Section VI.—Mechanical and Architectural Drawings.
It is not within the scope of the present work to explain and to illustrate the principles according to which mechanical drawings are executed. These must be studied in special treatises on Projection. The several methods of giving expression and embellishment to this class of drawings have, however, been fully described, and the principles upon which these methods are founded carefully explained. It now remains for us to add a few general remarks and some detailed instructions on the practical application of these principles and methods.
Before commencing the delineation of any machine, the draughtsman should make himself thoroughly acquainted with its character; that is, he should ascertain the nature of the work it is designed to perform, the means by which it performs that work, and the manner of its construction. This preliminary study is necessary to enable him to obtain a good general idea of the more important parts, which he will have to give prominence to in the drawing, and to understand the nature of the various connections between the numerous pieces of which the machine is composed. The dimensions of the several parts must be carefully taken, and when drawing from actual machinery, rough sketches should be made to serve as a guide in getting out the complete drawing. The dimensions should be clearly marked upon such sketches. As a general rule, it is best to begin with the ground line and position of main driving shafts, from which dimensions may be taken in every direction. The manner of writing the dimensions, whether upon the rough sketch or upon the complete drawing, should always be thus
for lateral, and thus
for vertical dimensions. To enable the draughtsman to take these with accuracy, he should be provided with a pair of callipers for measuring the diameters of shafts, a plumb-line for obtaining lateral distances when the objects are not in the same horizontal plane, and a two-foot rule.
The chief point to be attended to in commencing the drawing of a machine is to obtain the correct positions of the centre lines of its principal component parts, especial regard being had to the centres of motion. These centre lines have been explained in a former Section. Having laid down these lines accurately in their relative positions, separate sketches may be made on a large scale of each part of the machine, and the details of each part constructed upon each corresponding centre line in succession, until the whole machine is built up. The centre lines should be drawn in red, and the dimensions should be laid off on each side of them. It will frequently be necessary to take a careful section, to obtain sufficient information from which to draw the plan and the elevation.
With respect to the written dimensions on a drawing, it may be remarked that they cannot be too full or too numerous. Indeed, without complete written dimensions a drawing is almost useless; for though a scale may and should in all cases be attached, great labour would be required to make use of the drawing by means of the scale only. Every dimension which an engineer is likely to require to know should, therefore, be plainly written. Nor is it sufficient to give a dimension once only, as on the plan, for example, and to omit it on the elevation or on the section. It should never be necessary to refer to another drawing to find a dimension. The lettering should be clearly executed, and the direction of the lettering should be the same as that of the figuring, an example of which has been given; that is, it should read from the front or from the right-hand side of the drawing.
If a drawing is to be coloured, the lettering, and all dark lines, such as shade lines, must be left till after the colour has been applied. On all coloured drawings the draughtsman should endeavour to obtain a bright, clear tint by repeating the washes a sufficient number of times. In preparing a flat-wash the tint should be mixed up slightly darker than is required, and the solid colouring matter allowed to settle before using. The solution, being poured off without disturbing the sediment, will give a perfectly clear and pure tint. Tints for colouring perspective drawings should always be prepared in this manner. The methods of laying on flat-washes and of shading by colours have been described in former Sections. The following additional remarks on colour shading are taken from Worthen’s ‘Cyclopædia of Drawing.’
A means of adding considerably to the definiteness of a coloured mechanical drawing, and of promoting, in a remarkable degree, its effective appearance, is obtained by leaving a very narrow margin of light on the edges of all surfaces, no matter what may be the angles they form with the surfaces that join them. This should be done invariably; we do not even except those edges which happen to have shadows falling upon them. In such cases, however, this margin, instead of being left quite white, should be slightly subdued. The difficulty of achieving this effect of imparting a clear, regular, unbroken appearance to these lines of light seems very formidable, and, indeed, almost insuperable. The hand of the colourist may be as steady and confident as a hand can be, and yet fail to guide the brush, at an almost inappreciable distance from a straight or a circular line, with that precision and sharpness so requisite for the production of this beautiful effect. We shall, however, explain a novel and an effective method of arriving at this most desirable result.
Suppose the object about to receive the colour to be the elevation of a long flat rod or lever, on the edge of which a line of light is to be left. Fill the drawing pen, as full as it will conveniently hold, with tint, and draw a broad line just within, but not touching, the edge of the lever exposed to the light. As it is essential to the successful accomplishment of the operation that this line of colour should not dry, even partially, before the tint on the whole side of the lever has been laid on, it will be well to draw the pen a second time very lightly along the line, so as to deposit as much tint as possible. Immediately this has been done, the brush, filled with the same tint, should be passed along so as to join the inner edge of this line of colour and the whole surface of the lever to be filled in. By this means a distinct and regular line of light is obtained without sacrifice of time. A still more expeditious way of colouring such surfaces is to draw a second line of colour along and in contact with the opposite edge of the lever or other object, and to fill in the intermediate space between the two wet lines with the brush. In this way a clear, uniform outline to the tint is obtained. The blades of the drawing pen must not be sharp, and care must be taken not to press heavily upon it, as otherwise the blades will leave their course visible—an unsightly betrayal of mechanical means to obtain such regularity in the colouring. Flat circular surfaces may be treated in the same way, by using the pen compass instead of the drawing pen. When such surfaces are large it will be judicious to colour them in halves or in quadrantal spaces, but great care must be taken to join the parts neatly. The lines of junction may be obliterated by slightly washing them, or by laying a very light tint over the whole surface, taking care in crossing the lines of junction to rub them lightly with the brush.
The line of light upon cylindrical objects may be beautifully produced by the same means. To indicate this line with perfect regularity is highly important, for if strict uniformity be not maintained throughout its length, the object will appear crooked or distorted. Having marked in pencil the position of the light, and filled the drawing pen with a just perceptible tint, draw a line of colour on one side of the line of light. Then, with the brush filled with the same tint, fill up the space unoccupied by the shade tint, within which the very light colour in the brush will disappear. The portion of the surface on the other side of the line of light being treated in the same way, the desired effect, of a stream of light, clear and mathematically regular, will be obtained. The effectiveness and expeditiousness of this method will be most noticeable on long circular rods of small diameter, where a want of accuracy is more immediately perceptible. The extreme depth of shade, as well as the line of light, may, on such rods, be marked by filling the pen with dark shade tint, and drawing it exactly over the line representing the deepest part of the shade. On either side, and joining this strip of dark colour, another, composed of lighter tint, is to be drawn. Others successively lighter should follow, until, on one side, the line of the rod is joined, and, on the other, the lightest part of the rod is nearly reached. The line of light is then to be shown, and the faint tint used at this part of the operation spread with the brush lightly over the whole of that portion of the rod situate on either side of this line, thus blending into smooth rotundity the graduated strips of tint drawn with the pen.
For the correct representation of a building, plans, sections, and elevations are required. The plan is usually a horizontal section of the building close above the ground floor. The position and the dimensions of the walls and the rooms of a house are shown by this means. As the walls are shown in section in the plan, sections of the various walls must, of course, be supplied before the plan can be drawn. It is usual to colour the section of the walls in a ground plan; but not unfrequently a dark wash of Indian ink is preferred to colour. The number of sections required will depend upon the regularity of the building; but generally it will be found that two half-sections are sufficient. These two half-sections are usually placed side by side, separated by a single line. The lines on which they are constructed must be drawn distinctly on the plan, and lettered. The section is then described as “Section” or “Half-section” on A B, &c. Usually the line of section is broken in plan, and the section is then said to be on A B, C D, one half being on A B and the other half on C D. Separate sections to larger scales are required for the details of construction, such as joints of rafters, mouldings to windows, and other parts needing distinct representation. Elevations generally represent the whole of one side of the building, and every side that differs from the rest must have its own elevation. Such elevations are termed Front, Back, and End Elevations, or North, South, East, and West Elevations. In order to show the foundations, a section of the ground is sometimes given with an elevation; in such a case the level of the ground should be shown by a distinct line. Sometimes the portions of the structure below the ground are shown by dotted lines. Such portions should not be coloured. In getting out the drawings the plan should first be drawn, then the sections, and finally the elevations. The colouring of elevations will afford the student an opportunity of applying the knowledge he may have acquired from a former Section of this work, and of displaying his artistic taste.
In the accompanying Plates will be found examples of colouring mechanical and architectural drawings. These should be studied in conjunction with the Section on colouring in the first part of this work. [Plate 22] shows a piece of marine engine carefully coloured to indicate the material of which the several parts are made, and [Plate 23] contains a piece of permanent way, consisting of wrought-iron rail and bolt, cast-iron chair and wooden sleeper and block, and an elevation of a skew bridge, accurately coloured and shaded in accordance with the principles already explained. It is not within the scope of this work to treat the subject of projection, whether orthographic, isometrical, or perspective; but we have given examples of each of these for the purpose of illustrating the remarks and instructions on colouring given in the Section referred to above. Thus [Plate 24] is a perspective drawing, such as are frequently made by architects, requiring a high degree of skill and taste on the part of the colourist. And [Plate 27] contains two isometrical views of a building. These examples are intended to serve as models of finished colouring.
The Plates relating to this Section are Nos. [22], [23], [24], and [27].