OF THE ARABS.
The Arabs are, generally speaking, tall, straight, and well formed, and inclined, from their manner of living, to be thin and muscular. Their countenances are expressive and handsome, their form of face oval, and their noses aquiline. Although naturally white, their complexion becomes dark from continual exposure to the sun, and from not being very particular in their ablutions. They are active; capable of undergoing great fatigue and abstinence from food; lively in their manners; daring, and possessed of much cunning: though generous, they are great beggars; revengeful and unforgiving. The general costume of the men is a large loose shirt and trowsers of cotton, sandals, or tight half boots of red leather, which lace in front, fit close round the ankle, and rise as high as the calf of the leg. On their heads they wear a red cap, which is long enough to hang a little down on one side; from the top of it falls a tassel of blue silk. A wrapper of woollen (from about twenty to twenty-five feet in length, and five or six in breadth), woven rather more compactly than flannel, is thrown round the body in folds, part being placed over the head in the manner of a hood, while the end is thrown over the left shoulder, and hangs down behind the back. This article of dress has several names, according to its texture. The most coarse and heavy is called Aba. That between this and the finest (called Jereed) is named Kholi; but in Tripoli, all three are known under the appellation of Barracan. A large cloak, having a hood, and no sleeves, and composed of closely and well-woven wool without a seam, is used in rainy or cold weather over the Barracan, and is called Bornouse. The dress of the females differs but little from that of the men in materials, but they put it on in a different manner. The poorest class wear only the Barracan, which is passed over the head and fastened at the waist; others have a shirt in addition to this. Young women wear their hair in tresses, to which they attach beads, pieces of coral, silver, or any other gaudy thing which they can procure; and they have one or two large silver ornaments in the form of crescents, fastened on the right side of the head, on which they also frequently wear a large woollen turban of blue, wrapped carelessly round. From their ears are suspended a multitude of silver rings, and round their necks they hang rows of beads of various colours. The old women frizzle their hair over the forehead, so as to make it project to some distance; and they dye it of a dull red, with the leaves of a plant called Henna, which gives it the appearance of red wool. All the females have a practice of tattooing their chins, the tips of their noses, and between the eyebrows. Their necks and arms are also frequently marked. The favourite figure is that of a hand, which is intended to avert the “Evil Eye.” They wear red lacing boots, in the same manner as the men. When young (that is to say, fifteen or sixteen), they have fine figures, and are exceedingly handsome; but they soon lose their good looks and pleasing form, and become as ugly as they were before beautiful. Their eyes are black and large; their noses straight and well proportioned; they have small lips, and their teeth are exquisitely white. Nothing, in fact, can exceed in prettiness an Arab girl; but the old women are, without exception, the most disgusting and hideous creatures I ever beheld. Both sexes blacken their eyelids with Kohol, or lead ore powdered, which adds much to the brilliancy of the eye, and makes it appear larger than it really is. They all wear an immense quantity of Agebs عجب, or Charms, against disorders and misfortunes.
The arms of the Arabs are the same as those of the natives of Tripoli, viz. guns, pistols, swords, and daggers. They are good shots, when able to rest their guns; but otherwise cannot easily manage them. The gun is slung over the shoulders, and the pistols are worn in a belt, which is hung round the body, and which contains the ammunition. They are constantly armed with both these weapons; but the sword is seldom carried, unless when they ride on horseback; it is then suspended by the side of the saddle, in such a way as to remain under the left leg, with the hilt near the pommel. They generally procure their powder and lead from Tripoli, though some possess the art of making a kind of inferior powder amongst themselves.
In the Tripoline dominions, and in Fezzan also, there are two kinds of Arabs, one wanderers, the other fixed residents in towns; those in towns (as Benioleed for example) travel much about the country, but always return to what they consider as their home. The wanderers have no permanent place of abode, but remove their tents as pasturage or circumstances require. These tents are made of woollen, coarsely woven in long pieces and sewn together. They spread to a great breadth, but are not high; the entrance being about six feet, and the top sloping gradually down till it is fastened to the ground. They are so divided by means of mats or carpets, that the women have a separate place from the men, and can be hidden from the gaze of strangers: they, however, so manage it, as to see without being themselves observed. These dwellings of the Arabs are called by their inhabitants, Beit el Shar, بيت الشار, or “hair houses,” and Nejja also. By means of bushes, almost every tent has an inclosure adjoining it, for securing sheep or goats at night; and stakes are driven in the ground, to which the horses are fastened, though sometimes these animals are allowed a portion of the tents of their masters. The Arabs are generous to their own kinsmen; and should a stranger come amongst them, they never deny him the rights of hospitality, provided they are themselves eating; but should that not be the case, they make no attempt to prepare food expressly for him: an acquaintance, however, is always sure of a good reception.
The Bedouins of Barbary are not to be compared with those of Egypt, either for enterprise, ingenuity, or good qualities; since whatever they may have been, they are now, by the tyranny of their masters, fallen from their once high character, and are not in any respect better than slaves. One or two tribes are yet independent, but are likely soon to fall. Each tribe, or even set of tents, is governed by a Sheikh, who, being an old man, or one appointed by the Bashaw, is looked up to as a superior; though his business is chiefly to collect the requisite sums of money from his people. Some years back, these Sheikhs commanded their tribes in the wars of plunder, or in defence of their liberties, and were then chosen by the voice of the people, for their courage and military skill; but all offensive or defensive wars being now at an end, in consequence of their repeated and bloody overthrows by the Bashaw, the name of Sheikh has no honour attached to it. In some cases, indeed, individuals refuse to undertake the office, lest the Bashaw should make them responsible for any faults committed by their followers.
In their Religion, the Arabs are great bigots, very superstitious, and easily alarmed about the enchantments and wiles of Iblis (or the devil), to whom they attribute many of their misfortunes and illnesses. To the prayers enjoined by the Koran they are very attentive, and, unless in travelling, never omit repeating them at the appointed periods. Of the name and attributes of God they never speak without reverence; and they have a profound respect for Idiots, whom they consider as people beloved of Heaven, and totally unable to think of the things of this world.
Marriages are contracted in most instances without either party having seen the other, the agreement being entirely on the part of the parents of the bride, and the bridegroom, the consent of the females never being asked. There are certain marriage presents which are always given by the husband to the relations of his wife, so that he may be said to purchase her of them. Though four wives are allowed to all Mohammedans, the Arabs very rarely possess so many, few having more than two, and some only one. It is not their custom to have Negresses living with them, which may be accounted for by their dislike to being considered as the fathers of children of colour. The settled Arabs are not so scrupulous; but are, notwithstanding, more so than the Moors. The ceremony observed in conducting a bride to her husband is very singular; and having myself been an eye-witness of it, I made a drawing representing the camel used on such occasions, with its gay trappings.
A frame being fixed on the back of the animal, the bride is placed in it, and, while thus sitting, is housed over with carpets, shawls, and ostrich feathers. In travelling from place to place, or in searching for pasture ground, the people make use of these frames; but they are in such cases generally uncovered, and have baskets, or other frame-work, attached to their sides, in which the young children are placed. An Arab family on its march presents a very extraordinary appearance, the camels being laden with tents, cooking utensils, women, and children. The men walk, driving their flocks before them, or ride their horses, frequently without bridle or saddle. Should the journey exceed one day, a temporary tent is erected at night; and at the dawn of morning, all is again placed on the camels. The operation of erecting or taking down one of their hair houses does not occupy much time, as the women always assist the men on these occasions. The dogs guard the flocks during the night, and are very fierce. In colour they are white, resembling wolves in form, and having long bushy tails. They howl rather than bark, and with great apparent courage attack every stranger who approaches them, though when threatened with a stick or stone, they run yelping away. It frequently happens, that the spot fixed on as a temporary residence is far distant from any well, sometimes even three days of the ordinary march of flocks; yet this does not dishearten the persevering Arab, who, notwithstanding, drives his sheep once a week to drink. They feed as they go and come, and therefore do not suffer much on their long journey. The wants of the people are easily supplied; a few skins of water being brought at stated times by a camel, and economised with great care. I have remarked, that not only the Arabs and their camels, but all animals in this country have the power of remaining a great length of time without water. Sheep, (provided they have tolerable herbage), will pass even a month without drinking. Antelopes and buffaloes, I should conceive, in some cases never taste water, none being found on the surface of the desert, and they are unable to obtain that which is in the wells. On the other hand, wolves, hyænas, foxes, and jackals, are less capable of enduring thirst. They descend such wells (or more properly pits) as are not deep; and the vicinity of one of these places is frequently ascertained from observing the tracks of animals, which, during the night, go there to drink.
The Bedouins sow their scanty stock of corn, after turning up the earth with a rude plough, or more generally with a hoe. These cultivated spots are respected by other wanderers, and the corn is rarely stolen; should the Bashaw, indeed, be at war with the Arabs, he never fails to destroy their crops. When a sufficient time has elapsed to allow of the grain being in a state of maturity, those to whom it belongs come and gather in their harvest (sometimes before it is perfectly ripe), lest the Bashaw should be informed of the circumstance, and deprive them of a larger portion than they can afford; emissaries, indeed, are never wanting, who make it their business to ascertain the exact time when the corn is to be cut, and then pounce on the poor Arabs for the Bashaw’s share of it. To avoid such taxes, therefore, they sometimes gather it so prematurely, that it will not serve as seed for the ensuing year. When the date season commences, many families come and pitch their tents in the Meshea of Tripoli, in order to purchase dates for their future subsistence; these they deprive of the stones, and when kneaded together, keep them in skins, so as to preserve them from insects or wet: these form their chief support, assisted by the milk of their sheep and camels. That of the camel, as I have before noticed, is thin, of a bluish colour (resembling cow’s milk mixed with water), and rather salt to the taste; it throws up no cream, but soon coagulates like new curds. The ewe milk is excellent, but is never drank fresh, the Arabs preferring it sour, or, more properly, as butter-milk. The flocks are milked morning and night into large bowls, and when a sufficient quantity is thus collected, it is poured into skins, without much attention being paid to its cleanliness, when by shaking and rolling it about, butter is procured, and generally attaches itself to the side of the skin; the milk being then strained from it into other vessels, is allowed to grow sour, and a quantity of butter being produced, it is boiled with a little salt until it becomes like oil, and is then poured into goat-skins, and is fit for use or market.
Cheese is procured by turning the milk with a certain herb (the name of which I have forgotten), and the curds, being salted, are spread out to dry in the sun, when they resemble little crums, and are very pleasant to the taste. I did not see any other kind of cheese than the one I have mentioned, and this is rather scarce, and used as a luxury in many of their little messes. Sometimes it is toasted, and has a very agreeable flavour. It is called Jibn, جبن.
A great article of commerce is the fat which the shepherds procure from the sheep they kill. They cut it from every part of the body, salt it, and lay it by until a large quantity is collected, when, whether putrid or not, they boil it, until it bear some resemblance to the grease used by tallow-chandlers; it is then poured into skins, and is fit for use. In the interior it sells at about a shilling a pound; but at Tripoli it is much cheaper. It is put into almost every article of food by the Arabs, and though not very savoury, we soon became accustomed to its taste. It is called Shahm شحامر.
From the wool of their sheep, the women make strong barracans, carpets, shirts, turbans, and many ornaments. Their tents too are made of wool and goats’ hair, as are also sacks, which are used to carry corn and merchandize on the camels. Mats and ornaments of palm leaves or grass are neatly made. Their dyes are generally brilliant; black, blue, red, and orange; in fact, every colour excepting green, which they find much difficulty in producing; though at Tripoli the dyers succeed very well in it. The looms of the Arab women are on the ground; they have no shuttles, but with much trouble pass the threads through with their fingers, generally lightening their labour with songs. The men seldom work while in their tents, and their time seems to hang much heavier on their hands than that of the women, who with cooking and other domestic employments are generally pretty well occupied. No woman eats in the presence of a man, and wives always wait on their husbands.
The domestic animals consist of poultry, sheep, goats, camels, horses, and dogs: they all live under the same canopy as their masters, and are on good terms amongst themselves. The horses are perfectly quiet, being brought up with the children of the family. They would be a fine race, but that the want of good food prevents their acquiring a handsome appearance; add to which, the ambition of possessing well fed and comely animals does not now exist; for should any of the Bashaw’s people wish to appropriate a fine horse, the owner dares not refuse to sell him, at whatever low price may be offered. Still, however, many of the Arabs breed them expressly for the market, bringing them while foals for sale. I have seen some of them brought in this way, which, when taken care of, became remarkably handsome, and unlike the generality belonging to the Bedouins. In the bazaars at Tripoli I have sometimes observed very fine ones, which were brought from the Desert, and sold for forty or fifty dollars (about eleven or twelve pounds sterling) a piece. All have long tails, and are entire; a great defect is, however, almost general amongst them, in consequence of their being mounted when too young; which is, that their backs are very hollow, and their hind quarters appear higher than their fore. Colts of twelve months are frequently seen, staggering beneath the weight of a heavy man, his arms, water skin, and food. The Arabs consider a large belly as very handsome; and some horses, from the nature of their food, acquire such rotundity in this respect, that they appear like mares in foal.
| Drawn from Life by G. F. Lyon. | On Stone by D. Dighton. |
Arabs exercising.
London. Published by J. Murray Albemarle St. 1821.
C. Hullmandel’s Lithography.
A light mane and tail on a chesnut horse is considered unlucky; the colour, though common, is not much admired, and the feet of such animals are accounted soft and tender. Bay is the favourite colour next to light grey, which is much in request, the Bashaw generally riding horses of this description.
Much importance is attached to the manner in which the legs are coloured, stockinged horses being in the extremes of good or bad luck, according to the disposition of the white. If both forelegs are marked, it is good; if one hind and one fore leg are marked on the same side, it is very unlucky; or if one alone is white, it is equally unfortunate; but if opposite legs (off fore and near hind) are light, nothing can be more admired. Ridiculous as these fancies may appear, they nevertheless influence the price of horses, sometimes to even a sixth of their value.
In sandy parts of the desert shoeing is never used; but where the animals are to pass over mountains, it is absolutely necessary. The Arab shoes are thus formed,
turning up behind; and are, in general, so badly put on, that there are few horses to be found which have not been injured in their feet. The Arab’s forge is simple, and almost every man is his own blacksmith. A small mud or clay wall is built to the height of a foot or eighteen inches; a hole is then made even with the ground, and an iron pipe introduced. To this are attached two skins, which open at the upper end by means of two sticks, having a small leather handle on each: the thumb is passed through one of these, and the fingers through the other; so that the hand easily opens and shuts the skin. The mouth being closed, the skin is pressed down, and throws a strong blast through the pipe. It is again opened and lifted up, when it is once more ready. Thus, alternately with each hand, the current of air is kept up to the fire which lies over the pipe. Camel’s dung is used when charcoal cannot be procured, and gives a very strong heat. The anvil is a small square-ended piece of iron, which is sunk in a log of wood, and partly buried in the sand. An ordinary hammer, and a pair or two of pincers, complete the apparatus.
The mill is equally simple, being composed of two circular stones, one of which lies flat on the other, and is turned by a small handle placed on it; this is fixed by a pivot from the lower one, and has a hole in the centre, through which it is supplied with grain.
The messes made with flour are few, and may be thus enumerated: Cusscussou, Bazeen, Dweeda, Atila, Mogatta, Zūmeita, Bread, Fetaat. Cusscussou being a dish very generally mentioned in all books of travels, I shall attempt to describe the manner in which it is made; and I trust I may be allowed, however trifling the subject, to mention in the same manner the other articles of food, as I believe they are at present only known by name.
The corn for Cusscussou is ground expressly to the state which is called Semolina in Italy, and used also under that name in England. The hand being clean washed, and a large wooden bowl prepared, a portion of semolina is thrown into it with the right hand; it is turned quickly round under the palm, while from the left, water is occasionally sprinkled upon the mass, together with dry semolina. In a short time, by turning it constantly the same way, the flour adheres in little granules, like bread crums; and by a dexterous motion of the hand, is prevented from forming into large lumps. When finished, the grains resemble small shot in size, and stick closely together, without danger of again falling into flour on being dried. They will keep good in this state nearly as long as corn. When Cusscussou is to be prepared for eating, it is put in a basket, or tin vessel having holes in the bottom, and steamed over meat, or boiling water, care being taken to stir it occasionally, so as to prevent its caking. When sufficiently done, meat is poured on with its gravy, or a little butter or grease mixed with it; should meat be wanting, a good quantity of red pepper and salt are frequently all its auxiliaries.
Bazeen (which in Fezzan is called Aseēda) is the most common food, as being the easiest prepared. It is made of the flour of any grain (Bishna and Barley are mostly used near Tripoli) in the following manner. A large pot, of copper or iron, is placed on the fire, with a little water in it, which is suffered to boil. Flour is then thrown in, until it acquires the consistency of dough, when it is stirred well about with a large stick (water being occasionally added, if necessary,) until it is quite thick, and begins to assume the appearance of a pudding, when it is taken out, and placed in a bowl. After being beat into a circular shape, and having a hole made in the centre, gravy, oil, butter, or grease, is poured on it, and it is then ready for eating, which is done by pinching pieces out with the right hand, and kneading them with the grease until they assume the appearance of thick paste. Should there be no gravy or grease to be procured, a little flour mixed with hot water is used instead of it. It requires much strength of arm to make bazeen properly, as the stick is wielded by both hands, and the pot is confined on the fire by having a forked piece of wood placed against it, on which the woman kneels while preparing the mess.
Dweeda is moulded in the shape of little seeds, not quite so large as the grains of rice; but oblong, and much resembling them. A stiff dough being prepared, the women very expeditiously pinch it out between their fingers and thumbs into this form. It is then allowed to dry; and is considered a great dainty when boiled, and a little butter poured over it.
Atila is composed much in the same way; but is longer, and much resembles small macaroni broken in pieces. It is also boiled in the same manner as Dweeda.
Mogatta is made of paste, by being beaten and turned between the hands, until it is as thin as a pancake; it is then laid in the sun to harden a little. When it becomes sufficiently crisp to break, it is crumbled in pieces, and boiled until it resembles thick porridge, the larger pieces always remaining entire. A sufficient quantity of fat and pepper completes it.
Zumeeta is made of barley, which has been a little malted; it is then ground into flour, and sometimes dates are pounded with it. In this state it remains until it is to be used; when a little cold water being mixed with it until it becomes like dough, it is fit for eating. Oil is much used with it, by dipping the Zumeeta in it when formed into mouthfuls for eating. This is almost the only stock which Arabs provide on going a journey, as it is easily prepared, and very nourishing.
Bread is made as in Europe. It is leavened with flour, or a preparation of dates, moulded into little cakes shaped like buns. The ovens are generally formed in the ground: a hole is made about two feet in depth, and in the shape of a large jar, contracted at the mouth; it is then encrusted inside with clay. Wood is thrown in and burnt, until a thick layer of glowing ashes is collected at the bottom, and the oven is thoroughly heated; the loaves are then put in by a woman, who bares and wets her arm, and sticks them against the side with great dexterity: when done enough, if not speedily taken off, they fall into the embers. Sometimes meat is dressed in these ovens; a kind of crumpet, also, called Fetaat, made in the same way as Mogatta, but without leaven, is slightly baked in them; one of these crumpets is then placed in a bowl, and soup and vegetables are poured over it; another is then put in, and soup added as before, and so on in successive layers, until the bowl is full. All these messes are eaten with the fingers.
There is great variety in the manner of dressing meat, which is stewed, boiled, or baked; but for journeys the Arabs have a very good way of preserving it, by cutting it into thin slices, drying it in the sun, and afterwards stewing it in fat. I have often observed them eating small grasses, which they found as they pursued their journey; and to my inquiries how they knew them to be innoxious, the general reply was, that whatever an animal which chewed its cud could eat with safety, must be food for man. There is a species of dandelion, very bitter, and exuding a white juice, which is much liked by the sheep as well as their masters. The taste at first is very unpleasant; but I soon became accustomed to it. The Colocynth apple grows in great quantities in some parts of the Desert, and is almost the only medicine used by the Arabs. Burning is always had recourse to, and many of them are in consequence covered with scars; it is also occasionally used to show the force of love; and both sexes practise it when they wish to give proof of very strong affection.
Wolves, young dogs, cats, and hedgehogs, though forbidden animals, are not unfrequently eaten by sick persons, from a belief that their flesh is medicinal, or, as they express it, “Doua.” Charms are much worn, and are procured from such as are considered Marāboots amongst themselves, or from the Scribes of Tripoli. It is not enough that the man should be defended by these little prayers sewed up in leather, and attached to his arms or body; but his horse, gun, sword, and red cap must be equally protected with himself. The “Evil Eye” is of all other mischiefs most dreaded, and for a stranger to express particular admiration of a child, a horse, or any other valuable, is to bring on it or its possessor certain misfortune; this may, however, be averted by passing over the object a finger wetted with saliva, or by the equally efficacious charm of an open hand, either attached to the clothes as an ornament, or tattooed on the skin. It is remarkable that no Arab will take a knife or scissars from the hands of any one, as (from some superstitious prejudice) such an action is considered highly unfortunate; but they require that the instrument should be first laid on the ground, whence they readily take it up without fear.
The Arabs have but few amusements beyond Dancing and a Game called Helga, which resembles draughts, and is played with camels’ dung or date stones, in holes made in the sand. The noise uttered by these people at their festivals, or on any joyful occasion, is most extraordinary; and being very shrill, it may be heard at a great distance, particularly if several persons join in chorus: it is a piercing cry from the throat (the mouth being quite open), to which a tremulous sound is given by a rapid motion of the tongue from side to side; it is very enlivening, and when it becomes familiar to the ear, far from disagreeable.
The manner of salutation used amongst the Arabs is particularly striking, and certainly not ungraceful. Friends on meeting, seize each the right hand of the other, then loosen and apply the tips of their fingers to their mouths, afterwards laying the open hand on the heart, they press it and gently incline the head at the same time. Very intimate acquaintances mutually lift their joined right hands in such a manner that each kisses the back of the other’s hand, repeating with the greatest rapidity, “How are you? well, how are you? Thank God, how are you? God bless you, how are you?” which compliments in a well bred man never last less than ten minutes; and whatever may be the conversation afterwards, it is a mark of great good breeding occasionally to interrupt it, bowing solemnly and asking, “How are you?” though an answer to the question is by no means considered necessary, as he who asks it is perhaps looking another way, and thinking of something else. I must not omit to mention a particular instance of good breeding which I met with amongst these people: a man begged me one day to reach him a piece of straw which lay near me, that he might take out of a cup of water a bird which had fallen into it. I perceived, however, that it was only a Fly; and was afterwards informed that they consider it disrespectful to make use of the word Fly in presence of a superior.
The questions asked and observations made by some of the inland Arabs respecting our country were very curious; amongst other extraordinary fancies, they have an idea, originating in the name given to the Atlantic, Bahr el blem, باحرالظلا, sea of darkness, that we have no Sun or Moon in the countries which are in the sea, and in consequence, they imagine that our ships sail about with great lanterns attached to them. They also believe that Christians use the milk of pigs as a beverage, and in fact, that it forms their chief subsistence. That we have horses, cows, and sheep, is not at all credited by them; and that our country should be destitute of dates excites their greatest commiseration. They cannot at all conceive how we avoid falling off our islands and rolling into the sea, or how, being surrounded by water, we have sufficient room for animals to graze. There are some on the other hand who think highly of our wealth and dignity, until they are told that our country is an Island, when their admiration decreases considerably. Buonaparte, or as the Arabs call him, Bono barto, is in great estimation amongst them, not on account of his military achievements; but because they have heard that he has 200,000 dollars an hour, and that he sits on a golden throne.
The Arabs are good and bold horsemen, and though in general but poorly provided with food for their horses, they make them perform very long journeys. The inducement to all exertion, however, is now nearly at an end, their wars having ceased; but in the time of the Waled Suliman, اولاد سوليمان who infested the road from Tripoli to Fezzan, and committed every excess, journeys were made and difficulties overcome which equalled any of the stories of the Arabs of old. This once powerful tribe had formerly possession of every pass from Tripoli to the interior, and were so much dreaded, that few traders would venture amongst them, even when they were at peace with the Bashaw. These are the people whom Lucas mentions as having declared war against Tripoli, and prevented the Kafflé, to which he was attached, from proceeding from Mesurāta to Fezzan; but they are now completely destroyed. About eight years since the Bashaw in the regency of Tripoli, and Mukni, in the kingdom of Fezzan, commenced so hot an attack upon them that they were scattered, and being in small parties, easily fell a prey to the troops employed against them. It was the custom during this war (as in all previous wars) to give no quarter; all prisoners therefore had their throats cut on being taken, and every species of cruelty was practised on them. Two hundred and fifty, who were seized in a town in the Wadey Shiati of Fezzan, were butchered in cold blood, even though they had surrendered on condition of having their lives spared. This tribe perhaps would still have flourished in Fezzan, but that not expecting any attack from Mukni, they quitted for a time their own territory and proceeded to Egypt, in order to wage war on some other tribes who had offended them: this circumstance was taken immediate advantage of by Mukni, who contrived before their return to gain possession of Morzouk, which he could not otherwise have done. They, however, besieged him there with great activity; but leaving in the meantime their frontiers undefended, the Bashaw poured his army into the country, and thus completely effected their destruction as a tribe. The small number who escaped became wanderers for a time, and were occasionally met with and killed, until at last the remaining few incorporated themselves with other tribes. That of the Waled Suliman, which does not now exist, is celebrated in all the Arab stories; and there are few places in this part of Africa which have not had ample occasion to remember them.
Wherever they removed, their families and immense flocks accompanied them; and they were commanded by one or two Sheikhs of known courage and experience. A friend of ours, who in the first wars had spared the life of one of their chiefs, was, a few months after, coming from Fezzan, in company with a large kafflé of merchants, bringing slaves, when, in a part of the mountains, in which they conceived there was no chance of encountering these people, they, to their great dismay, were seized and conducted to the chief, in full conviction that they should be murdered, and their slaves and goods distributed amongst the captors; when, fortunately, one of the party stepped forward, and suddenly recognised his deliverer. The scene was immediately changed: eighteen sheep, as many goats, and some cows were killed, and the whole kafflé feasted for three days; their goods and their slaves were returned to them, and they were suffered to depart.
On our return to Tripoli, we understood that it was not the intention of the Bashaw to send, as he at first had given out, a force with Mukni, into the interior. The latter was to be attended only by his own followers; and we were desired to hold ourselves in readiness to accompany him in a few days. In consequence of this, Mr. Ritchie caused a variety of food, appropriate for a journey on the Desert, to be provided. He bought Gerbas, or water skins; and in fact, made every necessary preparation. Owing to the lowness of his funds, he wrote to Lord Bathurst, soliciting a further supply; and I drew money, on my own account, which I gave him for our general use. For some articles which Mr. Ritchie procured for Mukni, from Malta, he became our debtor to the amount of 300 dollars, which were to be paid us on his arrival in Fezzan. On this small sum, and not knowing when or how we were to procure more, was our journey to be undertaken. Our camels were paid for in advance; but other expenses, which were unavoidable, would, we had no doubt, extend far beyond our narrow limits.
The allowance of £2000, which was made to Mr. Ritchie, had already been expended, in buying Merchandize, Instruments, Arms, &c. and otherwise making provision for the welfare of the Mission; but the merchandize was selected in England, and unfortunately was such as could be of little utility in the interior, of which circumstance we were not aware until too late; for, with the exception of cutlery, we had, in fact, nothing which would sell. We had Beads and looking-glasses in abundance; but neither of these articles were of the kind most in request amongst the Negroes, who, we learnt, were as much wedded to fashion, as the inhabitants of more civilized countries. Such was the inauspicious state of our affairs, when we entered on our hazardous journey, determined at all events, that, however unpromising in its commencement, its failure should not be attributed to our want of zeal in the service we had undertaken.
On the 18th March, the Bashaw held a public audience; and Mukni, in presence of the British consul, as well as ourselves, pledged himself to assist us in all our difficulties.
CHAPTER II.
JOURNEY FROM TRIPOLI TO MORZOUK.
Preparations for their departure, in company with Mohammed el Mukni — Encampment in the Mountains of Terhoona, and at the Wells of Melghra — Arrival at Benioleed — Interview with the Wife of the Sheikh, of the Kafflé — Their Christian Friends return to Tripoli — Punishment of an Arab for Theft — Journey over the Desert — Remains of a Roman Castle — Continuation of the Journey, until their Arrival at Sockna — Entry into that City — Description of it — Manner of raising the Tribute Money — Accompany the Sultan’s Son to Hoon and Wadan, to receive the Taxes — Account of those Places — Return to Sockna — Leave Sockna — Singular Custom imposed on Travellers in passing the Soudah Mountains — Arrival at Nufdai — Clear the Soudah Mountains — And travel over the gravelly Plain, through the Pass of Kenair, to the Well of Om el Abeed — Visit the Towns of Zeighan and Samnoo, famed for their Marāboots — Encamp at Temenhint — Arrival at Sebha, where the Black Population commences — Pass on to Ghroodwa — Entry to Morzouk, the Capital of Fezzan.
On the 22d March, 1819, after repeated delays, every thing being at length in readiness for our departure, the camels, twenty-two in number, arrived, and carried our goods to the Desert beyond the Meshea, where Mr. Ritchie preferring to remain in the town, Belford, and myself, pitched our tent, in order to keep watch over the goods. Our Kafflé increased much this day; many Negroes, who had obtained their freedom, and were returning to their native countries, fixed their little triangles of sticks, and a mat or carpet, close to us, whilst I amused myself in marking our goods, so that each camel-man might be enabled to know his own charge, and thus avoid mistakes or confusion.
23d March.—I went back into the town, and found that Mukni was not to join us until the morrow; by which delay, we obtained time to furnish ourselves with many necessaries, which we had before forgotten to provide.
24th March.—Mukni did not arrive this day; but his two Negresses and household slaves came out and pitched their tents. These women were mounted on camels, in a kind of litter, called Shiblia شبليه which is a light frame of wood, covered with scarlet cloth, so arranged, as to prevent the person in the inside from being seen. One of them had been twice to the Niger with Mukni, and was named Zaitoon زيتون or olive tree; the other was the mother of his youngest child, and was called Zeman Donya, زمان دونيه time of the world. All was confusion this day; and the varied heaps of goods, camels, saddles, and animals, which were scattered about, presented a very lively scene. As I sat in our tent, writing a letter, some Arabs came in, and seemed to find much amusement in seeing me write from left to right; but, when I told them my letter was addressed to a Female, their astonishment knew no bounds; and they laughed heartily at the idea, that it was possible for a woman to be capable of reading. Colonel Warrington’s eldest son came to spend the evening with us.
March 25th.—I went into the town, and took leave of all my Christian friends. At eight A.M. the kafflé, consisting of about two hundred men, and the same number of camels, set off. We followed them, and pitched our tents, to rest for the night, on the desert, near a well and a few palm trees. After dark, Mr. Ritchie, accompanied by our friends, Dr. Dickson, and Messrs. Carstensen, arrived. We amused ourselves in visiting little parties of the liberated Blacks, who were all joyful at the idea of returning once more to their native land; though their means of support were very slender, and many of them, with their young children, had to walk a distance of above two thousand miles, before they could reach their own country.
March 26th.—At 8 A.M. we again moved on over a sandy, irregular desert, all in high spirits at having commenced our journey, after so many and apparently unnecessary delays. Having travelled south-east twelve miles, we encamped near a very deep well, which I have before mentioned, where we were to wait for Mukni. Our kind friend, Dr. Dickson, here left us, the Bashaw requiring his attendance at the Castle. After dark we observed several flashes of muskets, which were fired by Mukni’s attendants, in order to discover the position of the Kafflé; we fired others in return, and soon heard the shrill pipes of the musicians announcing his approach. A beautiful scene now presented itself when he entered the camp, attended by about fifty horsemen, dressed in their gayest apparel, preceded by wild music, and three stand of silk colours. As we had coffee prepared for ourselves, Mukni, who was very fond of it, visited us in our tent, and partook of it with his son Yussuf, a mulatto boy of about eight years of age. They were splendidly dressed, and had ridden from the town at full speed, the little boy being a most excellent horseman.
March 27th.—Early in the morning we went on, and discovered that in the night another Shiblia had joined us, containing a very fat and beautiful woman, the wife of Sheikh Barood, who was director of the Kafflé, and manager of Mukni’s affairs. Our road lay over a fine country, with corn, many flocks, and a few Arab tents scattered here and there. In the afternoon, having passed through several low hills, we arrived at some corn, and encamped near a well; the Sultan’s people turning their horses amongst the corn, without any pity or consideration for the poor wretches who owned it.
March 28th.—Entered the mountains of Terhoona, which we passed through on our return from Benioleed, and encamped, at four P.M. near the wells of Melghra.
March 29th.—We proceeded this day over a fine country, and through a Wadey, having wells in it, called Mader, مادر; we filled our gerbas, and then entered on a rough uncultivated plain, where the paths were very difficult for our camels.
March 30th.—Having travelled this day also over a stony desert, we arrived at Benioleed, from which place to Tripoli I have, in a former part of my journal, given the bearings. Mukni’s horsemen preceded him to the castle, firing and shouting, as the people of Tripoli do in honour of the Bashaw.
March 31st.—As this was market day, we remained here in order to refresh ourselves, pitching our tents very pleasantly and securely amongst some Olives in the Wadey. Mukni had warned us, on coming here, to avoid encamping on the low ground, as, during the rains, it frequently became entirely flooded, and was therefore very dangerous. He told us of the Wadey being sometimes so completely covered with water, as to hide the highest olive trees from the view; the depth must therefore have been at least thirty feet. Many natives confirmed this account, adding, that men and animals had often been drowned in the night, before they could have time to escape; the torrents from the hill sides which form the Wadey, rushing down with such impetuosity that an hour or two is sufficient to inundate the whole country. We bought a fine sheep in the market, and killed it to feast our guests.
A boy who accompanied us from Tripoli came to me, full of the praises of Lilla Fatma, the fat wife of Sheikh Barood, a white woman, who, he said, was the most beautiful creature he had ever seen, and so fat that she could scarcely walk: “her arm (t’barek Allah, تْبارك اله, God’s blessing on it!) is as big as my body,” continued he, “and she says she should like to see you and Sidi Yussuf.” Such a hint was not to be rejected, and I therefore immediately paid her a visit, the boy acting as my Interpreter. On my entrance she so veiled herself as to exhibit to advantage her arm, with all its gay ornaments; and on my requesting to be favoured with a view of her face, she, with very little reluctance, gratified me. Her chin, the tip of her nose, and the space between her eyebrows, were marked with black lines; she was much rouged; her neck, arms, and legs, were covered with tattooed flowers, open hands, circles, the names of God, and of her numerous male friends. She had a multitude of gold ear-rings and ornaments, set with very bad and counterfeit jewels, and weighing all together, I should think, two or three pounds. Her shirt was of striped silk; and she had a rich purple silk barracan, or mantle, gracefully thrown round her, and fastened at the breast by a gold pin, with ornaments of the same metal suspended from it: all the other articles of finery which she possessed were displayed round the tent, whilst a multitude of poor thin wretches, resembling witches, sat round her in astonishment, never having in their lives seen such a paragon of perfection. Like all other Arabs, they touched whatever pleased them most, one admiring this object, another something near it, so that our poor belle was sometimes poked by a dozen fingers at once; all, however, agreeing on one point, that she was beautifully and excessively fat, and I must say I never before beheld such a monstrous mass of human flesh. One of her legs, of enormous size, was uncovered as high as the calf, and every one pressed it, admiring its solidity, and praising God for blessing them with such a sight. I was received most graciously, and invited to sit close to her, when one of the first questions she asked me was, if in my country the ladies were as fat and handsome as herself? For the plumpness of my countrywomen, I owned, with shame, that I never had seen one possessed of half such an admirable rotundity, which she took as a great compliment; but I did not attempt to carry the comparison farther, though she was really very handsome in face and features. She amused herself while speaking with playing on a kind of drum, made of clay, called Derbooka, دربوكه, by beating with one hand, and playing with the fingers of the other; and perceiving that I was amused by it, she ordered an old man to get up and dance. The females sang and clapped their hands in good time, and the dancer went through a variety of figures, all equally indelicate. A woman then succeeded him, and in this respect quite threw him in the shade; but as I knew it to be the general mode of dancing in this part of Barbary, I of course applauded it. Lilla Fatma herself then thought proper to honour us with a few graceful attitudes in the same style; but Mr. Ritchie’s entrance into the tent soon put a stop to the exhibition, and the ceremony of veiling took place in the same manner as before. Fatma soon discovered a likeness between her late husband and Mr. Ritchie, from their being both very slender; but unfortunately the resemblance failed in all other points, her former spouse being, at the time she was obliged to leave him by an order of the Bashaw, fifty years old, with a grey beard; while, on the other hand, Mr. Ritchie was but twenty-seven, and of a very fair complexion. She was at all events determined to be pleased with us; and having sprinkled us with rose-water, allowed us to take our leave. On returning to our tent, we sent her some coffee, and a few lumps of sugar.
We found here much difficulty in obtaining water for our horses, owing to the great depth of the wells, and the people being employed in filling the skins for the morrow. In the evening, we visited Mukni, at the castle; and finding him surrounded by eatables, were invited to partake of them: but we discovered, that all his people, whilst it was his pleasure to remain, were fed by the natives, cost free. We laid in a sufficient stock of barley to supply our four horses, until we should arrive at Morzouk.
April 2nd.—We took water for three days, on the camels, and passed along the Wadey, at 7,15, A.M. Our friends here quitted us, in order to return to Tripoli, and we were now left to ourselves, amongst a strange people; our hearts were heavy, and we conversed but little during the remainder of the day. The country, on rising from the Wadey, was a stony desert until noon, when we passed over plains capable of cultivation, but having no water.
At 4,50, entered another Wadey, in which we saw a large herd of Gazelles; and, passing through it until 5,20, we encamped. Made S.E. by S. thirty miles. The horses were turned out to graze on a large field of barley, belonging to the Orfilly. This place was called Gairi, قيري or Sofagie. A mountain, south three miles, named Glla قله, and a distant range in the same direction, called Souarit سواريت. Much good herbage. On the camels being unloaded, we found that an old Bornou black had died on the one which he rode. A melancholy howling was set up by the women, and the corpse was carried to a distance, and immediately buried. An Arab, who was prowling about this evening, stole a gun belonging to one of the Sultan’s followers; but was detected, and bastinadoed in a most barbarous manner, by two men on each side, with green date sticks. After this part of his punishment was ended, a man mounted a horse, and started at full gallop, leading, or rather dragging this poor wretch after him. His wrists were tied together behind him, and the end of the cord which secured them was attached to the horse’s saddle. Had he fallen when thus dragged along, his shoulders must inevitably have been dislocated.
April 3rd.—We journeyed all this day over a stony plain, without the least sign of vegetation, and covered with small stones, of about the size and form of lumps of sugar; their surfaces appeared vitrified, and shone very much. In the evening, we got into a wadey where we found a well, and several talhh trees, so that we had abundance of fuel. We heard, during the night, repeated cries of jackals and hyænas. Made this day, S.E. twenty-eight miles.
April 4th.—At seven A.M. went on over a barren plain, having no water; but were enabled to collect a few bushes for our night’s cooking. At sunset secured our baggage, and lay in a gravelly flat. Jackals very noisy. Proceeded S.E. twenty-eight miles.
April 5th.—Barren plain as before. At two P.M. ascended a steep hill, from which, in every direction, the country appeared quite desolate;—found a few bushes on the top. On descending, at sunset, we pitched our tents, having travelled thirty-five miles, S.E.
April 6th.—At six A.M. we started, and passed over the wadeys Hait حيت, and Zemzem زمزم; each having a few prickly bushes, on which our camels fed. The latter is of great length, and runs to the sea, in the Gulf of Syrtis.
At 1,30, having passed a plain, where we found gypsum, and in some places, cockle-shells, we reached some sand hills to the well of Bonjem بنجم; the water of which resembles, both in taste and smell, bilge water from a ship. It lies in a stratum of black clay, about five feet below the sand. At the distance of half a mile from the well, is a Roman castle, situated amongst some high sand hills: it is of an oblong form, having in the centre of each of the walls, which are towards the cardinal points, a large arched gateway, between two strong towers. Each of the former, with its flanking towers, is in a different style of architecture: only one remains quite perfect; the others have fallen, or are partially buried in the sand. The stones of which these buildings are composed, are of the magnitude common to all Roman structures, and are of a kind of dark granite. In the enclosed space are several immense stones, standing upright, and so placed as to give the appearance of having once supported a large building: some are ten feet in height, independent of the part embedded in the sand. The mouth of a well is visible, still bearing the marks of the cords used in drawing the water; it is now entirely choked up with sand. The walls from east to west, are above two hundred paces in length; I should rather say, the tops of the walls, for in some places, they are buried in the sand; and from north to south, about one hundred and fifty. The Arabs, probably in the time of the Khalifs, appear to have used the northern towers; as remains of their rude masonry still surmount the original buildings. Over each gateway there had been an inscription, of which the northern one is most perfect. We found, by comparing them, that all were thus worded.
IMP . CAES . L . SEPTIMIO . SEVERO.
PIO . PERTINACI . AVG . TRPOTV . IIII
IMP CSIIPPET IMP . CAES . M
AVRELIO . ANTONINO V RI
IIII . ET SEPTIMIO CAE
AVG . O . ANICIO . FAVSTO . LEG
AVGVSTORVM . CONSVLARI
IPO . III . AVG . PV
Under each had once been a large eagle, carved in basso relievo; but they are now so mutilated, as to bear very little resemblance to that bird.
This place is the northern boundary of Fezzan. All slaves of Mukni’s, going from Fezzan to Tripoli on account of the Bashaw, belong to the former until Bonjem is past; should any die afterwards, the Bashaw is the loser. The same risk attends the latter when he sends horses or goods to Mukni; all losses being made good by him north of the boundary, and by Mukni south of it. All camels found straying on the desert are appropriated to the respective kingdoms.
| Drawn from Nature by G. F. Lyon. | On Stone by G. Harley. |
The Castle of Bonjem.
London. Published by J. Murray Albemarle St. Feb.1.1821.
C. Hullmandel’s Lithography.
Bonjem, according to Mr. Ritchie, is in latitude 30°. 35′. 32″. N. A few Arabs passed us with three camels and twelve female slaves, from Morzouk. We expected, on leaving Tripoli, to be much troubled about the established prayers, which should be repeated by the natives five times a day, though by travellers only thrice; but our present companions certainly were not very scrupulous in their religious duties; no one, or at most only two or three of them, ever praying at all; and, as for Mukni and his followers, they seemed to give themselves very little trouble about it. The only devout person amongst them, was one of our camel-men, who roared out all day, as loud as he was able, verses from the Koran, and charms against the devil; yet, in spite of all his sanctity, he was the greatest rascal in the kafflé. This fellow, in speaking of us, contemptuously called us Romees, or Christians; which coming to Mukni’s knowledge, he threatened him with a good thrashing, if he ever again called us any thing but Mamlukes, as the Sultan himself did.
The people of the kafflé having, by this time, become better acquainted with us, soon discovered Mr. Ritchie’s medical talents, and accordingly gave him no little trouble with their real and fancied complaints. They were all very anxious to be bled, and to take physic. One or two who were the most troublesome, and who had only imaginary ailments, were consigned to my management; for these I prepared, with an air of affected gravity, a mixture of coffee, salt, vinegar, and red pepper, giving to each a spoonful, with many serious instructions, how they were to eat, drink, and sleep; and I found, next morning, to my great satisfaction, that my patients had spread a report all over the kafflé, of the excellent effects of my wonderful medicine. During the night we heard a few jackals, whose tracks absolutely covered the sand hills round the castle.
April 7th.—The camels, which had been out on the plain to feed on the bushes, were brought in; and having waited till 1.30. P.M. to rest the people, we loaded, and went on our way. Abd Allah el Bendag, an old Arab, was despatched to Morzouk on a Maherry, to announce the approach of the Sultan. Our camels were loaded with four days’ water; a strong south wind covered us with sand, and the day was uncommonly sultry. Our road lay over a barren desert called Klïa, قليه. The surface, where clear of sand, was of gypsum. At 5 P.M. we passed a remarkable mound of limestone and sand; which, until a very near approach, resembled a white turret, and is called Bazeen, برزين. This name is also applied to the country immediately surrounding it. Our view was bounded on every side by distant yellow hills, appearing to be perfectly destitute of every kind of vegetation. At 11.40. P.M. rested for the night in a sandy wadey, called Boonaja, ابوناجه (or the ewe’s father), having made twenty-two miles south-south-east. This evening, as we rode along, the horsemen amused themselves in skirmishing before Mukni; and the Negroes danced and sang as well as their fatigue would allow them. The Sultan himself took my gun, and rode among his people at full speed, firing at their horses’ feet. All this parade was in consequence of our now being in the kingdom of Fezzan.
April 8th.—At 6 A.M. we left the wadey, and at 7 went through a pass, called Hormut Emhalla, خرموت المخالّه (or the pass of the army.) At 9.20. we passed a range of table mountains, running north-east and south-west, called Elood, الود. The desert here became stony and very uneven; a range of mountains to the southward, two or three miles, running east and west, and forming a crescent to the east of our path: they are called Guatela, قواتله. The westward was an uneven yellow range, distant five or six miles. At 10.5. A.M. we passed the west point of Guatela, our road lying close under the foot of the mountains. At 11 A.M. we turned to the southward and eastward. At 1.15. P.M. passed a conical hill standing apart from the neighbouring mountains, and resembling a tent, called El Khayma, الخيمه. At 5 P.M. entered a pass called Hormut Tuzzēt, حرموت طزّيت. At 6 cleared the pass, and opened on a plain; table mountains bearing south-east, called Matta Imhammed, مته امحمّد. At 6.30. encamped: one of our camels died this day, and three others were, from fatigue, unable to come up; indeed all the camels in the Kafflé were much distressed, not having for several days tasted any kind of food, and our marches were in general long.
April 9th.—At 6.15. A.M. started over a flat, which had no break to the view, except very distant mountains. Two hours and a half from the time of our setting off there is a solitary tree, which is considered as one day’s journey from water. Slaves, in coming from this water, are not allowed to drink until they reach the tree in question, which is one of the longest stages in the journey from Fezzan. The distant mountains had the appellation of Khod el Khādem, خدالخادم (or “take the negress.”) The plain was called El Grarat Arab Hoon, الغرارت عرب حون. At 7 P.M. we entered a pass called Hormut taad atar, خرموت طعداتر. And after passing through a winding wadey, closely hemmed in by the mountains, at 9 we stopped near a well of very brackish, stinking water, situated in a small plain, which here opens out in a circular form. Still no fodder for our camels. A man joined us with some stewed meat for the Sultan, and a load of water, from Sockna; and we procured a bowl of the latter, which afforded us no small treat. The well here, in hot seasons, is dry, and even at this period was very low. The horses, with great avidity, sucked up the mud which was thrown out of it. Strong sand wind from the southward.
April 10th.—At 6.10. A.M. set off. At 7 cleared the pass, and proceeded to a small wadey, where, in spite of a strong Siroc, we succeeded in pitching our tents. The sand, however, flew about in such quantities, that we were unable to prepare any food, and we could not even see thirty yards from us. Mukni took shelter with us, and advised that we should strip to our shirts, as the lightest way of withstanding the sand showers. Mr. Ritchie here presented him with one of our tents, it being much superior to his own. In the afternoon, the wind having a little subsided, we cleared away the heaps of sand which had collected round our goods, and allowed the camels to graze on the small bushes until 3 o’clock. We found, on examining some of our stores, that a large organ had been burst by the heat, and excessive dryness of the wind; a discovery by no means welcome to us. At 3.15. P.M. struck our tent, and again made our way over the plain until 7, when we stopped amongst some palms, which were thickly planted in a range of sand hills. There were two wells of tolerably fresh water at this place, which is called Hammam, حامام. From hence we could easily have made our way to Sockna; but as the Sultan preferred entering in the morning, we were content to stop, and get our heads shaved, as well as to enjoy a good washing, which was very requisite, as we were not over clean. The Sultan’s people were also employed in preparing themselves; and a large convoy of drummers, bag-pipers, and others, joined us in the night, mounted on asses, in order to precede his majesty to his city of Sockna.
April 11th.—At 7 A.M. proceeded with the Sultan and his escort, but found we were sadly in the back-ground with respect to outward appearance. Unfortunately we had not thought it necessary to put on any of our embroidered clothes, having no idea that so much finery was to be displayed; and whilst all the slaves of the Sultan sported their gayest apparel, we were simply habited as Arabs. Mukni was not well pleased at this omission on our part; for as we had the honour of riding on each side of him, and were considered as great men, he wished us to have been as fine and solemn as himself. On coming in sight of the town, the soldiers commenced firing and racing in front of the Sultan, and the musicians struck up such a noise as nearly stunned us. We were shortly joined by another party, who even outdid the first in sound. A number of dancing women then appeared, who, in most fantastic dresses, threw themselves into extraordinary attitudes, crying in their usual shrill manner, and calling down blessings on the Sultan and his family. The armed people who came from the town amounted to about six or seven hundred, not including lookers-on, of at least the same number. The Sultan’s horses, in golden trappings, and led by well dressed slaves, advanced in front, under three silk Tripolitan flags, striped red and yellow horizontally. A curious interruption took place during our progress, in consequence of a man’s horse requiring to stale, when the whole procession, following the example of the Sultan, stopped for him; and we again proceeded with much solemnity. Only two other stoppages took place during the day; once when a band of slaves came and prostrated themselves before Mukni, and at another time when his majesty halted to regale himself with a fresh quid of tobacco. Amongst many laughable incidents which occurred, an unfortunate black drummer was tilted with his drum over the head of the donkey he rode, which ludicrous disaster occasioned much mirth, and even caused Mukni’s state frown to relax. The town’s people, on joining us, advanced in a straight line, until within about a hundred yards, when, firing their muskets, and setting up a loud yell, they rushed forward, and surrounded the Sultan, to kiss his hands. After these ceremonies, they divided themselves into small parties, and expended a great deal of powder in sham fights.
| Drawn from Nature by G. F. Lyon. | On Stone by D. Dighton. |
A sand wind on the Desert.
London. Published by J. Murray Albemarle St. Feb.1.1821.
C. Hullmandel’s Lithography.
We arrived at 10 in the town of Sockna, سكنا, and were directed to the house which had been prepared for us. In the evening our camels also arrived; and now we arrayed ourselves in our most costly dresses, and went to pay our respects to the Sultan. We found him surrounded by some hundred Arabs, all talking at once, and disputing about money matters, while Mukni appeared to listen to them with extraordinary patience. We now had become better acquainted with Arabic, and I profited much by teaching the Sultan’s little son Yussuf to speak English.
Sockna stands on an immense plain of gravel; bounded to the south by the Soudah mountains, at about fifteen miles; by the mountains of Wadan about thirty miles to the eastward; a distant range to the west; and those I have already mentioned on passing through to the north. The town is walled, and may contain 2000 persons; more than half the people we saw this day were from Hoon and Wadan. There are small projections from the walls, having loop-holes for musketry. It has seven gates, only one of which will admit a loaded camel. The streets are very narrow, and the houses are built of mud and small stones mixed, many of them having a story above the ground floor. A small court is open in the centre; and the windows, or more properly the doors, which open from this area, give the only light which the rooms receive. The water of Sockna is almost all brackish or bitter. There are 200,000 date trees in the immediate neighbourhood of the town, which pay duty; also an equal number, not yet come into bearing, which are exempt. These dates grow in a belt of sand, at about two or three miles distant from the town, and are of a quality far superior to any produced in the north of Africa. Owing to their excellence, they are sold at a very high price at Tripoli. The adjoining country is entirely destitute of shrubs, or any kind of food for camels, which are therefore sent to graze about five miles off; while in the town all animals are fed on dates. Sheep are brought here from Benioleed, and are, in consequence of coming from such a distance, very dear. In the gardens, which are about three miles from the town, barley, maize, and gussob, قصب, are cultivated, as well as a few onions, turnips, and peppers. The quantity of flies here is immense, and all the people carry little flappers, made of bunches of wild bulls’ hair, tied to a short stick, in order to keep these pests at a distance. The dates all being deposited in store-houses in the town, may account, in some degree, for the multitude of these insects; which, in a few minutes, fill every dish or bowl containing any liquid. The duties paid by this place amount to 2000 dollars annually, exclusive of a tax of one dollar on each two hundred date trees. All the people attached to the Sultan, and ourselves also, received food twice a day from the Sheikh, who collected it from the inhabitants; our horses likewise got a daily portion of dates.
The costume here is the same as that of the Bedouins, consisting generally of a shirt and barracan, a red cap, and sandals: a few, whose circumstances allow of it, dress in the costume of Tripoli. The neat appearance of the men, in general, is very striking, compared with that of the Arabs about the coast. The women are considered exceedingly handsome; indeed, one or two whom I saw at Fatma’s were really so, and as fair as Europeans; but they are noted for their profligacy and love of intrigue.
When the kingdom of Fezzan was governed by a native Prince, this town and the two neighbouring ones were, in a manner, independent; the distance from their own capital, as well as from Tripoli, securing them from surprise. All discontented or disaffected people, from either country, took refuge here, and the population was, at that time, more than double what it now is. The people of Sockna speak a language peculiar to themselves and to the Tuarick of the Great Desert; it is called Ertāna, and is, I believe, the original Breber tongue. In another part of this work, I have given a short vocabulary of it. Mukni receives all his tribute in person, and is, from daylight until dark, sitting in the midst of the Arabs. As soon as the business of one party is settled, a prayer is recited, and room is left for another equally noisy set, who, though they dispute and make all sort of difficulty about paying their money, are never suffered by Mukni to gain their point: at the very moment indeed when they appear most confident of having their complaints attended to, some one of Mukni’s men cries out “The Fattha!” (or first chapter of the Koran), every one joining in that prayer. This is the signal for the poor creatures to retire, and they are then obliged to consider their claims as settled.
The Sheikh is in continual apprehensions of losing his life; his predecessor having, the year before, been found one night with his throat cut, and no one was allowed to inquire who committed the deed. The inhabitants were obliged to pay a fine or penalty of 2000 dollars to Mukni (who alone was supposed guilty), in consequence of the murder having been perpetrated in the town.
It being necessary for the Sultan to employ persons of trust to receive his taxes at Hoon and Wadan, as well as from the neighbouring Arabs, he proposed sending with them his young son Yussuf, allowing Mr. Ritchie and myself also to accompany them, in order to afford us a safe opportunity of seeing those places. A troop of about thirty horsemen being prepared, on the 14th of June we set out. Little Yussuf was placed under the charge of a man named Ibrahim, who had also orders to attend to and supply all our wants.
After passing over the plain, and through the palms, east by south ten miles, we arrived at Hoon, حون. It is a smaller town than Sockna, but walled, and built in the same manner: its palms and gardens are close to the walls. It has three gates, three mosques, and a large building which is dignified with the name of a castle, although it does not appear even to have a loophole for musketry. The inhabitants, having about three hundred muskets, came out to welcome Yussuf, and we met with the same boisterous reception as was given a few days before to the Sultan. A number of dancing women performed in the court of the house in which we were assembled, the greatest part of the day; and in the evening the slaves joined the concert with their cymbals. The whole was so completely to the taste of Mukni’s men, and continued so long, that the performers were literally tired out. When they came to request corn or money from the spectators, it was to us they first applied, as considering us the greatest personages; but we were so poor, in despite of our fine garments, that we actually had nothing to give, which disappointed and astonished them much.
| Drawn from Life by G. F. Lyon. | On Stone by M. Gauci. |
| Piper and Dancer. Tripoli. | Dancing Woman. Sockna. |
London. Published by J. Murray Albemarle St. Feb.1.1821.
C. Hullmandel’s Lithography.
In the burying-grounds near the town we observed that nearly all the graves were ornamented with one or more ostrich eggs, as were the doors and angles of the mosques, and their enclosures. We entered the tomb of a Marāboot, and standing near the grave, recited the “Fatha” aloud. In the evening we visited the gardens, which are close to the town, the latter being completely hidden from the view by the thick palms which surround it. The soil is sand, but the grain was in the most luxuriant state of forwardness, owing to its being constantly refreshed by little channels from the wells, the water of which is brackish.
The people of the town having been told what sum of money they were required to collect before we returned from Wadan, we proceeded on the 15th April to that place, passing over a barren stony flat east by north twelve or thirteen miles. The town is not walled, and appears very inferior to the other two in point of neatness, comfort, and convenience, though its aspect is much more pleasing, as it is built on a conical hill, on the top of which are some enclosed houses, called the Castle. Here there is a well of great depth, cut through the solid rock, and evidently not the work of the Bedouins. One of the Shreefs took us into a mosque, that we might examine a curious stone, bearing an Arabic inscription in raised letters, and, from its date, it must have been above six hundred years old. It was let into the mud wall, but no one knew where it had been found. Mr. Ritchie did not attempt to copy it, as we were not yet enough acquainted with the customs of the Arabs to know if it would be permitted. The tombs and mosques, as at Hoon, were ornamented with quantities of ostrich eggs.
The natives of Wadan are Arabs of the tribe Moajer مواجر, who chiefly spend their time in attending their flocks at the Syrtis الصرت, and resident shreefs, or descendants of the Prophet; the latter forming the greater part of the population. There is a chain of mountains, a few miles east of the town, called also Wadan, on account of the immense number of buffaloes to be found there, and which are of three species; viz. the Wadan, an animal of the size of an ass, having very large horns, short reddish hide, and large bunches of hair hanging from each shoulder, to the length of eighteen inches or two feet: they have very large heads, and are very fierce. The Bogra el Weish البقرّالويش, which is a red buffalo, slow in its motions, having large horns, and being of the size of an ordinary cow; and the white buffalo of a lighter and more active make, very shy and swift, and not easily procured. The calving time of these animals is in April or May. There are also in these mountains great quantities of ostriches, by hunting which many of the natives subsist. All the Arabs here agree respecting the manner in which these birds sit on their eggs, and which I was not before aware of. They are not left to be hatched by the warmth of the sun, but the parent bird forms a rough nest, in which she covers from fourteen to eighteen eggs, and regularly sits on them in the same manner as the common fowl does on her chickens; the male occasionally relieving the female. It is during the breeding season that the greatest numbers are procured, the Arabs shooting the old ones while on their nests. At all the three towns, Sockna, Hoon, and Wadan, it is the custom to keep tame ostriches in a stable, and in two years, to take three cuttings of their feathers. I imagine, from what I have seen of the skins of ostriches brought for sale, that all the fine feathers sent to Europe are from tame birds; the wild ones being generally so ragged and torn, that not above half a dozen good perfect ones can be found. The white feathers are what I allude to; the black, being shorter and more flexible, are generally good. All the camels belonging to these people are sent to the Syrtis, to pasture; a distance of about five days’ journey. It sometimes occurs, that after a great deal of rain has fallen, the plains beyond the Wadan mountains acquire sufficient verdure to feed the cattle for a few weeks.
On this evening we had some juice of the palm-tree, called Lackbi, brought us, together with some milk; and the dancing women remained until midnight. The tribute was all paid at the evening prayer.
April 16th.—Returned to Hoon, where we were received as before. It being Friday, we saw every one preparing to go to the assembly at the Mosque. Mr. Ritchie declined attending; but I was determined to make my debut, and to see how I could go through the necessary formalities. I therefore prepared myself, by endeavouring to appear quite unconcerned, and readily accompanied the Sultan’s chief followers, who seemed pleased at my joining them. There were about 200 people present, and additional prayers were recited in honour of the Sultan (Mukni) and his family. I found I acquitted myself very well, although one or two of the old people, as I thought, viewed me with an eye of suspicion, well aware that I had but very little knowledge of Arabic. The tribute-money was brought this day by the Sheikh, a great crowd attending him. A little boy who was amongst them made himself known to us, as having come in the same kafflé with us from Tripoli. We recollected, and made use of him to show us round the town, which he did readily, occasionally running before us, and calling to all the girls of his acquaintance, to come out and look at the new Mamlukes. This they did in crowds, and with their faces uncovered: some of them were rather pretty, and appeared to take pleasure in conversing with us, laughing much at the mistakes we made, in consequence of our slight knowledge of Arabic. The boy asked us many amusing questions about our future intentions, and was particularly anxious to know where we were going, and whether for the purpose of collecting slaves, as he suspected. We, of course, disclaimed any such intention, adding, that in our own country we looked on slavery with horror. At this he expressed great contempt of us, exclaiming, “D——n their fathers, the asses!” a common oath amongst these people, “what are they made for, but to serve us? go then and take them, for they are Kaffirs, and we cannot do without them.” I mention this as a specimen of all the Arabs, who believe most religiously, that the Negroes were only created for their service. The natives of Hoon are of the tribe Fateima فتيمه, and are of good character.
17th April.—We returned to Sockna. On this day I made an attempt to prove how far it was possible to exercise authority over the Arabs, and Mr. Ritchie not wishing to interfere, left me to act as I thought proper. The case was this: during our journey from Tripoli I had observed a poor slave, of about fifty years of age, belonging to the owner of some of our camels, so fatigued as to be scarcely able to follow us. His frame was quite emaciated, and his feet and legs much swelled. His inhuman master, notwithstanding the deplorable state in which he was, invariably sent him out all night to attend the camels, and he only brought them back to commence another sad day’s journey, during which he was frequently beaten. On arriving at Sockna he was sent on to the desert with the animals, and returned to the town this day in a high fever, and in a most miserable condition. His master, according to custom, beat him severely with a stick, and finding the poor black unable to cry out, actually took stones and beat him on the head with them, another Arab assisting in the cruel task. So much unnecessary barbarity induced me to endeavour to defend the poor sufferer; but my interference was greeted with no very polite expressions, and my endeavouring to prove that the poor black was a human creature as well as his master, exposed me to much laughter and contempt. I pursued my point, however, and immediately went to Mukni’s chief black, swearing by the Sultan’s head, that he should instantly punish the master of the slave. To my great satisfaction he immediately complied, giving the wretch a very severe bastinado, as hard as two men could lay it on. When I returned to our house, the other Arab laughed at and taunted me to such a degree, that I was obliged (to his great astonishment) to give him a good thrashing, not a little apprehensive, I must own, lest some revenge should be taken on me in consequence; but I soon found I had nothing to dread, for these very men never after omitted coming daily to kiss my hand; and, while I was in sight, always caressed the poor slave, who from that time became a kind of pensioner on us.
The Arabs of Sockna are of the tribe Riahh رياه. There are also some wanderers from Tripoli and the Syrtis, who frequent these towns on the soofra جوفره, or frontier. They are of the tribes Waled boo Saif اولاد ابو سيف, Waled ben Miriam اولاد بن مريم and Sohhoob سحوب, and change their residence as they find pasture. Their little moveable tents are their only habitations; for even in the neighbourhood of towns they make a small encampment while they remain.
All our business being settled, we prepared to leave this place. Mr. Ritchie presented the Sheikh with some powder and cutlery ware, which, as I discovered some time after, was taken away from him by the covetous Sultan for his own use.
Lilla Fatema was at this time very ill, and as Mr. Ritchie declined visiting her, I became her doctor, and by means of some compounds of my own invention, quite cured her. Amongst the little secrets of her illness, I found out that she indulged herself in pretty large potions of Lackbi, which no doubt occasioned the head-aches she complained of.
Mr. Ritchie made several attempts with Gambay’s dipping needle, the results of which are with his papers, and we each brought Sockna’s latitude to 29° 5′ 36″ north, by observation of Spica Virginis.
On 22d of April left Sockna in company with the Sultan. At 11.30. we were attended clear of the town by a great multitude of people, and a prayer being recited, the horsemen all stopped, holding their open hands with the palms towards heaven. After this, each one kissed the Sultan’s hand, and returned home. At one we passed a small spring, the only one in the country, of about two feet in diameter, in which the water was pretty good. The Sultan here told us, with an air of firm belief, that a Marāboot once travelling this way, was overcome by thirst, and that by striking the ground with his stick (in the name of God), this water arose. At 3.30. we entered a wadey in the Soudah mountains, called Octooffa اكطوفه, bearing from Sockna south by west, and at six encamped near a well of tolerably good water, called Gutfa قتفا. Our place of encampment was a small plain, without any other vegetation than a few prickly bushes of talhh. This spot was surrounded on every side by high mountains of basalt, which gave it the appearance of being in the crater of a volcano. We here presented our Bouzaferr بوزفرّ, which is a kind of footing paid by all travellers on entering Fezzan, and is attended with ceremonies something similar to those observed on crossing the line. Should any person refuse the necessary distribution of food, the Arabs dig a grave, telling him that it is made expressly for him, and howling as for a dead person, with many other ridiculous pranks, which generally produce the wished-for feast. We took with us, for this purpose, two sheep, and a quantity of meal, and distributed portions to all the tents, much to the satisfaction of our fellow travellers. Lilla Fatma also paid her footing, as did one or two others, who had never before passed these mountains. We this day had advanced south 10° west eighteen miles.
April 25th.—Having filled five days water for ourselves and horses, we left the well at 6.40. A.M. The camels took a circuitous route along a deep valley, owing to a very steep mountain called Nufdai نوفدي, lying in front of us. The horse and footmen ascended it at 9.40. by a most difficult path of large irregular masses of basalt. The horses, however, were sure-footed, and at 10.40. we again descended to a wadey, called Zgar, where the camels joined us, after having been four hours winding round the foot of the mountain, which we had crossed in one. At 11.35. ascended from the wadey to a flat, called Dahr t’Moumen دحارتمومين (or the believer’s back). The basalt here was in less quantities, and often in small broken pieces, resembling gravel. At 1.10. we descended to a wadey, called Emzairaat مزيرعت, when we saw a few antelopes.
Here, while I was resting under a tree, a man came and told me that he had observed a snake of the most venomous species, called Effa الفّا, coiled up under a bush. I instantly armed myself with a ramrod, and having discovered the reptile, pinned it to the ground by a stab through the lower jaw. Belford just then came up, and fancying it was of a harmless kind, took it by the tail: as he was on the opposite side of me, I did not perceive him, and having pressed another stick on the creature’s head, I withdrew the ramrod, in order to get a better hold of it. At this moment Belford again pulled, and extricated the snake, which turned upon and attempted to bite him; its tail, however, luckily broke, and it fell back into the bush, where I immediately despatched it. Had it wounded Belford, as it was on the point of doing, his death would have been inevitable, as we had no instrument at hand for cutting out the venom, or any fire with which to burn it, as is done with effect by the Arabs. On examining the snake, I found it was of the same species as some I had seen at Tripoli; those, however, did not exceed six inches in length, whereas this was about two feet long, and very bulky. Their colour is generally a dull reddish-brown, with black spots; the belly yellow, and aspect particularly disagreeable and malignant.
The movements of this snake are very peculiar: it does not propel itself in the same way as other serpents, but in a lateral manner, advances its right side, and then draws forward its head at each motion, while, in the act of gliding on, it forms a figure resembling the letter S.
Our road lay through several gloomy wadeys, when, at three, we stopped in one called Tingareer طنقارير. At 4.15. the camels came up, and as the place afforded some few bushes, we encamped there for the purpose of refreshing them.
April 24th.—Camels started at 5.45. At ten, a distant mountain north-west, called El Kohol (from its blackness). At twelve, after passing a stony track, came to a wadey Mesheil مشيل. At two P.M. cleared the mountainous part of the Soudah, and descended to a plain, El Maitba Soudah الميتباسوده, from its being covered with small pieces of basalt. At 2.45. came to a spot called El Maitba Baida بيدا, having not the slightest trace of basalt, and being covered with a very small white gravel.
We did not see, any where, the least appearance of vegetation; but observed many skeletons of animals, which had died of fatigue on the Desert, and occasionally the grave of some human being. All these bodies were so dried by the extreme heat of the sun, that putrefaction did not appear to have taken place after death. In recently expired animals I could not perceive the slightest offensive smell; and in those long dead, the skin, with the hair on it, remained unbroken and perfect, although so brittle as to break with a slight blow. The sand-winds never cause these carcasses to change their places, as in a short time a slight mound is formed round them, and they become stationary.
At 5.50. we passed low table-topped hills east and west of us, called El Gaaf القعف. This desert was named Sbir ben Afeen زبيربن عفين. At seven we encamped. The plain round us presented so perfect a horizon, that an astronomical observation might have been taken as at sea. From the excessive dryness of the air, our blankets and barracans emitted electric sparks, and crackled distinctly on being rubbed. The horses’ tails, also, in beating off the flies, had the same effect. Our whole Kafflé were much fatigued. This day we had advanced south-south-west, thirty-five miles.
April 25th.—At four, A.M. the camels set out; 8.15. we passed some sand-hills, called el Ramle Kebeer الرامل كبير, or large sands. At nine we came again on the plain, which was covered with a white encrusted clay; at three, P.M. passed el Ramle Shraya, or small sands, and at 4.45. descended by some precipitous rocks to a sandy, irregular plain, very difficult and dangerous, until we had crossed the sand-hills. At about half a mile to the eastward of the pass, which, as well as the plain, is called Koneir كنير, is a singular rock in a conical form, surmounted by another resembling a turret, called Amaymet Saad اميمت سعد. Hills over the watering place were pointed out to us in the distance, south-south-west. At nine we entered a wadey, called Om el Abeed ام العبيد (the Mother of the Slaves), and at eleven arrived at a well of the same name, situated amongst the mountains, and having a quantity of bushes growing about it.
We found here two large flocks of sheep and goats on the way to Morzouk from Benioleed. We had supposed some flocks were ahead of us, five or six sheep having been picked up by the Kafflé, while still alive, but unable to walk, and had, therefore, been left to perish. At twelve the camels arrived, having travelled twenty hours, or above forty-eight miles, south-south-west. The wind was south during the whole day, bringing with it such showers of burning sand, as almost to smother us. We frequently lost our track, and were unable to distinguish objects at the distance even of a few yards. The flatness of the country offering no opposition to the wind, we were exposed to all its fury. The little children of the liberated negroes walked all this day, suffering most severely, their heads being shaved, and constantly exposed to the burning heat of the sun. One of the poor women was taken in labour in the afternoon, and we were obliged to tie her on a camel to prevent her falling off, and being left on the road to perish. We had arrived at this place so late at night as to be unable to prepare any thing to eat.
April 26th.—Started at seven, A.M. leaving the camels to rest, and the horsemen rode on for Zeighan زيغن, which place we reached at ten, having passed over a rocky country. The village is walled, and surrounded by a large forest of palms. We had here a most ample quantity of provisions served up to us, and did great honour to our meal. The camels arrived in the evening. Latitude of Zeighan, 27° 26′ north.
April 27th.—Moved on at 6 A.M. from Zeighan, passing over a barren plain, having small basaltic hillocks; after travelling south 23° west eight miles, arrived at Samnoo, سمنو, a village of the same description, although larger, and rather more neatly walled than the others. It has three tolerably built white-washed minarets, rising to some height above the houses, which produce a very pleasing appearance. These were the only minarets we had seen since we left Tripoli. The houses are very neatly built, and the rooms are washed with a yellow mud, instead of white-wash, which has a very pretty effect. This town, as well as Zeighan, is famed for the number and sanctity of its Marāboots; and I can vouch for their being the best Arab cooks we had as yet met with. Palms encircle the town, and the gardens are considered very good.
April 28th.—We left Samnoo at 7 P.M. riding, in the dark, over a barren plain of gravel; and at midnight arrived at Temenhiut, تمنحينت, where we found our tents ready pitched outside the palms surrounding the town, which is but an inconsiderable one. Made twenty miles south 75° west: Mukni told us he had never entered the town, although he had encamped near it above twenty times.
April 29th.—We left this place at 4.30. P.M. and at 8 encamped on a small plain.
April 30th.—Broke up our encampment at 7 A.M. and proceeded for two hours over the hills, whence we descended a fine pass to a plain, on which stands the town of Sebha; the singular appearance of which, from the heights, was very picturesque. It is surrounded by groves of palms, while the rest of the plain is a dreary desert. At 10 we arrived at the town, which rises like a little amphitheatre: it is mud walled, and has a high square white-washed minaret to its principal Mosque. All the male population came out to salute the Sultan; and I observed that at this place the change of colour began, the people here being Mulattoes. I remarked too, that the greater part of their muskets had match-locks, and that not above one in five went off. The houses appear in neat order, but very low; and the walls are built in an irregular, but strong manner, of mud. Mr. Ritchie made the latitude of Sebha 27° 3′ 8″ north.
May 1st.—The Sultan, after many disputes respecting money matters, set off with us at 5.50. P.M. the camels having departed some hours sooner. Our road, after passing the palms, was still, as it had lately been, over a gravelly plain, having at intervals large black detached stones lying on it. At midnight the horsemen stopped, and at 1 A.M. the camels came up. We lay this night on a low plain, amongst some small sand hills, which were quite barren. As the camels arrived so late, there was great confusion in unloading them; and the men were too much occupied to pay any attention to the ladies in the Shiblias. Fatma, finding no helping hand near to assist her, boldly attempted to uncoach herself; but the exertion, owing to her excessive fat, caused her to fall, or rather roll off the camel, to the great amusement of the Arabs.
May 2nd.—At 6.45. proceeded on our way, and at 12 came into a wadey, having many palm bushes thickly growing about. A heavy sand wind was blowing, and the sun was quite obscured by it. My horse, taking fright at some object which he saw but indistinctly, reared up, and fell back with me under him. Happily, I only received a severe contusion on the arm. At 1.30. P.M. we arrived at Ghroodwa, غرودوه, a miserable collection of mud huts, containing about fifty people, who appeared a ragged drunken set, as the immense number of tapped palm trees testified. From the ruins of some large mud edifices, this place seems to have once been of more importance. The palms, which extend for ten or fifteen miles east and west, are the property of the Sultan, and appear in worse condition than any we have seen.
May 3rd.—At 6.30. A.M. we left Ghroodwa, and again entered on a barren stony plain; at 12 passed a small wadey called Wad el nimmel, وادالنمّل, (or the valley of ants), from the immense number of those insects, of a beautiful pink colour, which are found there. At 6.40. P.M. we cleared this dreary waste, and entered on a sandy plain, which was in many places thickly encrusted with salt. A few scattered palms, and some ill built and ruined huts, appeared at intervals, betokening the greatest wretchedness. At 8 reached a few buildings of this description, called Dgleim, ظليمر. At 11 the camels arrived. The inhabitants from all the neighbouring villages had assembled here; and I really believe more powder was expended at this place, than at any other we had passed through, although their muskets could not have amounted altogether to more than fifty. The Sultan repeatedly called out, “Enough, Enough!” but the natives only answered by fresh discharges, and exclaiming, “We have plenty of powder.” As I was walking across the little space in which they were exercising, one of the shooters, to do me honour, fired his piece at my legs, which being bare, received above a dozen coarse grains, like small shot. I bled a little, which quite frightened the man, lest he should be discovered. I, however, made light of it, and rubbed myself with salt and water.
The dancing ladies were indefatigable; and when I went to sleep at midnight, were making as much noise, and were as active as ever. Mr. Ritchie’s horse had for the last four or five days entirely failed him, and was unable even to keep pace with the camels: he did not come up with us until a little after midnight. As we were only at the distance of three hours from Morzouk, many of the people were occupied during the night in preparations for their entry into the capital.
May 4th.—At 7 A.M. having shaved, washed, and adorned ourselves in the finest clothes which we had at hand, we started. Mukni, however, unwilling that his new Mamlukes should be less fine than his own people, sent for two splendid bornouses, which he lent to Mr. Ritchie and myself for this grand occasion, making us ride on the right and left of him. Travelling over a desert plain, until 9.30. A.M. west by south, we entered the palm groves and gardens of Morzouk; we then saw a large body of horse and foot advancing, with three silk flags. When the horsemen came within five hundred yards of us, they set off at full speed, and on joining our party, threw themselves from their horses, and ran to kiss the Sultan’s hand. His eldest son, Sidi Aleiwa, سيدي عليوه, headed them; and after he had performed the same salutation, they all remounted and joined in the procession. On approaching the town we were joined by the dancers, drummers, and pipers. Two men stationed themselves on each side of the Sultan, bearing fans of ostrich feathers, with which they beat off the flies which incommoded him. We entered the town at 10.30. A.M. preceded by the led horses, and six silk flags. The horsemen having formed in two lines, in which I joined them, skirmished until we came to the gate.
CHAPTER III.
ARRIVAL AT MORZOUK.
Mode of travelling across the Desert — Interview with the Sultan — Description of Morzouk — Population — Castle of the Sultan — Illness and severe Distress of the Author and his Companions — Arrival of a Kafflé of Tuarick — Fast of Rhamadan — Departure of an Expedition to obtain Slaves from the Country of Borgoo — Diseases of the Inhabitants, and the Native Methods of Cure — Feast of Aidel Shraya — Observations on the Tuarick — Their Religion, Dress, Customs, and Language — Ghraat — Its Government, Laws, and Trade — Market there — Arrival of a Kafflé from Bornou with Slaves — Information respecting Bornou and the surrounding Countries, as collected from the Traders — Of Kashna and Soudan, in general — Account of Hornemann and his Death — Tembuctoo — General Remarks on the Geography of the Interior, and probable Course of the Niger — Vocabulary of the Fellātta Language — Conjectures on the Fate of Park.
On our entry into the town, the soldiers raced up a very broad street, firing and shouting, whilst the women uttered their shrill cry; and the scene was altogether highly interesting. On passing a large open space, before we reached the castle and walls surrounding it, we were saluted from two six-pounders. We did not enter the castle itself, but were conducted to a large house within its outward boundary, which had been prepared for our reception. An old Mamluke, Hadje Mahmoud حاج محمود took charge of us, and having passed our threshold “in the name of God,” brought us a hot mess and a large mat. We waited until the afternoon, and were then conducted to pay our respects to the Sultan, and to be introduced to his son, a boy of about thirteen years of age, born of a slave of Soudan. We, in our turn, were visited by a great number of people; who had, in the space of a few hours, informed themselves, very sagaciously, that we were great men, and had brought 30,000 dollars with us; when, in truth, we had only 300 (which were in Mukni’s hands), and knew not where to procure more. Our horses, which were much fatigued and very thin, were fed from the castle.
We had been thirty-nine days in coming from Tripoli; the road, with the exception of the immediate vicinity of the towns, was a dreary desert, having but few wells, and those of salt water. Nothing could have been more fortunate than our travelling with the Sultan; our difficulties must otherwise have been very great. Mukni, to do him justice, showed us every attention; and we always partook of his meals when in the towns. I was his constant companion, and being of a less sedate disposition than Mr. Ritchie, he always invited me to ride by him, generally treating me with some cakes or dainties, which he carried with him. In return, I allowed him a draught from my water-skin. He spoke a little Italian, and amused himself much by asking questions about my country, of the wealth and grandeur of which he had formed very exalted ideas; particularly respecting the funds, or banco, as he called it. He certainly evinced a great desire to lodge some of his property, in this manner, in England, provided he could arrange it privately; it being against the Mahommedan religion to receive interest.
When I told him that English women were allowed to have money in their own power, and that some of them had immense fortunes, he seemed scarcely to credit me. He was much astonished at being told, that young men often did not marry until they had arrived at 25 or 30 years of age: this he considered as highly improper; but in some degree reconciled it to his way of thinking, by supposing that they must, in that case, have a great number of concubines, and that they only married those who brought them children. He did not find fault with our customs in that respect, as he had, himself, only one wife; but he had 50 Negresses, which was considered a very moderate allowance for a Sultan of Fezzan. He frequently asked me how natural children were disposed of, when it was requisite to conceal their birth from the parents of the offending parties. His pointed manner of questioning me on this subject led me to some suspicion of his motives for the inquiry; and I afterwards discovered, from several of his people, that he invariably caused to be strangled all babes born of his Negresses by other men, and that it was the general custom at Tripoli, to poison illegitimate infants in the womb. The mother of little Yussuf, his son, had a child about a year since, perfectly black. Mukni being satisfied it could not be his, sent for the suspected father, and made him strangle the infant: the mother was allowed to return to her own country, which was considered a great piece of lenity, death being usually the punishment for such an offence.
Our travelling pace was a walk of the horses, which generally got considerably in advance of the camels. At noon, or about that time, if we could find a tree, we stopped under it; if not, we sat under the shadow of our horses. The Sultan was grand victualler, and generally produced a bag of bread or dates, or the remains of his dinner of the day before. Each one then had a portion, not sufficient to be called a dinner, but to break his fast; and after eating, and drinking a few mouthfuls of water, stretched himself out, and slept until the camels came up: the party then mounted and rode on. These rests were very refreshing to the men and horses; but the loaded camels never made any stop, neither did the poor Negroes, who, with their wives and even little children, plodded on the whole day, over a burning soil, sometimes for twenty, and often for sixteen hours, whenever want of water made a forced march necessary. Several of the smallest of the black children, though probably not more than four or five years of age, walked for many hours with great strength in the early part of the day, having but a few rags to cover them, and when unable to proceed further, were put on the camels for the remainder of the day. One of our party, a poor old man, totally blind, arrived safe at Morzouk from Tripoli. He had walked all the way over the rocks and plains, led by his wife, and was kept alive by the hope of once more hearing the voices of his countrymen.
When we stopped for the night, it was generally so contrived that we should lie in some spot where bushes might be found for the camels to browse upon; but even though there might be no wood or herbage, a wadey was always preferred, as more sheltered. Our tents were pitched, if the ground was sufficiently soft to admit the pegs, and our bales and chests so placed, as to form a shelter for those who had no tents; affording a bulwark against the wind and sand. The little resistance offered by any intervening objects to the winds of the desert, renders them very powerful, and the stillness of the night, in blowing weather, is particularly awful. The tents are no sooner pitched, than the camels are turned out to feed on the thin and scattered bushes, and parties go to collect wood; the horses are hobbled, watered from the skins, and then fed. Should there be no wood, camels’ dung is an excellent substitute, as it burns like peat, and forms a very glowing fire. A hole is dug in the ground, and three stones so placed, as to support the little copper pot. Cusscussou or Bazeen is then prepared. The Sultanesses are no contemptible cooks, and they made every evening an excellent supper for their master. When no fire is to be had, Zumeeta is prepared with water and oil, and so eaten. We usually managed, in an evening, to make a little coffee, of which Mukni always came and partook; and as soon as he left the tent, his slaves and people generally succeeded him, wishing also to taste some. If we had time, we occasionally drank a cup of it in the morning fasting, which we found, in the most sultry weather, prevented thirst. I observed, that we never required water if we abstained from eating in the early part of the day, and I thus account for the Arabs drinking so little: on the contrary, if any quantity of water is taken on an empty stomach, the person who indulges in it suffers great thirst for the remainder of the day. When hot, it is much better to drink from the palm of the hand, which prevents the possibility of taking too great a draught at once. It is very refreshing after a long day’s journey, to be well oiled all over; and a wet cloth applied to the back of the neck relieves the fulness of the head, after being many hours exposed to the sun.—Horses should not be brought near the wells until it is their turn to drink; if they are kept in sight of the water, without being able to reach it, they frequently become furious, and many of them greedily devour the mud.
The water is generally carried on camels set apart for that purpose, and having no other loads. The usual quantity is six gerbas, or water-skins, three on each side, one slung above the other. Each of these skins is about fifty pounds in weight when full. Should the Kafflé expect to be four or six days without finding water, every camel which carries goods, has, in addition to its load, a skin on each side. In fact, horses generally occasion more trouble to a caravan than any thing else. The immense quantity of water necessary to be taken for them is always averaged at one camel for each horse, not including other loads of corn or dates for their food.
Nothing can be more overpowering than the south wind, El Gibli قبلي, or the east, El Shirghi الشرقي; each of which is equally to be dreaded. In addition to the excessive heat and dryness of these winds, they are so impregnated with sand, that the air is darkened by it, the sky appears of a dusky yellow, and the sun is barely perceptible. The eyes become red, swelled, and inflamed; the lips and skin parched and chopped; while severe pain in the chest is very generally felt, in consequence of the quantities of sand unavoidably inhaled. Nothing, indeed, is able to resist the unwholesome effects of this wind. On opening our boxes, we found that many little articles, and some of our instruments, which had been carefully packed, were entirely split and destroyed. Gales of the kind here described generally continue ten or twelve hours, yet when a change takes place, the air seems so fresh and delightful, that the miseries of the sand-wind are soon forgotten. We sometimes met people on our road, who invariably at parting recited the Fatha, each one religiously stroking his beard as soon as he had concluded this prayer.
Being now settled for a time in Morzouk, we went about, in order to become better acquainted with the people. Mr. Ritchie made magnificent presents to the Sultan and his sons, and every thing seemed to promise well, except that we had but little money, and were obliged to live in a most economical manner on corn, and seldom able to afford meat; having not only ourselves but our black servant and four horses to feed.
We had now acquired some little knowledge of the language, when, on the first Friday after our arrival, Mukni sent to tell us that he intended going to the Mosque at the Asr عسر, or afternoon prayers, and that he expected to see us there. As this was to be Mr. Ritchie’s first appearance in a Mosque, we had no sooner dressed ourselves in our best clothes than we practised the necessary prostrations, until we heard the crier call to prayers, when our old Mamluke came to conduct us to the church. We found a large assembly sitting in rows on mats, our places being in front. The Sultan soon after entered with his guards, and the Mosque was instantly filled with a strong smell of attar of roses, which his Majesty used in large quantities. Mr. Ritchie and myself got through our part very well, and after the service was over, waited at the door to see the Sultan mount and return to the Castle.
His horse, richly caparisoned, was led to an earthen seat, from which he mounted, three led horses preceding him. He was surrounded by his armed slaves, and fanned by men with ostrich feathers; and thus proceeded, slowly, and amidst an immense crowd, to the Castle, a distance of about five hundred yards. When arrived there, he remained for a few minutes in the court-yard, seated in his state chair, and receiving the homage of his subjects, leaning on two of his principal people; he then ascended into the Castle, where we followed him, and were allowed to sit on the same carpet as himself. He here paid to Mr. Ritchie the three hundred dollars which he owed him, and at the same time made most flattering promises about assisting us at any future period in money matters. We implicitly believed his professions, and left the Castle much delighted at possessing such a friend in one, who, had he been ill-disposed, had so much power to injure us.
At our return home, on examining our stock of eatables, we found that we had been robbed of a large sack of rice, another of flour, and a great quantity of cusscussou. From our hardware we missed one pistol, both locks of a double-barrelled gun, and several bags of shot. We made instant complaint to Mukni, who promised that every inquiry should be made for the stolen articles, and that they should, if found, be faithfully returned to us. We laid in a stock of dates for our horses, and commenced keeping house on our own account.
Our habitation was a very good one, and as all the large houses are built on nearly the same plan, I may, by describing this, give an idea of all the rest. A large door, sufficiently high to admit a camel, opened into a broad passage, or Skeefa سكيفه; on one side of which was a tolerable stable for five horses; and close to it a small room for the slaves, whose duty it might be to attend the house. A door opposite to that of the stable opened into the Kowdi كودي, or large square room, the roof of which, at the height of eighteen feet, was supported by four palm-trees as pillars. In the centre of the roofing was a large open space, about twelve feet by nine; from this the house and rooms receive light (not to mention dust), and excessive heat in the afternoon. At the end of the room, facing the door, a large seat of mud was raised, about eighteen inches high, and twelve feet in length. Heaps of this description, though higher, are found at the doors of most houses, and are covered with loungers in the cool of the morning and evening. Our large room was fifty feet by thirty-nine. From the sides, doors opened into smaller ones, which might be used as sleeping or store-rooms, but were generally preferred for their coolness. Their only light was received from the door. Ascending a few steps, there was a kind of gallery over the side rooms, and in it were two small apartments, but so very hot as to be almost useless. From the large room was a passage leading to a yard, having also small houses attached to it in the same manner, and a well of comparatively good water. The floors were of sand, and the walls of mud roughly plastered, and showing every where the marks of the only trowel used in the country—the fingers of the right hand. There are no windows to any of the houses; but some rooms have a small hole in the ceiling, or high up in the wall.
Morzouk is a walled town, containing about 2500 inhabitants, who are blacks, and who do not, like the Arabs, change their residence. The walls are of mud, having round buttresses, with loopholes for musketry, rudely built, but sufficiently strong to guard against attack: they are about fifteen feet in height, and at the bottom eight feet in thickness, tapering, as all walls in this country do, towards the top. The town has seven gates, four of which are built up in order to prevent the people escaping when they are required to pay their duties. A man is appointed by the Sultan to attend each of these gates, day and night, lest any slaves or merchandize should be smuggled into the town. The people, in building the walls and houses, fabricate a good substitute for stones, (which are not to be found in these parts), by forming clay into balls, which they dry in the sun, and use with mud as mortar: the walls are thus made very strong; and, as rain is unknown, durable also. The houses, with very few exceptions, are of one story, and those of the poorer sort receive all their light from the doors: these are so low, as to require stooping nearly double to enter them; but the large houses have a capacious outer door; which is sufficiently well contrived, considering the bad quality of the wood that composes them. Thick palm planks, of four or five inches in breadth, (for the size and manner of cutting a tree will not afford more) have a square hole punched through them at the top and bottom, by which they are firmly wedged together, with thick palm sticks; wet thongs of camels’ hide are then tied tightly over them, which, on drying, draw the planks more strongly and securely together. There are no hinges to the doors; but they turn on a pivot, formed on the last plank near the wall, which is always the largest on that account. The locks and keys are very large and heavy, and of curious construction. The houses are generally built in little narrow streets; but there are many open spaces, entirely void of buildings, and covered with sand, on which the camels of the traders remain. Many palms grow in the town, and some houses have small square enclosures, in which are cultivated a few red peppers and onions. The street of entrance is a broad space of at least a hundred yards, leading to the wall that surrounds the castle, and is extremely pretty: here the horsemen have full scope to display their abilities when they skirmish before the Sultan. The castle itself is an immense mud building, rising to the height of eighty or ninety feet, with little battlements on the walls (a fancy of the present Sultan’s); and at a distance really looks warlike. Like all the other buildings, it has no pretensions to regularity: the lower walls are fifty or sixty feet in thickness; the upper taper off to about four or five feet. In consequence of the immense mass of wall, the apartments are very small, and few in number. The rooms occupied by the Sultan are of the best quality, (that is to say, comparatively), for the walls are tolerably smooth, and white-washed, and have ornamental daubs of red paint in blotches, by way of effect. His couch is spread on the ground, and his visitors squat down on the sandy floor at a respectful distance; we, however, were always honoured by having a corner of the carpet offered to us. The best and most airy part of the castle is occupied by the women, who have small rooms round a large court, in which they take exercise, grind corn, cook, and perform other domestic offices. The number called Kibere, or great ladies, seldom exceeds six. This dignified title is generally given to the mothers of the Sultan’s children, or to those, who, having once been great favourites, are appointed governesses to the rest. There are, on the whole, about fifty young women, all black and very comely; and from what stolen glances we could obtain, they appeared extremely well dressed. They are guarded by five eunuchs, who keep up their authority by occasionally beating them. The Sultan has three sons and two daughters, who live with him in this cage, the doors of which are locked at night, and the keys brought to him, so that he remains free from any fear of attack. The castle is entered by a long winding passage in the wall, quite dark and very steep. At the door is a large shed, looking on a square space, capable of containing three or four hundred men closely huddled together. Under this shed is a great chair of state (once finely gilt and ornamented), with a patchwork quilt thrown over it; and behind it are the remains of two large looking-glasses. In this chair the Sultan receives homage every Friday, before he ascends the castle, after returning from the Mosque. This place is the Mejlees, مبولبس, and was the scene of all the cruelties practised by Mukni when he first took possession of the country.
| Drawn from Nature by G. F. Lyon. | On Stone by D. Dighton. |
The Castle of Morzouk.
London. Published by J. Murray Albemarle St. Feb.1.1821.
C. Hullmandel’s Lithography.
There are several pools of stagnant salt water in the town, which, I conceive, in a great measure, promote the advance of the summer fevers and agues. The burying-places are outside the walls, and are of considerable extent. In lieu of stones, small mud embankments are formed round the graves, which are ornamented with shreds of cloth tied to small sticks, with broken pots, and sometimes ostrich eggs. One of the burying-places is for slaves, who are laid very little below the surface; and in some parts the sand has been so carried away by the wind, as to expose their skeletons to view. Owing to the want of wood, no coffins are used; the bodies are merely wrapped in a mat, or linen cloth, and covered with palm branches, over which the earth is thrown. When the branches decay, the earth falls in; and the graves are easily known by being concave instead of convex. The place where the former Sultans are buried is a plain near the town; their graves are only distinguished from those of other people by having a larger proportion of broken pots scattered about them. It is a custom for the relations of the deceased to visit, and occasionally to recite a prayer over the grave, or to repeat a verse of the Koran. Children never pass within sight of the tombs of their parents without stopping to pay this grateful tribute of respect to their memory. Animals are never buried, but thrown on mounds outside the walls, and there left. The excessive heat soon dries up all their moisture, and prevents their becoming offensive; and the hair remains on them, so that they appear like preserved skins.
May 15th.—I was attacked with severe dysentery, which confined me to my bed during twenty-two days, and reduced me to the last extremity. Our little party was at this time miserably poor, for we had only money sufficient for the purchase of corn to keep us alive, and never tasted meat, unless fortunate enough to kill a pigeon in the gardens. My illness was the first break up in our little community, and from that time it rarely happened that one or two of us were not confined to our beds. The extreme saltness of the water, the poor quality of our food, together with the excessive heat and dryness of the climate, long retarded my recovery; and when it did take place, it was looked on as a miracle by those who had seen me in my worst state, and who thought it impossible for me to survive. I was no sooner convalescent, than Mr. Ritchie fell ill, and was confined to his bed with an attack of bilious fever, accompanied with delirium, and great pain in his back and kidneys, for which he required repeated cupping. When a little recovered, he got up for two days, but his disorder soon returned with redoubled and alarming violence. He rejected every thing but water; and, excepting about three hours in the afternoon, remained either constantly asleep, or in a delirious state. Even had he been capable of taking food, we had not the power of purchasing any which could nourish or refresh him. Our money was now all expended, and the Sultan’s treacherous plans to distress us, which daily became too apparent, were so well arranged, that we could not find any one to buy our goods. For six entire weeks we were without animal food, subsisting on a very scanty portion of corn and dates. Our horses were mere skeletons, added to which, Belford became totally deaf, and so emaciated as to be unable to walk.
My situation was now such as to create the most gloomy apprehensions; for I reflected that, if my two companions were to die, which there was every reason to apprehend, I had no money with which to bury them, or to support myself; and must in that case have actually perished from want, in a land of comparative plenty. My naturally sanguine mind, however, and above all, my firm reliance in that Power which had so mercifully protected me on so many trying occasions, prevented my giving way to despondency; and, Belford beginning soon to rally a little, we united, and took turns in nursing and attending on our poor companion. At this time, having no servant, we performed for Mr. Ritchie and for ourselves the most menial offices, Mr. Ritchie being wholly unable to assist himself.
Two young men, brothers, whom we had treated with great kindness, and whom we had engaged to attend on us, so far from commiserating our forlorn situation, forsook us in our distress, and even carried off our little store of rice and cusscussou, laughing at our complaints, and well knowing that our poverty prevented the redress which we should otherwise have sought and obtained.
During the period of Mr. Ritchie’s illness, a Kafflé of Tuarick arrived, on their way to Mecca; they had with them a Marāboot of most extraordinary talent and sagacity, about fifteen years old. This young saint was said never to look up, but to have his eyes either fixed on the Koran, or on the ground. I managed to ride out to visit this exalted personage, and found him a fat silly boy with sore eyes, very dirty and ragged, and surrounded by Hadge Mahmoud and a few others, with about the same share of intellect as himself, who were listening with great admiration to his remarks.
The Sultan, on the arrival of this Kafflé, rode out in state to see them, and supplied them with provisions during their stay. They were about one hundred and fifty in number, and with the exception of two tents of canvas, all the rest were of leather, supported by sticks and the people’s baggage.
I shall speak at a future period of the Tuarick, their dress, language, &c.
Rhamadan (the month in which Mohammed is said to have had his first communication with the angel Gabriel) was announced on the 23d of June, when the new moon appeared. The strictest fast was immediately commenced before day, about three o’clock, until sunset at seven P.M., sixteen hours; during this time no one drinks or eats, smokes or chews tobacco, and even smelling perfume is considered as wicked, as is swallowing the saliva.
The excessive heat which raged at this period (see Meteorological register at the end of the volume) was the occasion of many very serious illnesses amongst our friends and neighbours. Mr. Ritchie being very unwell and in bed, was, in a manner, privileged to take food or drink; but as Belford and myself were now much recovered, we were obliged to be very cautious, only eating by stealth, and when no one was likely to interrupt us. We had at this time a servant, who was a very inquisitive fellow; and our artifices to get him out of the way on these occasions would, by any but a blockhead like himself, have been soon discovered: however, we not only got safely through, but were fortunate enough to obtain credit for keeping the fast with great strictness, and without exciting the slightest suspicions of our stolen meals.
Hadje Mahmoud, a most religious old man, became very troublesome to me, and was continually begging that I would call in some Marāboot to pray over, and write prayers on Mr. Ritchie’s head and hands: his delirium he attributed to the devil, and foretold that it would not cease until we had put a sword, or some implement of iron, under his head, Iblis being much alarmed at that metal. All these plans I resisted as well as I could; but found much difficulty in overcoming a strong desire he had to bring a plate with the names of God written on it, which were to be washed off, and the inky water given to the invalid to drink. Our poor patient, meanwhile, regardless of what was passing, longed and asked only for a little milk, which unhappily we were not able to procure; the Sultan, although he had fifty goats, made so many excuses and difficulties about affording us any, that we were obliged to give up all hopes of gratifying him.
Great preparations were now making all over the kingdom, to forward an expedition which the Sultan intended to send against the tribe of the Tibboo Borgo, a country about a month S.E. Bodies of Arabs arrived from Sockna, and the towns in that direction; a party of horse also came from Benioleed, and Morzouk was all confusion. Sidi Aleiwa, the Sultan’s eldest son, was to take the command. All the men assembled to accompany him were quartered on the town’s-people, who were obliged to feed them and their cattle twice a day.
I shall here mention the names of certain persons who came to see us, and were really friendly towards us, in order to distinguish them from numberless other visitors, who, at first, were very regular in their attendance, but who vanished as soon as our sugar and coffee were expended. Mohammed El Lizari حمداليزهاري and Yussuf his brother were our two principal and real friends, and were the sons of a Mamluke long since dead.
On Mukni’s coming to this country, he reduced them from a state of affluence to complete poverty, leaving them their palms, the only possessions of which he could not deprive them. The friendship which these good men evinced for us was perfectly disinterested; and when we were poor and nearly starving, they most humanely and considerately conferred on us many acts of real kindness. Mohammed, the elder brother, was obliged to prepare himself to go on the slave hunt, much against his inclination, and was appointed to take charge of the young Aleiwa.
Old Hadje Mahmoud, whom I have before mentioned, was another of our friends, but rather less disinterested than the two former: he was credulous, superstitious, and rather time-serving; but being our neighbour, did us now and then a good office. His kindness, however, certainly slackened after our poverty became but too apparent.
Mohammed ben Abd Alla was, for a length of time, our most constant visitor. He was a Mamluke, born at Naples, and apostatised when about ten years old. He remained some time at Tripoli; and, when about eighteen years of age, was sent by the Bashaw as a present to the former Sultan. He recollected but little of his native language; was shrewd and lively, and was certainly employed by the Sultan as a spy upon our actions. Having fully ascertained this circumstance, we employed many tricks to deceive him, in which we completely succeeded. One of his great points was, to discover for what reason we came so far into the country, and whether we really were very great men, as we were reported to be.
A report had been circulated that Mr. Ritchie was married to the King of England’s daughter, and that I recently had married his Majesty’s niece. As Mohammed affected to be acquainted with all our affairs, we always denied our high connexions in such a manner as to confirm, rather than to contradict, the reports. Our wealth he imagined to be very considerable, until he found we ceased to eat meat, and then his suspicions of our real situation were awakened. As he became excessively importunate in his questions, I at last undertook to frighten him, and after one or two preparatory conversations, got him out on the sand one night when there was no moon. I began talking of King Solomon and his seal, and related to him as many horrible stories of ghosts as I could conjure up. I told him that Mr. Ritchie and myself were Freemasons, and that we understood the writing which was on our Lord Solomon’s seal. On this subject I also invented tales, to convince him that Freemasons were acquainted with every thing. I took him home with me, and (Mr. Ritchie being on that evening pretty well) desired him to mention some words to me, which I would, with his hand over my mouth, convey across the room. I accordingly spelt the words with my fingers, and Mr. Ritchie, to Mohammed’s great astonishment, repeated them aloud. A few repetitions of this plan made a sensible alteration in our inquisitive friend, who, from that time, gradually ceased to intrude on us. Mohammed was particularly proud of his high blood (being a Mamluke), boasting that his father (though an unbeliever) was a very great man, and much in the confidence of the King of Naples, whose revenues he collected, and had a large army under his orders. He also recollected his having fine laced clothes, and riding a horse. We were often much puzzled to guess who this great personage could be, when one evening, by way of surprising and delighting us, he, with great gravity, informed us that his father was a caporale, or, in plain English, a corporal!
On the 12th of July, the army all being in readiness, amounting to about 300 horse and 800 foot, with nearly 2000 camels, set out for Gutrone, from whence they were to make their final departure. Mukni accompanied them; and the town was left in a state of quiet we had never before observed. The charge of the castle was committed to old Hadge Mahmoud, who locked the females up every evening at sunset. Mukni, who was not considered to be a very religious person, was much blamed for setting out during the fast of Rhamadan; and some, who knew we should not betray their opinions, said, that his only reason for choosing such a time was, that he might have an excuse for eating, which is allowed by the Koran to travellers and sick persons; provided they make amends when they are able, by fasting in some other month.
Many people came to us to beg for medicines; and Mr. Ritchie being unable to attend to their wants, I became their physician, having a medical book constantly at hand to refer to in difficult cases. My medicines sometimes succeeded, and I must say, that where I could not afford relief, I never attempted any experiments which could injure my patients. I shall here state the most prevalent disorders, with the method of cure employed by the inhabitants:
| Diseases. | Method of Cure. |
| Liver complaint, frequently fatal | Burning with a hot iron. |
| Enlargement of the spleen, ditto | Ditto. |
| Asthma, ditto | Ditto. |
| Consumption, ditto | Ditto. |
| Blindness | Burning the temples, and putting pieces of onion between the eyelids. |
| Rupture | Burning. |
| Fever and ague, called Hemma | Charms drank in water. |
| Venereal | Purges of colocynth, and washes of soda. Effectual. |
| Strictures | Burning. |
| Ghonorrhæa | Purges and burning. |
| Palsy | Charms. |
I saw one instance of elephantiasis. The man afflicted with it was a native of Morzouk. His right leg was very much swoln, and he said it had been in that state for more than a year, and was still increasing in size. He said it gave him no pain, but much incommoded him in working. His complexion appeared sallow and shrivelled; but his leg was red, and the skin shining.
I was now considered as a doctor, and my character, in consequence, became established; although my knowledge was certainly confined within a very narrow compass, and extended no farther than bleeding, blistering, and preparing a simple dose of physic.
On the 22nd of July Mukni returned, having seen his son safe on his way. Rhamadan’s sun was now set; and on the 23rd instant, early in the morning, the moon was visible. It would be impossible to describe the joy which this sight occasioned, after thirty days’ fasting. Every body was in motion, screaming, dancing, firing guns, eating and drinking.
Mr. Ritchie was now beginning to recover, and was able to sit up a little, after having been confined fifty-eight days to his bed. At noon, having ornamented myself and my poor lean horse as well as I could, I joined the procession which was to ride round the town. The Sultan and his two youngest sons, covered with rich clothes, rode first, with flags, led horses, and music. All the people, who remained behind from the army, were dressed in their finest habits; and we thus proceeded to a small building near the tombs of the former Sultans. On arriving there we dismounted, and I entered with the Sultan and one or two more. The Kadi stood in a niche, from which he could be seen by all the people on the plain, and recited the usual prayers; after which he read many passages from the Koran, expressly relating to Rhamadan. All the prayers being finished, every one embraced his neighbour, and congratulated him on the happy termination of the fast. Such kissing I never before witnessed. All who were capable of crowding into this house kissed the hand of Mukni, and welcomed him with the word of joy, Mabrook el Aïd! “Welcome the feast!” I was allowed to salute his shoulder, perhaps because he knew I would not pay that compliment to his hand. We then remounted, and rode round the town in great state, leaving the Kadi to kill a fat sheep as a sacrifice. I was much amused at sight of the little boys, all dressed in their fathers’ clothes, which trailed along the ground as they walked, and had a most ludicrous appearance. Some had only a rich jacket on, which hung on them like a great coat; and all wore turbans over their usual red caps. Every donkey was in requisition, and those which had the longest backs bore the greatest quantity of elegant riders. The joy depicted on every countenance, the fineness of the weather, and the novelty of the scene, was really very striking. Clothes were worn on this day which had never been used but on similar occasions; and many a Kaftan revisited the light, which had belonged to the great grandfather of the wearer. This feast is the Bairam of the Turks, and lasts three days; during which, the people, in their finest garments, receive and pay visits of ceremony. Every afternoon the Sultan rides out in state. Even the most needy manage on this grand occasion to get a little camels’ flesh, and sometimes mutton.
The great people (as commanded by their religion) give food to the poor, who take care to come in immense crowds to demand it. We were obliged to expend two of our remaining dollars, and to distribute camels’ flesh. However, it really was appropriated to those who most wanted it; as I sent for the negroes who accompanied our Kafflé from Tripoli, and who were without friends or money, and divided it amongst them. One necessary attendant on charity is, that the person who bestows it should go and boast of his good deeds to all the world. I was found much fault with by our neighbour for not sitting outside the door to distribute the flesh, (Mr. Ritchie being too weak to attend for that purpose), so that every one should see me—a piece of ostentation which our neighbour did not omit; and in only giving pieces about the size of a walnut to each applicant, of whom there were great numbers, he certainly extended his charity farther than we did.
Many parties of Tuarick came with their slaves and goods, during the last month, (July), from Kashna, Aghades, and Ghraat. They are the finest race of men I ever saw; tall, straight, and handsome, with a certain air of independence and pride, which is very imposing. They are generally white, that is to say, comparatively so; the dark brown of their complexions only being occasioned by the heat of the climate. Their arms or bodies, (where constantly covered), are as white as those of many Europeans. Their costume is very remarkable, and they cover their faces as high as the eyes, in the manner of women on the sea-coast. Their original motive for so doing is now forgotten; but they say it must be right, as it was the fashion of their forefathers. This covering extends as high as half way up the bridge of the nose, from whence it hangs down below the chin on the breast, much in the same way (but longer) as crape or lace is hung to a lady’s half mask. This cloth is generally of blue glazed cotton; but yellow, red, white, and many other colours are worn according to taste, or the ability of the wearer to purchase them. The beard is kept close clipped, so as not to interfere with the covering which is tied behind; their red caps are generally very high, but some wear yellow or green ones, fitted close to the head: others have no caps at all, but leave their hair to grow, and plait it in long tresses. All wear turbans, which are never of any fixed colour: blue is the most common and cheap; but gaudy hues are preferred. A large loose shirt (having the sleeves the same size as the body), called Tobe, is the common dress; it is of cotton, generally blue, or blue and white, and is of their own manufacture, although some wear those of Soudan, which are considered the best that are made. The merchants generally dress very gaudily while in the towns, wearing kaftans of bright red cloth, or very gay silk and cotton striped, which they procure from the Tripoline traders. A leather kaftan is also much worn, of their own manufacture, as are leather shirts of the skins of antelopes, very neatly sewed, and well prepared. Their trowsers are not made so full as those of the Moors, as they would in that case be much encumbered in riding their maherries: they rather resemble those called Cossack trowsers, and are made of cotton stuff, dark blue being the most common. Their sandals are the most elegant part of their dress, being made of black leather, with scarlet thongs to brace them to the feet. The ornamental needle-work on the inside of the sole is really admirable. They all wear a whip, hanging from a belt passed over the left shoulder by the right side. Their swords are straight and of great length, and they wield them with much ease and dexterity. From the left wrist is suspended a dagger, with the hilt towards the hand; it has a broad leather ring attached to the scabbard, and through this the hand is passed. No Tuarick is ever seen without this appendage, and a light elegant spear, sometimes entirely of iron, inlaid with brass; others are of wood, but are also highly ornamented. These weapons are about six feet in length, and are thrown to a great distance. In making war, they have three longer and heavier spears, and a strong lance, which are fastened behind the saddle. A long gun is also generally carried; and these people are considered sure marksmen. They are, if possible, more superstitious than the natives of Fezzan; some of them being literally covered with charms against disorders and accidents, which they wear round their arms, legs, necks, across the breast, and in fact wherever they can find a place for them. Their spears and guns have also their due allowance, and in the folds of the turbans are always hidden a number of holy writings. Some wear large silver cases tied round the head, containing charms against the devil. Their language is the Breber, or original African tongue, still spoken in the mountains behind Tunis, in some parts of Morocco, and at Sockna, where it is called Ertana. On a future occasion I shall give a small vocabulary of it. They are very proud of the antiquity of their language, which some have told me was spoken by Noah, in preference to any other. They never kiss the hand as other Mohammedans do, not even that of the Sultan himself, but advance, and, taking the hand, shake it, and then retire, standing erect, and looking him full in the face—a striking contrast of manners to that of the natives of Fezzan. No people have more aversion to washing than the Tuarick generally have; some, after having equipped themselves in a new suit of blue, become so stained for a time as to appear of the same complexion as their garments. Even in performing their necessary purifications, which require that a man should wash in a particular way before his prayers, they avoid water, and make use of sand. Many attempts were made by us to discover the reason why they kept themselves in such a dirty state; but to all our inquiries we obtained nearly the same answers: “God never intended that man should injure his health, if he could avoid it: water having been given to man to drink, and cook with, it does not agree with the skin of a Tuarick, who always falls sick after much washing.” There are some, however, who do wash, and ridicule the dirty ones; but these are comparatively few. They are Moslem, and their prayers are in Arabic, of which language many do not understand a syllable; those who do pray (and there are many who do not) only repeat their belief, viz. “There is no God but God, and Mohammed is his prophet,” and know very little besides of their religion. They inhabit that immense tract of country, known in maps under the name of Sahara, or the Great Desert, and are of numerous tribes, some of whom have no settled habitations, but wander like the Arabs, and subsist by plunder. They are not cruel on these occasions, provided they meet with no resistance; but should the party attacked attempt to defend themselves, their death is certain.
| Drawn from Nature by G. F. Lyon. | On Stone by M. Gauci. |
| Tuarick in a shirt of Leather. | Tuarick of Aghades. |
London. Published by J. Murray Albemarle St. 1821.
C. Hullmandel’s Lithography.
The Tuarick, or more properly tribes of them, are always at war with the Soudan states, and carry off from them incalculable numbers of slaves. They are so completely masters of their weapons, and so very courageous, that they are much dreaded, which enables them to traverse unmolested, and in very small bodies, countries full of armed people. Each tribe has some peculiarity in its dress, or manner of riding and making war. The nearest Tuarick to Fezzan are at Ghraat, which is ten days from Morzouk, and from Oubari, the most western village in the Wadey Shiati. Near Sebha (see map) it is seven days west by south.
Ghraat, غرعت is a walled town, having houses in streets, and built of stone and mud, in the same manner as Morzouk. It is twenty days from Tuat, طوات and five days from Ganat, which place is not, as has been generally supposed, a town, but merely a country producing dates, and having a few scattered huts and gardens, the wells of which are salt.
Ghadams, غدامس is twenty days north-west of Ghraat. At about the distance of five or six miles from the latter, is a town called El Berkaat, البركعت famous for the quantity and fineness of the grapes produced there. It is also a walled town, but rather smaller than its neighbour, which may be about the size of Sockna.
| Drawn from Nature by G. F. Lyon. | On Stone by M. Gauci. |
Tuaricks of Ghraat.
London. Published by J. Murray Albemarle St. 1821.
C. Hullmandel’s Lithography.
Ghraat is built partly on a plain, and partly on a steep hill side. It is closely surrounded by high mountains, which are perfectly barren: the plains are not sandy, but gravel. The Sheikh is there called Sultan, and his name is Bel Gassem. He receives but a precarious revenue, and that only from the settled inhabitants, who are called Ghratïa. The Tuarick show no respect to him, and pay no duties. They are generally wanderers, leaving only a few of each tribe in the country; but they never settle any where else. They are of the tribes Heggār, حقار, Booghrasāten, بوغراساتن, Menghrāata, منغرعت, and Haïoon, حيون; which last people are famed for sanctity, and there are but few of them who have not performed the pilgrimage to the Holy House. They are settled in the country, and seldom go to the negro kingdoms to trade. The Sultan has not the power of life and death; cannot alter or make laws; and is directed by an assembly of the elders of the people, who always try offences of a criminal nature, and then submit their sentence to him for his approval. He cannot even resolve on any measure of importance without first obtaining the permission of those elders. Neither in his dress, mode of living, or habitation, is he distinguished from the common people; and he walks about and trades by himself without attracting any notice. The Sultanship is hereditary, and not being a very desirable office, occasions no wars for the succession.
The Ghrātïa allow strangers to sit and converse with their wives and daughters, who seldom are known to abuse the liberty allowed them. They are said to be fine looking women, and inclined to corpulency. These people are reputed to be rich, from their constant trade with Soudan, and from having no one to deprive them of their gains. Provisions of all kinds are exorbitantly dear. The dates are not plentiful, and of a very inferior quality. They grow but little corn, and procure more from Morzouk in exchange for slaves, gold, or other merchandize.
The Tuarick of the tribes frequenting Ghraat are insatiable and unwearied beggars, generally securing possession, and then begging the thing taken as a present.
There is annually in the spring a great market, to which dealers from all the neighbouring countries resort in great numbers. The Ghadamsines bring swords, guns, powder, flints, lead and iron ware, also a few articles of clothing. The Soudan traders bring slaves, cotton cloths, skins, gold, civet, shears, daggers, water skins, Goroo nuts, &c.: the Fezzan merchants a mixed cargo of such goods as they procure from Tripoli or Egypt. Slaves and camels, dates and corn, are always the principal articles of commerce, and in great abundance. All traders have a tribute exacted from them by the Tuarick of the country. Clothing, some powder, or any small article, franks a Kafflé; and if a single trader goes, the same is expected from him: friends only being allowed to pass free. This tribute is called “safety money,” and once paid, the merchants are exempt from farther demand. The Mamlukes of Morzouk, or people sent by them, do not pay any thing, it being the interest of the Tuarick, who constantly come to the capital, to keep on terms with them.
The manner of riding amongst these people is very singular. They have swift, tall camels, called Maherry (the Herie of travellers), with which they perform extraordinary journeys. The saddle is placed on the withers, and confined by a band under the belly. It is very small, and difficult to sit, which is done by balancing with the feet against the neck of the animal, and holding a tight rein to steady the head. They manage these creatures with great dexterity, fighting when mounted on them, and firing at marks while at full speed, which is a long trot, in which, the maherry can continue at about nine miles an hour for many hours together. They do not much esteem horses, and never buy them but for the purpose of exchanging them for slaves in Soudan.
We had many visits from these extraordinary people, who came to see us as curiosities, and minutely examined every thing we would allow them to handle. The report which they had heard of our great knowledge, and of our being able to look steadfastly at the sun, or in other words, to take celestial observations, brought large parties to our habitation, on whom we not unfrequently played a few tricks. Phosphorus astonished them beyond all measure; kaleidoscopes, and the camera obscura, also excited great amazement; but the compass was quite beyond their comprehension, so much so, that they generally were afraid to touch it. Our arms were more suited to their taste, and they took much pleasure in handling them. The pistols with stop locks were looked upon with great reverence, and a sword which I had, with a pistol in the handle, was considered so valuable, that I might have purchased with it a couple of Negresses. Our having a stock of medicines was a sufficient inducement for all our visitors to find themselves very ill, and to imagine not one, but every disorder of the country. One man had bad eyes; if he succeeded in getting something to relieve them, the whole party all began immediately to blink, and affect to be half blind, hoping also to get some medicine. Another had a liver complaint; the rest then were all so ill as to be unable to walk or to speak without a great many ejaculatory oh’s; and so on, until they had exhausted the whole chapter of ailments. We at first gave them medicine, but soon discovered it was a preconcerted plan to impose on us, and that when one set had obtained what they wanted, another brought forward a friend or two, who were exactly in the same miserable and suffering state as themselves, and equally disposed to deceive us. One begged a little physic to keep in store, another some sugar just to taste, a small piece for their wives as a curiosity, and a few lumps into the bargain for their children: a little writing paper for charms, a handful of tobacco, one of our nice knives, or a pair of scissars, or a little powder to show when they got home, with many other et cæteras, until our patience being completely exhausted, we were obliged, very unceremoniously, and much to their astonishment, to push the whole party out of the house. Many amusing incidents occurred on the score of medical knowledge, which showed the implicit confidence reposed in us.
During Mr. Ritchie’s illness, an old man, aged eighty, came to consult us about his back, which was very much bent, and had been so for many years: he had seen us give a liniment to a person who had sprained his ankle, which got well in a few days; and his request was, that some of the same medicine might be given him to strengthen his back, which, he said, was becoming very inconvenient to him. One of the Tuarick, who had taken a very strong dose of salts, brought a friend to interpret for him, as he understood but little Arabic, and begged to be told what he was to do to stop the effects of the dose, lest, not rightly understanding me, he might be in danger of dying on the road. A Negress of the Sultan’s chief man being sick, sent her armlet to Mr. Ritchie, by which he was to discover her disorder, and to send her the requisite medicine. The Sultan’s own women were continually sending little bottles for something to cause them to bear children, and their emissaries sometimes whispered whether it was a boy or girl that was desired. Mr. Ritchie prescribed for the whole of the Sultan’s establishment, which, with the males and females, might amount to at least a hundred. Numbers came or sent daily with such an air of authority, as led us to suppose that Mukni had spread a report of his paying liberally for Mr. Ritchie’s attentions, which was not the case; on the contrary, we were all day weighing out doses for the slaves, who never even thanked us for our trouble; and when we were poor and destitute of every comfort, Mukni never gave us the slightest assistance: if, however, any of his family required charms for their disorders, the writers were liberally rewarded, and the effect of the medicines always attributed to those charms. When I commanded at the laboratory, I took good care to give such doses as were not easily forgotten, and, in consequence, none of his household ever after sent for medicine, unless really ill. Many of the women required a great deal of explanation, as to how any thing taken into the stomach could relieve a head-ache. Purgatives were always despised in comparison with emetics. The allowance which would suffice for a strong European took no effect with them; but when a double dose was given, it pleased so much, that many requests were made for “Just such another dose as was given to such a one, which made him so sick that he almost died.” The prevalent disorder when a man wanted medicine for novelty’s sake was, being “ill all over.”
By the 20th August, Mr. Ritchie had tolerably recovered. Mukni had several times, during his illness, talked publicly of his great friendship for us, declaring, that if we were in want even of a thousand dollars, he would immediately lend them: but his conduct was in direct contradiction to his professions; for although he visited Mr. Ritchie during his illness, he never offered him the least assistance, or even bestowed such trifling articles of nourishment as I requested. Once, and once only, when rice was not to be bought, he, with great parade, sent a quart, on which the poor invalid dined for eight days.
It became indeed but too apparent that he expected and wished us all to die, in which case he would have seized on, and appropriated all our effects and merchandise to his own use: of the latter, we had a great quantity, which Mr. Ritchie would not allow me to dispose of, lest it should lower us in the eyes of the natives; but I thought it could be of little consequence when compared with our lives, which were so perpetually endangered by want and privation. We had in vain tried to dispose of our horses; they were so lean, (and we had no money with which to buy any provision to fatten them) that no one would even look at them.
I had managed to keep my own in rather better case than the others, by giving him our travelling baskets, and occasionally stealing a little food for him, but still he was not sale-worthy. In this situation were our affairs, when in one of our visits to the Sultan, Mr. Ritchie ventured to ask from him the loan of some money: his answer, though a negative, was couched in very plausible and friendly terms; and he assured us, by the name of God, that we were welcome to all he had in the world, but that the Bashaw had lately exacted so much from him, that he had not a single dollar remaining. It happened, however, that on the preceding day, he had, to our certain knowledge, received 4000, which were deposited in the very chest against which he leant, whilst he uttered these falsehoods. Finding that nothing was to be gained at this visit, we retired in utter disappointment, not knowing where else to apply.
Belford, at this time, was attacked with giddiness and deafness, and fell into a very weak state. Our situation was daily becoming more deplorable in all respects; our rate of living was reduced to one saa, or quart of corn per diem, with occasionally a few dates, amongst four of us. Mukni’s spy, about this time, came and made some very mean offers, (but which Mr. Ritchie thought proper to reject) about purchasing our cloth and gunpowder, and we plainly perceived he was negotiating for the Sultan. We had endeavoured, indeed, to sell some of our merchandise, by offering it somewhat cheaper than the people of the country; but no one would actually buy, or even propose for it, and we then became convinced, that Mukni was the cause of all our distresses; he, however, still continued to call on us, proffering kindness which he never intended to fulfil.
Being now reduced to the last extremity, and Mr. Ritchie not thinking it right to draw for money on the Treasury, I drew a bill on my own private account, for £20, with which we proceeded immediately to the Sultan, hoping it would have the desired effect: Mr. Ritchie having at the former interview explained to them, that if he accommodated us with 80 dollars, and sent the draft to his (the Sultan’s) wife, who was then resident in Tripoli, she would instantly receive the amount from the British consul. He still, however, refused to assist us; when on a sudden, artfully pretending to mistake 8 for 80, he exclaimed, “Well! I did not think it necessary to draw a written agreement for so small a sum; I will, however, advance you the eight dollars you require, and you may return them when convenient.” Farther explanation to a man determined not to understand was wholly useless, and our poverty not allowing us to refuse the sum, however small, we accepted it; and immediately employed part of our newly acquired riches in treating ourselves with a little meat.
Though we knew not where to procure farther pecuniary aid, we were, for the moment, happy, and soon after had reason to be more so. We had, on coming to Morzouk, lent to our neighbour, Hadje Mahmoud, 20 dollars, of which he paid us 10; and now, in the moment of need, brought us the remainder. At this critical period, it acquired tenfold value, and was of course received with thankfulness and delight.
In this unexpected improvement of our circumstances, we determined to fatten our horses for sale, and to purchase some fowls and a milch ewe, as a resource against future illness. We frequently rode out to the gardens near the town, and Mr. Ritchie became again tolerably well, though I observed, with much regret, that his late and frequent disorders appeared to have very materially depressed his spirits, insomuch, that he almost constantly remained secluded in his own apartment, silent, unoccupied, and averse to every kind of society.
At the end of this month, a large Kafflé of Arabs, Tripolines, and Tibboo, arrived from Bornou, bringing with them 1400 slaves of both sexes and of all ages, the greater part being females. Several smaller parties had preceded them, many of whom also brought slaves. We rode out to meet the great kafflé, and to see them enter the town—it was indeed a piteous spectacle! These poor oppressed beings were, many of them, so exhausted as to be scarcely able to walk; their legs and feet were much swelled, and by their enormous size, formed a striking contrast with their emaciated bodies. They were all borne down with loads of fire-wood; and even poor little children, worn to skeletons by fatigue and hardships, were obliged to bear their burthen, while many of their inhuman masters rode on camels, with the dreaded whip suspended from their wrists, with which they, from time to time, enforced obedience from these wretched captives. Care was taken, however, that the hair of the females should be arranged in nice order, and that their bodies should be well oiled, whilst the males were closely shaven, to give them a good appearance on entering the town. Their dresses were simply the usual cotton wrappers, and even these, in many instances, were so torn, as scarcely to cover them. We observed one girl (of what country I know not) who had her back and shoulders burned in little sprigs, in a very curious manner, so as to resemble figured silk; it had a very pretty appearance, and must have been done when she was quite an infant. Some of the women carried little children on their backs, some of whom were so small, that they must have been born on the road.
The Tibboo, who bring the slaves from Bornou, are of the tribes on the road; and some are from Fezzan. They never trade to Soudan, on account of the distance; but prefer exchanging their slaves for horses, which they sell to great advantage in the interior: for though there are horses in Bornou, they are not much esteemed; but those of Tripoli are greatly valued. The Tibboo ride on saddles, resembling in some respects our English ones; but they are smaller, and have a high peak in front: their stirrups resemble ours, but they do not put the whole foot in them, only the four small toes, the great one remaining out; their shoes are all contrived for this purpose, by having a separate division for a great toe, and are made in the same manner as childrens’ mittens. Their bridles are also in our style, being much lighter than those of the Arabs. They are more careful of their horses than of their families, sparing no expense to fatten them; this is done by cramming them with large balls of meal or dough, which are considered highly nourishing. A fine horse will, in the Negro country, sell for 10 or 15 Negresses; each of which, at the Barbary ports, is worth from 80 to 150 dollars.
All the traders speak of slaves as farmers do of cattle. Those recently brought from the interior were fattening, in order that they might be able to go on to Tripoli, Benghazi, or Egypt: thus a distance of 1600 or 1800 miles is to be traversed, from the time these poor creatures are taken from their homes, before they can be settled; whilst in the Interior they may, perhaps, be doomed to pass through the hands of eight or ten masters, who treat them well or ill, according to their pleasure. These devoted victims fondly hoping that each new purchaser may be the last, find perhaps that they have again to commence a journey equally long and dreary with the one they have just finished, under a burning sun, with new companions, but with the same miseries.
The females are always considered as bearing fatigue much better than the males; perhaps because their small allowance of food and water more easily suffices them. I have always observed that the men were more miserable in their appearance, and walked with more difficulty than the women.
Having been enabled to collect a great deal of information from Bornou traders, respecting that country, I shall here detail it; but I have to request my readers to bear in mind, that I only report what I have heard, and refrain from giving any opinion as to the Course of the Niger, having so often found how little the accounts concerning it are to be credited. I certainly have formed my own conjectures; but may be mistaken, as better theorists than myself have been, on that most interesting subject.
COUNTRY OF BORNOU,
AS COLLECTED FROM TRADERS.
| Bornou Language. | |
| One | Teelo |
| Two | Andee |
| Three | Yaskoo |
| Four | Daigoo |
| Five | Oogoo |
| Six | Araskoo |
| Seven | Tuller |
| Eight | Oskoo |
| Nine | Lekār |
| Ten | Maigoo |
| Twenty | Maigoo lata Maigoo |
| Hundred | Jarroo |
| Man | Kooa |
| Woman | Mata |
| Father | Abbah |
| Mother | Yany |
| Head | Kela |
| Eyes | Shim |
| Nose | Kensha |
| Hair | Kondoly |
| Teeth | Timmi |
| Belly | Soro |
| Hand | Moskoo |
| Foot | Shie |
| Blood | Boo |
| Day | Koo |
| Night | Booné |
| Sleep | Koonem |
| Dead | Nowy |
| White | Bull |
| Black | Tsellm |
| Sun | Koo |
| Moon | Kengāl |
| Stars | Shilluga |
| Stone | Kow |
| Good | Unglla |
| Fire | Kanno |
| Water | Ankee |
| Earth | Shiddi |
| Bird | Ongoodo |
| Egg | Engoôbble |
| Fish | Boney |
| Camel | Kalgāmoo |
| Cow | Faï |
| God | Allah الله |
Bornou is a large tract of country, 40 days’ journey, or about 700 miles, south of Fezzan. It is bounded on the east by Baghermi, on the west by Kano كنّو, and to the northward by Kanem. Few traders ever go due south of Bornou, and are therefore unable to speak of the countries in that direction. There are many contradictions respecting the principal town, called Birnie برني; or more properly, Birnie Jedeed or new Birnie, to distinguish it from another town, called Gedeem or old.
These towns are five days east and west of each other, and the River Tsād runs near them both. The old town is the most to the westward, and is now nearly forsaken. In consequence of its vicinity to the Fellāta, who were masters of Soudan, it was constantly exposed to Ghrazzies, or incursions for the purpose of carrying off the natives; and even single inhabitants were often seized and dragged from their labour by small marauding parties, who lay in ambush for them. It was therefore determined about eight years since, to build a new town more in the centre of their country, and to forsake what had been their capital from the earliest times in which they were known.
Thus it is that the accounts received are often materially different: those who have visited the old town, giving their distances from it, whilst more recent traders speak only of the new one. All the distances I have laid down are from the last.
From Birnie to Baghermi is ten days to the borders, S.E. Looggan, a town of Bornou, is half way, or five days; and the Tsād runs past it, across the road, in such a way, that those going to Baghermi must necessarily pass it. This river runs from S.W. to N.E. is of great breadth, and is crossed by heavy goods being carried on rafts, floated on large gourds, which are impelled forward by swimmers, who hold or push with one hand whilst they strike with the other. Smaller rafts are used to carry four or five men, or some light goods; these, according to my informants, are formed with cross spars and gourds. The men sit astride on this machine, having their legs in the water, and so propel themselves forward with their hands and feet. A lighter vehicle is used for one man, and is merely a spar on two flat gourds, carried on by paddling with the feet and a small oar.
I learnt with astonishment, that though the river has many crocodiles, they never attack the legs of people passing in this manner. Whether the raft or the bright yellow of the gourds intimidates them I cannot tell, but so it is.
The river, according to the natives, is said to run past Foor— (Dar fur of Brown), and thence to Egypt. Horses are swam over, being buoyed up with inflated water-skins slung round them; and camels are conducted by men who hold them by their long upper lips, and keep their heads above water: the forepart of that animal being the heaviest, another man sits behind the hump, in order to raise the fore and depress the hinder parts, whilst crossing.
Almost every account we received of the Tsād was so materially different, that it long remained a puzzle to us, how to account for such palpable errors as some of our informers must have fallen into. Some declared it to be so large a Lake, that the opposite side of it could not be seen from Birnie; others termed it an inconsiderable river: at last, the nephew of the Kadi, who had just arrived, furnished us with the following clear statement. “The Tsād is not a river, but an immense Lake, into which many streams discharge themselves after the summer rains. It is then, for some months, of such extent, that the opposite shores cannot be seen, and the people catch many fish, and go about on it in boats. In the early part of the spring, when the great heats come on, it soon changes its appearance, and dries up, with the exception of a small rill. This streamlet, which runs through the centre of its bed, is called by the same name, and comes from the westward, taking an easterly direction; but to what place he knows not.”
All the inhabitants of the villages on the borders of the Lake go out and sow corn and esculent vegetables, which come to maturity, and are gathered in before the rainy season, as in Egypt, after the flowing of the Nile, which he has seen. He had himself observed the people getting in their harvest on the same ground which he had, only a few months before, known to be covered with water.
The rivers which, he says, flow into the lake after the rains, appear to be torrents from the mountains, as he never observed more than the small stream I have mentioned in the dry season.
The Tsād is also called the Gambarro after it quits Birnie, and even there it is as frequently called the Nil. Until a few years ago, when the country became much improved under the mild government of a very religious Moslem, it was the custom to throw into the stream at the time of its rise a virgin richly dressed, and of superior beauty. The greatest people of the country considered themselves honoured if the preference was given to one of their daughters, and the learned men augured a good or bad year from the ease or difficulty with which their victim was drowned.
There are several tribes of wandering Tibboo to the northward of Bornou, the principal of which are the Wandela, Gunda, and Traïta. These people are principally Kaffirs: they do not trade, but live by their flocks, and not unfrequently by pillage.
To the eastward of Bornou, near Baghermi, is a country called Mandra, which is tributary to Bornou, but does not escape the incursions for slaves, which are frequently made by its nominal protectors. The language of this country is a corrupt dialect of the Bornou. The people are finely formed, and the females have lively intelligent countenances: they are all Kaffirs, and live in huts of grass, woven like mats, and sewed together, called Booshīa.
I shall have occasion, when speaking of the country of the Tibboo, to mention three rivers of note which I am able to trace to some distance at ten days to the north of Wadāy.
I now return to the accounts of the bearings of several places of note from Bornou.
Birnie Jedeed to
Baghermi, ten long days, east-south-east.
Maoo, principal town of Kanem, fifteen days, north-north-east.
Kanno, ten days, west.
Kooka, fifteen days, east by south.
Kattagum, four days, west-south-west.
Ringhem, nine days, west-south-west.
Shaikoo, two days, west.
Kawar, ten days, north-eastward.
Bilma, fifteen days, north-eastward.
Makaree, eight days, east-south-east.
Ongornoo, fourteen days, east by south.
Zegzeg, fifteen days, south-west.
Zakari, eight days, westerly.
Waday, sixteen days, easterly.
Bahr el Ghazal (south part), ten days, east-north-east.
Kashna, sixteen days, west.
Morzouk, forty days, north.
At Kattagum, a river called Nil by the natives flows across the road from Bornou to Kashna to the north-east. It is of great magnitude, and is passed on rafts; the water is sweet, and full of fish. It rises periodically, and sometimes overflows the country.
Ongornoo is situated within a day of Kooka, and is much frequented by traders in the spring, when a large market is held there, principally for slaves, who are brought from all the surrounding countries in security; a general armistice prevailing during the annual sale. It is subject to Bornou: the people are Mohammedans. A river flows past it to the eastward.
Bahr el Ghazal, the south part of which is about ten days east-north-east of Birnie, runs nearly north-east and south-west for a great distance. It is inhabited by Negro tribes, of whom the greater part are Kaffirs, or, at all events, not Moslems. The nearest part of it to Bornou is about ten days east-north-east. It is an immense wadey, or valley full of trees, and having many inhabitants, who are wanderers. Elephants, rhinoceroses, lions, buffaloes, and the camelopard, or giraffe, called Jimel Allah جمل الله, or God’s camel, by the Arabs, are in great numbers. The natives generally use a kind of corrupt Arabic, though one or two languages peculiar to the country are also spoken.
These people are a fine race, well made, and very active. They wear their hair, which is not woolly, long and plaited. The general dress is leather, but some go entirely naked. The cattle are in such numbers, that parts of the country appear literally covered with them. Great quantities of elephants’ teeth are procured in the woods.
All the accounts of this country agree in one material point, namely, that though called Bahr, there is no river; but that there has been one of great magnitude. Immense bones of unknown animals and fish are frequently found here in a state of petrifaction. The Arabs account for this, by saying, “They went to take them up as bones, but by a deception of Iblis they proved to be stones.” Handsome shells, Beit el Khoot, بيت الخوت or “fishes’ houses,” are often found imbedded in the earth, and retaining a fine polish. Some are so large, that the Negroes make trumpets of them. By their description of the bones and vertebræ, some of the fish must have been ten or twelve feet in length.
Battalïa, which is often called Bahr, appears by some accounts to be near Bahr el Ghazal, while others assert that it is part of it. The same accounts of its having once been a river, and of petrified bones being found in it, are generally believed.
Bornou is governed by a Sultan, who is considered very powerful; but of late years he has allowed the Sheikh of Kanem (which country is dependant) to encroach upon his authority. The Sheikh, who is a great Marāboot, never uses gold or silver in his apparel, and confines himself to four wives; but has several female slaves, who have borne him a multitude of children. He is constantly making war, under the plea of religion, against the neighbouring Kaffirs, and has enriched himself by the immense number of slaves and horses which he has taken. He lives at Kanem, in the chief town Maoo, which is fifteen days north-north-east of Birnie: his name is El Hadge el Ameen. All the traders from Fezzan carry him presents, and consider him as a far greater man than his master, who now lives in a very retired manner.
In Kanem, within one day of Maoo (the capital), is a very large river, which comes from the south-west, and runs to the north-east. It is deep, broad, and full of fish, which the natives dry in the sun, and keep in store for the rainy season; it is called by the people of the country Yaoo, but by the Moorish traders, Nil.
On Mukni’s last excursion in that direction, he made an attack on the defenceless people of Kanem, Moslem as well as Kaffir: and having first burnt their town, pursued them to the banks of the river; many were drowned in attempting to cross it; others were taken out of the water; and the women and children who had not the power of escaping, were caught on the banks; the number of captives made on that day amounting to 1800. The route of Mukni’s army on its return, was over a wide sandy desert, without water for three days. During their journey a tremendous wind arose, which blew the sand about in all directions, and continued to rage in so furious a manner during two entire days, that Mukni and his people were totally at a loss in what direction to proceed. On the second evening, however, it was resolved that a number of the captives should be sent on under a small guard; but many of these poor creatures expired by the way: the remaining few succeeded in finding a watering place. Mukni himself remained until the third morning; when the sand wind still continuing, and his impatience increasing in proportion to the delay, he gave an order that all the remaining slaves should be put to death. This cruel mandate was immediately executed in cold blood on three hundred defenceless beings, whose country he had first entered under the mask of friendship, pretending that he came only to wage war against some states which had injured them. This aggravated cruelty and treachery was therefore the more odious; and his very name, in consequence, is never mentioned by the people of that country without curses on himself and ancestors, which even little children are taught to utter as soon as they can speak. This war on Kanem set the wild tribes in motion, and a ferment arose, which, even three years after, was not appeased. The Sheikh of Kanem, whom I have already mentioned, was fortunate enough, on this dreadful occasion, to escape to Birnie, many of his family having fallen sacrifices to Mukni’s barbarity.
In Bornou there is current a small copper coin of little value, which is struck in the country. Gold is also used, but more generally as an ornament, than as an object of exchange. The people are called Believers, but a great part of them are Kaffirs. Their dresses, in the most civilized parts, are of cotton. Their arms are lances, bows, and arrows: the Sheikh and a few of the Sultan’s guards have muskets; but they are unable to make good powder. It is reported, that in Birnie are 60,000 horsemen, who have armour for themselves and horses, which are small but hardy, and are said not to run as other horses do, but to spring forward by repeated bounds: large ones are in great request, and are chiefly purchased from the Fezzan traders. Wedda, ودّه or cowrie shells, are not used as money, but as ornaments, and bands for the head. The country is very fertile, producing corn and fruits; amongst others the Tamarind, طمر الهندي, or fruit of the Indies. The woods are numerous, and the trees very large and shady: from these the boards are brought on which prayers are written, and children taught to read.
From Tegerry to Kanem is 20 days south by east; Kanem to Bornou is 15 south by west. Many of the Kafflés pass over the countries of the Tibboo, and through the desert of Bilma, from whence they enter on the borders of Bornou. As I intend speaking of these places on a future occasion, the routes I shall there mention may be taken as the nearest.