The Religions of India / Handbooks on the History of Religions, Volume 1, Edited by Morris Jastrow

by Edward Washburn Hopkins

BIBLIOGRAPHY.[1]

GENERAL WORKS.

#Journals#: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Soctety (JRAS.);[2] Journal of the German Oriental Society (Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, ZDMG.); Journal Asiatique (JA.); Journal of the American Oriental Society (JAOS.); Branch-Journals of the JRAS.; Calcutta Review; Madras Journal; Indian Antiquary (IA.). Some of the articles in the defunct Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes (ZKM.), and in the old Asiatick Researches (AR.) are still worth reading. Besides these, the most important modern journals are the transactions of the royal Austrian, Bavarian, Prussian, and Saxon Academies, the Muséon and the Revue de l'histoire des religions. Occasional articles bearing on India's religions or mythology will be found in the American Journal of Philology (AJP.); the Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes (WZKM.); the Babylonian and Oriental Record (BOR.); Kühn's Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschuhg (KZ.); Bezzenberger's Beiträge (BB.); and the Indogermanische Forschungen (IF.).

#Histories, studies, etc.#: Prinsep, Essays (Indian Antiquities); Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde. Histories of India by Elphinstone (religious material, chapters iv book i, and iv book ii), by Elliot, by Marshman (complements Elphinstone), and by Wheeler (unreliable); The Rulers of India; Hunter's Indian Empire and Brief History. Mill's excellent History of India is somewhat prejudiced. Dutt's History of Civilization in Ancient India is praise-worthy (1890). Invaluable are the great descriptive Archaeological Surveys by Cunningham, Burgess, and Bühler, and Hunter's Statistical Account of Bengal. Literary History:[3] Colebrooke, Essays, reedited by Cowell, with notes by Whitney; Wilson, Essays; Weber, Indische Studien (IS.); Benfey, Orient and Occident (OO.); Müller, Ancient Sanskrit Literature (ASL.), Science of Religion; Weber, Vorlesungen über Indische Literaturgeschichte (also translated), Indische Streifen, Indische Skizzen; L. von Schroeder, Indiens Literatur und Cultur; Whitney, Oriental and Linguistic Studies, Language and the Study of Language; Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums (third volume, may be bought separately); Williams, Indian Wisdom (inaccurate but readable).

VEDIC RELIGION.

#Literature#: Roth, Zur Literatur und Geschichte des Weda;[4] Benfey, Vedica und Verwandtes; Zimmer, Altindisches Leben (AIL.); R[=a]jendralala Mitra, Indo-Aryans(unreliable); Bergaigne, La Religion Védique (also JA. ix, xiii); De Gubernatis, Letture sopra la Mitologia Vedica; Pischel and Geldner, Vedische Studien;[5] Regnaud, Le Rig Veda et les origines de la mythologie indo-européenne, and Les hymnes du Rig Veda, sont-ils prières? (Ann. d. Mus. Guimet, Bibl. d'études, t. i, and special studies). Regnaud's point of view renders nugatory most of what he writes on the Veda.[6] The most useful collection of Vedic and Brahmanic Texts that illustrate Hindu Mythology and Religion is to be found in Muir's Original Sanskrit Texts (OST.), especially the fourth and fifth volumes.[7] For the Sacred Books of the East (SBE.) see Hems below.

#Translations of the rig veda#: Complete, by Grassmann and by Ludwig; partial, by Roth, Benfey, Langlois, Bergaigne; in English chiefly by Wilson, Müller, Muir, Peterson, Griffith. Of these the German translation of Grassmann is often inaccurate;[8] that of Ludwig, often unintelligible. Benfey has translated a number of specimens, OO., BB., i, vii, and in Kleinere Schriften. The incomplete translation of Wilson has been carried on by Cowell; those of Peterson and Griffith are publishing in India; Langlois' is useless. Müller's partial translations will be found in various volumes, Ancient Sanskrit Literature, India: What Can it Teach Us, Chips, Hibbert Lectures, JRAS. ii. 448, iii. 199, etc.; and all the Hymns to the Maruts, SBE. xxxii. Whitney has translated the cosmogonic hymn, PAOS., May, 1882; and Deussen has just published the philosophical hymns, Geschichte der Philosophie, i, 1. A group of Vedic hymns in English dress will be found in Muir, OST. v.; extracts (without connection) are given by Bergaigne, in La Religion Védique, and special essays in JA. (above). In German a capital little collection is the Siebzig Lieder of Geldner and Kaegi. The best general introductory manual for the study of the Rig Veda, accompanied with frequent translations, is Kaegi's Der Rig Veda (translated into English by Arrowsmith).

#Translations of the atharva veda# are all partial. The handiest collection is Grill's Hundert Lieder des Atharva Veda. Specimens will be found translated by Aufrecht, IS. i. 121 (book xv); (Roth) Bruce, JRAS. 1862, p. 321 (book xii. 1); Kuhn, Indische und Germanische Segensspriiche, KZ. xiii. 49, 113; Weber, IS. iv. 393, v. 195, 218, xiii. 129, xvii. 178 (books i-iii, xiv); Grohmann, ib. ix. 381; Ludwig, vol. iii, of his translation of the Rig Veda; Zimmer, AIL.: Victor Henry, books vii and xiii (Les hymnes Rohitas);[9] Bloomfield, Seven Hymns, and Contributions AJP. vii. 466, xi. 319, xii. 414, JAOS. xv. 143, xvi. 1; ZDMG. xlviii. 541; Florenz, BB. xii. 249 (book vi.). Of The S[=a]ma V[=e]da: Stevenson (1842) in English (inaccurate) and Benfey (1848) in Gcrman have made translations. On the Yajur Veda see Schroeder, Literatur und Cultur, and below.

#Vedic mythology#: Windischmann, Ursagen der Arischen Völker, Bay. Ak., 1858; Kuhn, KZ. iv. 88, Herabkunft des Feuers (Prometheus);[10] Roth, Die höchsten Götter der Arischen Völker, ZDMG. vi. 67 (ib. vii. 607); Wilson, Preface of Langlois: Cox, Aryan Mythology; Whitney, Oriental and Linguistic Studies, ii. p. 149, JAOS. iii. 291, 331; Müller, Second Series of Science of Language, Biographies of Words.[11] General interpretation of divinities, Müller, Muir, Bergaigne, Kaegi, Pischel-Geldner, loc. cit. The last books on the subject are Oldenberg's scholarly volume, Die Religlon des Veda (note, p. 571, above), and Phillip's The Teaching of the Vedas (1895), the work of a charlatan.

SPECIAL STUDIES OF VEDIC DIVINITIES:

#Aditi#: Roth, IS. xiv. 392; Hillebrandt, Ueber die Göttin Aditi;
Müller, SBE. xxxii. 241; Colinet, Étude sur le mot Aditi, Muséon, xii.
81. [=A]dityas, Roth, ZDMG. vi. 67 (above); Darmesteter, Ormazd et
Ahriman.

#Agni#: L. von Schroeder, Apollon-Agni, KZ. xxix. 193[12] (see epic, below).

#Apsaras# (see Gandhanas).

#Aryaman# (Açvins, Mitra, etc.): Bollensen, ZDMG. xli. 494.

#Asura# as Asen, Schrader, p. 599; P. von Bradke, Dy[=a]us Asura. See
Dy[=a]us.

#Açvins#: Myriantheus, Die Açvins oder Arischen Dioskuren; not Dioskuroi, Pischel, Vedische Studien, Preface, p. xxvii; as constellation, etc., Benfey, OO. ii. 245, iii. 159; Gemini, Weber, last in R[=a]jas[=u]ya, p. 100; as Venus, 'span-god,' Bollensen, ZDMG. xli. 496; other literature, Muir, OST. v. 234; Colinet, Vedic Chips, BOR. iii. 193 (n[=a]satya, Avestan n[=a]onhaithya, n[=a] as 'very').[13]

#Brihaspati#: Roth, ZDMG. i. 66; Muir, v. 272; Hillebrandt, Vedische
Mythologie, i. 404.

#Dawn# (see Ushas).

#Dy[=a]us#: P. von Bradke, Dy[=a]us Asura, also Beiträge, ZDMG. xl. 347; not the same with Teutonic Tiu, Bremer, IF. iii. 301; as 'all-father' of primitive Aryans, Müller, Origin of Religion, p. 209; followed by Tiele, Outlines of History of Ancient religions, p. 106; see Hopkins, PAOS. Dec. 1894; form of Word, Collitz. KZ. xxvii. 187; BB. xv. 17.

#Earth# (see Nritus).

#Gandharvas#: KZ. i. 513; Meyer, Gandharven-Kentauren (list of Apsarasas); Pischel, VS. i. 78; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, i. 427.

#Haritas# (sun's steeds) as Charites, KZ. x. 96; ib. 365; Sonne, loc. cit. s. S[=u]ryra; Müller, Science of Language, ii. 388.

#Heaven# (see Dy[=a]us and Varuna).

#Indra# (etymology, Benfey, OO. i. 49; PW. sv.; añdra, A.-Sax. 'ent,' 'giant,' BB. i. 342;[17] nar, [Greek: anor-, Jacobi, KZ. xxxi. 316; Indra's bolt, vadha, 'wetter,' Delbrück, KZ. xvi. 266): Perry, Indra in the Rig Veda, JAOS. xi. 117 (see epic, below).

#K[=a]ma#: Weber, ZDMG. xiv. 269, IS. v. 224, xvii. 290; Muir, v. 402.

#Manu#:[15] Roth, ZDMG. iv. 430; Weber, IS. i. 194 ('man and moon'), ZDMG. iv. 302; Muir, OST. i. 161; Kuhn, KZ. iv. 91; Burnouf, Preface of Bh[=a]g. Pur[=a]na, p. iii; Ascoli (m[=a]nus, mactus), KZ. xvii. 334; Maspiter as 'man,' Corssen, KZ. ii. 32;[16] Manu's wife, Weber, ZDMG. xviii. 286. Compare also KZ. xii. 293, xix. 156, Mannus (see Laws, below).

#Maruts# (dubious etymology, Grassmann, KZ. xvi. 161; P. von Bradke, loc. cit. s.. Dy[=a]us): von Bradke, Wunderliche Geburt, Festgruss an Roth, p. 117 (Brahmanic, same point of view in parody, RV. x. 102, ZDMG. xlvi. 445). Hymns to Maruts, translated by Müller, SBE. xxxii.

#Mitra#: Windischmann, Abh. K.M., 1857; Weber, IS. xvii. 212 (see
Varuna).

#Namuci#: Lanman, JAS. Beng. viii. 1889; Bloomfield, JAOS. xv. 143.

#Nritus# as Nerthus, Hoffmann; (Roth) Bruce, Vedic Conceptions of the
Earth, JRAS. 1862, p. 321; Prithiv[=i], ZDMG. xli. 494.

#Parjanya#: Bühler, Zur Mythologic des Rig Yeda, OO. i. 214; Hirt, 1F. i. 481, 'oak-god.'[4]

#Purandhi#: Pischel, VS. i. 202; Hillebrandt, WZKM. iii. 188, 259;
Colinet, BOR. ii. 245, iv. 121 ('abundance'), Congress, 1892.

#Priçni# (p[r.]çni) as Frigy, KZ. ii. 478; 'freckles,' KZ. xix. 438.

#P[=u]shan#: Muir, OST. v. 171; Bergaigne, La Relig. Vèd. ii. 420; Hillebrandt, ved. myth., i. 456 (with soma); gubernatis, letture, p. 82 (as setting sun); pischel, vs. i. 11 (s[=u]ry[=a] and p[=u]shan); perry, notes on the vedic deity p[=u]shan, drisler memorial, p. 240.

#Ribhus# ([r.]bhavas, etymology, 'alf,' 'Orpheus'; or Orpheus from [r.]gh, [Greek: orchietai], Kuhn KZ. iv. 103; Wackernagel, KZ. xxiv. 297); Ludwig, iii. 187, as Seasons. Nève, Études sur les hymnes (1842), and Essai sur le mythe des Ribhavas (1847, misleading, Ribhu as apotheosis).

#Rohitas#: Henry (above).

#Rudra# (etymology, Pischel, VS. i. 57[18]): Weber, Vedic Conception of, IS. ii. 19; Pischel, Vedica, ZDMG. xl. 120; Rudra's mouse and Smintheus, KZ. iii. 335; Grohmann, Apollo Smintheus und die Bedeutung der Mäuse in der Mythologie der Indogermanen.

#Sarany[=u]# (sara[n.]y[=u]): [Greek: ertngis], ZDA. vi. 117; KZ. i.
439 (storm; riddle, ib. 440); Bloomfield, JAOS. xv. 172; as Dawn,
Müller, Lectures, Second Series; Saram[=a], and S[=a]rameyas as
Hermeias, ib.; Aufrecht, ZDMG. xiii. 493 (RV. x. 108, translated).

#Soma#: Windischmann, Ueber den Somacultus der Arier, Abh. Münch. Ak., iv; Roth, ZDMG. xxxv. 681, xxxviii. 134; Ehni, ib. xxxiii. 166; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, i; Soma and the eagle, Kuhn, Herabkunft (above); Roth, ZDMG. xxxvi. 353; Bloomfield, JAOS. xvi (p. 1, further literature), Festgruss an Roth, p. 149; Weber, Vedische Beiträge, p. 3 (Sitz. Berl. Ak. 1894, p. 775); and Agni ritual, Knauer, Vedische Fragen, Festgruss an Roth, p. 61.

#Surya# (see Haritas): sonne, hymn to, kz. xii-xv; form of word, j. schmidt, kz. xxvi. 9. see p[=u]shan (and hinduism, below). s[=a]vitr[=i], whitney, colebrooke's essays, ii. iii.

#Trita#: Macdonnell, Mythological Studies, JRAS. 1893, p. 419 (ap[=a]m nap[=a]t, lightning; Trita as Thridhi, name of Odin, 'third' form of fire); form of word, BB. ix. 99; Perry, see Indra (p. 26); Bloomfield, PAOS. 1894, p. cxix. Other literature, Kaegi, loc. cit., note 112 d.

#Ushas# (U[S.]AS): Muir, v. 181; Bergaigne, i. 241, etc; Sonne, KZ. x. 416; Müller, Science of Language, ii. 391, etc.

#Vv[=a]c#: logos, Weber, IS. ix. 473.

#Varuna# (varu[n.]a): Roth, ZDMG. vi. 71; Weber, IS. xvii. 212; Muir, v. 58; Bergaigne, iii. 110; Hillebrandt, Varu[n.]a und Mitra; Darmesteter, Ormazd et Ahriman; Sonne, KZ. xii. 364; Pischel, VS. i. 188; Geldner, ib. 142; Ludwig, iii. 314; Oldenberg as a borrowed god (PAOS. 1894); as water, Geldner, BB. xi. 329; form of word, Bolensen, ZDMG. xli. 504 (var 'hell sein'); Bohnenberger (Roth), Varu[n.]a nach den Liedern des Rig Veda (Mitra as appellative becomes a new god, p. 85);[19] as svar, Regnaud, Rev. xix. 79.

#Vastoshpati# ('house-lord'): Windisch, Vassus und Vassallus, Bericht. d. k. Säch. Gesell. 1892, p. 174 (vassus for vast).

#V[=a]ta#, vayu (v[=a]ta is [Greek: aêtês], 'wind'): Stokes, BB. xix. 74, compares Irish fath, 'breath,' but gives also fáth, a kind of poem (vates, vôds, English 'wood' as 'mad'). V[=a]ta, Wuotan, Zimmer, ZDA. vii. (19) 179

#Vishnu# (vi[s.][n.]u like jishnu, ji[s.][n.]u, vi, 'fly,' the heavenly bird?): Muir, iv and v (older texts relative to Vishnu), PAOS. Dec. 1894.

#Yama#: Roth, ZDMG. ii. 216, iv, 417 (Jemshid), JAOS. iii. 335, IS. xiv. 393; Whitney, Oriental and Linguistic Studies, i. 46; Müller, Science of Language, ii. 528, 534; Westergaard, with Weber's notes, IS. iii. 402; Muir, JRAS. i. 287; OST. v. 284; Bergaigne, i. 86, ii. 96, etc; Grassmann, KZ. xi. 13, 'binder'; Ehni, Der Vedische Mythus des Yama; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, i. 489; Bloomfield, JAOS. xv. 163, 172; Hopkins, PAOS. 1891, p. xciv; Scherman, Visionsliteratur; Leumann, KZ. xxxii. 301 (Yam[=i][20]); L. von Schroeder, Literatur, p. 217 (Ymir, Praj[=a]pati); Bréal, Hercule et Circus; Benfey, Vedica, 149; Van den Gheyn, Cerbère (1883); Casartelli, Dog of Death, BOR. iv. 265.[21] Yama's sadana, Pischel, VS. i. 242.[22]

#Veda and brahmanism#: Oldenberg, Die Hymnen des Rig Veda, and ZDMG. xlii. 199, Ueber die Liedverfasser des Rig Yeda (see Hinduism, below); Roth, ib. iv. 514, divisions of the Rig Veda; Bergaigne, Recherches sur l'histoire de la Samhit[=a] du Rig Veda, JA. (1886 and following years), also on the liturgy, ib. 1888; JA. x. No. 3; Pincott, JRAS. xvi. 381; Hillebrandt, Spuren einer älteren Rig Veda Recension, BB. viii. 195; Lanman, JAOS. x. 580; Brunnhofer, KZ, xxv. 374, BB. x. 234 (Collitz, BB. vii. 183); Roth, on the worth of tradition, ZDMG. xxi. 1; Whitney, on Translation of Veda, OLS.; PAOS. Oct. 1867; Goldstücker on S[=a]ya[n.]a, in Preface to P[=a][n.]ini. Cult against mantra, Roth, ZDMG. vii. 604; viii. 467; Weber, ib. viii. 389; Pischel and Geldner, Preface to Vedische Studien and ZDMG. xlviii. 702; Colinet, Les Principes de I'exégèse védique, Muséon, 1890; Bloomfield, Contributions (above); E. Hardy, Die Vedisch-brahmanische Periode d. Relig. d. Alt. Ind.; Muir, Priests and Interpreters of the Veda, JRAS. ii. 257, 303; Haug, Contribution, 1863, and Interpretation of the Veda, Congress, 1874; Ludwig, Die philosophischen und religiösen Anschanungen des Veda; also Ludwig, Rig-Veda, iii (Mantra-Literatur), pp. 262, 284, 301, and his works, Ueber Methode bei Interpretationen des Rig Veda, and Ueber die neuesten Arbeiten auf dem Gebiet der RV. Forschung. Further (Vedic and later literature), Oldenberg, ZDMG. xxxvii. 54; ib. xxxix. 52; Windisch, Verh. d. Geraer Philologen Versammlung, Vedische Wettfahrtt in Festgruss an Roth; Weber, Episches im Vedischen Ritual, Sitz. Berl. Ak., 1891; Schermann, Philosophische Hymnen (also Visionsliteratur).

#Vedic and brahmanic belief#: Pott, Vedic and Orphic Kosmic Egg, Ovidiana, KZ. viii. 179 (Peleus as Urschlamm I); von Bradke, Beiträge z. altind. Religions und Sprachgescbichte, ZDMG. xl. 347, 655; Schrader, chapter xiii; Zimmer, AIL.; Roth and Böhtlingk, Vedische Räthsel, ZDMG. xxxvii. 109; (and eschatology) xlvi. 759; Windisch, ib. xlviii. 353.[23] Eschatology: Weber, Eine Legende, ZDMG. ix. 237 (Bhrigu) and 308; Burnell, a Legend from the Talavak[=a]ra, Congress, 1880, IA. xiii. 16, 21; Benfey, Orient und Occident, iii. 169, and Hermes, Minos, Tartaros; Whitney, PAOS., Nov., 1858, May, 1886; Böhtlingk, Bericht d. k. Sächs. Gesell, 23. April, 1893, p. 88; Henotheism: Whitney, loc. cit., Oct. 1881, see IA. xi. 146; Hopkins, Drisler Memorial. Social position of priests (castes), Weber,[24] Nachträge, p. 795; Collectanea, IS. x; Muir, JRAS. ii. 257; OST. i; Hopkins, Four Castes, also JAOS. xiii; Schlagintweit (Caste at Present), ZDMG. xxxiii. 549. Cult: E. Hardy, loc. cit. above; on Om see Bloomfield, PAOS. Oct. 1889; Cult of. Manes, Caland, Altind. Ahnencult, and Ueber Totenverehrung bei Einigen der IE. Völker; Winternitz, WZKM. iv. 199; Whitney, OLS. i. 46; Kaegi, loc. cit., note 265, with literature. Funeral: Roth, ZDMG. viii. 467; Müller, ib. ix. pp. i and xiiii (sic); Wilson, JRAS. 1854, p. 201; Regnaud, Çr[=a]ddha védique, Rev. d'hist. d. relig. xxv. 1; Donner, pi[n.][d.]apit[r.]yajña; Lanman, Mortuary Urns, PAOS. May, 1891. Wedding: Weber, Hochzeitssprüche, IS. v. 177; Stenzler, P[=a]raskara, ZDMG. vii. 527; Haas, Heiratsgebräuche d. alten Inder, IS. v. 267; Schröder, Die Hochzeitsbräuche der Esten; Winternitz, Das Ai. Hochzeitsrituell. Omens, Ordeals, etc.: Weber, Zwei Vedische Texte über Omina und Portenta, Wurfel-Orakel, Vedische Beiträge;[25] Schlagintweit, Gottesurtheile; Stenzler, ZDMG. ix. 661; Kaegi, Alter und Herkunft der germanischen Gottesurtheile (with further literature); Jolly, Beiträge zur Rechtsgeschichte, ZDMG. xliv. 347. The earliest essay on Ordeals was presented by Warren Hastings, 1784, Asiatick Researches, i. 389. Star-lore: Colebrooke; Weber, IS. ii. 236; Haug, Introduction to [=A]it. Br.; Weber, Die Vedischen Nachrichten von d. Nakshatra; Sitz. Berl. Ak. 1861, p. 267;[26] Müller, Ancient Hindu Astronomy and Chronology; Burgess, JRAS. xxv. 717; Jacobi, Methods and Tables. Witchcraft, Medicine: Kuhn, KZ. xiii. 49; Grohmann, IS. ix. 381; Bloomfield, Contributions, AJP. vii, xi, xii; Pictet, KZ. v. 24, 321; Jolly, Knoblauch, Festgruss an Roth, p. 18; medicine and divination, Bower MS., JASB. 1891; IA. xxi. 29, 129; WZKM. v. 103. Blood-money: Roth, ZDMG. xli. 672; Aryan and Indic, Bühler and Schroeder, Festgruss an Roth; Jolly, loc. cit.., p. 339. Sacrifices: Hillebrandt, Das altind. Neu-u. Vollmondsopfer, and Nationale Opfer, Festgruss an Böhtlingk; Lindner, Die Diksk[=a], and loc. cit., Ernteopfer; Weber, V[=a]japeya and R[=a]jas[=u]ya, Sitz. Berl. Ak., 1892, 1893, and Zur Kenntniss d. Ved. Opferrituals, IS. x. 321, xiii. 217; Schwab, Das Altindische Thieropfer. Suttee and Human Sacrifices: Colebrooke, Duties of Faithful Hindu Widow, Asiatick Researches, iv. 209; Wilson, JRAS. 1851, p. 96, 1854, p. 201, 1859, p. 209; Müller, Chips, ii. 34; Hall, JRAS. iii. 183, 193; R[=a]jendral[=a]la Mitra, Indo-Aryans, ii. 114; Weber, ZDMG. vii. 585, xviii. 262 (Manu, Minotaur, ib. p. 286), Ind. Streifen, i. 54; Zimmer, AIL. p. 328; Hillebrandt, ZDMG. xl. 711.

#Ritual, etc#: (above and) Müller, ZDMG. ix. p. xliii; Garbe, ZDMG. xxxiv. 319 (Pravargya); Rarity of Soma-sacrifice, Haug, ZDMG. xvi. 273; Hindu Doctrine of Atonement, Stenzler, Congress, 1874, p. 205; Atharva Ritual, Garbe, V[=a]it[=a]na S[=u]tra; Magoun, Asur[=i] Kalpa; Agni Sacrifice, Thibaut, Agni Citi, Pandit, JAS. Beng., xliv, 1875, Çulva S[=u]tra; Koulikovski, Les Trois Feux Sacrés, Rev. xx. 121. Serpent-worship: Stier, Sarpedon, KZ. xi. 234; Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship; Cuthbert, Serpent Temples, JRAS. 1846, p. 407; compare ib, 1891; Winternitz, Sarpabali, Schlangencult, Mit. d. anthrop. Gesell., Wien, xviii; IA. xv. 258; Bühler, ib. vi. 270; Snakes and Buddha, Bendall, Meghas[=u]tra, JRAS. xii. 286; Senart, Buddha; Oldham, JRAS. xxiii. 361. Idols: Weber, Omina und Portenta, p. 337; Ludwig, Nachrichten; Bollensen, ZDMG. xxii. 587, xlvii. 586; Müller, Chips, i. 37;[27] Muir, OST., v. 453; Kaegi, Rig Veda, note 79^a. Ages and Holy Numbers:[28] Roth, Ueber den AV., and Ueber den Mythus von den fünf Menschen-Geschlechtern bei Hesiod; Weber, Cycles, IS. ix. 460; ZDMG. xv. 132; Kaegi, Die Neunzahl; Schroeder, seven as holy number, KZ. xxix. 224; Hopkins, Holy Numbers of the Rig Veda.[29] See Star-lore, above.

#Brahmanism#: Specimens, Muir, OST. iv; S[=a]man, Benfey, Griffith; Sha[d.]vi[.m]ça, Weber, Omina (above); M[=a]it. S., Haug, IS. ix. 174; von Schroeder, Literatur, and ZDMG. xxxiii. 177; Çatapatha, partial translation, Eggeling, SBE., xii, xxvi, xli; Muir, JRAS. 1862, p. 31 (OST.); Weber, IS. i. 161 and Ind. Streifen, i. 9; first chapter, ZDMG. iv. 289; Brunnhofer (relation of parts), BB. x. 234; [=A]it. Br., Haug; Weber, IS. ix. 177; Deluge, etc., Bopp, Sündflüt; Weber, ZDMG. v. 525, Ind. Streifen, i. 9; Roth, ZDMG. vi. 243; Lindner, Ir. Fluthsage, Festgruss an Roth. Upanishads:[30] Cowell, Roer, Bib. Ind.; Whitney, Böhtlingk (Ka[t.]ha, Ch[=a]ndogya, Ait K[=a]ush[=i]tak[=i], Kena, B[r.]had[=a]ra[n.]yaka); Weber, IS. i, ii, ix; Müller, SBE., i, xv (all the chief works);[31] Oertel, J[=a]imin[=i]ya, PAOS. 1894; list of, Müller, ZDMG. xix. 137; Concordance of Upanishads, Jacob. For a general introduction the best work in English are the translations in the Sacred Books. Gough's Philosophy of the Upanishads has many translations, but the book is otherwise not to be recommended. On [=a]tm[=a] as [Greek: autmên], see KZ. xvii 145. Philosophy: Deussen, Das System des Ved[=a]nta, 1883, is now the standard work;[32] to which should be added the same author's S[=u]tra; Jacob's Ved[=a]ntas[=a]ra; and Thibaut, Ved[=a]nta S[=u]tra, SBE. xxxiv.[33] For the S[=a]nkhya, Davies, S[=a]nkhya; and Ballantyne, Aphorisms; but the best work is now Garbe, Die S[=a]mkhya Philosophie (1894). A good general introduction to Hindu Pantheism has been given by Lanman, Beginnings of Hindu Pantheism. The best general summary[34] of Hindu philosophies is found in the revised edition of Colebrooke's Essays. Other special studies include Roth, Brahma und die Brahmanen,[35] ZDMG. i. 66 (on brahma); Müller, ib. vi. 1, 219, vii. 287 (Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Ind. Phil.); Roer, ib. xxi. 309, xxii. 383 (Die Lehrsprüche der Vaiçeshika Philosophie); Muir, Theism in Vaiçeshika Philosophy, JRAS. 1862, p. 22; Ballantyne, Ny[=a]yas[=u]tras; Windisch, Ueber das Ny[=a]yabh[=a]shya, 1888, an Sitz der denkenden Seele, Beitr. d. k. Sächs. Gesell., 1891, p. 55; Ballantyne and Cowell, Ç[=a][n.][d.]ilya's Aphorisms (text by B., translation by C., Bib. Ind.); Regnaud, Le Pessimisme Br[=a]hmanique, Ann. du Mus. Guimet, i, and Matériaux pour servir à l'histoire de la philosophie d'Inde. The Sarvadarçanasa[.n]graha is translated by Cowell and Gough. The S[=u]tras of the six systems have all been translated (with the texts) in India. On the date of Çankara see Pathak, IA. xi. 174; and Telang and Fleet, ib. xiii. 95, xvi. 41; Logan, ib. xvi. 160.

#House-rules and law#: All the most important manuals of custom and
law have been translated by Stenzler, Bühler, Jolly, Oldenberg,
Bloomfield and Knauer (SBE. ii, vii, xiv, xxv, xxix, xxx, xxxiii;
Stenzler, P[=a]raskara, [=A]çval[=a]yana and Y[=a]jñavalkya;
Oldenberg, IS. xv. 1, Ç[=a]ñkh[=a]yana; Knauer, Gobhila, also Vedische
Fragen, Festgruss an Roth; Bloomfield, Gobhila, ZDMG. xxxv. 533).[36]

JAINISM.

Colebrooke's Essays (Cowell), ii. 402; Lassen, iv. 763; Wilson, Essays, i. 319; Weber, IS. xv. 263, xvi. 211, xvii. 1,[37] and Berlin MSS., vol. ii, 1892; Klatt, Stotra (MSS.), ZDMG. xxxiii. 445; Leumann, Berichte von den Schismen der Jaina, IS. xvii. 91; Jacobi, Stutayas and Stotra, ZDMG. xxxii. 509, IS. xiv. 359, also origin of sects, ZDMG. xxxviii. 1, Introduction to Kalpa S[=u]tra (Abh. k. M.,[38] 1879, Mab[=a]v[=i]ra is N[=a]taputta). Compare also Jacobi, ZDMG. xxxiv. 247; Oldenberg, ib. 748; Jacobi, ib. xxxv. 667, xl. 92; Burnell, IA. i. 354; Rice and Bühler, ib. iii. 153, vii. 28, 143, etc; Burgess, ib. xiii. 191; Windisch, Hemacandra's Yogaç[=a]stra, ZDMG. xxviii. 185. Jacobi has translated Ac[=a]r[=a]nga and Kalpa S[=u]tras for SBE. xxii. Hoernle, Digambara Pattavalis, IA. xx. 341, xxi. 57. A popular essay on Jains by Williams appeared JRAS. xx. 279. On Jain tradition compare Bühler, Sitz. Wien. Ak. 1883, WZKM. i. 165, ii. 141, iii. 233, iv. 313, v. 59, 175 (Mathur[=a], Congress, 1892, p. 219). On Gos[=a]la compare Hoernle, Bib. Ind., Uv[=a]saga Das[=a]o (seventh Anga) with Leumann's review; and Rockhill, Life of Buddha, p. 249. Compare also Jain Bh[=a]rata and R[=a]m[=a]ya[n.]a of Pampa, Rice, JRAS. xiv. 19; Leumann, Daçavaikalika-S[=u]tra und Niryukti, Jinabhadra's J[=i]takalpa, Sitz. Berl. Ak. 1892, Die Legende von Citta und Sa[.m]bh[=u]ta, WZKM. v. 111, vi. 1; Thomas, Early Faith of Açoka (to show prior Jainism; a dubious contention) JRAS. ix. 155. On the Jain nurture of vermin see JRAS. 1834, p. 96. On dates compare Jacobi, Kalpas[=u]tra and Oldenberg (above). The Çatruñjaya M[=a]h[=a]tmyam (Weber, Abh. k. M., 1858) is probably not an early work (Bühler, Three New Edicts, IA. vi. 154). On Weber's view in regard to Jain-Greek legends see his essay Ahaly[=a]-Achilleus, Sitz. Berl. Ak., 1887. See too Barth, Revue, xix. 292 ff., xx. 332.

BUDDHISM.

Colebrook's Essays; Wilson, Buddha and Buddhism, JRAS., 1856, pp. 229, 357; Bennett, Gaudama, JAOS. ii. 3; R. Spence Hardy, Eastern Monarchism and Manual of Buddhism; E. Hardy, Der Buddhismus nach älteren P[=a]liwerken; Burnouf, Le Lotus de la Bonne Loi and Introduction à l'histoire du Bouddhisme indien (Nepal); Köppen, Die Religion des Buddha; Weber, Ueber den Buddhismus, Ind. Skizzen, and Streifen, i. 104; Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, Le Bouddha et sa religion (now antiquated); Oldenberg, Buddha; Kern, Der Buddhismus; T.W. Rhys Davids, Manual of Buddhism, and Hibbert Lectures; Copleston, Buddhism; Monier Williams, Buddhism;[39] Mary Sumner's Histoire (ed. Foucaux); Senart's Essai sur la légende du Buddha, JA. 1873, p. 114; 1874, p. 249; 1875, P. 97, and published separately. Valuable is the same author's article, JA. viii, 1876, Notes, and work (containing) Les Inscriptions de Piyadasi; compare IA. xvii. 188; ZDMG. xl. 127 (bühler). on N[=a]g[=a]rjuna (second century) see Beal, IA. xv. 353. Of historical interest, if otherwise valueless, are Schoebel, Le Buddha et le Bouddhisme, 1857; and Holmboe, Traces de Buddhisme en Norvège avant l'introduction du christianisme. Lillie, Buddha and Early Buddhism, also influence of Buddhism on Christianity, and JRAS. xiv. 218, Buddhist Saint Worship, and ib. xv. 419, on Ceylon Buddhism; Beal, Schools, IA. ix. 299.

#Buddhist texts#: Burnouf, Foucaux, above; Weber, Dhammapada,[40]
ZDMG. xiv. 29: Müller, Science of Religion, and SBE. x, with
Fanshöll's Sutta Nip[=a]ta; J. Weber and Huth, Tib. Buddhist
S[=u]tras, ZDMG. xlv. 577; Pischel, Assal[=a]yana Sutta; Childers,
Khuddaka P[=a]tha, JRAS. iv. 309.; Davids, Buddhist Suttas translated
from the P[=a]li; and Davids and Oldenberg,[41] Vinaya Texts, SBE. xi,
xiii, xvii, xx; Kern, Lotus, ib. xxi; Davids, Milinda, ib. xxxv;
Cowell and Müller, Mah[=a]y[=n]na S[=u]tras, ib. xlix; Foucaux,
Lalita Vistara, Ann. du MG. vi, xix; Pratimokha, above, and Beal and
Gogerly, JRAS. 1862, p. 407; Dickson, ib. vii. 1, viii. 62;
Childers, ib. vii. 49; viii. 219; Rogers (and Müller),
Buddhaghosha's Parables; Foulkes, IA. xix. 105; Carus, Gospel of
Buddha.

#Nirv[=a][n.]a#: Out of the immense literature we select Müller
(Buddhist Nihilism), Science of Religion, p. 141; Oldenberg, Buddha,
p. 273; Frankfurter, JRAS. xii. 548; Rhys Davids, Manual, and Hibbert
Lectures, tenth Appendix.

#Date of nirv[=a][n.]a#: Westergaard, Buddha's Totesjahr, Ueber den ältesten Zeitraum der Ind. Geschichte; Cunningham, Bhilsa Topes; Bühler IA. vi. 149 ff., Three New Edicts of Açoka; Kern, Jaar-telling; Müller, Acad. March 1, 1884, SBE. x.: Davids, Ancient Coins and Measures of Ceylon, p. 57; Oldenberg, Vinaya Pitaka, SBE. xiii. p. xxii.[42]

#Foreign buddhism#: Stan. Julien, Histoire de la vie de Hiouen Thsang, Mémoires (compare JA. Dec. 1857), Voyages des Pélerins Bouddhistes; Wassiljew, Der Buddhismus; Bigandet, Life of Gaudama; Fergusson, Hiouen Thsang's Journey from Patna, JRAS. vi. 213, 396; Wilson, ib. 1859, p. 106 ('Summary Account'); JAS. Beng. i; As. Researches, xx (Csoma, Asiatic Buddhism); Beal, Diamond S[=u]tras (etc., JRAS.); Gutzlatf (Sykes), Buddhism in China, JRAS. 1854, p. 73; 1856, pp. 316, 357 (Wilson, Notes, Inscriptions); Edkins, Chinese Buddhism; Beal (Chinese), Dhammapada, The Romantic Legend, and Travels of the Buddhist Pilgrim Fah-Hian,[43] Life of Buddha, BOR. passim; Müller, Buddhist Pilgrims, Chips, i; Köppen (above); Hodgson, Memoirs; Burnouf (above); Schlagintweit, Buddhistic Idols in Tibet, JRAS. 1863, p. 437, and (Ann. du Musée Guimet, iii) Buddhism in Tibet (Lamaism in the second part); Rockhill, The Life of Buddha, and The Land of the Lamas; Lamaistic succession, Mayers, JRAS. iv. 284; Lamaist extension of Buddhist Confession, IA. xxiii. 73; Lamaism and Catholicism, Davids, Hibbert Lectures; Modern Lamaism, Waddell, Buddhism of Thibet or Lamaism; Schiefner, T[=a]ran[=a]tha's Geschichte (and Tibetische Lebensbeschreibung); Tibet texts (above); Bastian, Buddhist Literature of the Burmese, ZDMG. xvii. 697, and Buddhist Psychology, ib. xx. 419; Führer, Buddhist Manu, BBRAS. xv. 329; Jardine and Forchhammer, Notes on Buddhist Law (in Burmah); Friederich, Buddhism in Bali, JRAS. viii 158, ix. 59; dharmaç[=a]stra, IA. xiii. 24; Crawfurd, Hindu Religion in Bali, AR. xiii. 128;[44] in Ceylon, Foulkes, IA. xvii. 100.

#Buddhist legends#: Burnouf, Introduction; Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, and BOR. iv. 9; Beal, JRAS. vi. 377; Fausböll, Two J[=a]takas, JRAS. v. i., Five and Ten (1872); Feer, JA. 1875 (v, vi);[45] Fausböll, Weber, IS. v. 412; Açvaghosha (fifth ccntury); Weber, Streifen, i. 186; Cowell, Açvaghosha; Lévi, JA. 1892, p. 201; Beal, SBE. xix. Hells: Feer, Études Bouddhiques, l'Enfer indien, JA. 1892, p. 185, 1893, p. 112;[46] Köppen, p. 239; Senart, Notes, JA. viii. 477. Symbols: Cunningham, JRAS. 1851, pp. 71, 114; Hodgson, ib. 1861, p. 393; Sewell and Pincott, ib. xix. 238 and xxii. 299;[47] IA. vii. 176; ib. xv. 61, 89, 217, and following volumes (sacred trees); Lillie, Saints and Trees, JRAS. xiv. 218. Topes, Temples: Cunningham, above, p. 108, and St[=u]pa of Bharhut, Bhilsa Topes (synods, schisms); Fergusson, Rock-cut Temples of India, JRAS. 1844, p. 30, and Topes of S[=a]nchi and Amar[=a]vat[=i]; Beal, JRAS. v. 164; Burgess, Arch. Surv. of Western India, and Cave Temples of India (symbols) with Fergusson; the latter, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Tree and Serpent Worship; Simpson, JRAS. xxi. 49 (temples from tombs); Müller, Dagobas from Ceylon, ZDMG. xii. 514[48] (also dates). Women leaders of Buddhist Reformation, Miss Bode, JRAS. xxv. 517.

#Brahmanism and Buddhism#: Burnouf, Bh. P. Introd. p. 137 (Indra highest god); Williams, JRAS. xviii. 127; Holtzmann, Zur Geschichte, p. 103; (and Jainism) Leumann, Die Legende von Citta und Sambh[=u]ta, WZKM (above); Bastian, Brahmanic Inscriptions in Buddhist Temples (of Siam), JAOS. viii. 377.

#Buddhist heresies#, D[=i]pava[.m]sa (above); doctrines, Wassiljew (above); Le Buddhisme et les Grecs, Lévi, Revue, xxiii. 36.

HINDUISM.

EPIC: Ktesias, IA. x. 296 ff.; McCrindle, Ancient India as described by Ktesias and by Megasthenes and Arrian;[49] date of Bh[=a]rata, Bühler, Kirste, Ind. Studies, No. ii; in Cambodia, Barth, Inscriptions Sanskrites du Cambodge; of R[=a]m[=a]ya[n.]a, Weber, R[=a]m[=a]ya[n.]a, IA., reprint; Jacobi, R[=a]m[=a]ya[n.]a,[50] Festgruss an Böhtlingk, p. 44, GGA., Nos. 16 of 1892, 1893; epic language, Franke, Was ist Sanskrit? BB. xvii. 54; epos and Veda, Oldenberg, ZDMG. xxxvii. 54, xxxviii. 439, xxxix. 52; Weber, Episches im Vedischen Ritual,[51] Sitz, Berl. Ak. 1891; Ludwig, Ironie, Festgruss an Böhtlingk. Résumé, Wheeler, History (unreliable); Williams, Indian Wisdom. Translations, Wilson, Sabh[=a], JRAS. 1842, p. 137; Thomson (1855), Davies, Lorinser, and Telang (SBE. viii), Bhagavad G[=i]ta, etc; Milman, Nala; Muir, IA. vii, viii, Metrical Translations, and OST.; Arnold, S[=a]vitr[=i], Idylls, etc. (free); Holtzmann (Sr.), Indische Sagen; Foucaux, 'Kairata Parva'; Sadous, fragments (1858); H. Fauche (several books of Bh[=a]rata); Pratapa Chandra Roy (almost all); Griffith, R[=a]m[=a]ya[n.]a, Schoebel. (Mus. Guimet, xiii), Gorresio, Fauche, id. Studies, Holtzmann, Indra, Apsaras, Brahm[=a],[52] ZDMG. xxxii. 290, xxxiii. 631, xxxviii. 167, Agni, Arjuna (each separately), Zur Geschichte, Neunzehn Bücher (literature); Hopkins, Manu in Epic, JAOS. xi. 239, Ruling Caste, ib. xiii, etc.; Sauer, Mah[=a]bh[=a]rata and Wate (primitive epic, unconvincing); Nève, Morals and Women (antiquated); Weber, Mother-Worship, Zwei Ved. Texte, and West, IA. x. 245; Roussel, Les idées religieuses, Muséon, xii. 263, 295. For Philosophy, see above. Pur[=a][n.]as, Modern Sects: Lassen, i. 481; Wilson, Analysis, 1838-39 (essays); Burnouf, Bh[=a]gavata; Wilson, Vishnu; Rückert, M[=a]rka[n.][d.]eya, Wortham, JRAS. xiii. 103, 355 (partial); ib. xvii. 221; Wolheim, Padma (Latin, partial); Stevenson, Ga[n.]eça, JRAS. 1846, p. 319; Ante-Brahmanic Religions, and Feudalism, ib. 1846, pp. 330, 390; in Dekhan, ib. 1838, p. 189; Sykes, Traits, ib. 1860, p. 223; G[=i]ta-Govinda, Lassen (Latin), Rückert, ZKM. i. 132. Fables: WZKM. vii. 215; Pratapa Chandra Gosha, Durg[=a]p[=u]j[=a]; T[=i]rtha: Williams, Hinduism (list), IA. v. 209, Cunningham, Survey; Hunter, Indian Empire (sects), Orissa, and Report; Çivaite sects, Sen[=a]th[=i] R[=a]ja, Mus. Guim. vii; Krishna, Weber, ZDMG. vi. 92; Berl. Ak., 1867, p. 217, IS. xiii. 354; Nève, Des éléments étrangers, etc; Phallus, IA. iv. 211, v. 183, Kittel, Ueber d. Ursprung des Linga Cultus (refutes Wurm, Geschichte der Indischen Religion); Stevenson, JRAS. 1846, p. 337; P[=a]ñcar[=a]tra, Hall, V[=a]savadatta. C[=a]rv[=a]ka, Colebrooke, Muir, loc. cit. Var[=a]hamihira, see above. Fate: IA. xviii. 46. Sects: Jones, AR. ii. 334; names of week-days, Cunningham, IA. xiv. i; Grierson, ib. 322; Dikshit, ib. xvi. 113; Wilson's Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus, AR., Essays; Hunter's Statistical Account of Bengal; Kitt's Compendium of Castes and Tribes; Elphinstone's History; Müller, Chips, iv. 329; Williams, Religious Thought and Life, and Brahmanism and Hinduism; W.J. Wilkins, Modern Hinduism; Wilson, On the Sikhs, JRAS. 1846, p. 43; Prinsep, Origin of Sikh Power; MacGregor, History of Sikhs;[53] Kab[=i]r; Trumpp, [=A]digranth, JRAS. v. 197, Congress, 1880, p. 159, and [=A]digranth (complete), IA. vi ff.; Die Religion der Sikhs. Vishnuism, Williams, JRAS. xiv. 289. Mohammedanism in Hinduism, Dabist[=a]n, vol. ii.[54] Ritual: Bühler, IA. 1883; temples; Hurst, Indika (especially p. 294); Burgess, IA. xii. 315; Williams, Thought and Life, p. 448 (see Buddhism). Thugs: Reynolds, JRAS. 1837, p. 200; Sherwood, AR. xiii. 25, Ph[=a]ns[=i]gars; Shakespear, ib. xiii. 282; also Sleeman, Report, and Ramaseeana (Thugs' Argot and papers on Thugs); Elphinstone, i. 369, 371 (Bh[=a]ts and Ch[=a]rans), 384 (Thugs and Decoits). C[=a]itanyas, Hunter, Statistical Account, Williams and Wilkins, loc. cit.; On 'pocket-altars,' JRAS. 1851, p. 71; Vidh[=a]nas, Burnell, Meyer; K[=a]nph[=a]tis, Celibates, of Kutch, JRAS. 1839, p. 268; Ling[=a]yits, Kittel, above, and IA. iv, v; Tulsi D[=a]s, R[=a]m[=a]ya[n.]a, works of Ramavat sect, Grierson, IA. xxii. 89, 122, 227; Pandus as gods, IA, vii. 127; their fish-emblems, ib. xxii. 61; Bombay Dancing Girls, IA. xiii. 165; Sun-worship, temples, St. Julien, Voy. iii. 172; Burgess, Survey, p. 216; in Taxila, JRAS. 1859, p. 77; in Pur[=a][n.]as, Lassen, ii. 832, 919; IA. vi. 11, vii. 69, 71, viii. 30 ([=a]dityabhaktas). Theistic Reformers: Wilson, Essays; Hunter, Account; Müller, Chips; Williams, JRAS. xiii. I, 281; Tiru Valluvar, Graul, Kural, and Pope, IA. vii ff.; N[=a]ngi Panth[=i]s, IA. xiii. 1; Tamil Çivaites, Foulkes, Catechism; JAOS. iv. 129; Ph[=a]ndarpur Vishnuites, Vi[t.]h[t.]ala Bhaktas (Kab[=i]r), Stevenson, JRAS. 1842 p. 64; especially Mitchell, IA. xi. 56, 149, hyrons of Tuk[=a], and celebration, Congress, 1892, p. 282. Festivals:[55] above, V[=a]japeya; Hillebrandt, Sonnwendfeste; JRAS. 1846, p. 60; Gover, ib. v. 91; IA. xx. 430; Holi, JRAS. 1838, p. 189; 1841, p. 239; Vet[=a]la, ib. 1838, p. 192; Dekhan deities, ib. 1842, p. 105.

WILD TRIBES.

Johnston. Yellow Men of India; Hunter, loc. cit.; Hewitt, Early History of Northern India (speculative), JRAS. xx. 321, etc.; Oppert, Original Inhabitants, Madras Journal, 1887, 1888; Breeks, Account of Primitive Tribes, etc. (Nilagiris, Todas); Hodgson, Aboriginal Tribes, JAS. Beng., xxv. 31; Samuelis, Native Dress and Religious Dances, ib. 295; Neumann, English Realm in India, ii; Latham, Ethnology of India; Macpherson, JRAS. 1842, p. 172, and 1852, p. 216(Khonds); Briggs, Aboriginal Races, ib. 275; Sherring, Hindu (Bengal) Tribes; the Sacred City of the Hindus; also Bhar-tribe by the same, JRAS. v. 376; Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal; Rowney, Wild Tribes; Khonds, Koles,[56] S[=a]uras, Gonds (and Bh[=i]ls) JRAS. 1852, p, 216 (1844, p. 181); also ib. 1842, p. 172; Marshman, History, iii. p. 108 (Khonds); thirty Snake-tribes, JRAS. xii. 229; ib. 1859, p.1,[57] Frye, Uriya and Khonds, religious dances, p. 16; creed and sacrifice, pp. 20, 36; Marshman ii. p. 164 (infanticide); Kitt, Compendium of Castes and Tribes found in India; Santh[=a]ls, JRAS. 1852, p. 285; IA. xxii. 294 (emigration); Avery, Aboriginal Tribes, IA. xiv. 125; Carnegy, Races Tribes and Castes (Oude); Dalton (Bengal), Descriptive Ethnology; Social Customs in Kashmeer and Oude, IA. xviii. 287, 386; Campbell, Sant[=a]l folklore (totemistic origin from goose);[58] Kork[=u]s, Kolarian Tribe in middle of (Dravidian) Gonds, JRAS. xvi. 164; Newbold, Chenchwars, wild tribe in forests of eastern Ghauts, JRAS. 1845, p. 271; Cain, Koi, southern tribe of Gonds, JRAS. xiii. 410 (witches, Pandus, etc); Dunbar, Lurka Koles, JRAS., 1861, p. 370; Dravidians, Kittel, and Caldwell, loc. cit.; Polyandry, Thomas, JRAS. xi. 37; Simpson (rites, sacrifices, etc.), P[=u]jas in the Sutlej valley, JRAS. xvi. 13; Burnell, Devil-worship of Tuluvas, IA. 1894; Waddell, Frog-worship (Nepal), IA. xxii. 293; Steere, Swahili Tales, IA. passim.[59] A volume has lately been published on the Chittagong Hill Tribes[60] by Riebeck with superb illustrations; and photographic illustrations of racial types may be studied in Watson's and Kaye's volumes, The People of India. Discussion (biassed) of r[=a]jputs of Scythian origin, Elphinstone, i. 440. On Dravidian literature, see Elliot, IA. xvi. 158. On Gipsies, Grierson, ib. 35; etymology, ib. 239.

GEOGRAPHY, INDIA AND THE WEST.

Schmidt, Die Urheimath d. Indog. u. d. europäische Zahlsystem, Sitz. Berl. Akad. 1890, p. 297; Hirt,[61] Die Urheimath d. Indogermanen, IF. i. 464; Schrader, Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschlchte, p. 616; Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, i. 643; Vivien de Saint Martin, Études sur la Géographie du Véda; Zimmer, Altindisches Leben, p. 3; Aufrecht, ZDMG. xiii. 498 (Ras[=a] as Milky Way); Ludwig, Nachrichten über Geographie, etc.; Whitney, Language and the Study of Language; Oldenberg, Buddha, p. 399 (we cite from the first edition); Thomas, Rivers of the Rig Veda, JRAS. xv. 357.[62] On the relations of the Hindus and the West: Weber (relations with Semites), Indische Skizzen, and Die Griechen in Indien, in Sitz. Berl. Akad. 1890, p. 901; Steinthal, ZDMG. xi. 396; Grill, ib. xxvii. 425; Stein, IA. xvii. 89. Leo's view in regard to German-Indian unity (reviewed, ZDMG. viii. 389) is worth citing as a curioslty.[63] Brunnhofer's works have been cited above, p. 15. On the Beziehungen der Indier zum Westen a valuable article has lately been written by Franke (ZDMG. xlvii. 595). Weber, Ueber d. P[=a]ras[=i]prakaça d. K[r.][s.][n.]ad[=a]sa, as well as in his R[=a]jas[=u]ya, V[=a]japeya, Vedische Beiträge, etc., has treated of the relations with Persia (Fables, IS. iii. 327). In the works cited above the same author has discussed the relations with all other Western nations, including the Greeks, on which Sykes, Notes on Religious State of India, JRAS. 1841, p. 243, is readable; Bohlen, Altes-Indien, and Lévi, La Grèce et I'lnde d'après les documents indiens (revue des études grecques, 1891) should be read.[64] The subject of Early Christianity in India has been treated by Burnell, IA. iii. 308, iv. 153, etc. (see also above, p. 479); while Priaulx, in JRAS. 1861, 1862, has written a series of interesting articles on India's Connection with Rome. The Indian travels of Apollonius of Tyana, JRAS. 1859, p. 70, etc., are of no value beside those of Ktesias and Megasthenes. The origin of the Hindu Alphabet and the native system of Dates have to do with the originality of parts of Hindu literature, but these outlying subjects, which have a literature of their own, we can only touch upon. A good résumé of the discussion in regard to the alphabet will be found in JRAS. xvi. 325, by Cust; a new theory of Franke's, ZDMG. xlvi. 731. Halévy derives the alphabet from Greece. But see now Bühler, Ind. Studies, iii, 1895 (North Semitic, seventh century, B.C.) The native eras are discussed by Cunningham, Book of Indian Eras; and in Müller's India, What Can It Teach Us? p. 282. On the native date for the beginning of the Kali-yuga, i.e. this age (the year 3101 or 3102 B.C), JRAS. iv. 136, and Thomas, edition of Prinsep's Antiquities, may be read.[65] A general survey of primitive Aryan culture will be found in Schrader, loc. cit., to which may be added on Vedic (Aryan) metres, Westphal, KZ. ix. 437; and Allen, ib. xxiv. 556 (style, Heinzel, Stil d. altgerm. Poesie). On the name [=A]rya, besides loc. cit. above, p. 25, may be added, Windisch, Beitr. z. Geschichte d. D. Sprache, iv. 211; Pott, Internat. Zt. für allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft, ii. p. 105 ff. Criticism of a too great confidence in the results of the comparattve method, AJP. xv. 154; PAOS. 1895.

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