10. ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISES IN THE TESTING OF ARGUMENTS IN BOTH FORM AND MEANING.
(1a) He who wilfully takes the life of another should be electrocuted,
This sharp shooter has wilfully taken the life of another,
Hence he should be electrocuted.
In form we know this argument to be valid since it is in mood
A
A
A of the first figure. But as the conclusion does not meet with our approval, we are forced to the belief that there must be a material fallacy. Such proves to be the case. In the first instance, “Wilfully takes the life of another” is used in a personal, individual, selfish sense, whereas in the second instance the expression is used in a general, “servant-of-the-government” signification. The argument is, therefore, invalid, the fallacy being ambiguous middle.
(1b) From the viewpoint of both form and meaning test the following: “Events which are not probable happen almost every day; but what happens every day are very probable events; therefore events which are not probable are very probable.”
(2a) The planets have those attributes needed in the support of life,
Mars is a planet,
Hence Mars has those attributes needed in the support of life.
This is valid in form
A
A
A in the first figure. The major premise posits a fact which has not been proved; the argument is therefore invalid in meaning, the fallacy being that of begging the question.
(2b) “The end of a thing is its perfection; death is the end of life, therefore death is the perfection of life.”
Indicate the fallacy in the foregoing, giving reasons.
(3a) The countries of Europe abound in beggars,
France is a country in Europe,
∴ France abounds in beggars.
“The countries of Europe” in the major premise is used in a collective sense, while the same expression in the minor premise is used in a distributive sense. The argument is, therefore, invalid in meaning; fallacy of division.
(3b) State and explain the material fallacy in the following:
The states believe in the income tax principle; hence Vermont’s vote will be favorable to this.
(4a) “On general principles I believe that one is better off when he abstains from both tea and coffee; and this is the reason why I offer you a cup of hot water.”
The individual to whom the hot water was offered might have been in great need of a mild stimulant. Here, then, is an exception to the general principle and the fallacy committed is clearly that of accident.
(4b) “Books are a source both of instruction and amusement; a table of logarithms is a book; therefore it is a source both of instruction and amusement.” Jevons.
Designate with explanations the fallacy in the above argument.
(5) “Twice have I started out on Friday and both times I had tire trouble.” Fallacy of false cause.
(6) “Where do you spend your vacation, in Palestine or Rome?” Fallacy of complex question.
(7) “Of all the men of that department he seemed to be the most trustworthy, and I pride myself on my ability to judge men in this regard; but now even the police cannot find him.”
The fact that the police cannot find him has nothing to do with the argument. The fallacy is that of non sequitur.
(8) “You must not whisper in my classes.” Fallacy of accent.
(9) “I am a Progressive because I believe in progress.” Fallacy of figure of speech.
(10) “I know it is true because I found it in our text book.” Fallacy of irrelevant conclusion.