontheistic character.

[1827] Cf. Satayana, "Lucretius," in his Three Philosophical Poets.

[1828] The great exception is the resurrection of Jesus, regarded in the New Testament and by the mass of orthodox Christians as an historical fact, and one of infinite significance for the salvation of the world.

[1829] An emotional element possessing moral force may exist in any religion; cf. below, §§ 1167, 1192, 1199.

[1830] § 13 ff.

[1831] See above, Chapter iii.

[1832] See above, §§ 128, 131, 231 ff.

[1833] Cf. article "Charms and Amulets" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1834] Cf. Marett, Threshold of Religion, p. 77 ff.

[1835] Examples are found in J. H. King, The Supernatural, Index, s.v.; Tylor, Primitive Culture, Index, s.v.; L. T. Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, Index, s.v.; and see the references in these works.

[1836] See above, § 3.

[1837] Spencer, Principles Of Sociology, i, 280 ff.; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 550 al.

[1838] Dorsey, Skidi Pawnee, p. 341; article "Bantu" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, ii, 359; Rivers, The Todas, p. 393; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 392; Westermarck, op. cit., ii, 518 al.

[1839] Tylor, op. cit., ii, 385, 395 al.; Gen. viii, 21.

[1840] Batchelor, The Ainu; Miss Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies; Hollis, The Nandi, p. 12; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 449 ff. 528; Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, pp. 373, 383; R. M. Meyer, Altgermanische Religionsgeschte, pp. 416, 419 ff.; N. W. Thomas, article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics. Cf., for the Hebrews, W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 217 ff.; for the Greeks, Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 245 f.; Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. x.

[1841] Batchelor, The Ainu.

[1842] A. C. Haddon, Head-hunters, p. 353 ff.

[1843] F. H. Cushing, "My Adventures in Zuñi" in The Century Magazine for May, 1883.

[1844] Cf. Hubert and Mauss, "Essai sur le sacrifice" in Année sociologique, ii (1898).

[1845] A more socially refined conception appears in the lectisternium, in which the gods sit at table with their human friends. Cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 355 ff.; Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, Index, s.v.

[1846] § 23.

[1847] For the worshiper the blood had strengthening power.

[1848] 1 Kings, xvi, 34; article "Bridge" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1849] Cf. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Human Sacrifice.

[1850] Breasted, History of Egypt, pp. 325, 411, 478.

[1851] Pietschmann, Phönizier, p. 167; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 403; 2 Kings, iii, 27; Exod. xiii; i, 13; Nöldeke, article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1852] 2 Kings, xvii, 31.

[1853] Rig-Veda, x, 18, 8; viii, 51, 2.

[1854] Sánkhayan Srauta Sutra, xvi, 10-14; Weber, Indische Streifen, i, 65; Hopkins, Religions of India, pp. 196, 198.

[1855] Hopkins, op. cit., p. 326 ff. Cf. also the practice of the thugs, which has now been put a stop to by the British Government.

[1856] De Groot, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed., p. 77 f.

[1857] Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, Index, s.v.

[1858] Williams, Fiji; Turner, Samoa; Codrington, The Melanesians.

[1859] Waitz-Gerland, Anthropologie der Naturvölker, Index; J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, Index; Gatschet, Migration Legend of the Creeks, p. 36.

[1860] Payne, The New World, Called America. In Mexico the victim was surrounded with luxuries (including wives) and treated as a god for one year and then sacrificed (Frazer, Golden Bough, 1st ed., ii, 218 ff.; 2d ed., ii, 342 f.).

[1861] A. B. Ellis, Tshi, Eẃe, and Yoruba.

[1862] For such substitutions in Greece see Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 243 f.

[1863] Ellis, Yoruba.

[1864] § 106 ff.

[1865] Alice Fletcher, Indian Ceremonies; Journal of American Folklore, vol. iv (1891), no. 15, and vol. xvii (1904), no. 64; Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology, vol xiv, p. 701.

[1866] Cf. Tylor, Primitive Culture, Index, s.v. Sacrifice, and Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Sacrifice.

[1867] Cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, p. 338 f.

[1868] Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 455.

[1869] Lev. i-iv, viii, xvi, xxi; Numb. xix; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 197 ff.; Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, Index, s.v. Priests and Sacrifices; Lippert, Geschichte des Priesterthums.

[1870] Heb. x, 3.

[1871] De Abstinentia ii, 24.

[1872] See below, § 1045 ff.

[1873] Gen. iv, 3, 4; Lev. ii, al.

[1874] Primitive Culture, ii, 375 ff.; cf. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i, 280 ff.

[1875] So often in ascetic practices.

[1876] So, for example, in the Imitatio Christi.

[1877] Euripides, Iphigeneia in Aulis, 1581 ff. (Iphigeneia); Gen. xxii (Isaac); and similar procedures in Hesiod, Theogony, 535 ff.; Ovid, Fasti, iii, 339 ff.; Aitareya Brahmana, ii, 8; Çatapatha Brahmana, i, 2, 3, 5.

[1878] The expulsion of sin or evil in the person of a beast or a human being is a totally different conception. See above, § 143.

[1879] Isa. liii.

[1880] Isa. xl, 2.

[1881] Cf. §§ 128, 217 ff., 1023.

[1882] Other examples are given in Fowler, Roman Festivals, pp. 81 (shepherd sacrifice), 96 (Feriæ Latinæ), 194 (at the temple of Hercules), and cf. his Religious Experience of the Roman People, Index, s.v. Meals, Sacrificial.

[1883] Foucart, Des associations religieuses chez les Grecs. For the Isis ceremony cf. Apuleius, Metamorphoses, xi, 24 f.

[1884] Cumont, The Mysteries of Mithra (Eng. tr.), p. 160. On the magical element in mysteries cf. De Jong, Das antike Mysterienwesen, chap. vi.

[1885] See above, § 1024.

[1886] Iliad, i, 66 f.; Odyssey, x, 518 ff.; Gen. viii, 21.

[1887] So Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (Eng. tr.), p. 62. In the Roman sacra gentilicia it was rather the divinized ancestors who were the guests—they were entertained by the living.

[1888] In his article "Sacrifice" in Encyclopædia Brittanica (1886) and his Religion of the Semites (new ed., 1894).

[1889] The assumption that the victim is a totem is not necessary to his argument, which rests on the sacredness (that is, the divinity) of the victim—a fact universally admitted.

[1890] Isa. lxv, lxvi.

[1891] Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia; id., Native Tribes of Northern Australia.

[1892] On this point and on Smith's theory in general see the exposition of the theory by Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, chap. xii.

[1893] The Dying God (part iii of 3d ed. of The Golden Bough).

[1894] Wald- und Feldkulte, 2d ed., ii, 273 ff.

[1895] L'année sociologique, ii, 115 ff.

[1896] Frazer, The Dying God, chap. ii, § 2.

[1897] Cf. Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris (part iv of 3d ed. of The Golden Bough); 2d ed. of The Golden Bough, ii, 365 f.

[1898] Article "Dido" in Roscher's Lexikon; Saussaye, Religion of the Teutons, p. 231.

[1899] For the view that Odin's self-sacrifice is merely an imitation of the reception into the Odin-cult see Meyer, Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte, p. 241.

[1900] L'année sociologique, ii.

[1901] Yajur-Veda, passim; Çatapatha Brahmana, i, 3, 6, 8; ii, 6, 2; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 188 al.; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, pp. 31 ff., 215.

[1902] Elements of the Science of Religion (Gifford Lectures), ii, 144 ff.

[1903] Plato (Laws, iii, 716) says that a bad man gets no benefit from sacrifice.

[1904] Laws, i, 631, 642.

[1905] Ps. xix, 7 ff.; cxix.

[1906] Ps. xl, 7; l, 8-15; li, 18 f., al.

[1907] Amos, v, 21 ff.; Isa. i, 11 ff.; Mic. vi, 6 ff.; Jer. vii, 21 ff.

[1908] See Ellis, Eẃe (Dahomi), Tshi (Ashanti), Yoruba; Miss Kingsley, Travels; Codrington, The Melanesians; Turner, Samoa; articles "Andeans," "Bantu," "Bengal," "Brazil," al., in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1909] Rivers, The Todas, chaps. vi, xi, xiii.

[1910] Cf. also Crooke's Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, in which similar customs are mentioned.

[1911] Chapter iii.

[1912] Dixon, The Northern Maidu and The Shasta. For Korea see H. G. Underwood, Religions of Eastern Asia.

[1913] L'année sociologique, ii; see above, § 1049.

[1914] Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers. A single early detail is mentioned in 1 Sam. ii, 13 ff. For the later Jewish ceremonial see article "Sacrifice" in Encyclopædia Biblica.

[1915] Mariette, Abydos; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization (Eng. tr.), p. 121 ff.; Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, pp. 46-49, 122, 179 f. (reports of Herodotus).

[1916] For Babylonia see Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.v. Rituals; for Mazdean, De Harles, Avesta, Introduction, pp. clxvi, clxx.

[1917] Journal of the American Oriental Society, xx, 58 ff.; cf. De Groot, in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, p. 60 ff.

[1918] Foucart, Associations religieuses chez les Grecs; Jevons, Introduction to History of Religion, chap. xxiii; De Jong, Das antike Mysterienwesen, p. 18 ff.

[1919] Cumont, Mysteries of Mithra.

[1920] Apuleius, Metamorphoses, chap. xi.

[1921] 1 Cor. xi, 20 ff.; xiv (cf. Acts ii, 46); Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, chap. ix f.

[1922] So, for instance, postures in prayer, such as kneeling, bowing, standing.

[1923] The Amarna Letters; Records of Ancient Egypt, ed. Breasted; cuneiform inscriptions. The Egyptian king, however, was regarded as divine.

[1924] Gibbon, chaps. xiii (Diocletian), xl, year 532; cf. descriptions in Scott's Count Robert of Paris.

[1925] Daniel, Codex Liturgicus; articles "Liturgie" and "Messe" in Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopädie; articles "Liturgy" and "Liturgical Books" in Smith and Cheatham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities.

[1926] Cf. J. Lippert, Allgemeine Geschichte des Priesterthums; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Priests.

[1927] On priestly taboos see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., Index, s.v.; these are often of the same sort as royal taboos. See above, § 595 ff. For Hebrew priestly taboos see Ezek. xliv, Lev. xxi f.

[1928] Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, i, 348, 381.

[1929] Not all these conditions were to be found in any one community.

[1930] Westermarck, op. cit., ii, 406 ff.

[1931] Pausanias, ii, 33, 3.

[1932] For a possible case see Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians, 1st ed., i, 317.

[1933] Ellis, Eẃe, p. 141; Ward, History, Literature and Religion of the Hindoos, ii, 134; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 660; Hos. iv, 14; Deut. xxiii, 17 f. (prohibition); Gen. xxxviii, 14 ff.

[1934] Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, pp. 72, 221, is disposed to reject the statement of Strabo (xvii, i, 46) that there was libertinage at Thebes. Cf. Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians, Index, s.v. Priestesses.

[1935] C. H. W. Johns, article "Code of Hammurabi" in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, extra volume; D. G. Lyon, "The Consecrated Women of the Hammurabi Code" in Studies in the History of Religions presented to C. H. Toy.

[1936] Strabo, p. 378.

[1937] Roscher, Lexikon, article "Aphrodite," col. 401. Cf. the practice mentioned in 1 Sam. ii, 22.

[1938] Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion To-day.

[1939] See, for example, 1 Sam. ii, 22.

[1940] For a description of their privileges and power in Ashanti see Ellis, Tshi, p. 121 ff.

[1941] License in festivals and mystical or symbolic marriages are excluded as not being official consecration of a class of persons.

[1942] Examples are given in Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 443 ff.; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, chap. iv; Seligmann, Der böse Blick und Verwandies, ii, 190 ff.; and see above, § 384 ff.

[1943] Inscription of Tralles; see Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, i, 94 ff.; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, ii, 636.

[1944] Herodotus, i, 199. The correctness of Herodotus's statement has been doubted; but, though the procedure is singular, it is not wholly out of keeping with known Babylonian customs. It must be remembered, however, that Herodotus wrote long after the fall of the Babylonian empire, when foreign influence was possible. See also Epistle of Jeremias, v, 43.

[1945] Pseudo-Lucian, De Syria Dea, chap. vi.

[1946] Homosexual practices do not belong here (Westermarck, op. cit., chap. xliii). The intercourse of priests with sacred and other women is likewise excluded.

[1947] Deut. xxiii, 18 [17] f., "sodomite."

[1948] 1 Kings, xiv, 24 (tenth century), where the kedeshim seem to be described as a Canaanite institution. Cf. Deut. xxii, 3.

[1949] Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, part i, i, 86, B 10.

[1950] With allusion, perhaps, to the dog's faithfulness to his master. In the Amarna Letters a Canaanite governor calls himself the "dog" (kalbu) of his Egyptian overlord. Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 292, n. 2. For examples of the sanctity of the dog see article "Animals" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, p. 512.

[1951] Cf. Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, p. 71 f., and the curious story told in Josephus, Antiquities, xviii, 3.

[1952] The Lydian method by which girls earned their dowries (Herodotus, i, 93) is economic, and had, apparently, no connection with religion.

[1953] See above, § 180. Cf. Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, 1, 94 ff.

[1954] Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, chap. iii ff.

[1955] At Byblos the prostitution of the woman was required only in case she refused to offer her hair to the goddess. This offering was probably originally a substitute for the offering of her virginity, but there is no evidence that the latter was of the nature of a sacrifice.

[1956] Farnell, in Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, vii, 88 (see above, §§ 182, 594, and cf. Crawley, Mystic Rose, p. 322). Farnell does not mention this suggestion in his Greece and Babylon, p. 269 ff.

[1957] Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, ii, 446; cf. Frazer, Golden Bough, 2d ed., Index, s.vv. Stranger, Strangers.

[1958] Cumont, Les religions orientales dans le paganisme romain (Eng. tr., Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism, p. 247 f.); cf. Hartland, in Anthropological Essays presented to Tylor, p. 201 f.

[1959] On this cult see Mannhardt, Baumkultus and Antike Wald- und Feldkulte.

[1960] Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, ii, 284; Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, p. 33 ff.

[1961] Cf. Hartland, op. cit., p. 199.

[1962] Hartland, Primitive Paternity, chap. ii.

[1963] Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, p. 50 ff.

[1964] Cf. Nilsson, Griechische Feste.

[1965] Maspero, Dawn of Civilization; Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, Index, s.v.; Breasted, History of Egypt, Index, s.v.

[1966] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, Index, s.v.

[1967] Barth, Religions of India, Index, s.v.; Hopkins, Religions of India, Index, s.v.

[1968] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthuniskunde, vol. III, bk. vi.

[1969] O. Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie, Index, s.v. Priester; Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, Index, s.v.; Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, passim.

[1970] This remark applies to the oracles as well as to the ordinary temple-service.

[1971] Cf. Wissowa, Religion der Römer, Index, s.v. Pontifex, Pontifices; Fowler, Roman Festivals, s.v. Pontifices; Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed. (Roman religion).

[1972] On the other hand, the Romans have given us such fundamental terms as 'religion,' 'superstition,' 'cult,' 'piety,' 'devotion,' all theocratic and individual.

[1973] De Groot, Religious System of China; Legge, Religion of China; Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese.

[1974] Some high official will, doubtless, now take the emperor's place.

[1975] This seems to remain true notwithstanding the present movement in China toward the adoption of Western methods of education. De Groot's estimate of Chinese religion (in op. cit.) is less favorable.

[1976] Garcilasso de la Vega, Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, ed. C. R. Markham, part i, bk. ii, chap. ix; Prescott, Peru, vol. 1, chap. iii; Payne, New World, called America, Index; A. Réville, Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, Index.

[1977] Sahagun, Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España, Eng. tr. by Markham; Payne, op. cit.; Réville, op. cit.

[1978] In the political and social disorders in Judea in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. the priesthood was, probably, influential in maintaining and transmitting the purer worship of Yahweh, and thus establishing a starting-point for the later development.

[1979] Cf. Breasted, Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, lecture x.

[1980] So Ezekiel's altar (probably a copy of that in the Jerusalem temple-court), over 16 feet high, with a base 27 feet square (Ezek. xliii, 13 ff.). The Olympian altar was 22 feet high and 125 feet in circumference. Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 3d ed., pp. 202, 341, 377 ff. On the general subject see article "Altar" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1981] So in Australia (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, Index, and Native Tribes of Northern Australia, Index), Samoa (Turner), Canaan (Genesis, Judges, passim), Greece (Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 173), etc.

[1982] Gardner and Jevons, op. cit., Index, s.v. τἐμενος, Temple; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, Index; W. R. Smith, op. cit., Index, s.v. Temples. There is perhaps a hint of such a place in Ex. iii, 5.

[1983] K. F. Hermann, Gottesdienstliche Alterthümer der Griechen, § 18; Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, 1st ed., p. 137.

[1984] Cf. article "Architecture" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[1985] Ps. xiii, 3 [2]; lxxxiv, 3 [2].

[1986] So in Egypt, Palestine, Greece, and probably in Babylonia and Assyria.

[1987] In Herod's temple: the Court of the Gentiles, the Court of Women, the Court of Israel (Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebräischen Archäologie, ii, 76 ff.).

[1988] Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft; article "Asylum" in Jewish Encyclopedia. The right of asylum goes back to very early forms of society in all parts of the world; many examples are cited by Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Index, s.v. Asylums.

[1989] Cf. above, § 121.

[1990] Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, chap. xxvi.

[1991] On the supposed difference of symbolism between Greek and Gothic temples (churches) see Ruskin, Seven Lamps of Architecture.

[1992] §§ 15, 120, note 3.

[1993] For details see Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, p. 45 f.; Jastrow, op. cit., p. 658 ff.; articles "Ritual" and "Sacrifice" in Encyclopædia Biblica; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 213 f.; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 124; L'Année sociologique, ii.

[1994] § 1199.

[1995] Some hymns to Tammuz are lamentations for dying vegetation and petitions for its resuscitation.

[1996] 1 Chron. xvi; commentaries on the Psalms; works on Hebrew archæology (Nowack, Benzinger); articles in Biblical dictionaries and encyclopedias.

[1997] Revue des études grecques, 1894. On savage songs and music see above, § 106.

[1998] Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft; Fowler, Roman Festivals.

[1999] Passover with the departure from Egypt; Sukkot (Tabernacles) with the march through the wilderness; later, Weeks (Pentecost) with the revelation of the law at Sinai.

[2000] Book of Esther.

[2001] 1 Macc. v, 47 ff.

[2002] 1 Macc. vii, 49.

[2003] H. H. Wilson, Religious Sects of the Hindus; Monier-Williams, Hinduism, Index.

[2004] Gardner and Jevons, Greek Antiquities, p. 289.

[2005] They sometimes degenerate into coarseness or immorality.

[2006] Christmas, New Year's Day, May Day, Midsummer, All Souls, and others.

[2007] The protest in Prov. xxvi, 2, against this whole conception shows that it existed among the Jews down to a late time.

[2008] Totemic poles, with carved figures of animals, are found in Northwest America (Boas, The Kwakiutl; Swanton, in Journal of American Folklore, xviii, 108 ff.) and in South Nigeria (Partridge, Cross River Natives, p. 219); but these figures are rather tribal or clan symbols than idols.

[2009] The situation in Egypt was exceptional; after the idolatrous stage had been reached the old worship of the living animal survived.

[2010] Aniconic representations of deities in civilized communities (like the stone representing the Ephesian great goddess) are survivals from the old cult of natural objects.

[2011] Teraphim, 1 Sam. xix, 13 al.

[2012] In the literature they are guardians of sacred places (Gen. iii, 24) and throne-bearers of the deity (Ezek. i, 26; Ps. xviii, 11 [10]).

[2013] The numerous images mentioned in the Old Testament as worshiped by the Israelites appear to have been borrowed from neighboring peoples. The origin of the bull figures worshiped at Bethel and Dan is obscure, but they appear to represent the amalgamation of an old bull-cult with the cult of Yahweh.

[2014] Possibly the civilization of China was in earliest times identical with or similar to that Central Asiatic civilization out of which Mazdaism seems to have sprung. Cf. R. Pumpelly, in Explorations in Turkestan (expedition of 1904), i, pp. xxiv, 7, chap. iv f.

[2015] The same feeling appears in the treatment of images of saints by some European peasants.

[2016] For Egyptian forms see Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, vol. i; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization; for Semitic, Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, the Bible, and Homer; for Indian, Lefmann, "Geschichte des alten Indiens" in Oncken's Allgemeine Geschichte.

[2017] Even the Hindu women's linga-cult is said to be sometimes morally innocent.

[2018] A church is here taken to be a voluntary religious body that holds out to its members the hope of redemption and salvation through association with a divine person or a cosmic power.

[2019] § 530 f.

[2020] W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, vol. i, chap. ix.

[2021] H. Webster, Primitive Secret Societies, chap. vii.

[2022] For a large definition of the term see S. Reinach, Orpheus (Eng. tr.), p.v.

[2023] For a possible influence see below, § 1101.

[2024] See the histories of philosophy of Ueberweg, Windelband, Meyer, Zeller.

[2025] See the reference in the Republic (ii, 364 f.) to the mendicant prophets with their formulas for expiation of sin and salvation from future punishment, and Demosthenes's derisive description of Æschines as mystagogue (De Corona, 313).

[2026] It is not clear that the peculiar cults described in Isa. lxv, 3-5; lxvi, 3 f., are of Semitic origin. Their history, however, is obscure—they are not referred to elsewhere in Jewish literature. In part they are, like the cults mentioned in Ezek. viii, 10, the adoption of the sacred animals of neighboring peoples; Isa. lxv, 5 seems to point to a close voluntary association with a ceremony of initiation, but nothing proves that the association was of Semitic origin. For a different view see W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 357 ff.

[2027] The Mysteries of Mithra (Eng. tr.), p. 29.

[2028] 1 Cor. ii, 7; Mk. iv, 11 al.

[2029] Barth, Religions of India, p. 76 ff.; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 216 ff.; cf. Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 282 ff.

[2030] "Die Chinesen," in Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte; R. K. Douglas, Confucianism and Taouism; De Groot, Religion of the Chinese; cf. H. G. Underwood, Religions of Eastern Asia.

[2031] Stobæus, Eclogues, i, 30.

[2032] Porphyry, Vita Plotini, cap. 3.

[2033] Hopkins, Religions of India, chap. xii f.; Rhys Davids, Buddhism; Barth, Religions of India; Oldenberg, Buddha.

[2034] The problem of life is stated to be how to get rid of desire, which is the source of all suffering; the Buddhist answer is that desire is eliminated by moral living, for which knowledge is necessary. So the Socratic school based virtue and happiness on knowledge. Cf. also the Biblical book of Proverbs.

[2035] It does not follow that every founder of a religion will establish a church; other things than the person of the founder, such as the nature of his teaching and the character of his social milieu, enter into the problem.

[2036] On current proposed reforms of Buddhism in Japan see Underwood, Religions of Eastern Asia, p. 222 ff.

[2037] The two last of these functions ceased on the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans (70 A.D.), the first remained.

[2038] Proselytes arose mostly from the general liberal tendency of the times (from about the second century B.C. and on), sometimes from lower impulses, sometimes they were made by force. See articles in Cheyne, Encyclopædia Biblica; Hastings Dictionary of the Bible; and Jewish Encyclopedia.

[2039] They were virtually identified with the Jewish people. On the early form of voluntary devotion to a foreign deity see W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., p. 75 ff.

[2040] § 1115.

[2041] On attempts to discover forms of Christianity before Jesus see W. R. Smith, Der vorchristliche Jesus, and Ecce Deus; M. Friedländer, Synagoge und Kirche.

[2042] The two passages in the Gospels (Matt. xvi, 18; xviii, 17) in which the word "church" occurs appear clearly, on exegetical grounds, to be scribal insertions of the later period.

[2043] "Elder" and "apostle" are Jewish titles, and the reading of the Scriptures, prayer, and exhortation formed part of the synagogal service; see Schürer, The Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (Eng. tr.), II, ii, 52 ff., and article "Apostle" in Jewish Encyclopedia. Other offices arose in the church out of the peculiar conditions; the eucharistic meal appears to have been developed under non-Jewish influence.

[2044] So far has the idea of the civil character of the Church been carried that in some places the keeper of a licensed brothel has been required to be a member of the State Church.

[2045] Harnack, Dogmengeschichte; articles in Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopädie, and Jewish Encyclopedia; Mansel, The Gnostic Heresies.

[2046] Cumont, Textes et monuments and The Mysteries of Mithra.

[2047] Metamorphoses, chap. xi.

[2048] Cf. article "Isis" in Roscher's Lexikon.

[2049] Cf. A. G. Leonard, Islam, her Moral and Spiritual Value.

[2050] A. Müller, Islam, ii, 614 ff.; Coppée, Conquest of Spain; Dozy, Histoire des musulmans en Espagne; Stanley Lane-Poole, Story of the Moors in Spain.

[2051] Of these fraternities the largest and most powerful is the Senussi of North Africa, a splendidly organized body with a central administration clothed with absolute authority; see Depont and Coppolani, Les confréries religieuses musulmanes.

[2052] S. de Sacy, Exposé de la religion des Druses; J. Wortabet, Researches into the Religions of Syria; C. H. Churchill, Ten Years' Residence in Mt. Lebanon.

[2053] Cf. Dr. Thomas Arnold's ideal, the identification of Church and State (A. P. Stanley, Life and Correspondence of Thomas Arnold).

[2054] Payne, History of the New World called America; Markham, Rites and Laws of the Incas; Prescott, Conquest of Peru, bk. i, chap. iii.

[2055] On India's fertility in the production of religions cf. Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 2 ff.

[2056] This organization was first called the "Brahma-Samaj" (the Church of Brahma), later the "Adi-Samaj" (the First Church).

[2057] The Brahma-Samaj.

[2058] There are other theistic bodies in India. The Arya-Samaj (Aryan Church) derives its doctrines (monotheism and other) from the Veda (necessarily by a forced interpretation); it is a sort of protest against foreign (Christian) influence. See articles "Arya Samaj" and "Brahma Samaj" in Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics.

[2059] Gobineau, Les religions et les philosophies dans l'Asie centrale; R. G. Browne, The Episode of the Bab and The New History of the Bab; article "Bab, Babis" in Hastings, op. cit.; article "Bahaism" in the Nouveau Larousse, Supplément; Some Answered Questions, translated by Laura C. Burney (exposition of the doctrine by the son of the Bahaist founder).

[2060] Babism is fairly well represented in Persia at the present day; see R. G. Browne.

[2061] Cf. articles in Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopädie; McClintock and Strong, Biblical Cyclopædia; New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopædia of Religious Knowledge.

[2062] On the community founded by Pythagoras see the histories of philosophy; it appears to have embodied a suggestion of monastic life, but its origin is uncertain.

[2063] The Hebrew Nazirite vow, for example, was merely a consecration of a part of the body to the deity with the observance of old nomadic customs of food and dwellings.

[2064] Hopkins, Religions of India, Index, s.v. Monks.

[2065] Rhys Davids, Buddhism, chap. vi.

[2066] Cf. H. Weingarten, Ursprung des Mönchthums, cited with approval by Meyer, Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens, p. 401; cf. Lehmann-Haupt, in Roscher's Lexikon, article "Sarapis," col. 362 ff.

[2067] Cf. Hopkins, Religions of India, chap. xix; J. Estlin Carpenter, "Buddhist and Christian Parallels" in Studies in the History of Religions presented to C. H. Toy.

[2068] Against this view see Breastad, History of Egypt, p. 578 ff.

[2069] De Vita Contemplativa; see the edition of F. C. Conybeare. The work is probably to be considered genuine.

[2070] Philo, Quod omnis probus liber; Pliny, Historia Naturalis, v, 17; Josephus, Antiquities, xviii, 1, and War, ii, 8; Schürer, The Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (Eng. tr.), II, ii, 188 ff. (and the bibliography there given); articles in Cheyne, Encyclopædia Biblica, and Hastings Dictionary of the Bible.

[2071] From the geographical and historical conditions a Pythagorean origin (perhaps indirect) seems the more probable.

[2072] The earliest appearance of an Essene is in the latter part of the second century B.C. (Josephus, Antiquities, xiii, 11, § 2).

[2073] Roscher, Lexikon, article "Sarapis," col. 362 f.

[2074] See references given above in § 1121, note.

[2075] Rhys Davids, Buddhism; R. S. Copleston, Buddhism.

[2076] Ezekiel, early in the sixth century, and Haggai and Zechariah in the latter part of the century, show no consciousness of the existence of authoritative writings.

[2077] Cf. G. F. Moore, "The Definition of the Jewish Canon and the Repudiation of Christian Scriptures" in Essays in Modern Theology and Related Subjects ... Testimonial to C. A. Briggs.

[2078] G. Wildeboer, Het Onstaan van den Kanon des Ouden Verbonds; H. E. Ryle, Canon of the Old Testament; articles "Canon" in Encyclopædia Biblica, "Bible Canon" in Jewish Encyclopedia, "Kanon des Alten Testaments" in Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyklopädie.

[2079] See the Longer Catechism of Philaret, 1839.

[2080] T. Zahn, Gesichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, E. C. Moore, The New Testament in the Christian Church; article "Canon" in Encyclopædia Biblica.

[2081] Historia Naturalis, xxx, chap. i, § 2.

[2082] The question whether any of this material went back to Zoroaster must here be left undecided.

[2083] Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, iii, 778 ff.

[2084] Nöldeke, Sketches from Eastern History (Eng. tr.), p. 25 ff.

[2085] A creed usually contains also an affirmation of the authority of the book on which it is based. Some religious bodies do not regard any book as absolutely authoritative, and their creeds are merely expressions of their independent religious beliefs.

[2086] So among the Egyptians, Hebrews, Hindus, Greeks, Romans, and others.

[2087] Cf. Sabatier, Authority in Religion (Eng. tr.), and the bibliography therein given.

[2088] The contention that a given religion must triumph because it is divine and its triumph is divinely predicted introduces a discussion that cannot be gone into here, where the object is to consider existing facts.

[2089] Babism (or Bahaism) also claims to be universal, but its origin is so recent that this claim cannot be tested.

[2090] Rhys Davids, Buddhism.

[2091] It has been professed by a few persons in Europe and America, but the so-called "theosophy" is not Buddhism. On supposed points of contact between the New Testament and Buddhism cf. C. F. Aiken, The Dhamma of Gotama the Buddha and the Gospel of Jesus the Christ.

[2092] T. W. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam.

[2093] See Tiele, article "Religion" in Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed., and cf. his Elements of the Science of Religion, i, 28 ff.; R. de la Grasserie, Des religions comparées au point de vue sociologique; M. Jastrow, The Study of Religion, pp. 58 ff.; article "Religion" in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed.

[2094] Cases of adoption of alien cults bodily are here of course excluded; in such cases the cults are to be referred to the creators and not to the borrowers.

[2095] In some forms of Brahmanism, in Buddhism, and in some modern systems this Power is impersonal or undefined.

[2096] On Gautama's attitude toward divine beings cf. Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 87 f.; Hopkins, Religions of India, p. 333 f.

[2097] W. D. Whitney, Princeton Review, May, 1881.

[2098] Kuenen, National Religions and Universal Religions (Hibbert Lectures, 1882); Tiele, Elements of the Science of Religion, i, 43 ff.; Jastrow, Study of Religion, p. 89 ff.

[2099] Confucian China and Shintoist Japan are excluded; but in both these countries Buddhism is widespread. Pure Confucianism is not a religion, and the old Shinto is no longer believed in by educated Japanese.

[2100] Cf. Tiele, Elements of the Science of Religion, Index, s.v.

[2101] Myths, it may be remarked, are not confined to the uncivilised and the old national cults; they are found in all great religious systems.

[2102] See, in this connection, the account of the faith of the philosopher Sallustius, the Emperor Julian's friend, by Professor Gilbert Murray, "A Pagan Creed," in the English Review for December, 1909. The term 'pagan' now has a connotation that is singularly out of accord with the character of a man like Sallustius.

[2103] § 14 f.

[2104] Examples are the Copernican and Newtonian theories; the magnitude of the stellar universe; Biblical criticism; the theories of evolution and the conservation of energy.

[2105] The general religious attitude may be the same whether the world be regarded as monistic or as pluralistic.

[2106] See above, § 172.

[2107] Cf. L. T. Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, part ii, chaps. v-vii.

[2108] An example is the Old-Hebrew usage respecting marriage with a half-sister or with a wife (not one's mother) of a father. Up to about the seventh century B.C. such marriages were lawful (Gen. xx, 12; 2 Sam. xiii, 13; xvi, 22); later they were forbidden (Ezek. xxii, 10 f.; Lev. xviii, 11). Maspero (in the Annuaire de l'école des hautes études, 1896) points out that in Egypt marriage between uterine brothers and sisters in the royal family was not only legal but a sacred duty, its object being to maintain the purity of the divine blood.

[2109] See above, §§ 107, 180, 219.

[2110] Amos ii, 7; Hos. iv, 14.

[2111] The Old Testament command to exterminate the Canaanites (Deut. vii, 2; xxv, 19; Josh. vi-xi) is not historical, that is, was not given at the time stated or at any other time. The Israelites, in fact, settled down among the Canaanites and intermarried with them, and at the time when the passages just cited were written (seventh century and later) there were no such alien tribes in Canaan. But these passages show how a current barbarous custom of war could be regarded by religious leaders as pleasing to God.

[2112] See § 630 ff.

[2113] So, for example, Butler's Analogy.

[2114] It is an exaggeration to say (as has been said) that the sentiment of the sacred obligation of opinion was first formulated or created in the world by the early Christian martyrs—before their time Socrates, Jews in the Antiochian persecution, and probably others, had embodied this sentiment—but the Christian devotion helped to make it a generally recognized ethical principle.

[2115] Hopkins, Religions of India, Index, s.v. Yoga; Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, Index, s.v. Baksheesh; article "Saint and Saintliness" in Jewish Encyclopedia; Christian hagiologies; Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien; C. Trumelet, Les saints de l'Islam.

[2116] See above, § 1163.

[2117] Ezek. xiv, 9.

[2118] It is this sort of insensate optimism that Voltaire ridicules in Candide—a just and useful protest against a superficial view of life.

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