The International Auxiliary Language Esperanto: Grammar & Commentary

by George Cox

CORRELATIVE WORDS. (Korelativaj Vortoj.)

139. The 45 correlative words (see table, par. [147]) form a very important part in the construction of the Esperanto language. Their uses and meanings are very easily learnt and remembered, since they have been exceedingly cleverly devised on a simple and uniform plan. They are all to be found in the list of Primary Words given in [Part V.]

140. They consist of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs. Many of them can be applied to denote not only one word, but also expressions which require several English words to define clearly.

141. The words in the table (par. [147]) are placed in series horizontally and vertically. All the words in each of the vertical series commence with the same letter, and all in each horizontal series have the same termination. It will be seen that the letter I is the first letter in the first vertical series, and that this is a central letter in each of the other words in the table. The first letter of a word conveys an idea of its meaning, and the terminal letters following I show how that idea is applied, and consequently the full meaning of the word.

(a). The initial letters convey the following ideas:—

• I- that the word is "indefinite."
• Ĉ- that the word is "distributive" or "collective."
• K- that the word is "interrogative" or "relative."
• NEN- that the word is "negative" (nen- = ne, not, and N added for euphony).
• T- that the word is "demonstrative."

(b). The terminal letters following I denote that the idea is to be applied, in accordance with the termination, as follows:—

• -A in relation to "quality" or "the kind of" (adjectival).
• -AL in relation to "motive" or "reason for" (adverbial).
• -AM in relation to "time" (adverbial).
• -E in relation to "place" (adverbial).
• -EL in relation to "manner" (adverbial).
• -ES in relation to "possession" (pronominal).
• -O in relation to "a thing" (substantival or pronominal).
• -OM in relation to "quantity" or "number of" (adverbial).
• -U in relation to "person" or "thing specified". (pronominal or adjectival).

142. The correlative words are all complete in themselves, but some of them can be used as root-words, taking grammatical terminations when required by the sense to be conveyed. Those ending in the vowels A, E, O, U, must not necessarily be presumed to be the parts of speech these letters indicate; the letters are not grammatical terminations, they simply show, as before stated, how the idea conveyed in the preceding letters is to be applied. Those ending in a vowel all take the accusative N, and those ending in A and U also take the plural J.

Theoretically it is possible for the words ending in O also to take the plural J; but in practice this is seldom useful.

143. The demonstrative pronouns, tio = that (thing), tiu = that one, the former, and sometimes ĉio, are followed by the separate word ĉi = near, to express the demonstrative pronoun, "this." Ĉi is invariable, but tio and tiu can be inflected as before stated. Thus tio = that (thing), tio ĉi = this (thing) (lit., "that here"), tion ĉi (accusative) = this (thing). Tiu = that one, the former, tiu ĉi = this one, the latter. Tiuj = those, tiuj ĉi = these (lit., "those here"). Often ĉi is placed first, as:—Ĉi tiu = this one. In fact, other things being equal, it is preferable to place ĉi before rather than after the t- word, though both forms are equally correct. Ĉio ĉi = all this.

144. The adverb, tie = there, is also followed by ĉi to denote "here." Thus tie = there, tie ĉi = here, tien (accusative) = thither, tien ĉi = hither. Occasionally ĉi is placed first, thus: ĉi tie, ĉi tien.

145. The interrogative or relative series (viz., those commencing with K) may be followed by the word ajn = ever, as kia ajn = whatever kind of, kial ajn = for whatever reason, kiam ajn = whenever, kie ajn = wherever, kiel ajn = however, kies ajn = whosesoever, kio ajn = whatever, kiom ajn = however much, whatever quantity, kiu ajn = whoever, whichever.

Some writers use ajn after other correlatives, but Dr. Zamenhof himself has rarely used it except after the series kia, kial, etc. However, he does not say it is wrong to extend its use, for when asked the question whether it could be employed after the series ia, ial, etc., he replied that it could, because, in Esperanto, any word could be combined with any other. See par. [158] (c) (d).

146. Grammatical terminations and suffixes may be added to the correlatives if required, thus making them nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, etc.,

as shown in the following examples. The hyphens are given to show the construction of the words, but should not be used in writing.

Ĉiam-a = Everlasting, continual. Ĉiam-e = Everlastingly, forever. Ĉie-a = Of everywhere. Ĉi-tie-a (ĉi tiea) = Of here. Tie-a = Of there. Ĉi-tie-ulo (ĉi tieulo) = A man of this place. Tie-ulo = A man of that place. Kiom-a = Of what quantity. Kioma horo estas? = What time is it? Neni-igi = To reduce to nothing, to destroy completely. Neni-iĝi = To become nothing, to vanish. Tiam-a = Of then, of that time. Tiam-ulo = A man of that time, a contemporary. La kial-o = The why and wherefore, the reason (cause). Tiel-e = In that way.

147. TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS.

	Indefinite.	Distributive, General or Collective.	Interrogative and Relative.	Negative.	Demonstrative.
Quality Kind of (adjectival)	IA some (any) kind or sort of some (any) of some kind	ĈIA every kind of every of every kind	KIA what kind of? of what kind? what a! ... as	NENIA no kind of no, no such of no kind (not any kind of)	TIA that kind of such a of that kind
Motive Reason for (adverbial)	IAL for some (any) reason or cause	ĈIAL for every reason/cause for all reasons	KIAL for what reason/cause why? wherefore	NENIAL for no reason/cause	TIAL for that reason/cause therefore
Time (adverbial)	IAM at some (any) time ever once	ĈIAM always every time for all time ever	KIAM at what time? when	NENIAM at no time never	TIAM at that time then
Place (adverbial)	IE in some (any) place somewhere (anywhere)	ĈIE in every place everywhere	KIE in what place where	NENIE in no place nowhere (not anywhere)	TIE in that place there yonder
Manner (adverbial)	IEL in some manner/way somehow (anyhow) (in any manner)	ĈIEL (in) every manner/way (in) every way all ways	KIEL in what manner/way how? ... as like	NENIEL in no manner/way nohow by no means not at all	TIEL in that manner/way thus, so, like (that) as ... in such a manner
Possession (pronominal)	IES somebody’s (someone’s) (anyone’s)	ĈIES everybody’s everyone’s each one’s of each, of all	KIES whose of which	NENIES no one’s nobody’s of none	TIES that one’s of that of those
Thing (not specified) (substantival or pronominal)	IO something (anything)	ĈIO everything all things all	KIO what (thing) which	NENIO nothing not anything	TIO that (thing)
Quantity (adverbial)	IOM some quantity somewhat rather, some a little, at all (any)	ĈIOM every quantity all, the whole all of it	KIOM what quantity how much how many	NENIOM no quantity none none at all	TIOM that quantity so much/many as much/many
Individuality Person or thing (pronominal or adjectival)	IU some one (anyone)	ĈIU each one, each everybody ĉiuj=all, all the ...	KIU which one who, he who which, that	NENIU no one nobody	TIU that one the former

Examples of the Use of Correlative Words.

148. In the following examples (pars. 149–157) we have taken the correlative words in the table in the nine horizontal series, since in this way we can best show how some of the words are used in pairs.

149. Series ending in A (quality, kind of), adjectival.

• Ia = some sort of, some, a, an.
• Ĉia = every (each) kind of, every sort of.
• Kia = what a! what kind of? of what kind, ... as.
• Nenia = no, no such, no kind of, of no kind, not any kind of.
• Ia ajn, of any kind (whatever).
• Tia = such a, that kind of, of that kind.
• Tia ... kia = such ... as.

Examples.—Ĉu vi ne havas ian libron, kiu klarigos tion? = Have you not some book which will explain that?

Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari = I have some (or, an) idea how to do it.

Ekster ĉia dubo = Beyond any (every sort of) doubt.

Tiaj frazoj troviĝas en ĉiaj libroj = Such (kind of) phrases are found in all kinds (sorts) of (or, in any) books.

Ni ne scias, kiel ili fariĝis tiaj, kiaj ili estas = We do not know how they became what (such as) they are.

Nenia antaŭa sperto estas necesa = No (kind of) previous experience is necessary.

Tian virinon oni ĉiam estimas = Such a woman one always esteems.

Mi donis al li la libron tian, kia ĝi estas = I gave him the book such as it was.

Kiun aĝon li havas? = How old is he? (what age has he?)

Kia estas la vetero? = How (what kind) is the weather?

Komencante de (k)ia ajn momento = Commencing at any (whatever) moment.

Kia bela domo! = What a beautiful house!

Kiaj estas la kondiĉoj? = What are the stipulations (or terms)?

Ili estas fieraj, ni ne estas tiaj = They are proud, we are not so.

Ŝi eksentis ion tian, kion ŝi mem komence ne povis kompreni = She began to feel something such as she herself at first could not understand.

Mi ĵus eksciis iajn aferojn, kiuj ne plaĉas al mi = I have just learnt some things that do not please me (that I do not like).

Jen estas la monumento tia, kian oni priskribis = Here is the monument such as they described.

Via aĝo estas tia sama, kiel tiu de via frato = Your age is the same as your brother’s.

N.B.—Do not confuse the series ending in A with that ending in U.

Examples.—Kian libron vi bezonas? = What (sort of) book do you want? Kiun libron vi bezonas? = What (or which) book do you want? Tia homo = Such a man, that sort of man. Tiu homo = That man. Ĉiaj libroj = All (kinds of) books. Ĉiuj libroj = All (or, all the) books. Mi ĝin prenos, kia ajn ĝi estas = I shall take it whatever (sort of thing) it is.

150. Series ending in AL (motive, reason for), adverbial.

• Ial = for some reason or cause (for any reason)
• Ĉial = for all reasons, for every reason, for every cause.
• Ial ajn, for any reason (whatever).
• Kial = why? wherefore, for what reason.
• Nenial = for no reason, or cause.
• Tial = therefore, for that reason.

Examples.—Ial li subite forlasis Londonon = For some reason he suddenly left London.

Ĉial tio estas la plej bona = For every reason that is the best.

Kial vi ne respondis? = Why did you not answer?

Li nenial ĉesis skribi al mi = He for no reason ceased writing to me.

Ŝi neniam volis sekvi mian konsilon, tial mi forlasis ŝin = She never would follow my advice, therefore I forsook her.

Mi ne povas imagi kial ajn li ĝin faris = I cannot imagine why ever he did it.

151. Series ending in AM (time), adverbial.

• Iam = ever, at some time (any time), once, one day, once upon a time.
• Ĉiam = always, for all time, ever, at every time.
• Kiam = when, at what time, as (relating to time).
• Neniam = never, at no time.
• Tiam = then, at that time.

Examples.—Se iam mi venos = If ever I come (shall come).

Ĉiam skribu legeble = Always write legibly.

En tiaj okazoj ĉiam mankas io = On such occasions something is always wanting.

Kiam vi skribis tiel? = When did you write like that (thus)?

Kiam la pastro venos, diru al li la veron = When the priest comes (shall come), tell him the truth.

Tiam, kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa, or, Kiam mi estis riĉa, tiam mi ne estis feliĉa = At that time when (or, when) I was rich I was not happy, or, When I was rich then I was not happy, or the sentence might be simply Kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa = When I was rich I was not happy.

Mi neniam skribas longajn leterojn = I never write long letters.

Mi neniam aŭdis tion = I never heard that.

Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos = Send him to me whenever he comes.

Kiam ajn li venos? = Whenever will he come?

N.B.—Kiam is used after tiam, and any word denoting "time" except antaŭ = before, when ol is generally used, though kiam is used occasionally after antaŭ also (see par. [259 (3)]).

Examples.—Unutage, kiam = One day, when. Iun tagon, kiam = On a day, when. Tuj kiam = As soon as, immediately when. Samtempe, kiam = At the same time, when. De l’ tempo kiam = From the time when, since. Post kiam = After. Antaŭ ol li venis = Before he came.

152. Series ending in E (place), adverbial.

• Ie = somewhere (anywhere), in some (any) place.
• Ĉie = everywhere, in every place, in all places.
• Ie ajn, anywhere (whatever).
• Kie = where, in what place, in which place.
• Tie = there, yonder, in that place. Ĉi tie or tie ĉi = here, in this place.

Examples.—Mi ne povis trovi mian libron ie en la ĉambro = I could not find my book anywhere in the room.

Ĉu vi metis ĝin ien? = Did you put it anywhere (somewhere)?

Ĉie mi trovis amikojn = Everywhere I found friends.

Tion oni povas aĉeti ĉie = That can be bought (one can buy) anywhere (everywhere).

Kien vi iras? = Where are you going?

Mi iras nenien = I am going nowhere.

Kie estas la poŝtoficejo? = Where is the post office?

Ĝi estas tie, kie staras tiu domo = It is there where that house stands.

Kien vi iras? = Whither are you going?

Mi iras tien = I am going thither.

Ĉu vi estas ĉi tie? = Are you here?

Li venas ĉi tien = He is coming here.

Kie ajn li estas? = Wherever is he?

Kie ajn li estas, li ne estas tie ĉi = Wherever he is, he is not here.

153. Series in EL (manner), adverbial.

• Iel—somehow (anyhow), in some way, in some manner.
• Iel ajn, in any way (whatever).
• Ĉiel = in every way, in every manner, in all ways.
• Kiel = how, in what manner, like, ... as.
• Neniel = nohow, in no manner, not at all, by no means.
• Tiel = thus, in that manner, like (that), so, as ...
• Tiel ... kiel (in comparison) = as ... as; so ... as.

Examples.—Iel li ĉiel sukcesas = Somehow he succeeds in every way.

Mi havis nenian ideon, kiel ĝin fari = I had no idea how to do it.

Kiel vi fartas? = How do you do? or, How are you?

Ŝi neniel povis lin kompreni tiel longe, kiel li parolis la lingvon francan = She could nohow (or, not at all) understand him as long as he spoke in the French language.

Same kiel la prudento estas donita al la homo, tiel la instinkto estas donita al la besto = Just as reason has been given to man, so instinct has been given to beasts.

Kaj tiel plu (often written k.t.p.) = And so on, and so forth.

Kiel eble plej baldaŭ (k.e.p.b.) = As soon as possible.

Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi = He is as strong as you.

Kiel ajn malmulte = However little.

154. Series ending in ES (possession), pronominal; relate to thing or person, singular or plural.

• Ies = somebody’s, someone’s (anyone’s, anybody’s).
• Ĉies = everyone’s, each one’s, of each, of all.
• Kies = whose, of whom, of which.
• Nenies = no one’s, nobody’s, of none.
• Ties = that one’s, of that, of those.

Examples.—Ĉies devo estas nenies = Anybody’s (everybody’s) duty is nobody’s.

Ies perdo ne estas ĉiam ies gajno = Someone’s loss is not always somebody’s gain.

Ĉies ideo estis diversa = Everyone’s idea was different.

Kies libro estas tiu ĉi? = Whose book is this?

Kies plumon vi uzas? = Whose pen are you using?

La domo, kies tegmenton vi vidas, apartenas al mia patro = The house the roof of which you see belongs to my father.

El kies ĉiuj paŝoj, oni povas konkludi, ke ili estas lacaj = From all of whose steps we can conclude that they are tired.

Tiu libro estas tre malpura, kies ajn ĝi estas = That book is very dirty, whosesoever it is.

Ties opinio ne multe valoras = That one’s opinion is not worth much.

Mi neniam sekvas ties konsilon = I never take (follow) that one’s (his, her, their) advice.

N.B.—Be careful not to use kies for "of which," when these words do not mean possession. We cannot say La afero kies ni parolis for "The affair of which we spoke"; we must say La afero, pri kiu ni parolis.

155. Series ending in O (thing (not specified) indefinite), substantival or pronominal.

• Io = something.
• Io ajn, anything (whatever).
• Ĉio = everything, all things, all.
• Kio = what (thing), which.
• Nenio = nothing, not any thing.
• Tio = that (thing). Ĉi tio or tio ĉi = this (thing).

Examples.—Kio estas tio, kion vi skribas? = What is that (or, that which) you are writing?

Io estis sub la tablo, sed mi ne povis vidi ion tie = Something was under the table, but I could not see anything (something) there.

Li vidis ion, kion li tre amis = He saw something he liked very much.

Estas tempo por ĉio = There is a time for everything.

Ĉio (tio) ĉi montras, ke ... = All this shows that ...

Ĉio, kion mi havas, estas (la) via = All I have is yours.

Kio estas tio ĉi, kion mi vidas? = What is this that I see?

Nenio estas preta = Nothing is ready.

Mi nenion trovis = I found nothing.

Tio havas malbonan odoron, kio ajn ĝi estas = It (that) has a bad smell, whatever it is.

Li ne diris eĉ unu vorton pri ĉio tio ĉi (or, ĉio ĉi) al iu = He did not say even one word about all this to anyone.

156. Series ending in OM (quantity), adverbial.

• Iom = somewhat, some quantity, rather, a little, some.
• Ĉiom = all, all of it, the whole, every quantity.
• Kiom = how much, how many, what quantity.
• Neniom = none, none at all, no quantity.
• Tiom = so much, so many, as much, as many, that quantity.
• Tiom ... kiom = as much (many) ... as.

Examples.—La vetero estas iom pli varma = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer.

Jen estas sukero, prenu iom, sed ne ĉiom = Here is sugar, take some, but not all (the whole).

Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas? = How many horses have you?

Mi havas neniom = I have none (none at all).

Tiom pli bone = So much the better.

Tiom estas malfacile memori = So much is difficult to remember.

Donu al mi tiom da akvo, kiom da vino = Give me as much water as wine.

Kiom vi scias = As far (much) as you know.

Kiom eble = As far (much) (many) as possible.

Kiom ajn da teo tiu kesto povas enhavi, tiu ĉi povas enhavi duoble tiom = Whatever quantity (however much) of tea that chest will (can) hold, this one will hold twice as much.

157. Series ending in U (persons or specified things), pronominal or adjectival.

• Iu = someone, somebody.
• Iu ajn, anyone (whatever).
• Ĉiu = everyone, each one. Ĉiuj = all, all (of) the....
• Kiu = who, which, that, which one.
• Neniu = nobody, no one, no.
• Tiu = that (one), the former. Ĉi tiu, or tiu ĉi = this one, the latter. Tiuj, those; Ĉi tiuj, these.

Examples.—Iu estas tie = Someone is there.

Mi ne vidis iun = I did not see anyone (someone).

Ĉiu aĝo havas siajn devojn = Each age has its duties.

Ŝi legis ĉiun libron, kiun ŝi povis ricevi = She read every book she could get.

Kiu estas en la ĝardeno? = Who is in the garden?

Mi konis ĉiun viron, kiun mi renkontis = I knew every man whom I met.

Mi legis ĉiujn librojn, kiujn vi pruntis al mi = I read all the books that you lent to me.

Tiu pano estas freŝa, sed tiu ĉi estas pli freŝa = That bread is new, but this is newer.

Tiu, kiu havas la harojn nigrajn = He who has the black hair.

Neniu estis tie, tial mi vidis neniun = No one was there, therefore I saw nobody.

Tiu homo, kiu ajn li estas, ne estas malsaĝulo = That man, whoever he is, is not a fool.

Ŝi fariĝis edzino de iu bankiero, kiun ŝi konis pli bone, ol ĉiun alian = She became wife of a certain (someone, a) banker, whom she knew better than anyone (everyone) else.

Ĉiu vorto povas esti kombinata kun ĉiu alia = Any (each) word can be combined with any (each) other word.

Li pli sincere malĝojis je li, ol (k)iu ajn el liaj parencoj = He was more sincerely sorry for him, than any of his relations.

La pafilo povos en ĉiu tempo (ĉiam) esti ŝargita = The gun can be (will be able to be) loaded at any time.

Li ne permesos al (k)iu ajn tion fari = He will not allow anyone (whatever) to do that (see par. [158] (d)).

158. General Remarks.—The foregoing remarks on the correlative words show the importance of a

correct knowledge of their true meanings. Twenty or more of them will be found in nearly every page of the "Krestomatio." Note the following difference in meaning of those ending in:—

(a). -AL and -EL. It will be noticed that the series AL represent phrases in English commencing with "for," as:—"for some reason," "for every reason," etc.; whereas in the series EL the phrases commence with "in," as:—"in some way," "in every way." Bear in mind that -AL relates to motive, and -EL to manner. Note the difference of meaning in tial and tiel when followed by ke. Tial, ke = for the reason that, forasmuch as, because that. Tiel, ke = in such a manner that, so that. Some beginners seem to think that kial and kiel have no difference in meaning, which is equivalent to using "why" and "how" indiscriminately. Kial li faras tion? = Why (for what reason) is he doing that? Kiel li faras tion? = How (in what way) is he doing that?

(b). -O and -U. The series O is rarely used in the plural; it relates to things which are not mentioned by name or referred to by a personal pronoun. Examples.—Kio estas tio? = What is that? Kiu estas tiu? = Who is that? Tiu estas mia frato, kiu promenadas kun sia edzino = That is my brother who is walking with his wife. Tio estas, kion mi bezonis = That is what I wanted. Tio, kio kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas arbo = That which is growing in my garden is a tree. Tiu arbo, kiu kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas kverko = That tree, which is growing in my garden, is an oak.

Tio is sometimes used for "it," relating to both persons and things, as:—Tio (or, ĝi) estis mi, kiu lin vidis = It was I who saw him. Tio estas ponto = It (that) is a bridge.

(c). -I: "ANY" (= SOME). It will be seen from the table of Correlative Words on [pages 98, 99], that the words in the column commencing with I have as their main idea indefiniteness, corresponding to the English some (or other). Thus: Li estas ie = he is somewhere (or other). Mi manĝos ion = I shall eat something (or other). Iu faris tion = Someone (or other) did that.

In English, especially in a sentence which is negative, interrogative, or suppositional, the word any is often used in this sense instead of the word some. In such cases (as shown in brackets in the table) the i- words may be translated with any; thus: Ĉu vi manĝis ion? = Did you eat anything (something)? Mi ne manĝos ion = I shall not eat

anything. Se li estus ie en la ĉambro = If he were anywhere (somewhere) in the room. Ĉu iu faris tion? = Did anyone (someone) do that? Mi ne konas iun, kiu povus = I do not know anyone who could. Se iu faris tion = If anyone did that....

(d). "ANY" (= ANY WHATEVER). Sometimes, however, the word any is used not with the meaning of some (as in the preceding paragraph), but with the meaning any whatever. Take, for example, the questions: What will you eat for breakfast? Where shall we go? The answers might be: Oh, anything (you like, it doesn’t matter what); and Anywhere (you like). This meaning of any (any whatever) may be expressed in various ways: (1) By a k-word followed by ajn, thus: Kion ajn, Kien ajn (the words vi volas or similar words being understood). (2) By an i-word followed by ajn, thus: Ion ajn, Ien ajn. Method 1 is usually adopted by Zamenhof, but method 2 is increasingly used. (3) Sometimes a ĉ-word may be used. Thus, the sentence: Anyone could do that, may be translated: Kiu ajn (or, Iu ajn, or, Ĉiu) povus tion fari.

(e). AJN. The word ajn is used not only as shown in the preceding paragraph, but also after the k-series, to correspond to the English -ever (see par. [248] (b)). It is also occasionally used with the ĉ-series and the nen-series, thus: Mi serĉis lin ĉie ajn = I looked for him absolutely everywhere. Li estas nenie ajn = He was nowhere at all, absolutely nowhere.