The agricultural and forest products of British West Africa

by Gerald C. Dudgeon

PART II.—THE NORTHERN TERRITORIES

Tribes.—The country which is included under the Northern Territories is inhabited by a number of tribes, now chiefly located in the northern half; the central portion being liable to inundation at certain times, and therefore almost unoccupied, and the southern being, perhaps, considered unsafe owing to the proximity to the warlike Ashantis. The more important tribes are the Mamprussis, under the king of Gambaga; the Gonjas, under the king of Kombe; the Walas, under the king of Wa; and two sections of the Dagombas, under the chiefs of Savelugu and Karaga (formerly under the king of Yendi, in German territory). The Lobis, Dagartis, Grunshis, Kussassis, and several others were dispersed by Samory and Barbetu in 1896 and 1898, and have now only nominal chiefs. (See Colonial Reports—Annual, No. 566, “Northern Territories of the Gold Coast,” 1907, p. 8.) The Moshis, whose country extended into the northern limits of the Northern Territories, were employed at one time as native levies, but since they were disbanded they have interfered with the tribes on the Gambaga-Kumassi road, in the Sapari Hills, and made trading by that route unsafe. (See Colonial Reports, loc. cit., p. 10.) Steps have been taken to expel them from the country, and it is hoped that the people living in the hills, who are said to be good agriculturists, will now come into closer contact with civilisation. The Dagombas are apparently the most industrious tribe in the country, and they seem to be numerous.

Although there does not appear to be any actual record of the invasion of the eastern part of the country by the Mohammedan rulers of the Western Sudan, they are said to have overrun the pagan countries between themselves and the region of dense forest on several occasions. In 1483 the kingdom of Mossi (Moshi) was conquered by Sonni Ali, King of Songhay, who was a native of the Eastern Sudan, and had come from Egypt. Two years later he extended his conquest through the mountain territory to the south and far into the pagan belt. Sonni Ali was followed by Askia, who again overran Mossi, in order to abolish paganism and establish the Mohammedan faith. This occurred in about the year 1500, and doubtless the people learnt to adopt the improved methods of agriculture which the conquerors had introduced into the Western Sudan from Egypt and the east. Many of the tribes have relapsed completely into paganism, but amongst others there is a mixture of Mohammedanism and paganism, which is evidence of the impression made. More recently, Samodu Almami of Ouassoulou, generally known as Samory, was driven from his kingdom in the Western Sudan by the French, and overran the Northern Territories with his Sofa troops; subduing Wa, Bole, and the whole of the western part of the country. It is, however, unlikely that agriculture was further improved by his invasion, as large tracts of country were devastated to feed his troops.

FIELD CROPS.—The soil is of a lighter and more sandy nature than that generally found in the forest region, but it is well adapted for the cultivation of many different kinds of crops, notably Guinea corn, millet, groundnuts, and cotton, while it is less satisfactory for yams. The latter are consequently of smaller size.

Cotton.—The cotton grown by the Dagombas is whiter than those found in the south, and the plants are of small stature; the species has a wide-opening pale flower, and has been grown at Labolabo from seed procured in the Northern Territories. The cotton fields are planted with regular lines of plants, and the ground appears to be exclusively used for the crop during the season. The seed is sown upon ridges which have been constructed from the high conical mounds, upon which the combined crop of millet (Pennisetum spp.) or Guinea corn and yams were grown in the previous year. Cultivation is performed by means of a short-handled hoe, and the ridges are kept clear of weeds and grass until the crop is ready. The seed-cotton is sold in the markets, and is in good demand for the manufacture of native cloths. No insect pests have been observed attacking the plants, and it is probable that if an outside demand were established for the produce a large quantity could be grown. It might be necessary to introduce a better variety than that at present cultivated, as this yields a rather coarse and short staple. If cotton from this part of the country is to become an article of export, the difficulties at present experienced in transport will first have to be overcome; indeed, this applies to all the produce capable of being grown in the country. The navigation of the Volta river and the two main branches seems to suggest a means which might be employed, for, although there are several rapids in the course from Daboya and Bole to Labolabo, only one is impassable for canoes, even in the dry season. This rapid is at Krachi where a short line has been laid for transporting loaded canoes. The cost of the hire of canoes for making the journey would probably be prohibitive, but if the British Cotton Growing Association undertook the carriage by their own canoes of the salt and stores required by the merchants who have commenced business in Yeji and Tamale, the freight on these in the journey upwards would probably be found to cover the cost of bringing cotton down-stream, and the export trade in it could be developed in this manner. The British Cotton Growing Association made an effort to act upon the suggestion made here, but discontinued their operations in July 1916, when they handed over their buildings, at Tamale, to the Government, as it was shown that under the existing conditions and with but one European representative to further its interests, cotton-growing in the Northern Territories could not hope to become a remunerative export business (Colonial Reports, Northern Territories, G.C. 1916, No. 956). The irregularity of the rainfall is a matter which must be borne in mind in any future attempts to develop the industry here, but the possibilities of providing artificial irrigation should not be overlooked, as large tracts of flat land exist near the White Volta river capable of becoming fertile under proper irrigation and drainage.

Other Field Crops.—Yams are grown as a primary crop on mounds, and three different kinds are common, probably referable to D. alata, D. sativa, and D. colocasiæfolia, the last being what is termed the water yam and the first the winged yam. Guinea corn is the most important food grain grown, but millet is sometimes planted. A red species of sorghum (S. guineensis, var. robustum) is cultivated on a small scale for use in staining leather, but is not used for food. Rice (Oryza sativa) is grown in the vicinity of the large rivers, but is said to suffer damage from elephants and hippopotami. The variety seems to be similar to the red rice grown in the Gambia and Sierra Leone. Very little maize is planted, but some is grown near Salaga. Cassava is only seen in the south near the forest boundary, and groundnuts are not plentiful, owing, perhaps, to the fact that cooking oil is obtainable from shea butter trees, which are common in a wild state. Pigeon peas are often planted round the borders of fields, and are left to yield more than one crop. This pea is identical with one of the common “Dhalls” of India (Cajanus indicus); the origin of the introduction is obscure. Small beans are grown as well as Indigofera spp. Sweet potatoes, okra, capsicum-peppers, sorrel-hibiscus (H. Sabdariffa), and the Fra-Fra potato (Plectranthus, sp., “Tumuku” of the Haussas) are also grown.

Fibre.—Plants belonging to two species of Hibiscus are used for the extraction of fibre for the preparation of cordage, the cleaned fibre being similar to jute. These plants grow, with perfectly straight stems, to eight or ten feet in height, bearing short thin branches with axillary flowers.

Tobacco.—The tobacco grown is used for smoking or the manufacture of snuff in many parts of the Northern Territories, and is prepared in a special manner. For smoking tobacco the green leaves are pressed into small gourds until a quantity of juice exudes, the mass being rolled in this until it assumes an oval form, in which it is sold in the markets before drying. For snuff it is ground up between heated stones until the requisite fineness has been obtained, and is then mixed with a small quantity of the powdered seeds of Monodora myristica. The tobacco fields are usually confined to small patches near houses, and wood ashes as well as sweepings are applied as a top dressing. This appears to be the only crop to which manure or fertiliser is given. The leaves always seem to be stripped off the stems at one operation, whereby old and immature leaves are mixed with mature.

GUMS.—Two species of Acacia (A. arabica and A. Sieberiana) are found, especially in the uninhabited tracts in the centre of the country, and the last named appears to yield a large flow of gum, which, however, is not collected. Examination of this at the Imperial Institute has shown it to be about equal in quality to inferior Sudan grades; A. arabica does not seem to yield gum with such frequency in this locality as elsewhere. Burkea africana and Pseudocedrela Kotschyi produce a quality of gum comparable with “Talh” from the Sudan. (Cf. Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute, Pt. II., Gums and Resins, pp. 153, 165-7.)

WOOD OIL.—By cutting deeply into the base of a tree known as “Neou” (Dagomba), and “Kawa” (Haussa), a rather copious flow of resinous liquid is induced, which, when solidified, is a resin somewhat similar, but inferior, to copal. The tree from which this is procured is botanically known as Daniellia thurifera, Oliv., and the so-called “oil” obtained was at one time shipped from Northern Nigeria under the name of African Balsam of Copaiba. It is used in the Northern Territories for lighting purposes, as well as medicinally. The tree yields a handsomely grained timber. (Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., 1915.)

SHEA BUTTER.—A tree known botanically as Butyrospermum Parkii bears a fruit, from the kernel of which this valuable vegetable fat is procured. The fat forms the cooking oil of the ultra-forest country, taking the place of palm oil in this respect. The mode of preparation in the Northern Territories is, doubtless, similar to that employed in Northern Nigeria. The prepared butter is one of the products carried by the Haussa traders, who visit Ashanti for the purpose of purchasing kola, and is much appreciated in Kumassi, where it obtains a high price. A small quantity is carried down the Volta river by the canoes which bring salt from Adda to Yeji and Daboya. An analysis made at the Imperial Institute of Shea butter from the Northern Territories showed that the material is in no way inferior to the better-known “Shea butter” of Northern Nigeria. Cf. Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi. (1908), p. 370.

RUBBER.—Recently some species of Landolphia were found growing in the district of Wa and elsewhere, and, upon examination, one of these proved to be L. owariensis, P. Beauv. This was at first thought to occur plentifully, and to assume the underground habits of L. Thollonii, one of the most important sources of root or rhizome rubber in the Congo. Specimens, which were found growing near the south bank of the Black Volta river, in grass land, exhibited a trailing form of growth owing to the absence of supporting trees, but, although the plants were probably dwarfed by the annual grass fires, no development of root growth was observed in excess of that ordinarily produced within the forests. The plant is now reported to occur rather rarely in the Northern Territories; another nearly allied, though useless, species having been mistaken for it.

DYES.—For dyeing the yarn made from the native cotton, indigo is made from a species of Indigofera, or from the young leaves of Lonchocarpus cyanescens, but the process of preparation employed in this country has not been carefully observed. It is, however, probably similar to that in common use in Sierra Leone, Northern Nigeria, and the Gambia.

BEESWAX.—Bees are attracted to hive in calabashes placed in trees, the honey and wax being taken from them and sold in the markets. The bee belongs to a small variety of Apis mellifera, known as var. Adansonii. A sample of beeswax obtained at Tamale was examined at the Imperial Institute, and proved to be of excellent quality and worth £6 15s. per cwt. (Dec. 1908).

LEATHER.—Tanning of sheep and goats’ skins is done to a small extent, the same process as that described for the preparation of Kano leather in Northern Nigeria being followed. The Acacia pods used for the purpose are obtained from trees often found planted in the middle of towns.

CATTLE AND POULTRY.—A large breed of cattle with a dorsal hump exists in the Salaga district, and a straight-backed smaller kind throughout the country to the north. Although “tsetse” flies of three species are common on the stream banks, the cattle seem to be healthy for the most part, and often form part of a caravan travelling to the forest belt, where a good price is said to be obtained for them from the Ashantis. They are usually killed for food very soon after entering the forest, where they can no longer be kept free from the attacks of the three species of “tsetse” (Glossina morsitans, G. palpalis, and G. pallidipes), all of which seem to attack them. Horses are bred in some parts, but not to a large extent. Wire-haired sheep and goats are seen everywhere, and can be obtained in many places at a low price.

Fowls and Guinea-fowls are reared in several villages, and are carried to the south for sale. Long open-work baskets are used, and the fowls are usually conveyed as head-loads. Guinea-fowls, purchasable for threepence each in some of the villages south of Daboya, are sold at four or five shillings each near the coast. No coops seem to be employed in the villages to confine the guinea-fowls, which habitually roost upon the house-tops and which may frequently be seen in the adjoining fields. They are scarcely distinguishable from the wild birds which occur usually in the same localities. There is, however, a marked tendency on the part of the domesticated examples to acquire white feathers upon the breast or wings to a greater or lesser extent.

It should be recorded that a considerable local trade is carried on in the country in the sale of a flour-like substance obtained from the interior of the pods of Parkia filicoidea. This is made up with the seeds of the plant into an edible paste, locally termed “Dawadawa.”

EXPORTS.—Excluding cocoa, which is treated separately in its place, the following table shows the progress of the export trade between 1910 and 1919:—

	Kola.		Copra.		Copal.
Year.	Lbs.	£	Tons.	£	Lbs.	£
1910	5,156,500	77,716	755	13,032	53,847	647
1911	5,791,931	93,099	779	13,257	80,042	1,110
1912	7,133,165	134,231	620	11,841	67,133	1,077
1913	7,024,868	144,705	629	14,292	38,205	555
1914	7,862,414	142,190	656	11,825	18,549	265
1915	8,267,100	139,163	770	12,821	28,888	405
1916	6,760,898	130,566	633	14,384	12,549	132
1917	11,985,645	239,134	735	19,916	2,306	24
1918	13,254,538	262,144	99	2,772	1,693	35
1919	16,319,972	350,249	984	30,091	13,748	174
	Rubber.		Palm Oil.		Palm Kernels.
	Lbs.	£	Galls.	£	Tons.	£
1910	3,223,265	358,876	2,044,868	161,388	14,182	185,058
1911	2,668,667	219,447	1,610,209	128,916	13,254	175,891
1912	1,990,699	168,729	1,444,432	112,885	14,628	205,365
1913	1,317,369	87,915	860,155	65,652	9,744	159,128
1914	654,133	21,631	495,763	37,646	5,633	88,671
1915	647,982	25,167	330,990	25,769	4,064	50,512
1916	2,215,973	78,865	450,360	38,299	5,857	85,899
1917	2,961,204	110,272	198,900	24,770	4,768	74,911
1918	1,391,097	57,006	670,867	83,689	8,933	152,922
1919	721,588	33,637	938,595	140,163	9,892	253,243
					Groundnuts.
	Lumber.		Cotton.		Tons.	£
	Feet.	£	Lbs.	£	1907:
1910	14,938,749	148,122	11,421	263	197	1,815
1911	13,973,396	138,821	9,701	238	not given
1912	23,573,651	228,745	20,395	506	do.
1913	37,391,848	366,094	27,497	688	do.
1914	24,587,217	240,878	23,514	588	do.
1915	9,217,622	90,661	12,016	300	do.
1916	10,334,793	93,980	17,896	447	do.
1917	7,481,468	69,128	43,870	227	do.
1918	14,680,823	137,649	20,640	212	do.
1919	10,432,250	103,238	nil.		7	210

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NIGERIA, SOUTHERN PROVINCES

Territory held by Great Britain under Mandate is hatched in Red.

Stanford’s Geogl. Estabt., London.

[(Large-size)]

NIGERIA-SOUTHERN PROVINCES

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Administrative Divisions.—On January 1, 1914, the countries, hitherto administered separately under the names of Northern and Southern Nigeria, were amalgamated and placed under a Governor-General. It is, nevertheless, convenient, from the point of view of their agricultural and commercial interests, to deal with them in this place separately. The inhabitants of the Northern and Southern Provinces are to a very large extent dissimilar in languages, religion and customs, and the climatic conditions, by which distinct varieties of life are so much influenced, are so suitably defined by the artificial boundary which, until recently, divided Northern and Southern Nigeria, that little excuse need be offered for the maintenance of old division in the discussion of the subjects within the competence of this book. Following then the plan adopted in the first edition, Southern Nigeria, referred to now as the Southern Provinces, is being first dealt with and treated, as far as possible, independently of Northern Nigeria, now entitled the Northern Provinces, the separate account of which follows.

Geographical Position.—Pending the adjustment of the eastern frontier, occasioned by the outcome of the recent war, the Southern Provinces of Nigeria extend from 2° 45′ E. to 10° 15′ E. long.: the Western Province reaching 9° 10′ N., and the Central and Eastern about 7° 15′ N. lat.

Area and Population.—The estimated area of the country before adjustment was 94,000 sq. miles, and the census of 1911 showed the population as 7,857,983.

Natural Divisions.—The Southern Provinces are conveniently divided for agricultural considerations into wet and dry zones. In the former the rainfall ranges from about 90 inches at Bendi to 250 inches at Opobo. In the latter zone the highest rainfall is reached in Lagos Town, where about 75 inches are annually registered; the lowest reading being that of 40 inches at Olokemeji. The densely forested area is practically entirely within the wet zone; this also including a tract of brackish-water forest (mangrove) and swamp. In the dry zone grass-land and open “bush,” with trees peculiar to such localities, occur, and it is in this portion of the country that most of the agricultural people are found. The inhabitants of the forested area in the wet zone give more attention to the collection of forest products, such as palm oil and rubber, and only grow sufficient grain and roots for their own consumption.

Inhabitants.—The tribes found in the Western Province are chiefly Yorubas, and among these are some of the most intelligent people in the country. In the Central Province there are a large number of tribes speaking different languages, but among these the Benis are perhaps of most importance. The Ijoas, Ibos, Aros, and many other tribes inhabit the Eastern Province, and are generally of a lower grade of civilisation than the others mentioned. The country between the northern part of the Cross river and the Niger is populated by other pagan tribes, who seem to be careful cultivators, but very little is known of them at present.

Cultivation.—The Yoruba race are industrious cultivators, and show considerably more ambition than most of the other West African peoples. The country in which they live is particularly adapted to farming, and the climatic conditions are suitable for the cultivation of cotton and fibrous plants, in addition to the various grain crops. In some parts cocoa, rubber, and kola are being cultivated, but these are not so suitable under the prevailing conditions as they would be within the wet zone—the Western Province, which these people inhabit, being entirely within the dry region.

Although farming is so extensive, continuous cultivation is not found, and the use of manure is practically unknown. The usual practice is to farm a piece of land for a few years, and to permit it then to return to a wild state for a long period. In their want of knowledge concerning the value of manure and the application of artificial irrigation, the Yoruba farmers are behind the Haussas of Northern Nigeria, but are more careful than the Nupes of the same country. The depth of the Yoruba cultivation is greater than that of the northern Haussa, and this in some measure compensates for the non-employment of manure, etc.

The people of the Central Province are generally less careful in their farming methods; the Benis often planting their grain crops in only partially cleared land. Farther to the north in the same province a better system is noticeable among the Ishans, Ifons, and the people of Agbede. During recent years, owing to the energetic efforts of the Forestry Department, the cultivation and better treatment of the indigenous rubber tree (Funtumia elastica) have been extensively adopted, especially by the people in the neighbourhood of Benin City, where the climate is well suited to the species. In addition to rubber, cocoa and kola plantations might prove successful in the same localities, but as yet no large plantations of either exist.

In the Eastern Province farming is generally of poor quality until the region of heavy rainfall is left, when extremely large areas are met with, highly cultivated, with the earth thrown up into loose mounds, often five or six feet in height, for the purpose of growing yams, maize, pepper, okra, Guinea corn, pumpkins, etc., all of which are found planted upon each mound; the yams being carefully trained to climb along fibre strings towards central poles.

Principal Crops.—The chief crops grown in the Western Province are maize, cotton, cassava, yams, sweet potatoes, groundnuts, and to a small extent Guinea corn, sugar-cane, tobacco, Colocasia yams, peppers, okra, rice, eggplant, and native beans.

Indigo is extracted from Lonchocarpus cyanescens, which occurs in a wild state, and is preserved when making clearances for farms. The Indigofera spp. are used to a smaller degree for the same purpose. (See Sierra Leone Section, p. 39; also Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1909, p. 319; 1918, p. 11; and 1919, p. 31.)

Fruits are not grown plentifully, and are generally left in an uncultivated condition. The chief kinds are pineapples, bananas, pawpaws, akee apple (Blighia sapida), oranges, and guavas. There are several fruits and spices which are collected from the forest strips, but, taken generally, the Western Province people are not great fruit eaters. On the sea coast and for a considerable distance inland, coconut plantations are common, and, near Badagry, copra is prepared from them for shipment.

The crops cultivated in the Central Province are similar to those of the Western, but yams become more, and groundnuts less prominent. Large quantities of palm oil are prepared, and rubber is collected, the labour available for farm work being thereby reduced.

The most important product of the Eastern Province is undoubtedly palm oil, but fairly large quantities of yams and maize are grown outside the forest zone and are transported by native canoes to the coast ports, in the vicinity of which there is very little cultivation.

With the exception of the oil palm, which is of general occurrence throughout the country, the Lagos silk rubber tree (Funtumia elastica) is of the most importance from a commercial standpoint. Rubber vines of the genera Landolphia and Carpodinus are also valuable wild plants, from which some of the finest rubbers are at present extracted. Copal, known as “Ogea” gum, and collected from a tree which has been determined as Cyanothyrsus oblongus (syn. ogea), is exported in varying quantity according to the market value. A fairly extensive local trade is done in “chew-sticks” in the Western Province; the sticks being cut from a tree which occurs in the grass country, and is recognised as Anogeissus leiocarpus. The ash made from the wood of the same tree is sold for use as a mordant in indigo dyeing. Camwood is a red dye-wood prepared from at least three different species of trees—Baphia nitida, Pterocarpus tinctorius, and Pterocarpus sp.—and is almost entirely used locally for staining the human skin or dyeing leather. Fibre plants do not appear to be cultivated in any part of the country, but occur to some extent in all the forested parts. Hibiscus guineensis and Dombeya buettneri are usually employed for native ropes, and the bark of Sterculia barteri is said to be prepared for the same purpose.

OIL PALM.—A description of this tree and information in connection with the principal characteristics and mode of propagation have been given in the Sierra Leone portion of this work, and it may merely be remarked that there is no difference in a general way between trees grown in the two localities. With regard to the form of fruit, however, that of Southern Nigeria is separated into several kinds, varying in the relative proportion of pericarp and kernel, and these will be referred to later.

The method of preparing palm oil varies to a large degree in the different localities. The best quality of oil is that produced in the Western Province. The oil, which on the market is classed as “Lagos fine grade,” and obtains the highest price among West African oils, is made from the fresh fruits boiled and pounded in the manner described for the Sierra Leone oil, but the extracted oil is further cleared by straining and boiling until a uniformly clear and limpid product is obtained.

STRAINING OIL FROM THE FIBROUS PULP OF THE OIL PALM, OSHOGBO.

Fig. 22, [p. 97.]

COTTON BALES, MARLBOROUGH GINNERY, IBADAN.

Fig. 23, [p. 113.]

AFARA TREE (TERMINALIA SUPERBA) AT OLOKOMEJI.

Fig. 24, [p. 118.]

An inferior quality is that made at Oshogbo and north of Ibadan generally. The fruits, after having been boiled for about three hours, have the fibrous pulp sufficiently loosened, so that the whole is easily separated from the nuts by pounding in a wooden mortar. The fibrous mass thus obtained is then put into a pit, which is filled to a depth of about eighteen inches with cold water, and the oil is expressed by women and young girls, who tread it out with their feet. After leaving the water undisturbed for a short time, the oil rises to the surface, from which it is skimmed, or it may be precipitated, by the removal of a plug placed in the side of the pit, into a vessel placed to receive it. The treading process is repeated until most of the oil is extracted. The oil is then separated from the water which it contains by boiling. The fibrous pulp is next removed, strained in baskets, and is placed upon rocks to dry in the sun, after which it is pressed into large balls, which are sold in the local markets at 1d. each. Much of this finds its way to Lagos Town, where it is sold for fuel at the rate of 8d. for 8½ lb. In this connection it may be mentioned that there appears to be no foundation for the statement which has been made to the effect that this residual pulp is exported in large quantities from Lagos for the further extraction of oil by chemical means in Europe. An illustration is given showing a girl straining fibrous pulp in an oil pit at Oshogbo ([Fig. 22]).

In the Central and Eastern Provinces “hard” oil is the commercial name applied to the kind which is generally made. At Onitsha the natives may be seen bringing in this oil, which is of such a consistency that even at an atmospheric temperature of 90° it remains in a solid wax-like condition. The earthen vessels in which such oil is conveyed to the factories, when accidentally dropped and broken, do not necessarily occasion the loss of any oil. The thickened condition is entirely due to the method of preparation, during which important chemical changes occur, which appear to be detrimental to the oil for some of its most important uses, especially that of soap manufacture, while rendering it suitable for employment for making candles. The important difference in the preparation of this oil lies in the fact that instead of the fresh fruits being used, the pericarp is separated from the nuts by means of partial decomposition, induced by burying the fruits in the ground for a period varying from three weeks to two months. The semi-decomposed pericarp is then easily removed by pounding or treading out in a canoe-shaped receptacle, after which the fibrous mass is boiled, and the liquid oil is skimmed and allowed to set in earthen jars, in which it is carried for sale to the factories.

The extraction of kernels from the nuts is one of the usual occupations of the women and children of a village, when not assisting in the preparation of oil. The nuts are spread in the sun for about a week or more until a shrinkage of the kernel occurs, which renders the nut-shell capable of being easily cracked without damage to the interior. It is said that in the Jebu district, to the north-east of Lagos, the local price paid for kernels ranges from 4d. to 4½d. for a filled tin bowl having the diameter of nine inches.

The primitive method of extracting kernels, by means of cracking the nut-shell between stones and picking out the contents, has not yet given way to the employment of the various machines which have been introduced from time to time to supersede it.

A black oil is extracted at Oshogbo by roasting the kernels in an earthen pot until black, and stirring meanwhile until the whole mass becomes covered with exuded oil. A small quantity of cold water is then sprinkled into the pot after removing it from the fire, and the contents are pounded in a mortar until an oily meal is produced. This is boiled, and, when the mixture is cool, the oil is skimmed from the surface of the water which has been added for the boiling. This oil is apparently only used locally.

The existing native social system, under which the male head of a family receives almost exclusive consideration, is opposed to native co-operation in any mechanical process, whereby a relief from labour of his numerous dependants—wives, children, and aged or infirm relatives—would be incurred at the expense of his enhanced personal labour; he being the carrier and disposer of the produce at the market. By the conveyance and sale of nuts instead of kernels, a much smaller return in value would be obtained for the same weight of material, i.e. a similar amount of personal energy. The dependants, incapable of assisting in transporting, would remain idle, unless some similar work could be found for them. Up to a short distance from the delivery point (which would determine itself) the nuts instead of the kernels would be brought in for sale, and, limited by the capabilities of the available palm-tree climbers, the family dependants would be able to prepare larger quantities of pericarp oil; but the increased accumulation of kernels would further decrease the radius from the selling centre at which the carriers would be able to work.

If the entire fruit were to be bought up for mechanical extraction of pericarp oil as well as kernels, the carrying labour would be still further enhanced, and the work of the oil-manufacturing communities would resolve itself into three operations—viz. climbing trees, chopping out fruit, and transporting—which would mean the exclusion from work of all but the strong adults, or the reduction of workers by 30 to 50 per cent. perhaps. The number of skilled palm-tree climbers is said to be decreasing in many districts, and, owing to the sparsity of the population in some localities, a very large proportion of the annual yield of fruit remains unharvested.

The investigation of the several varieties of the oil palm of the country is in progress at the Imperial Institute, and the characters of the most important are now well known, and may be compared here with the varieties from the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Gambia, and Northern Nigeria. The typical form, which, although subject to some variation, possesses certain marked characteristics, may be said to fall under the following general description:

Fruiting heads generally large. Fruit large, orange to scarlet in colour, with a variable amount of purplish black suffusion at the apex, which may extend over more than half of the fruit or may be altogether absent. Pericarp thin, kernel large with a thick shell. Names: “Ope yope” or “Ope pankora” (Yoruba), “Ok-poruk-pu” (Ibo), “Udin” (Beni), “Ak-porro-jub” (Efik), “Irök-Eyop” (Ibibio), “Abe pa” and perhaps “Abe dam” (Fanti, Gold Coast), “Tug bore” (Mendi, Sierra Leone), “Tabel-tiloli” (Timani, Sierra Leone), “Tengo” (Mandingo, Gambia), “Kabe-kalako” (Jolah, Gambia), “Neul” (Joloff, Gambia), “Qua-qua” (Haussa, N. Nigeria), “Yi-ku-niche” (Nupe, N. Nigeria). Only the typical form has as yet been observed in Sierra Leone, Gambia, and Northern Nigeria.

The other particularly important variety is that commonly referred to as the “soft-shelled” or “thin-shelled” palm fruit, which has been recorded from many localities in West Africa. The following description will include the forms contained in this group:

Fruiting heads often large. Fruits large or small, generally the latter, dark coloured. Pericarp thick, kernel rather small, with a thin shell. Names: “Ope-Arunfo” (Yoruba), “Au-su-ku” (Ibo), “Ivioronmila” (Beni), “Asoge-e-jub” (Efik), “Eduege Eyop” (Ibibio), “Abe-bobe” (Fanti, Gold Coast).

The third kind is that frequently called the “Fetish” or “King” palm nut. It is rare wherever it occurs, and is scarcely worth consideration from an economic standpoint. The tree which bears this fruit has been described under the distinct specific name of Elæis Thompsoni, Chevalier.

Fruiting heads generally small. Fruits medium-sized, red with black markings occasionally present. Pericarp moderately thick, kernel and shell medium. The nuts, which possess four eyes, are not used in the manufacture of commercial oil, but are employed in connection with the worship of the deity Ifa (Dennett). Names: “Ope Ifa” (Yoruba), “Ojuku” (Ibo), “Oged-udin” (Beni), “Affia-ko-jub” (Efik), “Efiako-Eyop” (Ibibio), “Abe-ohene” (Fanti, Gold Coast).

The above are the three most marked forms of oil palm recognisable, although other varieties are given special names by natives in different parts of the country, distinctions being frequently made between the fruit from trees which assume a tall growth and those which remain stunted. (Cf. also Bull. Imp. Inst., 1909, p. 362; and 1920, p. 223.)

As far as investigations have progressed, the advantage with regard to yield of oil as well as quality is maintained by the thin-shelled variety, the greater proportion of pericarp enabling a larger amount of pericarp oil to be expressed, while the thin kernel-covering facilitates the extraction of the kernel. Before being able to definitely state that this variety is of the greatest economic value, it is necessary that a comparison of the weight of the annual crops from all varieties should be made.

The advisability of planting any particular variety of oil palm would in the first place depend on the results obtained from the complete investigation of all; but at the present time such a project on a large scale is not likely to be practicable, as it is generally acknowledged that only a comparatively small proportion of the existing wild trees are at present utilised.

Experiments in the Kamerun, with different varieties of oil palms, seemed to indicate that the thin-shelled character was not a fixed one. In 1910 a forest officer in Nigeria was detailed to study the distribution, cultivation and preparation of the oil, of the most appreciated varieties, and a quantity of nuts of the soft-shelled “Lisombe” kind from the Kamerun were distributed for planting among the natives of the Eastern Province.

The export figures of this trade from 1910 to 1918 are tabulated below. Up to the year 1914, those of Northern were separated from those of Southern Nigeria. In this account, subsequent to that year, the two sets of figures have been taken together. A quantity of kernels is imported from Dahomey for re-export, amounting in 1910 to 21,120 tons. The figures indicate that the increase has been irregular, and, during the last few years, has been influenced by the war. In 1919 here, as in the other W. African Colonies, a differential export tax of £2 per ton was imposed, with respect to palm kernels.

Year	Palm oil in tons (280 galls. = 1 ton)	Palm kernels in tons
1910	76,850	172,998
1911	79,337	176,390
1912	76,994	184,624
1913	83,088	174,718
1914	72,531	162,452
1915	72,994	153,319
1916	67,422	161,439
1917	74,619	185,998
1918	86,425	205,167
1919	100,967	216,913

It is interesting to compare the amount of oil produced in proportion to kernels collected, there being a marked difference in this respect between the output of the Western Province (Lagos) and the Central and Eastern Provinces. A previous series of thirteen years’ exports from the former showed an average of 60·9 gallons of oil to the ton of kernels; while for the latter a twelve-year period at the same time gave 219·6 gallons of oil to the ton of kernels. The mean for the whole was 140·25 gallons at that time, but during the last seven years it has fallen to 125·7 gallons. In 1912 the first shipments of kernel oil and cake were made from factories established under European control at Opobo and Lagos, the amounts exported being 500 tons of oil and 635 tons of cake. In the following year the value of both products turned out by these factories is given as £161,000, and in 1914 as £72,000, when, without any assigned reason, both factories were closed down.

Articles on the African palm-oil industry in the Southern Provinces of Nigeria will be found in Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1909, 1911, 1912, 1913, 1914, 1915, 1919.

An interesting article appears in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xviii., No. 2 (1920), entitled “The Cultivation of the African Oil Palm, with special reference to the East Indies.” From this it appears that the tree thrives and yields very satisfactorily, especially in Sumatra; the oil content of the fruit and kernels being both high. Attention is drawn in this article to the extension of the use of palm oil in Europe as an edible fat, in addition to its present uses.

Other Oil Seeds.—Excluding the shea nut tree, which will be referred to later on, three trees have been considered of sufficient importance for their seeds to be shipped to Europe in order that their value may be determined. These are Pentaclethra macrophylla (Cutlass bean), Irvingia Barteri (African mango), and Lophira alata. Although the trials proved that the oils of all might be valuable for the manufacture of soap and candles, none of the trees occur in sufficient profusion to permit a large export trade in the seeds being established. (See Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. v. [1907], pp. 10-14, and vol. vi. [1908], pp. 243, 354-80.)

RUBBER.—Following the progress made by the Forestry Department in re-establishing the indigenous rubber tree (Funtumia elastica) in places from which it had almost disappeared, an excellent system of communal plantations was established. This system, which has been largely adopted by the chiefs, is one to encourage the village inhabitants to re-establish rubber trees in their proximity; the planting and tapping and preparation of the rubber being under the direction of the Government officers. The resulting rubber is marketed by the Government, who retain one-third of the sale price to cover the cost of supervision, etc.; the remaining two-thirds being paid to the village community. In this manner a large number of communal plantations have now been established. In 1911 over 400 new plantations of this kind were made; about 100,000 Funtumia plants being put in. At the same time 129,000 Para rubber seeds and some 4,000 seedlings were distributed under the same scheme, while Ceara plantations were made in the drier parts of the country. Licences to collect wild rubber were simultaneously made compulsory.

The rubber produced on the Government plantation at Mamu Forest, by the boiling method, proved very satisfactory. In 1910 such rubber was sold at 6s. 6d. per lb., being only 6d. less than the best Para fetched at the same time. Three hundred communal plantations yielded rubber in 1911 against eighty-four in the previous year, the average yield per tree being 1·59 oz. against 1·406 oz. In 1912 communal rubber amounted to 3,031 lbs., which sold at about 3s. 4d. per lb.; and in the same year Government plantation rubber was 3,501 lbs., which realised 3s. 10d. per lb.

The next rubber plant of importance is the vine, Landolphia owariensis, which is somewhat variable in the form of growth. The latex at certain seasons coagulates almost instantaneously, but at other times it runs freely, and can be collected for coagulation by heat, the admixture of acid, alkali or alcohol, or by spontaneous exposure. The scrap rubber, which is collected from that coagulated upon the stem, is made into balls, and comes into the market under the name of “first Niggers,” and commands a high price.

The native has discovered that a larger amount of rubber can be obtained at one time if the roots and stems are cut and pounded up. The result is a product known as “root rubber,” the collection of which can be justified only where the plant, from which it is obtained, develops an extensive rhizome or subterranean growth, capable of being partially removed without killing the plant. Such vines, although found in some other parts of Africa, do not occur in Southern Nigeria, and the collection of so-called “root rubber” from L. owariensis only leads to the complete destruction of the plant, and should be discouraged. The small yield of latex from this species after many years of growth, and the difficulties in connection with the collection of the rubber, render its cultivation in plantations unprofitable, although planting has been attempted in the French and German Colonies.

Clitandra elastica is another vine said to yield a copious supply of latex, capable of being coagulated by means of heating after dilution with water. In appearance the vine is somewhat similar to L. owariensis, but does not appear to be common. The rubber produced from this species is reported to be of excellent quality.

Carpodinus hirsutus, a common vine in the dry zone and on the Niger river banks, furnishes a plentiful supply of latex of inferior quality, and is made into “root” and “paste” rubber by boiling; the latter being a sticky product of the consistency of birdlime, and only saleable in Europe at a low price.

The latices of Landolphia Thompsonii and L. senegalensis are used similarly. Both species are nearly allied to L. florida, which is prepared elsewhere.

A number of latex-yielding plants are employed in the adulteration of good rubber, among which the following may be mentioned as the commonest: Funtumia africana, Conopharyngia sp., Alstonia congoensis, and Holarrhena Wulfsburgii. The admixture of these is usually detected by the stickiness which they impart to good rubber.

The introduction of licences for permission to collect wild rubber and that of the communal plantation system, previously referred to, have rendered the position more secure than previously, and insured the preservation of the wild plants which were threatened with extinction. This has moreover been effected in the most economical manner.

The results of the tappings on the Para rubber plantations in different parts of the country are of interest. In 1911 at Ebute Metta, trees eighteen years old yielded 3 lbs. 5½ oz. per tree; at Calabar six year old trees gave an average of 6 oz. per tree; while at Sapele in the same year, five year old trees yielded from 14 oz. to 1 lb. 6½ oz. per tree. In the following year the same trees at Ebute Metta gave 7 lbs. 4¾ oz., while those at Sapele yielded from 1 lb. 4¾ oz. to 1 lb. 11¾ oz. In 1915 from two Para rubber estates at Sapele 94,413 lbs. of dry rubber was harvested. (Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., 1910, 1912, 1913, 1918.)

Export of Rubber.—The Commercial Intelligence Officer of Southern Nigeria, in his report on the trade of the country for 1907, gives a table showing the rubber exported from Southern Nigerian ports from 1900 to 1907; but as these figures include large quantities of the product from Northern Nigeria, shipped through Southern Nigerian ports, they do not represent the output from the latter country alone. Until 1907 apparently no record of the Northern Nigerian rubber exported was kept, but in the year mentioned 1,187,588 lbs., valued at £91,074, were recorded as having passed the customs post of Northern Nigeria at Ida, on the Niger. The amounts, in tons, exported from the Southern Provinces alone were: 1907, 690; 1908, 545; 1909, 620; and from the whole of Nigeria from that time: 1910, 1,180; 1911, 966; 1912, 705; 1913, 510; 1914, no figures; 1915, 248; 1916, 396; 1917, 392; 1918, 157; 1919, 398. The rubber production of the country is to some extent controlled by the market price, which is at present very low (1921).

COPAL.—Some quantity of a kind of copal resin is collected from Cyanothyrsus oblongus (syn. C. ogea), and is exported under the name of “Ogea gum.” The quality appears to be similar to that obtained from the Gold Coast Cyanothyrsus sp., and which is sold under the name of “Accra copal.” Both are obtained in a fresh and a fossil state. Owing to the recent fall in the price of ogea gum, the collection of it has diminished, but there are said to be large quantities available which would be collected as soon as a better demand occurred. (See articles on “Copal Resins from British West Africa,” Bull. Imp. Inst., 1908, p. 245; and 1914, p. 218.)

COCOA.—The good fortune which has recently attended the planters in West Africa, owing to a sudden demand for their cocoa, has encouraged them, especially to the north and north-east of Lagos, to make more extensive plantations. The climatic conditions in the Western Province, however, are not favourable, and the repeated failures of trees, due to the exhausting effect of the long dry seasons, give the plantations an irregular appearance. The trees in the plantations made at Agege, where many well-to-do planters have made farms, are stunted, and planted in too close proximity, mostly without permanent shade trees. In some instances the trees showed disease from the sapping of the bark juices occasioned by a Capsid, the species of which is as yet undetermined. The chief cause of their sterility and death seems, however, to be the unfavourable climatic conditions. In the direction of the Abeokuta-Ibadan boundary, better planting seems to have been done and permanent shade trees preserved.

It is said that the Agege planters are dissatisfied with the prices they obtain for their cocoa, which they maintain is properly fermented and of better quality than that of their neighbours. An association of the local planters was recently formed to ship their own produce direct to the European markets. The Agege cocoa generally, however, does not appear to be more carefully prepared or of better quality than the other local kinds. Fermentation is certainly practised in many places, and is becoming popular throughout the Western Province, owing to the discovery that the fermented pulp juice forms a beverage, which is said to be used as a substitute for palm wine, but the beans are frequently improperly dried.

In the Eastern Province the climatic conditions appear to be more favourable for the plant, and there are now a number of small plantations near Eket, Old Calabar, and Itu. The product is still improperly prepared and usually unfermented, but time and experience will remedy this.

In the Central Province from 1915 some activity in cocoa planting has occurred in the Benin district, but attention there is still mainly devoted to rubber planting.

See also Bull. Imp. Inst., 1914, p. 213; 1915, p. 553; and 1919, p. 289.

The exports of cocoa have been as follows:

Year	Lagos (W. Province)		S. Nigeria (C. & E. Provs.)
	lbs.	value £	lbs.	value £
1890	13,657	322		No record
1891	15,254	332		„
1892	15,820	390		„
1893	18,027	488	46,977		655
1894	39,177	929	58,180		992
1895	48,187	832			1,520
1896	27,968	442	109,399		1,532
1897	101,186	1,528	101,214		1,393
1898	76,965	1,579	120,633		1,459
1899	157,708	3,411	142,235		2,548
1900	256,234	5,913	196,455		2,710
1901	229,952	5,042	230,726		3,139
1902	385,540	7,530	302,305		3,677
1903	341,461	6,705	288,614		3,653
1904	821,732	13,892	367,728		4,982
1905	896,350	10,889	388,479		6,019
1906	1,153,439	20,893	466,548		6,161
1907	Combined		2,089,225		47,840
1908	„		3,060,609		50,587
1909	„		5,019,417		71,917
1910	„		6,567,181		101,150
1911	„		9,858,774		164,664
1912	„		7,593,711		130,542
1913	„		8,111,920		157,480
1914	„		5,000	tons app.	171,751
1915	„		9,105	„	313,946
1916	„		8,956	„	393,101
1917	„		15,442	„	499,009
1918	„		10,219	„	235,870
1919	„		25,711	„	1,067,675

COTTON.—Reviewing the work which has been done in inducing the agricultural population of the country to cultivate cotton for export, by far the greatest prominence must be given to the untiring efforts of the British Cotton Growing Association, who are gradually surmounting all the obstacles which retarded their progress. The condition of the industry, especially in the Western Province, is extremely favourable, and shows signs of further development.

In every Yoruba market sales of cotton are now conducted as a part of the regular transactions of the day, and cotton from distant villages filters through from market to market, increasing in value as it approaches a ginnery, where the full price for it may be ultimately claimed by the trader who has collected it.

On account of this system of passing from one market to another, chiefly in the form of barter for other produce, it becomes nearly impossible to accurately determine the origin of the supplies brought to the ginneries; and, by reference to the records kept, very large quantities of cotton often appear as having been sent from towns which are little more than accumulating centres, and in the vicinity of which there is little or no cotton grown.

Experience in the plantation of cotton under European control has shown that without combining the work of a general trader, farmer, and ginner with that of grower, such an attempt is not likely to prove remunerative. The British Cotton Growing Association have abandoned development upon these lines, directing their attention solely towards buying, ginning and inducing the native farmers to cultivate the plant in their ordinary field rotations. Such plantations as still exist are now under the direct control of the Government and are maintained for the purpose of experimental work and for the propagation of improved types.

The local varieties of cotton may be roughly classed under five heads, which are easily recognisable by the characters of the seed and lint. These are:

1. Black, clean-seeded with a brown tuft or brown woolly and a brick-red lint.—“Eponkon.”

2. Black, clean-seeded, with a creamy white lint.—Common Western Province kind; rarer in the Central Province (Ishan).

3. Black, adhering seeds, “kidney” kind, lint creamy.—Common Central Province.

4. White or brownish woolly seeded, lint creamy.—Meko and Agbede kinds.

5. Green woolly seeded, lint creamy.—Rather uncommon except at Agege.

The characters of the above classes do not appear to be sufficiently constant to render it easy to give each class a specific position, although some of them are doubtless separable. All native forms of plant are constantly of greater stature than American, and in this particular resemble Egyptian kinds.

The red-linted form known as “Eponkon” is identical with the “Dhoole” of Sierra Leone, and, although prolific, yields a cotton which is of little value for export. The other four kinds are those from which the Southern Nigerian output of exported cotton is almost wholly obtained, and the price realised varies from ½d. under to 1d. or more over Middling American. The finest cottons are those grown at Agege and Meko; the former being supposed to be a hybrid with an American variety, and the latter a constant local variety. Some of the shipments, from Illushi, of cotton grown near Agbede appear to have been of equally desirable quality.

A large number of specimens of cotton have been examined at the Imperial Institute, and the length of fibre is generally found to be over one inch in average, but the colour is yellowish, and there is less lustre than is found in the American kinds. Although the price obtained is often somewhat higher than that of the standard Middling American grade, Manchester spinners do not regard West African cotton as quite suitable for their ordinary requirements, and it appears that the higher prices have only been paid for small quantities which were capable of being used for special purposes.

For the reason mentioned, efforts have been made to replace the indigenous cottons by American kinds, or to hybridise the two, but the results have not yet been successful, the tendency being to produce an irregular mixed lint, which is commercially inferior. American and Egyptian cottons seem to be less capable of withstanding the attacks of the local insect pests, and a large proportion of the seed is rendered sterile by the cotton seed bug. Grown experimentally on a small scale at Olokemeji, the following results were obtained from several exotic and local cottons (American Middling at 6·64d. per lb.):—

Variety		Yield per A.	lbs. Lint %	Staple average	Value
1.	Black Rattler	82·5	36·36	1·3 in.	6⅝—6¾d.
2.	Richmond	140	28·5	1·1 „	6⅝-6¾d.
3.	Eponkon	525	24·7	1·2 „	no demand
4.	Abassi	210	31	1·5 „	7⅛d.
5.	Ashmouni	300	33·3	1·3 „	6¾d.
6.	Jannovitch	120	33·3	1·0 „	6⅝-6¾d.
7.	Kidney	340	41	1·2 „	6¾d.
8.	Georgia	150	36·6	1·1 „	6⅝-6¾d.
9.	Ogudu	490	28·5	1·5 „	7d.
10.	Sea Island	60	33·3	1·4 „	6¾d.
11.	Allen’s Improved	195	30·7	1·6 „	7⅛d.
12.	Culpepper B. Boll.	150	33·3	1·2 „	6⅝-6¾d.
13.	Jannovitch	240	33·3	1·5 „	7d.
14.	Peruvian	400	17·5	1·2 „	6-6¾d.
15.	Abassi	320	34·4	1·4 „	7½d.
16.	Jones’ improved	82·5	36·36	1·4 „	6d.
17.	Russell’s B.B.	Crop entire failure
18.	Hawkins’ Extra Prolific	„ „ „
19.	Sunflower Box Staple	„ „ „

Of the above Nos. 1, 2, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, and 19 are American varieties, and were grown from seed supplied by the British Cotton Growing Association; Nos. 4, 5, 6, 13 and 15 are Egyptian; No. 9 is a Northern Nigerian variety from North Ilorin, and Nos. 3 and 7 appear to be local kinds. These cottons are referred to in Professor Dunstan’s Report (1907), “British Cotton Cultivation.”

In addition to the susceptibility of the American varieties to the attacks of the local insect pests, the seed produced from plants grown in the country is often sterile. In the districts in the vicinity of the British Cotton Growing Association’s ginneries American and native cottons are often seen growing in the same field, but as the time of reaching maturity differs in the various forms, and the cotton is not easily kept separate in the native methods of harvesting, a mixed crop is obtained. Experimenting at the Moor Plantation at Ibadan, the British Cotton Growing Association have obtained occasionally satisfactory results from the American plots, as appeared to be the case in the 1908-9 season, when an American “Upland” variety is said to have yielded 800 lbs. of seed cotton per acre. In the previous year an indigenous variety called “Meko” is recorded as having produced over 900 lbs. to the acre. These results are largely dependent upon the season and the time of sowing.

Artificial pollination of the female flowers of the local forms with pollen taken from American kinds has not yet succeeded in producing a permanent hybrid, although the result in the first generation has frequently shown great promise. There is no doubt that the establishment of a hybrid which would carry the lint of the best American kind and retain the hardiness and blight-resisting powers of the indigenous forms would be very desirable, but such a type could only be evolved after careful experiment and selection for a prolonged period. Such work may probably be undertaken by the Agricultural Department in the future. Until this can be scientifically taken up, the improvement of the existing forms by a more gradual means should be attempted, namely by a careful selection of seed and elimination of undesirable forms of plants in the field.

Where cotton is planted by natives, the cultivation is usually carefully carried out. Planting takes place in June, July, or August, and the crop is harvested from January until April. For the most part cotton is grown by the Yorubas as a separate crop, although occasionally it may be found in conjunction with maize. No manuring is carried on, but the crops are generally fair, except in the proximity of the Niger, for an unexplained reason. No estimate can be made of the yield per acre from native cotton fields, but from 60 to 80 bolls are frequently found upon a single plant.

Before passing to other matters in connection with the condition of the cotton plant in the country, and the appliances in use for the preparation of the lint for export, it seems advisable to emphasise the main points which require attention in the field. 1. Improvement of the indigenous forms, by the careful selection of seed at the ginneries, for distribution, and the subsequent elimination of undesirable types of plant in the field. 2. Demonstration to the native farmer of a useful method of combination of cotton with the existing field crops, and especially the advantage of introducing leguminous crops into the rotation with cotton. 3. Special efforts to be made in those countries outside the oil palm districts, where the natives have little else capable of being produced for barter for imported material. Alter a series of experimental trials it was decided in 1915 to encourage the planting of Georgia cotton in the Western Province. In the year mentioned this American variety had yielded 800 lbs. of seed cotton per acre at Ibadan.

A number of insect pests of a more or less serious nature attack the plant at different periods of growth. The American boll-worm (Chloridea obsoleta) does some damage annually in the Central Province (Ugboha, Agbede and Ishan); Earias insulana, F., the Egyptian boll-worm; E. imbricata, an allied species, and Diparopsis castanea Hamp., the Sudan boll-worm, are common at Ibadan. The immature boll is often punctured by a scarlet and brown bug, identified as Dysdercus superstitiosus, Fabr., which enters the opened bolls also, and exudes a yellowish liquid, which stains the lint. The opened boll is also infested with three species of cotton-seed bugs—Oxycarenus hyalinipennis, O. gossipinus, and O. Dudgeoni—which do a large amount of damage in sapping the juices from the seed and rendering it unproductive. The most satisfactory method of dispersing this insect is to place the seed-cotton in a hot sun for several hours. Both Oxycarenus and Dysdercus may be trapped by placing piles of seed in the field at intervals, and treating them with kerosene when the insects have collected on them. A small caterpillar belonging to the family Gelechiadæ[4] is often found in the boll feeding on the seed, and a leaf-blistering blight, probably Chlorita flavescens, appears to be common in several places. A malady, chiefly on stems of exotic cottons, and known as “black-arm” in Georgia, U.S.A., is seen occasionally. The affection is not attributed to any animal or vegetable parasite.

The ginneries erected by the British Cotton Growing Association are probably some of the best equipped in the world. The Marlborough Ginnery at Ibadan ([Fig. 23]) has at present the largest output, although the Jones Ginnery at Oshogbo is larger, and is expected to receive a greater quantity of cotton for treatment in the future. The third, which is working in the Western Province, is the Churchill Ginnery at Lafenwa, near Abeokuta. Smaller ginneries have been erected at Eruwa Road, Iwo, Oyo, and Agege in the Western Province, but are at present unused. In the Central Province the Illushi Ginnery on the Niger is capable of treating all the cotton of the adjoining districts. A photograph of cotton bales at Ibadan is reproduced ([Fig. 23]).

At Ibadan an oil mill has been erected in connection with the Marlborough Ginnery, and the expression of oil from the seed is regularly carried on. The seed cake which is turned out is found to be of rather inferior quality for European consumption, as the excess of woolly seed renders it undesirable for cattle food. A very economical local use for this cake has recently been discovered—namely the employment of it to generate gas to drive the machinery of the ginnery. It has been found that 6 cwt. of cotton-seed cake is sufficient to generate gas to drive the 30 h.p. oil-mill engine for nine and a half hours. This discovery suggests the possibility of doing without coal entirely at the ginneries, which would mean a very large saving in the cost of production of cotton.

The cotton ginned by the British Cotton Growing Association is baled for the most part in rectangular oblong form, each bale weighing approximately 400 lbs. The production of the country has shown a rapid increase, especially in the earlier years, though more recently one of the seasons proved a short one owing to adverse climatic conditions.

	Weight cwts.		Weight cwts.		Weight cwts.
1902	110	1908	20,485	1914	no figure given
1903	2,588	1909	44,937	1915	24,081
1904	10,255	1910	22,128	1916	66,555
1905	12,275	1911	19,984	1917	47,137
1906	24,071	1912	39,043	1918	13,214
1907	36,513	1913	56,796	1919	60,221

The exports of cotton-seed in 1912 and 1913 reached 4,058 tons and 5,887 tons respectively. (“Cotton Varieties,” cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. xv. [1917]). Much is expected from this new development.

MAIZE.—In the last few years the cultivation of a short-season “white” maize has been taken up, especially among the Yorubas, in the Western Province, although the variety is also found in the fields farther to the east. (See Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vii. [1909], pp. 145-8.)

	Tons	Value £		Tons	Value £
1907	9,891	28,520	1913	11,841	40,349
1908	15,529	51,695	1914	—	5,803
1909	10,917	34,335	1915	272	941
1910	5,096	16,689	1916	981	5,064
1911	867	3,128	1917	876	4,367
1912	7,899	28,713	1918	405	3,696

A difficulty has arisen in connection with the preparation of the crop for shipment; it having been found that very large quantities arrive in Europe in a weevilly condition. Various methods have been suggested to remedy this, including disinfection with carbon bisulphide, but the use of this last is dangerous.

A restriction with regard to the time of buying the July—August crop is recommended for adoption by the merchants, in order to prevent immature, insufficiently dried corn being shipped. It is insisted, however, in some quarters, that, until the holds of ships are systematically cleaned out before loading, no amount of precaution on shore will prevent shipments becoming weevilled during the voyage. (See article on “The Cultivation and Marketing of Maize” in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi. [1908], pp. 261-77.)

Experiments were carried out in 1911, 1912 and 1913 to determine the most profitable time for sowing maize. The results were, however, conflicting, and no definite recommendation could be made owing to the irregularity of rainfall.

CASSAVA.—Among the more important field crops, cassava has to be reckoned. Two well-marked forms occur, which are readily recognised by the different characters of their leaves, one having the leaflets digitate and pointed, and the other digitate and spathulate, with the central leaflet shortened. Cassava forms an important food in many parts of the country, and is widely cultivated, especially in the Western Province. No tapioca is prepared from the root in Southern Nigeria, such as is the case in the West Indies and elsewhere.

YAMS.—In many parts of the country, more especially in the Central and Eastern Provinces, the various forms of yam (Dioscorea) are extensively cultivated alone or with maize, but the presence of five or six other crops growing upon the heightened yam mounds is not uncommon, in the Cross River districts particularly. From the latter locality quantities of yams are sent by river canoes to the large ports in the vicinity of which cultivated land is often scarce.

The Koko yam (Colocasia antiquorum) is also common in the wet zone.

GROUNDNUTS.—The cultivation of groundnuts (Arachis hypogea), upon a more extensive scale than at present, is to be recommended, as there are too few leguminous crops grown in the local rotation. The colour of most of the Southern Nigerian nuts is probably an obstacle to their ready sale in Europe; the shell being usually a dirty greyish instead of a light straw colour. The kernels are, however, satisfactory. It would, perhaps, therefore be advantageous to ship decorticated nuts, as is done in the Northern Provinces. Although new seed and instructors have been brought recently from the Gambia, very little more is grown than formerly.

The variety seen in the Western Province is a larger one than that of the Gambia, and has generally two kernels. The market price for groundnuts at Lapita near Oyo was 200 for 1d., which will indicate the scarcity of the product.

SHEA NUTS AND BUTTER.—The export trade in shea nuts (Butyrospermum Parkii) was expected to develop with the extension of the railway through Ibadan and Ilorin to the Northern Provinces, but the exported product still has its main source from localities north of the Niger. The demand does not seem sufficient to induce expansion to a great extent (Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. vi. [1908]).

The butter or fat is much appreciated in the country for culinary purposes, and has been found of value in Europe for soap and candle-making, as well as for the manufacture of vegetable butter.

KOLA.—Two species of kola (K. acuminata and K. vera) are cultivated, the latter being the indigenous Gold Coast form, the fruit of which is said to be especially valued in the Haussa countries to the north. The local native names are, respectively, “Obi abatta” and “Obi gbanja.” In general appearance the trees are similar, except that the former has narrower and smaller leaves. The “gbanja” form of nut is generally pink and divisible into from two to three parts (cotyledons), whereas the “abatta” form may vary in colour from deep crimson to white and be separable into from three to five parts. The price paid for kolas in Lagos is said to vary from 1s. 3d. to 5s. per hundred.

Although a considerable number of trees have been planted and are bearing fruit in the Western Province, the demand for kolas for native consumption is so great that there is a large import trade from the Gold Coast.

The kola nut is chewed in much the same manner as the betel nut in the East. It is greatly appreciated for its sustaining qualities, and forms a token of friendship exchanged among high-grade natives, as a preliminary to an important discussion of any kind.

FIBRE.—Experiments have been made at the Olokemeji Botanic Station with indigenous fibres, and a small factory has been erected at Ilaro, where a machine capable of extracting fibre is said to have been instituted. The reports upon some of the local Hibiscus fibres have been satisfactory. These are capable of utilisation as jute substitutes, and it may be possible to grow them in the crop rotation of the country at some future time for the purpose of export. (See Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute, No. 1 “Fibres,” pp. 38, 52, 83, 89, and 114.)

Piassava (Raphia vinifera) fibre is prepared and shipped, especially from Uwet in the Eastern Province, the export amounting to 319 tons in 1910.

LEATHER.—A small trade in leather is done among the Yorubas, and tanners may be met with chiefly in the north of the Western Province. The process employed in the preparation of the goat and sheep skins used is similar to that of Northern Nigeria. (See Report on “Leather from Lagos,” Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. iv. [1906], p. 366, and articles on “Native Leather of West Africa,” Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi. [1908], pp. 175-81 and vol. viii. [1910], pp. 402.)

TOBACCO.—Tobacco is produced near Ibadan, and large quantities are sold in the King’s market of that town. It is probable that the curing of the leaf is done completely in the sun, as the prepared material is of a rather light colour and has a mild flavour. The leaves are apparently rather mixed, and old or immature examples are frequently included in the same grade.

Experiments will be taken in hand with a view to the improvement of the quality, but at present the local demand is so great that there is little prospect of an export trade becoming established. Recent work in Nyasa-land has shown that good pipe smoking tobacco, suitable for consumption in England, can be produced in Africa.

SILK.—The preparation of a silk yarn, carded and spun from the boiled cocoons of wild silkworms, is a common occupation of some of the women of Ibadan. The identity of the insects producing the silk has been determined to be Anaphe infracta and A. venata, both of which form congregated masses of cocoons. The yarn is of a brown colour, and is woven with cotton into a cloth which is called locally “Saṉyaṉ.” It is much valued by the natives on account of its durability. The silkworms show some sign of becoming scarce owing to the utilisation of the pupæ as food. (See Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1910, p. 150; 1916, p. 168; and 1920, p. 319.)

COCONUTS.—The preparation of copra is carried on at Badagri, where a large coconut plantation exists. Great alarm was recently caused to the proprietors through the attack of a scale insect (Aspidiotus destructor), which destroyed the leaves of a very large number of trees. The advent of this pest was, however, quickly followed by the vast multiplication of the numbers of a species of large ladybird beetle, which soon checked the spread of the scale. The directions issued by the Forestry Department with regard to the means of destroying the infected leaves also assisted in the extermination of the blight.

MAHOGANY AND EBONY.—Among the valuable exported products from the country, mahogany and ebony must be regarded as occupying an important place. The largest proportion of the timbers exported to Europe and sold under the name of mahogany are obtained in the Central Province, and are cut from trees belonging to the genera Khaya, Pseudocedrela, and Entandrophragma, of the Natural Order Meliaceæ. Mr. Thompson, Conservator of Forests, remarks that a fair number of logs cut from a species of Guarea, of the same Natural Order, have been shipped, and have obtained good prices in Europe.

A red wood, called locally “Iroko” (Chlorophora excelsa), which is in good demand in the country for making furniture, etc., has been shipped to Europe, but at present there is little demand for it. A photograph of another timber tree (Terminalia superba) is given ([Fig. 24]).

Mahogany cannot be relied upon as a product capable of permanent exportation, as trees are only useful for felling in the vicinity of creeks and rivers, whence the logs may be inexpensively transported to the sea. The rate at which the available trees are becoming worked out is much greater than that at which they can be replaced by nature.

The export values for some recent years are as under:—

1910	£60,191	1915	£54,559
1911	£55,575	1916	£49,361
1912	£78,007	1917	£21,282
1913	£105,440	1918	£68,480
1914	£86,522	1919	£116,820

The ebony exported from the country is chiefly obtained in the Cross River District of the Eastern Province, but during recent years the trade in it has diminished, and it is said that immature trees are frequently felled. The sources of ebony are two species of trees belonging to the genus Diospyros. The value of ebony exported during the two years 1909 and 1910 is stated to have been £1,298 and £166 respectively.

Several other trees have recently been examined for export value, most of them coming into the mahogany or red-wood class. (See articles on “Timbers from Southern Nigeria,” Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. vi. [1908], p. 144, vol. xviii. [1920], p. 199, and note on next page.)

CATTLE.—The greater part of the moist zone is almost devoid of cattle, partly owing to the prevalence of “tsetse” fly, although mainly, perhaps, to the less advanced condition of the inhabitants. As soon as the intermediate and dry-zone country is entered, small herds are frequently seen. That the presence of tsetse fly is not entirely accountable for the scarcity of cattle in the forested region is shown by the occurrence of the peculiar dwarfed variety with short legs, which is found in Ondo, Ilesha, Ifon, Ishan, and even in the Bassa Province in Northern Nigeria, in all of which districts “tsetse” flies of at least two species are met with. (Glossina palpalis and G. pallidipes.) It is stated by the natives that the dwarf cattle are immune from fly disease, but that introduced animals succumb to it. The appearance of these animals, an illustration of one of which is given, reproduced from a photograph taken at Illara ([Fig. 25]), is remarkable. The prevailing colours are black and white, black, and more rarely fawn-coloured. There is no dorsal hump, and the forequarters are generally lower than the hind. A second illustration, from a photograph taken at Owo ([Fig. 26]), gives an idea of the relative size of a full-grown animal compared with that of a boy. Another peculiarity of the above-mentioned districts is that the goats occurring there are similarly short-legged and diminutive; there is also said to be a stunted variety of horse, which is bred for use at Ondo. When the open country is reached, two varieties of cattle are seen, one of the Indian zebu type, with a large dorsal hump, the prevailing colour of which is white, and another with a straight back. The latter kind is seen as far south as Onitsha, on the east bank of the Niger.

DWARF CATTLE, ILLARA.

Fig. 25, [p. 119.]

OWO.

Fig. 26, [p. 119.]

HAUSSA CULTIVATING IMPLEMENTS (LEFT TO RIGHT: I. FATAINYA, II. GARMA, III. SANGUMI), NORTHERN PROVINCES.

Fig. 27, [p. 125.]

POTTERY.—Earthen pots are made in several parts of the country, and are usually symmetrically formed, although no wheel is used in their preparation. The large earthen jars made at Abeokuta are used in the palm oil, native beer, and indigo industries.

FOREST RESERVES.—These are now being formed everywhere in order to replace the destruction of recent years. The irregular rainfall renders natural regeneration very poor, and artificial regeneration by means of planting by leaseholders for trees cut down has proved unsatisfactory. In 1913 some villages in the Central Province started small mahogany plantations, and trees for fuel are now being grown in several districts. The value of such trees as Afzelia africana and Triplochiton johnsoni has been recently demonstrated.

---

NIGERIA, NORTHERN PROVINCES

Territory held by Great Britain under Mandate is hatched in Red.

Stanford’s Geogl. Estabt., London.

[(Large-size)]

NIGERIA-NORTHERN PROVINCES

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS—Until 1914 the Northern Provinces of Nigeria were separately administered under the designation of Northern Nigeria, and were the largest as well as the most recent of our West African Colonies. They lie between 7° 3′ and 13° 54′ north latitude, and 2° 50′ and 14° 5′ east longitude, and are bounded on the north by the French Sudan, on the east by the Kameruns and on the west by Dahomey and French Guinea. The Southern Provinces of Nigeria almost completely adjoin the southern boundary.

The estimate of the populations and areas of the thirteen provinces given below is taken from the Colonial Office Report No. 821 for 1913:—

	Area, sq. miles.	Population.
Sokoto	32,600	1,300,000
Kano	29,500	3,500,000
Bornu	33,600	700,000
Central[5]	23,700	700,000
Zaria	13,320	402,000
Niger[5]	16,770	400,000
Kontagora	27,800	122,000
Ilorin	6,500	200,000
Muri	28,700	700,000
Nassarawa	16,710	600,000
Yola	11,600	300,000
Kabba	8,200	140,000
Bassa	6,700	205,000
	255,700	9,269,000

The total population is thus nearly double that of the estimation of 1907-8. For convenience the Northern Provinces may in places still be referred to in this work by the old title of Northern Nigeria.

As will be seen below there is less variation in the rainfall of the different provinces than is found elsewhere in West Africa. The averages of the following centres for as many years as are available until 1913 are given for comparison:—

	Av. inches.		Av. inches.
Naraguta	50·28	Knepp	40·80
Ilorin	49·75	Yola	38·64
Kontagora	47·77	Kano	33·65
Zaria	46·59	Maifoni	27·85
Baro	46·56	Sokoto	24·86
Lokoja	45·77	Kataguni	19·87
Zungeru	41·67	Geidam	15·14

Of the places mentioned the highest single year’s rainfall was reached at Ilorin when 65·18 inches fell, and the lowest at Geidam in 1913 when only 5·76 were recorded. There are localities where the rainfall exceeds the highest given here and others where it is undoubtedly much lower, but no records are available. The highest shade temperatures have been at Dumjeri and Maifoni (North Bornu), where 120° was attained, the lowest being at Kano, where it fell to 39°. In Kano and Zaria rain seldom falls between November 1 and the end of March, but the distribution is more general in the south.

Administration and Political Divisions.—The administration of Northern Nigeria was taken over by the Crown in 1900, having previously been carried on by the Royal Niger Company. Protectorates were gradually assumed, and the country placed upon a secure footing by the suppression of raiding, which had constantly been carried on by the different Emirs, chiefly upon the pagan tribes. The devastation caused by these raids is still visible in the country to the south of Kontagora and elsewhere, and the fear of the raiders kept the inhabitants within or in close proximity to their walled towns, leaving large tracts of fertile country unexploited. The work accomplished by Sir Frederick Lugard, the first High Commissioner, was largely that of pacification and reassurance of the people, and until this had been completed, and facilities for transport provided, it could not be expected that the country could make much progress from a commercial standpoint.

The further opening up of the country by means of roads and railways, and the assessment of land revenue upon lines completely understood and recognised as fair by the natives, was effected by Sir Percy Girouard, who succeeded Sir Frederick Lugard’s first administration. Sir Frederick subsequently returned as Governor-General of the amalgamated Nigeria.

Until April 1907 the country was divided into fourteen provinces, one of which, Borgu, was absorbed in Kontagora at that time, making the thirteen mentioned above. By a later reconstruction the provincial limits of the two provinces of Bauchi and Nupe were reformed, and the provinces reconstituted under the names of the Central and Niger Provinces respectively. Groups of provinces were then placed under First-class Residents. Photographs are given of Kano and Zaria ([Figs. 32] and [33]).

Natural Divisions.—There is less apparent possibility of defining limits to the natural conditions of any part of the country than is found in the countries nearer the coast. There is no afforested zone in Northern Nigeria, although fairly densely wooded tracts occur in several places near the larger rivers. It may be said that grass land studded with well-separated trees is the condition of the country throughout, the trees becoming more stunted towards the northern and desert boundaries. To the north of the 11th degree of latitude, the botanical aspect becomes different; more trees of the Mimosa group, including the gum-bearing Acacias, becoming apparent. Cattle thrive well in this region, where the “tsetse” fly has not yet been observed.

Haussa Land, a term applied to the northern parts of the country, alone among the British West African territories, may be said to have been controlled by an ordered form of government from early times, and to have had a recorded history. Unfortunately these records were destroyed, wherever possible, by the Fulani conquerors, who came from the source of the river Senegal and overran the country at the beginning of the last century, and whose object seemed to be to endeavour to eliminate from the minds of the conquered people all recollection of their previous power. In spite of strenuous efforts in this direction, a few documents have been preserved, and these, combined with traditions, which have not had time to become completely distorted, show that, in spite of severe wars, famines, and other disturbing incidents, the Haussa has maintained his characteristic traits.

The origin of the Haussa race is still a matter of uncertainty, although there is some reason to suppose that it came from the east, and gradually penetrated the Western Sudan from the north. The Haussa language, which is claimed to be more in use than any other native language in West Africa, is said, by Lady Lugard, to be classed with Coptic among the Hamitic languages.[6]

History has established the fact that there were seven divisions or states in Haussa Land, the people of which, although regarded as having come from a common stock, were almost perpetually at war with one another. The mythical account of the formation of these states relates that each had particular duties assigned to it; those of Kano and Rano, to the north of Zaria, being specially industrial. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, when the Songhay kingdom was at the summit of its power, Kano and Gober, among other Haussa towns, were specially referred to by Leo Africanus on account of their cotton trade.[7]

Everywhere along the West Coast the name Haussa is associated with the idea of trade; the itinerant nature of the race inducing individuals to visit the remote parts of the pagan countries, thus creating trade routes in all directions. The Haussa trader of the present day does not necessarily bring goods from his own country for trading, but buys in one market to sell or exchange in another. It is by this means that many European manufactured goods penetrate into localities where no European trader has yet set foot.

The Haussa is also regarded as a good soldier, and is largely enlisted in the native regiments of West Africa under European officers.

The Nupes, Yorubas, Gwaris, Yauris, and others were constantly in contact with the Haussas, and to a small extent the Haussa language is spoken by them. Nupe is regarded as an ancient kingdom, occupying at one time a position of great importance. The Yorubas, who inhabit nearly the whole of the Ilorin Province and the Western Province of Southern Nigeria, trace their origin from the Phœnicians of the tribe of Nimrod, and claim that all the pagan tribes of Haussa Land are descended from them. The Gwaris, apparently, have no records, but are a scattered race living among the rocky hills and caves in the country lying to the south of Zaria.

Bornu was not evidently included in the Songhay kingdom or associated with the Haussa states, the inhabitants belonging to a distinct race with separate traditions. Their history in comparison with that of the Haussas is of recent date. In 1808, after the successful Fulani conquests of Zaria, Zanfara, Kano, Katsena, and Bauchi, Bornu was overrun. Shortly after this a sheikh, from the country extending eastwards from Lake Tchad, believing himself to be inspired to liberate the country, raised a small army, drove out the Fulani forces, and founded the present dynasty of Bornu. Some years later he attempted to expel the Fulanis from the Bauchi Province, but failed, and was compelled to come to terms.

The Haussas as well as the Bornuese are chiefly Mohammedans, but it is only among the higher ranks of the other tribes that a semblance of that religion has been adopted.

The tribes which had migrated from the East brought with them the agricultural knowledge of the Eastern nations. Among the noticeable evidences of this may be mentioned the “shaduf,” or dipping beam, used for irrigation in Egypt, which is similarly employed near Kano and Zaria. The absence of ploughs and the non-employment of cattle are, however, difficult to account for, as excellent cattle are common and thrive well in the most populous parts of the country. Tillage of the soil is still done entirely by hand, and, in those parts where the shallowest form exists, manure is extensively used. Among the many crops grown which are common to Oriental countries, as well as Northern Nigeria, are Guinea corn, maize, cotton, groundnuts, millet, benniseed, artichokes, wheat, and rice.

Agriculture shows the greatest development in the Province of Kano, where the population is dense, especially in the vicinity of the town from which the Province takes its name. The concentration of a large population in this locality was doubtless occasioned by the protection thus obtained against local enemies; and, as the realisation of the necessity for this becomes less each year, so will the inhabitants spread out into the richer lands towards the south. At a radius of thirty miles from Kano, it may be said that every available acre of ground is cultivated. It may also be said that nearly all the cultivation is continuous, and has been so for a long period, the renovation of the soil being secured each year by manuring. The mode of cultivation in these localities is for the most part shallow, and in many places the crops grown subsist entirely upon the manure applied. The Director of Agriculture, in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. xi. (1913), p. 626, refers to the lack of fertility in the soil and to the common practice of cropping without a fallow for a number of years in succession. He also mentions, among other matters of interest, the recent expansion in cultivation of cowpeas and groundnuts; these being respectively third and fourth in order of importance among the cultivated crops.

Implements.—An illustration is given showing the method of using the three important agricultural implements employed by the Haussa cultivator ([Fig. 27]). The first of these is locally termed “Fatainya,” and is a curved-handled hoe with a blade of variable width. It is used for all operations of cultivation with the exception of turning up broad ridges and drilling. The implement shown in the centre is termed “Garma,” and is a broad, spade-like hoe, composed of an iron W-shaped frame, with several strips of iron riveted on the face, filling the interval between the arms. In the Zaria Province the iron strips are generally omitted, and the implement is called “Owya.” It is used for throwing up large spadefuls of soil in the preparation of the broad ridges which are made for nearly all kinds of crops. The last implement is the “Sangumi,” which is a thin rod with a small blade placed near one end and at right angles to it; its use is entirely for making drills for sowing seed.

All the fields for growing ordinary food crops, with the exception of cassava, rice, and sugar-cane, are prepared in ridge formation; the latter appearing to average about 8 in. high from the original surface. The furrows from which the loose soil has been removed increase the apparent height by the extent of their depth, and give the appearance of a good form of tillage having been practised. This is, however, seldom the case, as, except where irrigated crops are being treated, the ground is left untilled beneath the thrown-up soil. To compensate for the shallow state of the cultivation, manure is applied in large quantity, all animal refuse and ashes being carefully preserved, and often conveyed for long distances to the fields by men or donkeys.

The above conditions apparently apply only to the Haussa race, the pagan Gwaris and Bassas resorting to a much deeper form of cultivation and employing no manure. The Nupes and Yorubas do not know the use of manure for any crops except onions and tobacco, for both of which wood ashes are the chief substance applied.

The crops of the country may be roughly divided into rainfall, irrigated, and swamp kinds. The first are sown at the commencement of the wet season, and are greatly affected by the distribution of the rain, but include the most important sources of food. These are Guinea corn, millet, maize, groundnuts, cassava, sweet potatoes, etc. An inadequate or irregular rainy season often causes famine conditions. The irrigated crops are yams, Colocasia, onions, tobacco, peppers, rama-fibre, and wheat, the last being almost confined to the country north of the 11th degree. Cassava and sugar-cane are also frequently irrigated in the drier districts to the north. Irrigation is performed in the northern localities by means of the shaduf. The swamp crops are rice, Colocasia, and sugar-cane. The first is grown upon a flat-dug surface, the second upon high ridges made of swamp mud, and the third on low ridges bordering the rice fields. The villages north of Kano are often entirely built of the stalks of Guinea corn, and [Fig. 31] represents a principal hut within such a structure. The fencing of the fields in this locality is generally made of the same material, but in the vicinity of Kano itself, Euphorbia or thorn hedges are more common.

Near Rogo, fences and hedges are usually dispensed with, paths forming the boundaries between fields.

The following table of value of exports shows the progress in the last five years before amalgamation with the Southern Provinces. The subsequent years are given at the end of this chapter.

Values of Exports

	1908	1909	1910	1911	1912
	£	£	£	£	£
Rubber	33,050	40,000	37,900	53,511	[8]
Shea nut products	70,900	93,050	43,150	40,496	51,409
Palm kernels	47,150	41,750	66,100	52,637	64,432
Groundnuts	13,650	16,350	8,150	10,377	18,930
Gum[9]	8,850	6,650	9,750	5,436	1,785
Cotton	1,300	4,400	1,850	945	[8]
Benniseed	2,000	4,000	2,300	2,582	2,972
Fibre	1,382	4,061	—	—	—
Livestock	2,600	1,300	3,750	6,357	9,132
Gutta percha (“Balata”)	—	—	2,262	6,695	4,267
Skins and hides[10]	—	—	5,214	37,809	68,832
Ostrich feathers	—	—	2,615	7,225	12,621

RUBBER.—The extent of the export of this commodity from the Northern Provinces was less generally recognised than that from the coast countries, for the reason that the Northern Nigeria’s exports are necessarily shipped from Southern Nigerian ports, and have been included in the statistical figures of that country.

Until 1907 no separate statement was furnished indicating the quantity of rubber actually originating from the Northern Provinces; the whole produce leaving the country by the Southern Nigerian ports made it difficult to ascertain this. The following imperfect records show, however, that the production was of significant extent:

1905.	The value of the rubberexported by two of the leading firms in the Northern Provinces wasestimated at £101,207.
1906.	The amount exported in thesecond half-year was given as 556,701 lbs., valued at £34,344. Theyear’s exports were said to be 574 tons. Estimating the whole atthe same proportionate value as that given for the second half-yearwe have:
1906.	1,283,520 lbs.	£79,185
1907.	1,187,588 lbs.	£91,074

The decrease in recent years is accounted for by the fall which occurred in the price of rubber, but is probably partly due to the extermination of the vines by the wasteful process of preparing root rubber.

Sources.—The following are the trees and plants which have been used for extracting rubber:—

1. Funtumia elastica.—This is only found in a wild state in Southern Kabba and Bassa Provinces, and is recognised under the Yoruba name of “Ire.” Small pieces of fairly well-prepared rubber from this tree are occasionally brought in to Lokoja for sale.

2. Landolphia sp. (probably owariensis).—A clean “red nigger” rubber is sold, and is probably obtained from this species. It is generally of good quality, but not plentiful. It appears to be collected as a scrap rubber, and is made up in small irregular balls.

3. Landolphia sp.—“Root rubber,” termed locally “Attifufu,” and called by the trade “Brown cluster” or “Brown medium.” It is probable that several species of vines are used for this, which is not necessarily prepared from the root alone, the whole stem being pounded up. This seems to represent the commonest form of Northern Nigerian rubber, the preparation of which was at one time prohibited.

4. Landolphia florida or Thompsonii (?).—“Paste rubber,” called locally “Ebo,” is prepared from the latex of these vines by boiling with the admixture of “wood oil,” or the resinous exudation of Daniellia thurifera, until it reaches the consistency of bird-lime, when it is only capable of being handled in water, in which state it is sold to the merchants, who accumulate it in casks for shipment. It is inferior in quality, and only capable of export for cheap manufactures.

5. Carpodinus hirsutus.—“Flake rubber,” called “Aribedda,” is said to be the product of this vine, which grows commonly in Bassa. It is without resiliency and somewhat resembles the exudations of some of the species of Ficus.

6. Ficus platyphylla.—“Red Kano rubber,” or “Ballata,” known to the Nupe people as “Ogbagba.” This is prepared by boiling, without the addition of any foreign matter, and attains the consistency of a hardened paste, similar to the “guttas” made from the latex of the Shea-butter tree (Butyrospermum Parkii). It is distinguished in the Kano Province by the name “Danko Gawi,” shea gutta being known as “Danko Kadainya.”

7. Ficus trachyphylla.—This tree is called in Ilorin by the Yoruba name “Oapottoa,” and yields a latex which is discoloured pink by the sap of the tree with which it becomes mixed in tapping. When boiled and allowed to cool, the product is a reddish hardened substance, somewhat resembling guttapercha in appearance.

8. Ficus Vogelii.—Scrap rubber from this tree is said to be collected. In appearance this rubber is often good, but the shreds break up easily.

It will be seen from the above, that several of the so-called rubbers are unlike the valuable kinds in appearance and composition, and as such are, perhaps, incapable of being used in a pure state and for the most important manufactures for which rubber is employed. All kinds, however, seem to be marketable at a price which is remunerative to the exporter, so that the trade has become an extensive one.

Plantations.—It has been urged that Para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) might be grown upon a large scale in the moist and well-watered areas, and Ceara (Manihot Glaziovii) and Funtumia elastica in the drier districts; but the country is not generally favourably adapted for growing the first and last mentioned. Ceara rubber seems to thrive well in climates similar to that of this country, and the rubber made from it is of the finest quality, but in many tropical countries it has shown great uncertainty in yield of latex, and often unaccountable cessation of flow. This has caused it to be less favourably regarded for plantation work. (Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., 1913, 1916.)

Many parts of the country are suitable for Ceara cultivation, thriving as it does in localities susceptible to long periods of drought. In the German African Colonies the method of treating the tree seems advantageous, in view of the uncertainty of the yield after maturity is reached. In these places the plants are put out in extensive plots each year, and, after they have reached full growth, all the latex possible of extraction is taken out of them, and the exhausted trees are cut out, permitting the area to become renovated by the self-sown seedlings, which spring up in great profusion. Thus, each year a plot becomes completely renovated, without great expense being incurred. If Ceara planting should be adopted in Northern Nigeria, some such system as this might prove remunerative.

In the Lokoja forest reserve, about a hundred acres of Funtumia elastica were planted in 1906, but these have not succeeded as well as was originally expected, owing, probably, to want of moisture. A few Ceara and even Hevea plants, have been grown at Zungeru and Baro, but, as yet, no plantations have been made.

SHEA NUTS.—The shea nut is the seed or kernel contained in the green fruit borne by Butyrospermum Parkii, called locally “Kadainya.” The fruit, which ripens about May, is of variable size, from that of a pigeon’s egg to as large as a hen’s egg where only one nut is contained, but is nearly twice the size where two nuts are present in the same fruit. The fleshy rind is not more than one-sixth of an inch in thickness, is sweet to the taste, and contains a white latex, which coagulates into a product called “gutta-shea.” The natives in some places seem to regard the fruit as a delicacy, and the roads and paths, in districts where the tree is plentiful, are strewn with the nuts which have been thrown away after the fruit portions have been eaten. The nut is quite smooth, and is readily separated from the fleshy part.

The butter, which is extracted by the natives, is appreciated less than palm oil or groundnut oil for cooking, but is used as a substitute. In Europe the kernels as well as the extracted “butter” are employed, especially on the Continent, for the manufacture of vegetable butter and in candle factories.

In some places the fruits are collected and put in heaps, until the fleshy parts have decomposed and left the nuts clean, after which the kernels are extracted, dried in earthen stoves, and pounded or ground into a fine flour. This is then pounded again, with the addition of a little water, previous to being mixed in hot water to separate the fat. The latter rises to the surface and solidifies on cooling, being melted again for clarification by skimming previous to being poured into moulds made from plantain leaves or maize-cob sheaths. In this form it is sold for export, and is then known as “shea-butter.” An illustration is given ([Fig. 28]) of some Shea nut collectors resting beneath a Shea tree in the Ilorin Province.

SHEA-BUTTER TREE (BUTYROSPERMUM PARKII), WITH NUT-COLLECTORS, ILORIN.

Fig. 28, [p. 130.]

YIELDING GUM TREE (ACACIA CAFFRA) AT KONTAGORA.

Fig. 29, [p. 131.]

LOCUST-BEAN TREE (PARKIA FILICOIDEA) AT ILORIN.

Fig. 30, [p. 162.]

According to results obtained at the Imperial Institute (Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1908, p. 370; 1912, p. 290), the kernels contain from 40 to 50 per cent. of fat, as well as a small quantity of unsaponifiable matter resembling gutta-shea.

Where the nuts are very plentiful, and transport appears to be easy, the collection is often neglected, and the reason given is that there is some difficulty in removing the fruit from the nut, which makes the occupation unremunerative. But it is noticeable that the fleshy part quickly decomposes, and the clean nuts are frequently seen beneath the trees themselves, although in this situation the advent of heavy rain will often induce germination, and so spoil the kernel. This difficulty is obviated if the fruits are collected and placed under cover, being allowed to decompose without too much moisture.

Throughout the Ilorin and Nupe Provinces the nuts are at present collected for sale to the factories, but in size those grown in the Zaria Province are larger, and are now quite accessible. In this latter locality the double fruit, above referred to, appears to be common. In the tract of country through which the Baro-Kano railway now proceeds, after crossing the Kogin-Serikin-Pawa river, as far Zaria, localities containing very large and prolific trees are frequently met with, but the population is scanty, and collection is scarcely made for export purposes. Trees growing in cultivated areas are generally recognised as the property of the cultivator, forest trees only being common property. Women are the chief collectors of the nuts in the districts whence the supplies at present come, and their inability to penetrate far into the forests has sometimes been urged as a reason for larger quantities not being brought in to the factories. Now that the railway is present, it is probable that regular collectors will commence to exploit the forests for some distance on each side of the line, and that people from the more populous districts will be induced to visit them for the same purpose.

No record is available to show the amount of nuts and butter exported previous to 1905, but it must have been considerable, as the High Commissioner in his annual report for 1905-6 says: “The Shea nut export trade, which formerly constituted the staple of Northern Nigeria, continues to decrease in an unaccountable way, and is now an almost negligible amount.” Various reasons are given to account for a partial or gradual decrease, the most important of which is, that the people who used to rely on the collection of sylvan produce for a livelihood, have found a more lucrative employment in growing foodstuffs for the troops and Government staff, or in working upon the Government roads and railways. But, in spite of this, the value of Shea nuts and butter exported in 1907-8 reached a high figure, and placed these products second in order of value among those exported during the year. The export of Shea nuts in the two years following showed a further increase, being 3,922 and 9,085 tons for 1908 and 1909 respectively. There is a growing demand for Shea butter in Europe, and the supply is at present inadequate.

PALM OIL AND KERNELS.—The oil palm (Elæis guineensis) is almost absent from a large part of the country, and is rarely seen north of Zungeru, being chiefly confined to the vicinity of the rivers and the forests on the boundaries of Southern Nigeria.

An insignificant amount of palm oil is exported, as the local demand absorbs practically all that is produced, the kernels remaining being alone exported.

Only one variety is recognised in the country, and is that with a thin pericarp and thick-shelled kernel. It is similar to the form termed “Abe-pa” in the Gold Coast. Among the Haussa-speaking races the palm is called “Quaqua,” and in the Nupe language “Yi-ku-niche.”

Extraction of the oil for local use is generally done by boiling the fresh fruits, and a limpid product is obtained.

GROUNDNUTS.—The groundnut (Arachis hypogea), called “Geda” by the Haussas, is seen in two forms in Northern Nigeria, dependent, probably, on differences in soil and climate in the localities in which they are grown.

The form seen commonly in the vicinity of Bida, from which most of the exported nuts are procured, has a light-brown shell, and is similar to the ordinary Gambian kind. The soil in which this is grown is red, and, to some extent, this colour is imparted to the shell. The nuts growing in the northern districts near Kano, where the soil is sandy and light, resemble the kind which is considered the finest in the French Colonies, and is largely cultivated in Senegal. In this the shell is pale straw-coloured. Large exports have been made from Kano since railway facilities were provided.

Groundnuts are chiefly employed as a terminal crop in the cultivation adopted by the Nupes and Yorubas, but in the Kano and Zaria Provinces, where land is retained for long periods in cultivation and renovated annually by manure, they are often the first crop grown on opening new land, and are seldom planted later.

From an interesting article contributed by Mr. Lamb, the Director of Agriculture (Imperial Institute Bulletin, vol. xi. [1913]), entitled “Agriculture in Haussaland,” it appears that leguminous crops have recently been introduced more generally in the rotation employed among the Haussa cultivators. The author remarks that the cowpea (Vigna catjang) is now almost invariably grown with cereals, and that there is such an increase in groundnut cultivation that this has come into great prominence as an exported crop. This condition has been brought about entirely by the establishment of railway transport—a result which was foretold in the first edition of this work.

All the nuts exported at the present time are in a decorticated form, and the reason given for decortication is that there is a large saving in weight in carriage thereby. It is, nevertheless, generally admitted that in an undecorticated form the nuts are better preserved in transit, and it often happens that the price for undecorticated nuts is higher than for decorticated. It is, however, recognised that if the appearance of the shell is rusty or dirty, it should be removed before shipment, as this condition adversely affects the market value. The demand for undecorticated nuts is for confectionery, and is relatively small as compared with the amount used, chiefly in France, for the expression of oil. The weights of groundnuts exported in 1917 and 1918 were respectively 50,334 and 57,555 tons.

The Kano nuts appear to be of such a clean type that it might be found more advantageous to ship them in an undecorticated state, but this can be ascertained when transport has been facilitated sufficiently to establish a continuous trade with a particular market.

The chief markets for the product were Marseilles and Hamburg, where it was employed for the expression of oil, used principally for admixture with, or as a substitute for, olive oil. Although formerly almost entirely sent to the German port, they now come mostly to England. (Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. xvi. [1918].)

GUMS.—In the drier regions Acacia trees of several species become plentiful, but many of these do not seem to produce gum.

Some of the gum in the Sudan is said to be derived from A. arabica, Willd., which is not uncommon in certain localities, but is almost entirely unproductive in this country.

The tree known in Haussa as “Gawo,” identified as A. Albida, Delile, is perhaps the commonest species near Kano, and one which produces a small amount of reddish gum. None, however, is apparently collected from the tree in the district.

The species from which most of the gum is collected in Bornu is said to be identical with that called “Karu” in Kano, of which only immature specimens have as yet been examined. This is probably referable to A. Verek, Guill. & Perr., which is the most important source of the Senegal product, and to which Bentham refers A. Senegal, Willd.

In Kontagora a good quality of gum is obtained from a tree which has been identified as A. Caffra, Willd. This tree does not appear to occur plentifully here, but further investigation is necessary with regard to it in the dry uninhabited regions where it is found. An illustration of this tree is given ([Fig. 29]).

Another species which has been recorded by Barter from the Niger, and is said by him to yield “a gum like gum-arabic,” is A. mellifera, Bentham, and may be one of those from which the present exported product is collected.

On examination of the trade specimens, it is noticeable that the quality is inferior to most of the Sudan and Senegal kinds, owing, mainly, to the want of cleaning or sorting previous to sale. It has been suggested that an improvement in the quality might be effected by sorting the gum into different grades, cleaning it, and spreading it in the sun to bleach. The quantity of gum exported in 1908 is given as 789,949 lbs., and that for 1909 as 894,287 lbs.

Investigations carried out recently at the Imperial Institute show that Nigerian gum is little, if at all, inferior to Sudan gum, except that its mucilage is not quite so strong. Gums of the better class are mainly employed in confectionery, and for this purpose the cleaner, lighter-coloured gums of Northern Nigeria are quite suitable. (Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1908, pp. 29-60; 1910, pp. 352-65; and 1914, pp. 27-31.)

COTTON.—Three distinct forms of cotton are found in cultivation in the Northern Provinces. The best of these is that grown by the natives of the Bassa and Nassarawa Provinces, and possesses lint of rather long staple and a good colour, covering a clean seed. The seed-cotton from these Provinces is brought into Lokoja for sale. This variety seems well suited to the localities mentioned, but, although it has been tried in other parts of the country, it does not seem to thrive so successfully. In making a comparison of the lint for Liverpool market requirements, the standard employed is “Moderately Rough Peruvian,” which is a grade of higher price than “Middling American,” with which most of the West African cottons are compared.

In Ilorin, a woolly-seeded tall cotton plant is commonly cultivated, and, although yielding a fair quality of lint, it is not equal to that mentioned above. A small proportion of the cotton grown in the Ilorin Province finds its way to the Ogudu Ginnery of the British Cotton Growing Association, on the Niger, but the main crop is carried to various points on the Lagos Government Railway, and is sold for delivery to the Southern Nigerian ginneries of the Association. Small quantities of cotton belonging to this same variety are grown in Nupe, Kabba, and Kontagora, but the low ground of the Niger valley does not appear to be very suitable for cotton-growing.

In Zaria, Kano, and Sokoto Provinces, where the climate is drier, excellent conditions exist for the production of large supplies of cotton, but the population requires to become more distributed into the districts remote from the towns. In the above-mentioned Provinces, cotton has existed from the earliest times, and was long established as an important export to North Africa by caravan. A small-bolled variety with a short stem takes the place of the tall cottons of the Niger valley. The quality of the lint, although fair, is of a shorter staple, and the plant is less prolific.

In addition to the three kinds referred to, all of which are grown as field crops, single plants of a fourth are sometimes seen near villages, especially in the Bassa Province. This is the crimson-flowered tree-cotton identified as Gossypium arboreum, var. sanguineum, and is nowhere cultivated upon a large scale. The lint is silky and fine, and the seed is covered with green fuzz.

Exotic Cottons.—American and Egyptian seed have been introduced in many localities, especially in the Provinces of the Niger valley. Cotton grown from American Upland seed in Bassa Province has been well reported upon, but the deterioration of the quality of seed reproduced by this kind has proved a serious drawback to establishment. It is generally acknowledged that the indigenous cottons are hardier and more prolific than the introduced varieties, and are better able to withstand the attacks of the local insect pests. It is probable that the climate of the Northern Provinces will be found more suitable for the cultivation of American Upland cottons, as the indigenous plant of that region more nearly approximates the latter type.

Valuation of Cottons.—The following table shows the value of different cottons grown in Northern Nigeria and examined at the Imperial Institute. (See Professor Dunstan’s “British Cotton Cultivation,” pp. 34-37.)

Locality.	Kind.	Length of Staple.	Value.	Standard value at time of test.
Bassa	American	·9-1·2 in.	7½d.	M.A. 6·39d.
„	„	1-1·3 „	5½-6d.	„
„	„	1-1·3 „	6¼d.	„
„	„	·8-1·2 „	6¼d.	„
„	„	1-1·3 „	6¼d.	„
„	„	·9-1·4 „	6d.	„
„	„	·9-1·3 „	6d.	„
„	„	·9-1·2 „	6-6¼d.	„
„	„	1·-1·3 „	6¼d.	„
„	Native	·9-1·3 „	6½-7d.	„
„	„	1-1·4 „	8½-9d.	M.R.P. 9·1d.
„	„	1-1·3 „	8d.	„
„	„	·9-1·4 „	8¼-8½d.	„
„	„	·8-1·2 „	7¾-8d.	„
„	„	1-1·3 „	8¼d.	„
„	„	1·2-1·5 „	8¼d.	„
„	„	1-1·3 „	8d.	„
„	„	·9-1·3 „	8½d.	„
„	„	1·1-1·6 „	8-8½d.	„
„	„	·9-1·3 „	6d.	M.A. 6·39d.
Zaria	Brazilian (?)	·9-1·2 „	4d.	„
„	Egyptian	·9-1·5 „	6d.	F.G.F.B. 10¹⁄₁₆d.
Yola	Native	·8-1·2 „	4½d.	M.A. 6·39d.
„	American	·9-1·3 „	6¼d.	„
Munchi	Native	1-1·5 „	8d.	M.R.P. 9·1d.
Ilorin	American	·9-1·3 „	6¼d.	M.A. 6·39d.

(M.A. indicates the price ruling at the time of valuation for standard “Middling American,” M.R.P. that for “Moderately Rough Peruvian,” and F.G.F.B. that for “Fully Good Fair Brown Egyptian.”)

VILLAGE OF FOGOLA, BUILT OF GUINEA-CORN STALKS.

Fig. 31. [p. 126]

OUTSIDE THE EMIR’S PALACE, KANO.

Fig. 32, [p. 137.]

NEAR THE SOUTHERN GATE, ZARIA.

Fig. 33, [p. 137.]

All the native cottons in the above table are from the Niger and Benue River Provinces, but it is considered probable that large quantities of the product, which are looked for for export, will be obtained from the Kano and Zaria Provinces, and after the opening of the Baro-Kano Railway, the capitals of these may become important cotton-buying and ginning centres. [Figs. 32] and [33] illustrate views of Kano and Zaria.

In all the localities referred to, cotton is generally cultivated as a sole crop, in succession to food crops, and is planted upon shallow ridges from July to September, when the cotton is ready for picking from December to March. Experiments have been made at Baro and Zungeru to raise plants during the dry months by irrigation, but as this causes the fruiting season to occur about the time that the first rain and wind storms commence, the success of this is very uncertain. The necessity for the application of irrigation to this crop is not apparent except as an assistance in lieu of rain when the season of rainfall is late. There is no extreme drought throughout the year, such as is the case in Egypt, where cotton is entirely an irrigated crop.

In the Ilorin district, in the vicinity of Shari, a somewhat extensive area is seen under cotton, and the mode of planting is similar to that applied on a smaller scale near Rabba, Jebba, Bida, and Egga. A piece of land is usually selected for a cotton field upon which Guinea corn and millet crops have been grown continuously for a long period, and which has consequently become rather exhausted. This is often permitted to lie fallow for several years, after which cotton is planted in drills on ridges or mounds in July or August. No manure is applied. Generally about a dozen or more seeds are put in each drill, and in this way it is estimated that about a bushel and a half of seed per acre is required. Picking commences in December, and lasts until February, as much as 500 lbs. of seed-cotton per acre being frequently gathered.

In Kano, cotton is often grown in alternation with cassava, and is a manured crop. Large fields are not seen, as the land is chiefly required for food crops, especially in the vicinity of towns, where the population is dense. General improvements in cultivation, and the introduction of ploughing, would enable a much larger area to be put under cultivation, and would permit of the fertile tracts remote from the towns being employed largely for cotton-growing.

The above account indicates the direction in which efforts should be made to ensure the most fertile tract of Northern Nigeria, where the population is also most industrious and dense, becoming an important cotton-growing locality. It may be safely said that the land, climate, and industrious population are existent and suitable, but the population is congested, leaving large fertile areas of land untouched. Transport difficulties have up to the present prevented cultivation of products useful for export, and the non-employment of cattle for ploughing has restricted cultivation to the growth of crops entirely absorbed by local necessity.

Improvement of Plant.—In addition to these requirements, with regard to cultivation, a rather better class of cotton is necessary in the Northern Provinces. The local variety might perhaps be sufficiently improved under better cultivation and seed selection, but such a process would be gradual and require the undivided attention of an experienced European officer, working in the districts. It has previously been suggested that the introduction of one of the many Upland American kinds might be advantageous; the local variety approaching that class of plant more nearly than do the varieties occurring in the forest regions farther to the south, where the American varieties have been extensively planted with somewhat variable results. One variety only should be introduced, and this should possess cropping and lint records suitable for European requirements. Georgia or Texas quick-maturing kinds are indicated, but not the lowland kinds such as are grown in the Mississippi valley.

The foregoing remarks apply to those regions only where it seems possible that the quality of cotton which is in most general demand in Lancashire can be extensively grown, but are not applicable to the Niger Valley. As will be seen by a reference to the table of valuations, a cotton exists in the Bassa and Nassarawa Provinces which is comparable with a higher standard grade than Middling American, the type to be produced in the north. Efforts should be made to keep this latter variety free from the possibility of admixture with exotic kinds, and it is therefore advisable that improvement in this class should be confined to seed selection. American cottons have already been introduced into Bassa, but the value of the lint is lower than that of the indigenous kind.

With regard to the cotton grown in the Ilorin Province, the common variety is similar to that of the adjoining country to the south, and it is in this direction that the crop of the whole Province will be sent in the future, as it has been arranged to remove the Ogudu ginnery on the Niger, to which the northern Ilorin cotton has hitherto been sent for sale. An illustration is given showing the position of this ginnery upon the southern bank of the Niger ([Fig. 34]).

The most important insect pests which attack the cotton plant in Northern Nigeria are three species of Oxycarenus, or cotton-seed bugs: Dysdercus superstitiosus, a cotton-lint stainer, the American cotton boll-worm, Chloridea obsoleta, and a species of Earias,[11] identical with or allied to the Egyptian cotton boll-worm. The last mentioned has only been recorded as yet from the Bornu Province, but the American boll-worm is found at Lokoja and near the Niger in Nupe. The seed-bugs and stainer are generally distributed. In no direction have these pests assumed large proportions, but where they occur the following remedies are recommended for application. The seed-bugs and stainer can be attracted to traps of seed placed in piles upon the ground between the lines of growing cotton, and the insects then destroyed by petroleum or boiling water. In the case of the boll-worms, trap-crops of maize and Hibiscus are recommended, as well as the destruction of the moths after attraction to light at night. (See Professor Dunstan’s “British Cotton Cultivation,” pp. 35-6.)

The British Cotton Growing Association commenced work in Northern Nigeria by erecting a steam ginnery at Lokoja, followed by others at Ogudu and Zaria. The natives of the Bassa Province were induced to grow cotton upon a larger scale than before by the favourable market established near them at Lokoja, but, although the cotton brought in was generally of good quality, the supply fell off after the first year or two, and in 1908 it almost ceased. More recently there has been some return to cultivation, but the people are difficult to get into touch with, and have few needs which can be supplied by the traders, so that they have remained somewhat inactive and shy.

The ginnery at Ogudu acted as an inducement to the people of North Ilorin (Shari) to undertake cotton-growing upon an increased scale, and as the inhabitants are chiefly of a more intelligent class (Yorubas and Nupes) than the Bassa people, the cultivation of cotton developed well.

The opening of the Baro-Kano Railway created some activity in cotton growing, and satisfactory quantities were brought in to the northern ginneries. The British Cotton Growing Association will probably succeed well in the northern parts of the country where a large rural population is to be found.

An example of the development of cotton cultivation in West Africa, influenced by and following the opening of a railway, is seen in the Western Province of Southern Nigeria and in Ilorin; along almost the entire route of the line the agricultural population have taken up the cultivation of the plant. This has occurred even in those districts where other natural products were available for utilisation to a remunerative degree. It is therefore probable that the industrious population of the Northern Provinces, who have no such advantages, owing to the absence of oil palms, rubber, etc., would readily adopt cotton-growing upon a commercial scale.

The Baro-Kano Railway passes, however, through an extensive tract of thinly populated country before reaching the localities from which a large supply can be reasonably expected, and this may delay the actual results. It would be inadvisable, in the meantime, to encourage cotton cultivation in those districts which are still remote, unless it were possible to buy the crops in advance of any prospective railway extension.

The following statistical statement has been supplied by the British Cotton Growing Association, showing the production in bales from their ginneries, 1906-1909:

Year.	Lokoja.	Ogudu.	Total.	Weight of Bale.	Approx. lbs.
1906. Sept. 1st, 1905, to Aug. 31st, 1906	903		903	about 200 lbs.	180,600
1907. 16 months. Sept. 1st, 1906, to Dec. 12th, 1907	1,067	815	1,882	200 lbs. each	376,400
		239	239	400 lbs. each	95,600
1908	84	147	231	400 lbs. each	92,400
1909. 8 months. To Aug. 31st, 1909	133	246	379	400 lbs. each	151,600

In 1908 the rainfall was deficient in a large part of the country, and the cotton crop, among others, suffered in consequence. A temporary check to cotton-growing in Ilorin province occurred in 1909 due to the demand for labour for the railway construction, and a subsequent one occasioned by the war; but in spite of this, the increase of cotton in Nigeria is to be attributed largely to developments in the Northern Provinces. Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. x., p. 480, and vol. xi. pp. 70, 165 and 656.[12]

CAPSICUMS.—An increasing export trade seems to be becoming established in red peppers and chillies (Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens), plants which thrive well in West Africa.

In the Ilorin and Nupe Provinces, the plants are usually grown in the vicinity of houses, but in the Kano and Zaria districts they are frequently met with in irrigated fields. From the latter localities an almost unlimited supply could be obtained.

BENNISEED.—The oil seed which is exported under this name is the product of Sesamum indicum, Linn., and is identical with that known in India as “til” or “gingelly” seed. Although the specific name seems to imply that the plant is a native of India, there is evidence to show that it may have been introduced into that country from Africa, where several species of the genus occur in a wild state.

The seed is pale or dark brown in colour, and contains a large proportion of oil, for the extraction of which it is exported. In the East, the dark seeds are said to produce the better quality of oil, but this does not appear to be recognised in Northern Nigeria, and the crop grown there is composed of a mixture of the two kinds.

The oil extracted from benniseed is clear yellow and without smell, and is said to be capable of being preserved for a long time without becoming rancid. For this reason it is highly appreciated locally for alimentary purposes, and is said to be used in Europe for making butter substitutes and for mixing with olive oil. The seed cake furnishes a valuable cattle food and good manure.

Although liable to fluctuation in price on the European market, dependent upon the extent of the supply of olive and groundnut oils, the seed is always in demand, and for this reason it is worthy of special attention for cultivation in the fertile and populated tracts of Northern Nigeria.

A fair amount of benniseed is grown in the country, but the use of it is so appreciated locally that only a small quantity is yet shipped, most of this being apparently sent from Bauchi and Kabba, although Kano and Zaria probably produce much more. The value shipped from Nigeria rose from £5,225 in 1915 to £16,523 in 1916.

Benniseed is grown chiefly in separate fields, and is seldom seen in those which have been employed for a long period under Guinea corn or millet. It is a sole crop, and grown but once a year in this country. In India, it may be remarked, the plant is cultivated in both the spring (Rabi) and autumn (Kharif) rotations, and it should be possible to do this in the agricultural parts of Northern Nigeria where irrigation is employed.

KANO LEATHER.—A very large trade exists in the tanned and dyed goat and sheep skins prepared throughout the country, and generally known under the name of Kano leather, or, in Europe, “Morocco Leather.” It is said that from early times caravans have annually conveyed numbers of these skins from the Kano markets across the Sahara to the towns in North Africa, whence they were exported to Trieste and other ports of the Mediterranean.

During recent years the caravan trade has almost entirely disappeared, but some quantity of skins now come to Liverpool by way of the coast ports. The value of skins in Kano itself averages about 5½d., but the cost of transport at present has made it almost impracticable to export remuneratively, and a very small trade exists in consequence.

By far the greater number of skins, which are tanned, are dyed a bright red, yellow, or green colour, which seems to rather depreciate them in the European markets for many uses to which they might otherwise be put, undyed and even untanned skins being in greater demand. (See Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vi. [1908], p. 175; and vol. viii. [1910], p. 402.) It has also been said that the tanning is often insufficiently done, and the skins become blotched in consequence. It is noticeable that Kano leather quickly becomes spotted in the damp coast regions, and for this reason it is probable that no great direct European trade will be established until better methods are introduced and more rapid transport is arranged. There may, however, be a considerable trade done in the untanned skins.

The best class of Kano or Niger leather is valued at a high price for bookbinding.

In the country a fair amount of leather is manufactured for saddlery and horse trappings, pillows, mattress covers, sword scabbards, boots and hats, elaborate designs being often produced by the skilful introduction of pieces of differently coloured leather.

In preparing the leather the skin is stripped off the animal and usually pegged out for drying in the sun, after which it is immersed for two or three days in a liquid made by pounding the pods and seeds of Acacia arabica (“Baggarua”), and soaking them in water. The hides are then again pegged out and scraped in order to remove the hair, and when dry the best attain a creamy white colour, others being pale brownish. Palm oil or shea-butter is then rubbed in on the smooth side of the skin, which is worked and rolled until quite soft, after which a polish is obtained by drawing the smooth surface rapidly over a wooden upright blade.

The finest and lightest skins are usually reserved for making into yellow, green, or pale blue leather, and the rest are converted into red, black, dark blue or dark yellow kinds. The red dye is obtained from the stalks of a species of Sorghum,[13] which is grown for this purpose, and to which the Haussas give the name of “Karandeffi” or “Karantudi.” The dried stalks are pounded up and placed in a calabash, to which a solution of “potash” is added. A deep crimson liquid results, and in this the skin is steeped until a sufficiency has been absorbed by it to render it permanently deep red in colour. A pale yellow colour is imparted to the skin by an infusion made from the root of a kind of turmeric, which is pounded up for the purpose. A dark yellow is obtained from the root of a tree called by the Yorubas “Agbesi.” A black pigment is prepared from a mixture of honey and blacksmith’s slag; blue from Lonchocarpus cyanescens, one of the indigo producers; green or pale blue-green from brass filings mixed with lime juice, common salt, and other ingredients. More recently green aniline dye has been imported into the country, and has almost superseded the use of brass filings in all the large leather-producing districts.

FIBRES.—Owing to the demand for ropes among the cattle-keepers of the northern districts and the canoemen of the Niger and Benue valleys, it is not surprising to find that the wild fibres are considered insufficient to supply so great a necessity, and that in consequence a selected species is extensively cultivated and prepared for sale in the markets.

“Rama” or “Ramo” is the name which is applied to such a plant in the Haussa- and Yoruba-speaking countries respectively, but although used exclusively for fibre made from plants belonging to the genus Hibiscus, different species are indicated in various districts. The plant to which the name “Rama” is given in Ilorin, Nupe, Kontagora, Kano, and Zaria, is apparently the same as that generally termed “Farin (white) Rama” in Bauchi and Muri, and has been recognised as Hibiscus lunariifolius; that called “Rama” in the northern territories of the Gold Coast is said to belong to two species allied to H. Sabdariffa, and that grown by the Yoruba people of the western province of Southern Nigeria, and called by them “Ramo,” has been identified as H. guineensis.

In the present instance only H. lunariifolius is referred to, since this is the species cultivated throughout the country.

Although in the other countries the allied plants are cultivated, they are invariably grown upon a small scale, and are only seen in small patches adjoining houses, or cultivated as a mixed crop with peppers, okra, etc.; in Northern Nigeria fairly extensive tracts are planted, and the crop is treated as carefully as the food crops in the vicinity. In Ilorin, Kabba, and Bassa the seeds are sown on ridges in drills a few inches apart, each drill having four to six plants in it. The sowing in this locality is done in the middle of May, and the crop is not irrigated, being dependent upon the rainfall for development. The plants, when they have reached the height of six or more inches, do not appear to be adversely affected by a prolonged continuance of dry weather in the Niger Valley, but this is perhaps accounted for by the humidity of the atmosphere.

The conditions last referred to do not, however, apply to the northern districts, and the importance with which the crop is regarded is seen in the fact that it is worth while to irrigate it. At Fogola the plants are also sown in drills on ridges, but the drills are made at about one foot apart from one another, and ten or more plants are left in each drill. The seed is sown in April and irrigated until the rainy season commences in June.

The stalks are said to be cut after the plant has fruited, and are described as being retted in a manner similar to that employed for Indian jute. The unretted “ribbons” as well as the prepared fibre are offered for sale in the local markets, the former being employed in the rough state for twisting into rope used for fastening roofing poles, etc. The prepared fibre produces an excellent kind of rope, and is in appearance very similar to Bengal jute, although it has slightly less lustre. Specimens of Northern Nigerian rama fibre have been examined from time to time at the Imperial Institute, and have been satisfactorily reported on. As a result the fibre has been actually exported to Europe.

In the Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute, Part I., “Fibres” (Colonial Reports—Miscellaneous [Cd. 4588], p. 38), a full account is given of the composition of a specimen of the fibre received from Northern Nigeria. The character is said to be similar to jute, but it is apparently rather harsh, and therefore more suitable for use in rope-making than for spinning. The valuation placed upon it was £12 per ton, with common jute at £11—£12. A specimen of the brown ribbons was also examined and was reported on, the valuation being placed at about £4 per ton, with a remark that it would only be of use for paper manufacture.

During the last three years, since attention was first drawn to the probable value of the fibre as a jute substitute, the natives of Nupe and Muri have been urged to cultivate the plant and prepare the fibre for export. This has been done to a small extent, and the natives of the latter province are said to be willing to produce it at the local price of one penny per pound. At the valuation mentioned above it might scarcely prove remunerative to pay this local price, but it should be taken into consideration that the market price of jute was depressed at the time that the valuation was obtained. It seems that the product may be usefully cultivated, especially in the Niger Valley, where river transport is available, and it is probable that a better price would be quoted if a larger and regular supply could be relied on. The value of the fibre shipped from the country in 1908 is estimated in the Government returns at £1,382, and that for 1909 at £4,049.

Attention should be specially directed to the time of cutting the stalks for retting, and these should be treated before becoming too woody, when a much better product would result.

Experiments with Indian jute, as well as with certain Hibiscus fibres in West Africa, have shown that if the stems are permitted to become woody, the resulting fibre is harsh and coarse.

With regard to the probable production of fibre per acre, there are at present no data, but it may be stated for comparison that a good average yield of jute in India is taken as 2000 lbs. Carefully planted and treated in the same way, it is probable that rama would give as high a return, judging from the growth seen in the country. Jute in India, it should be remembered, is a manured crop, but rama in West Africa is only manured in the northern districts of Northern Nigeria, being cultivated without any special care in the Niger Valley.

WOOD OIL.—Following the order of value shown in the list of exported products, wood oil appears next. This is the oleo-resinous exudation obtained from Daniellia thurifera, a tree belonging to the Natural Order Leguminosæ, and allied to some of the species from which the West African copals are procured. This tree is commonly found in the dry country, but occurs also in the damp forests, where it frequently attains large dimensions. The wood oil is collected in many parts of West Africa, and is used as a substitute for “balsam of copaiba” in native medicine. The concreted resin formed on the trunks of the trees by the borings of coleopterous larvæ is used for burning as incense.

The native use of wood oil in place of “balsam of copaiba” induced merchants trading upon the Niger to export it, and at one time a fair quantity was sold in England. This export trade has recently diminished to a large extent.

The substance is an oleo-resin, and when free from oil has a similar appearance to copal. Upon examination of the resin, it has been found to be dissimilar in properties from the various freshly exuded resins which enter the market under the name of recent or soft copal. (Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vols. vi. [1908] and xiii. [1915].)

The mode of collecting wood-oil is somewhat destructive, as, in order to procure an excessive flow, a hollow is scooped out in the main trunk and a fire is kindled in the hole thus made. The oil commences to flow rapidly after the fire is extinguished, which it is necessary that it should be before a large quantity of oil has exuded, on account of the inflammability of the latter.

The application of fire to the trees does not appear to kill them, but they are rendered liable to attacks of noxious insects, and are often broken off by winds.

In addition to the local use of the oil for maladies for which balsam of copaiba is generally employed, the rubber makers of Ilorin and Nupe add it to the latex of Landolphia florida or L. Thompsonii to make paste rubber. The two liquids are boiled together for some time, until the mixture attains a consistency of birdlime. The dried resin is here used for torches, and in the Egyptian Sudan for incense.

KOLA.—Although a large quantity of kola nuts is annually imported from Lagos and the Gold Coast, such a great demand exists that the price of kola in Kano and Zaria is very high. The kola tree is seldom seen in any part of the country except on the west bank of the Kaduna river, where the famous plantations of the Emir of Bida are situated. The kola nuts produced from these plantations are said to be more appreciated than any other, and, in order that the variety might not be grown elsewhere, stringent measures are said to have been enforced by the Emir, and the nuts were always exported to the north, where it was impossible to grow the tree, and where a very remunerative price was obtainable. This particular kind of kola nut is referred to as “Laboji,” and is said to be white.

The cultivation of kola could be undertaken in the Kabba and Bassa Provinces, especially in the moist valleys protected from severe winds by high plateaux, such as are commonly found in these localities.

In the export table of 1907 a small quantity of kola is shown, but this probably represents the re-export of produce from the south.

COTTON SEED.—The Lokoja Ginnery has exported a small quantity of cotton seed each year, but the trade is not a lucrative one, and the larger part of the cotton seed which is turned out of the ginnery is valueless for shipment.

FOOD CROPS.—The products which have been referred to above are those which have hitherto been exported from the country, but by far the most important agricultural products are those upon which the population itself subsists, and in relation to which the exported products are merely in the position of a surplus.

Before referring to the products regularly cultivated for food, it is necessary to mention that the seasons, which in the temperate zones are closely associated with a rise and fall in the temperature and its effect upon vegetation, are in West Africa determined to a much greater degree by the advent and cessation of the rainy period. The year is therefore divided into two seasons, roughly described as (1) that in which the conditions are hot and dry, and (2) that in which they are cooler and wet. The vegetation is so directly dependent upon the timely appearance of the rainy season and its normal distribution, that a failure of these conditions, even in a comparatively small degree, may have serious consequences and perhaps produce famine. In no part of British West Africa is a shortage or irregularity of the rainfall so severely felt, nor does it affect such a large number of people, as in the northern districts.

A table is given below showing the distribution of rain in Zaria for five years, and of that in Kano for three years. In each of these it will be seen that the fall in the year 1907 was far below the average, and that during the most important months for the growth of the staple grain crops—July, August, and September—there was a severe shortage of rainfall. The effect of this in Kano was to produce a condition of famine, which lasted for about six weeks. In a congested locality, such as exists in the vicinity of the town of Kano, the difficulty of importing sufficiently large supplies to afford relief at such a period was great, on account of lack of transport. The chief crop in this year, namely Guinea corn, was an almost complete failure in many places, but the millet

Table showing the Rainfall at Zaria for Five Years (1905 to 1909)

Month.	1905.	1906.	1907.	1908.	1909.
January	nil	nil	nil	nil	nil
February	nil	nil	nil	nil	·36
March	nil	nil	nil	·09	nil
April	·76	·85	2·20	1·84	3·56
May	5·90	9·50	3·69	1·91	5·79
June	7·24	5·95	7·05	6·94	6·51
July	7·19	14·49	3·75	7·42	13·11
August	15·04	16·39	4·46	14·36	16·62
September	13·28	9·90	6·33	12·08	6·61
October	1·40	3·93	2·32	·84	1·74
November	nil	·04	nil	nil	nil
December	nil	nil	nil	nil	1·50
Totals	50·81	61·05	29·80	45·48	55·80

(Pennisetum) crop, which is an early one, and not dependent on the rainfall after June, had received a normal amount of rain to that time, and was satisfactory; the stored supplies, as well as a second sowing, of this grain to some extent made up for the failure of the other.

The above table has been made out from the meteorological reports obtained at Zaria town, and probably represents a fair average of the rainfall conditions pertaining to the cultivated country in the vicinity.

The more northern district, of which Kano is the centre, is liable to smaller rainfall conditions than Zaria. A comparison can be made by reference to the table given below.

Table showing the Rainfall at Kano for Four Years (1906 to 1909)

Month.	1906.	1907.	1908.	1909.
January	nil	nil	nil	nil
February	nil	nil	nil	nil
March	nil	nil	·54	·09
April	·01	·10	·23	1·75
May	3·24	1·77	1·16	8·7
June	4·66	5·88	4·12	3·71
July	8·75	3·90	10·24	9·01
August	15·61	9·58	13·92	17·72
September	4·66	3·57	4·63	6·83
October	·87	·01	·02	·77
November	nil	nil	nil	nil
December	nil	nil	nil	·45
Totals	37·80	24·81	34·86	49·03

The remarks made above serve to emphasise two points in connection with the densely populated districts of the north, the first being the necessity of cultivating larger areas to permit of surplus supplies being stored, and the second the requirement of quick transport to enable supplies to be brought in from the Niger valley in cases of urgent need. The first of these also indicates the necessity for the improvement of agricultural methods by the introduction of ploughing, the extension of irrigation and dry-season crops, and the better distribution of the population. The second—the supply of quick transport—is becoming rapidly established, by means of the railway and improved roads.

The extension of irrigated crops can only be made in the vicinity of the larger rivers, or where good wells exist, and it may be found more expedient, therefore, that the inhabitants of the Niger, Benue, Kaduna, Gongola, and Gurara valleys should be urged to cultivate rice and maize under these conditions. The use of the land for two crops in each year would be made possible by the introduction of a leguminous crop as an intermediate, being sown later but in the same field with the irrigated crop, and being permitted to ripen, after the grain has been harvested, upon the stubble. A leguminous grain suitable for human food would be necessary in the river valleys where cattle are scarce, but a cattle food could be grown in the north where cattle are common, and where milk forms an important article of human consumption.

GUINEA CORN (Sorghum vulgare)—“Dawa” (Haussa), otherwise known as the Great or Indian Millet “Juar” (Hindustani), “Dhura” (Egyptian)—forms the most important food-grain of the inhabitants of the ultra-forest region of West Africa.

A large number of different varieties are recognised in Northern Nigeria, and are distinguished in the manner stated below. Most of these have a grain which is commonly used for human food, but at least two varieties are grown for other purposes.

The following list states the characters by which the various kinds can be determined from the appearance of the seed and form of the stem.

1. “Asidinono.”—Seed with white shell and black adherent envelope.

2. “Farafara.”—Seed with white shell and red adherent envelope.

3. “Boganderi.”—Seed with straw-coloured shell and red adherent envelope.

4. “Janari.”—Seed with pink shell and red adherent envelope.

5. “Kaura-ferin-sosia.”—Seed with straw-coloured shell and straw-coloured adherent envelope.

6. “Bokin-sosia.”—Seed with straw-coloured shell and black adherent envelope.

7. “Makafo-dewayo.”—Seed with straw-coloured shell and pointed straw-coloured adherent envelope, which scarcely opens.

8. “Asidigero.”—Small pink-shelled seed with red adherent envelope.

9. “Mazgua.”—Very large whitish seed with a straw-coloured envelope.

10. “Karandeffi.”—Seed with red shell and red adherent envelope. Never used for food, but employed in native medicine, as well as for the production of the red dye used for leather (Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. vi. [1908]).

11. “Takanda” or “Karantalaka.”—The seed has not been examined, but the stem contains a large quantity of saccharine juice, and the plant is grown entirely as a cattle food. Probably identical with S. saccharum.

The first four kinds are regularly employed as food, and are found growing as a mixed crop; although the white grains are more appreciated and frequently predominate. Nos. 5 and 6 are not considered so good for human food, but are largely employed for feeding cattle and horses, for which latter purpose they are greatly in demand. No. 7 is used for the same purpose as the last, but is a rarity and of no special value. These seven kinds are grown as six-months’ crops, and are harvested in October when the rains cease. No. 8 is a three-months’ cropping kind, which in this particular resembles “Gero” (Pennisetum typhoideum), as its native name indicates. The grain is much smaller than the others, and it is said to be cultivated to some extent in the Sokoto Province. No. 9 is a variety which is said to be cultivated in Bornu in the fertile depressions which retain moisture for long periods, or by means of irrigation from the rivers. (See Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. iv. [1906], p. 226.)

Guinea corn is permitted to occupy the land for a number of years successively, being often grown with “bulrush millet” (Pennisetum typhoideum). In this case the millet occupies the furrow whilst the Guinea corn is on the ridge, and this is reversed when the soil from the ridge has been hoed into the furrow and the previous ridge becomes the furrow. In many parts of the northern districts it is customary to permit the Guinea corn root-stocks to remain in the ground for two or three years, and to fill in the vacancies only with new seed when the old plants die. By this system it is found that the crops are better assured, as the old root-stocks withstand a prolonged drought better than new plants. This custom, if persisted in, would be a direct hindrance to the introduction of ploughing.

Manure is applied regularly to this crop in the northern districts, but never in the Niger valley. The method of applying manure varies according to the condition of the crop. Where entirely new plants are to be grown, a shallow bed is made upon the top of the ridge or in the furrow, and the goat, sheep, and cow manure mixed with ashes, and accumulated carefully in the villages, is spread thinly upon the bed before the seed is sown. In other places, where old root-stocks occur, handfuls of manure are applied to the growing plants in May. This is sometimes adopted where young plants only are growing. Manure is so necessary for the system of cultivation adopted in the Kano and Zaria Provinces that every scrap of material which is of manurial value is carefully preserved, being carried to the fields by men and donkeys.

The heads are cut when ripe and tied in bundles to dry, after which the grain is readily beaten out in wooden mortars or with sticks. The flour made from the grain is ground between stones, and is frequently eaten in the form of a thin porridge. Two varieties of Nigerian Guinea corn have been examined at the Imperial Institute and shown to be superior to Indian Guinea corn, though not quite so good as the Syrian grain (Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vii. [1909], p. 148.)

Smut-blights, Ustilago Reiliana and Tolyposporium sp. (called in Haussa “domana”), attack the heads, and a Capnodium sp. (called “derba”), the honeydew produced on the leaves by Aphis sorghi (cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. xi. [1913]).

At certain stages, green Guinea corn is poisonous to cattle, and for this reason goats, sheep, and cows are muzzled in the Kano and Zaria Provinces. Local knowledge of this fact confirms what has been observed elsewhere with regard to this species, and is explained by investigations conducted at the Imperial Institute. (Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. i. [1903], and vol. viii. [1910].)

BULRUSH MILLET.—This plant, which is supposed to be of African origin and is usually called millet in West Africa, belongs to that group of grasses of which the seeding head is in a compact form and in appearance resembles the head of a bulrush, from which the common name applied to it has been derived. The botanical name is Pennisetum typhoideum, and the plant is known in the country as “Gero” or “Giro” (Haussa), and in India as “Bajra.” At least two varieties, a smooth and an awned form, are grown as three-months’ crops, and are sown either alone or as described before with Guinea corn. It is usual to plant millet seed before the Guinea corn, generally about the middle of April, or as soon as the first showers are experienced. The crop is then ready for picking in June and July. If the rainfall by this time has been deficient to such an extent that the Guinea-corn crop promises to prove a failure, a second crop of millet is often put in, and, as very much less rain is required for this crop than is necessary for Guinea corn, the severe effects of a short rainfall are minimised. The grain yielded by Pennisetum typhoideum would be classed commercially as a millet, and a sample from Nigeria examined at the Imperial Institute was valued at 22s. per quarter of 480 lb. (July 1908).

In addition to the two varieties mentioned which are employed as three-months’ crops, there is another kind with a smooth greyish-white large grain which is called “Maiwa” or “Dauro,” and is cultivated in the same manner as Guinea corn; occupying the land for from five to six months. The pagan Gwaris to the south of Zaria grow this in large quantities, but it is uncommon north of Zaria.

These grains are easily stored, and keep in good condition for a long time. Flour is made from the grain by grinding, and both the grain and leaves are used for cattle food.

From the malted grain of millet, and sometimes of Guinea corn, an intoxicating beverage is made which is known as “Gir” (Haussa).

A fine grass seed called “Acha” (Digitaria ternata) is grown in the fields with millet, and attains a height of about two and a half feet. It is used for making a sort of porridge. “Tomba” (Eleusine coracana?) and “Iboru” are grown in a similar manner. The composition, nutritive value and commercial value of several of these food grains are fully dealt with in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vii. [1909], p. 148.

BRITISH COTTON GROWING ASSOCIATION GINNERY, OGUDU, ILORIN.

Fig. 34, [p. 139.]

GWARI TOWN, OPPOSITE MINNA, SOUTH OF ZARIA.

Fig. 35, [p. 155.]

COW FULANI WOMAN SELLING MILK AT GWARI.

Fig. 36, [p. 163.]

MAIZE.—“Mussara” (Haussa) is the name applied to this plant (Zea mays). The crop is more common in the Niger valley among the Nupe and Yoruba people than in the higher plateaux of Zaria and Kano. It is probable that maize requires a larger rainfall than the grain crops which have been mentioned above—which may account for the infrequency of its cultivation in the dry country.

Among the Gwari pagans, inhabiting the country in the vicinity of Minna, and the Nupe people to the south, fairly large quantities of maize are grown and seem to represent the chief food crop. The sowers drop only one seed, or at most two, into the drills, where they would put five or six Guinea-corn seeds. The only variety grown commonly has a bright yellow grain and is apparently a three-months’ crop; being sown at the commencement and in the middle of the rains, thus giving two crops in the year in some localities. An illustration is given at [Fig. 35] showing a view of the Gwari town at Minna.

WHEAT.—The cultivation of wheat is confined to the drier parts of Northern Nigeria, where it is grown as a rainfall as well as an irrigated crop.

In Zaria it is frequently sown in October, and occupies land which may have been under rice cultivation just previously. Goat manure is especially applied to wheat, and irrigation is carried out from wells or by the employment of shadufs on the banks of streams. This crop is harvested in January.

In Kano, wheat is more generally grown as a rainfall-crop in similar situations, and is, in this case, sown in May, being harvested in September.

The variety seems to be constant throughout the country, and appears to have been established from very early times. The grain is similar in appearance to the wheat seen in the Nile valley, and may be Triticum compositum (Egyptian wheat). Specimens from Kano and Zaria have been examined at the Imperial Institute, and the analyses made show about 11 per cent. of gluten including 5 to 6 per cent. of gliadin, and the commercial experts consulted were of opinion that an unlimited quantity of this type of wheat would be readily saleable on the European market (Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. viii. [1910], p. 118.) The Kano wheat in particular gave excellent results in milling and baking trials.

As a food, wheat is regarded with great favour in the country, and is bought up chiefly by the wealthy classes for making a brown flour. It makes an excellent bread, and is in demand among the European residents for mixing with European tinned flour for breadmaking.

In order to separate the grain from the ear, the dried corn is threshed by the village women; thin sticks being used for the purpose. The chaff is then winnowed in the wind. The Haussa name is “Alkama.”

In addition to Zaria and Kano districts, the grain is said to be plentiful and cheap in Sokoto and Bornu, but does not appear to be grown south of the 11th degree.

RICE.—The cultivation of rice extends over a much larger portion of the country than wheat. It is said to be especially plentiful in the low-lying districts to the south of Sokoto, where large tracts of swampy country exist, which are annually planted with the crop. On the banks of the Kaduna river, near Dakman and Dagomba, as well as in the valley of the Baku river in the Nupe country, irrigated rice fields are common, and the product from the Nupe Province is much appreciated by the inhabitants of the middle Niger. The local name for rice is “Shinkafa.”

Near Zaria and Kano comparatively little rice is cultivated, and where seen is generally found in swampy places where other food grains are not capable of being utilised. Rice in these localities is one of the few unmanured crops, and is planted at the commencement of the rainy season. The harvesting is done about November or December, and the paddy or husk-rice is cleaned by soaking the grain in hot water, drying in the sun and then pounding in a wooden mortar. The chaff is winnowed, and a fairly clean rice with a slight reddish tint remains. All the rice appears to be of the same type, and is held in high estimation for its nutritious quality. The imported white rices, which occasionally enter the country, are regarded with less favour than the local kind.

It is possible to develop the cultivation of the crop in the valleys of all the large rivers, and it seems probable that, with improved methods of irrigation, two crops might be grown annually.

A sample of rice from Ilorin examined at the Imperial Institute proved to be about equal in quality to average Bengal rice (Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. vii. [1909], p. 149), but it is improbable that it would at present prove remunerative to export this rice to Europe. A good market might, however, be found for it at the coast ports of Southern Nigeria, where imported rice is in demand. It might be necessary, in order to compete with the present trade, to grow and prepare a cleaner (less red) variety, which would resemble more nearly the imported kinds, and to this end the acclimatised American rice of Sierra Leone might be tried (cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. xv. [1917]).

SUGAR-CANE.—The cultivation of sugar-cane (Saccharum officinale) is confined to small patches or strips of land on the edges of rice fields, where it may be said to be under irrigation. The Haussa name is “Reke.” The preparation of sugar does not appear to be known in the country, and the sole use to which the plant is put, seems to be the consumption of the green stalks by the inhabitants and their cattle. The variety seen in Kano district appears to have a reddish stalk, and cane is said to be a feature in the Maigana district.

LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.—Several kinds of small beans are grown, of which the most valuable appears to be that known as “Wanki.” This is a white-skinned kind, similar to, but about half the size of, the white haricot of Europe. The cultivation of these beans is somewhat irregular; a few being occasionally sown among the millet and Guinea-corn crops. They are apparently never grown as a sole crop. A similar bean of a brown colour is common in the Bassa Province, but the white bean is generally distributed throughout the whole country.

The “Bambarra groundnut” (Voandzeia subterranea) is grown in a similar manner to the common groundnut (Arachis hypogea) which has been referred to among the exported products. The cultivation is similar, and the plant is seen occupying elevated ridges. The Haussa name is “Paruru.”

An unidentified bean, which is called “Girigiri,” has been described as being grown by the pagan Gwari tribes to the south of Zaria, but apart from the fact that it is much larger than the “Wanki” bean, nothing seems to be known about it.

Indian dhall (Cajanus indicus), frequently termed the pigeon pea, has been introduced into many parts of the country, with the object of inducing the native to grow a leguminous crop, which would serve the dual purpose of providing a palatable food as well as being beneficial to the soil, but in only a few localities do the natives appear to make use of the peas for food. It has been recommended to grow the plant upon land which has become somewhat exhausted by the repeated growth of grain crops, and to permit the peas to remain upon such land for two or three seasons, during which time they will yield successive crops. The beneficial action which such a plant exerts by nitrifying the soil, and the manurial value of the leaves, which are shed in thick profusion, are important reasons for its introduction, but the value will not be fully appreciated until it has been adopted generally as a food.

SOYA BEAN.—The Manchurian or soya bean (Glycine hispida or soja), which has the additional merit of yielding about 15 per cent. of a valuable oil, and which is highly appreciated as another kind of dhall in India, is being experimented with in various parts of British West Africa (see Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, vol. viii. [1910], p. 40).

The recent expansion in the cultivation of leguminous crops is a promising step.

CASSAVA.—Among the Haussas as well as the Yorubas and Nupes, the cultivation of cassava (Manihot utilissima) is extensively carried on. In Haussa cultivation it is an unmanured plant, and is usually grown in separate fields surrounded by mud walls, thorn hedges, or Guinea-corn matting. The ground from which a crop of cassava has been harvested is rarely used for Guinea corn; the succeeding crop being usually cotton, with the application of manure. In the Nupe country, near Bida, cassava is frequently employed as a shade crop for onions; in this case being planted around the onion beds and obtaining the benefit of the high state of cultivation, manuring and irrigation which is applied to that crop. Cassava grown under these conditions is planted twenty days later than the onions, and is pulled up a month later.

The pagan tribes of Zaria, and the other provinces where they are in greater numbers, do not seem to plant cassava. The Haussa name given to the plant is “Rogo.”

YAMS (Dioscorea sativa, etc.).—These climbers are commonly grown in the moist valley of the Niger and in the Yoruba country of Ilorin, but are rare and only an irrigated crop in the more northern countries. Where they are seen, they are planted from root eyes upon high mounds with ditches dammed to retain the water between them, and, until the plant has grown up as a trailer upon the ground, some feet in length, no supports are put in. At this time, however, the straw covers, which it is customary to place on the apex of the yam mounds, are removed and an elaborate system of stakes, to the top of each of which strings are tied and conducted to the ground near the growing plant, are put in, and the plants to the number of four or more are trained to grow towards the top of each stake.

The large white yam is chiefly grown, and is called in Haussa “Doya.” Yams attain large dimensions in the damp localities, but are small in the drier places.

Colocasia antiquorum, called by the Haussas “Kamu,” is usually referred to as the koko yam and is rarely grown. A few may be seen in the wet localities and near Zaria, where they are planted in swamps upon high mounds or ridges.

SWEET POTATOES.—This crop is grown everywhere, and is nearly always unmanured. It is said that it forms the occupant of the land upon which Guinea corn and millet are repeatedly grown in some parts of the Kano district in the second and eighth year—i.e. twice in a period of eight years. In the year of plantation, the ridges are said to be heightened. Near Bida very high beds are made for it, resembling flat-topped mounds, with an area of sixteen or more square feet. The Haussas apply the name “Dankali” to the root, which is usually of the small white variety.

Artichokes and small Root Crops.—The Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus) called “Gwaza,” as well as “Rizga” (Plectranthus sp.) and “Tumuku” (probably Plectranthus sp.) are cultivated by the people living to the south of Zaria Town.

“Gwaza” seems to be less planted than “Rizga,” the latter being carefully grown upon selected ground which has been previously hoed and levelled, the surface being covered over with branches of Bauhinia reticulata and other forest plants until the stems of the crop have reached a height of one foot or more. Single stems spring from the root eyes which are planted. “Tumuku” resembles “Gwaza” in appearance, but comes up in clusters of stems and is planted upon mounds.

All the above roots are used in the manner in which the potato is employed in Europe; cassava alone being pounded to make a kind of dough ball, in addition to being eaten in chopped up and boiled form.

Onions.—Two kinds of onions are cultivated throughout the country: Allium cepa, the large onion which is seen to perfection in the Kano markets, and Allium ascalonicum which is usually termed the shallot, and is cultivated to a larger extent in the localities where manure is scarce.

The variety of large onion grown in Kano is pink upon the outside, and for this reason, according to inquiries conducted by the Imperial Institute, is said to be quite unsuitable for the English market; the white Egyptian onion being preferred.

Cultivation.—The cultivation of onions is, perhaps, more carefully carried out than that of any other crop, and may be described from that seen at Lemu in Nupe. The seed is sown closely in beds of soil which have previously been enriched with manure, and the surface is covered with straw until the young plants are a few inches in height. Transplanting into new beds, which are strewn with cow and goat manure, is the next operation, the plants being put in at about 4-6 inches apart. The whole cultivation is done during the dry season, and the beds are irrigated by means of channels supplied with water raised from streams or wells, in the north by shadufs, or in the Nupe country by people conveying the water in calabashes.

The market price varies greatly in different districts, and is immediately influenced by any reduced supply. There is said to be a very good demand for the large onions in the Southern Nigerian markets, and there should be no difficulty in getting them to Lagos, as they have been brought from Kano to London in good condition.

Minor Crops.—Okra (Hibiscus esculentus), “Kubiewa,” a species of Solanum resembling a small tomato called “Yalo,” the sorrel Hibiscus (H. Sabdariffa) called “Yakwa,” a pumpkin called “Kubiwa,” and the aubergine (Solanum melongena), are grown upon a small scale, and chiefly in the vicinity of houses.

OTHER FIELD CROPS. Dye Plants.—Indigo is the chief dye used in the country, and is prepared in the northern provinces from a species of Indigofera, which has not been accurately determined.

In Ilorin and Kabba the plant used is Lonchocarpus cyanescens, and the wild trees of this species may be seen preserved in the cultivated fields.

Camwood, a name applied to the red wood obtained from several species of Pterocarpus and from Baphia nitida, in different parts of West Africa, is obtained chiefly from P. erinaceus in Northern Nigeria, and is used by the natives for staining the skin. It is preserved in the fields cleared for grain cultivation.

Henna is obtained from Lawsonia inermis, which is regularly planted as a sole crop in the northern provinces and Kontagora. The use of it is generally to replace camwood as a red dye where that tree is scarce.

Tobacco.—The cultivation of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) is carried on in almost every part of the country, but for native use is generally made into snuff or into ropes, plaits, and targets, for sale in those places where it is smoked. (Cf. Bull. Imp. Inst., vol. xv. [1917], p. 32.)

The crop is usually grown in the river valleys, and is irrigated carefully. Manure in the form of house sweepings, ashes, and cattle-shed refuse is always applied, and the crop consists of leaves of all sizes and ages stripped from the plant at the same time.

The preparation of the tobacco usually consists in drying the leaves spread upon mats or upon sand in the sun. When flaccid they are twisted into ropes or plaits in the form in which they are afterwards sold, or they are completely dried and pounded up. In Ilorin an attempt has been made to prepare the leaves tied up in flat bundles, and this method has more recently been tried at the Baro prison farm, but the previous curing has generally proved inefficient and requires more attention. It is unlikely that tobacco fit for export will be produced except under expert guidance.

MISCELLANEOUS. Beeswax.—Bees are kept in many of the large villages, and are seen in hives placed in trees near the large towns in Kano and Zaria especially. Honey is employed in the country as a substitute for sugar. The wax is not greatly valued, and is frequently thrown away, although it seems to be of fair quality.

Locust Bean.—The tree which furnishes the well-known locust bean (Parkia filicoidea) is called “Dorowa” by the Haussas. The beans, which are produced in clusters, contain a sweet-tasting yellow flour-like substance, which is used for making a beverage. In this flour-like substance the flattened seeds are placed, and these are greatly appreciated for making into cakes, in the process of which they are boiled and apparently decomposed. The empty pods of the bean are boiled and used for making a strong cement used in flooring, etc. The pods have been examined at the Imperial Institute, and appear to be unsuitable for export as a feeding-stuff owing to their fibrous nature (see Report by Professor Dunstan on “Cotton, Gum, and Other Economic Products from Northern Nigeria” (Cd. 2778 [1905]), p. 21). [Fig. 30] shows a locust bean tree in Ilorin.

Date Palms (Phœnix dactylifera) and the fruit of the Run palm (Borassus flabellifer), “Giginia” (Haussa), are used for food and are sometimes sold in the markets towards the south, being commonly seen in Kano.

CATTLE.—Large numbers of cattle are moved about through the country north of the 11th degree, where the tsetse fly does not appear to occur. The “Cow Fulani” is the race whose work is confined to the care of cattle and the sale of milk and butter. These people have no fixed abode, but move with the cattle to localities suitable to the season. An illustration is given of a Cow Fulani woman selling milk at Gwari, a town south of Zaria ([Fig. 36]). The cattle are large and humped similar to the Indian Zebu type, although in some places the straight-backed kind, which are common in the south, are seen.

SILK.—Four kinds of silkworm are collected for the spinning of yarn used in the embroidery on the Haussa gowns. The best of these is that which feeds upon the Tamarind tree, “Tsamia,” and is termed “Tsamian tsamia.” The silk cocoons are collected in Bauchi Province and are boiled in water with wood ashes, and subsequently washed. The silk becomes nearly white, and is carded and spun into yarn in the same manner as cotton. The species of insect which produces this silk has not yet been identified, but is almost certainly referable to the genus Anaphe (cf. [p. 117]).

A second quality of silk is that called “Tsamian doka,” and is obtained from the cocoon masses produced by the larvæ of Anaphe Moloneyi, which are found in the same locality, feeding upon the “Bokin doka” tree, which has been determined to be a species of Macrolobium. Several hundred worms congregate together and form a solid mass of pale brown tubular cocoons upon the bark of the tree, covering the outer surface with a whitish envelope of silk. This silk is treated in the same manner as the other, but, after boiling and washing, does not become white. Two other species, which are used for the same purpose, are called “Tsamian fakali” and “Tsamian bauri,” and feed on another species of Macrolobium and a Ficus respectively. They produce inferior kinds of silk.

Much interest is attached to these Anaphe silks, which, in recent years, have been developed in the German Colonies of East Africa, especially, on a commercial scale. It is reported that, just previous to the declaration of war, German agents in British West Africa made endeavours to obtain as much of the wild silk as possible from Nigeria. Plantations of a species of Bridelia, the common food plant of Anaphe infracta, were made in the late German Colonies, and special machinery was in use there for the production of a commercial silk.

The following figures give the values of the chief exported products from Nigeria as a whole, from 1913 to 1919:—

	1913	1914	1915	1916
	£	£	£	£
Palm kernels	3,109,818	2,541,150	1,692,712	1,739,706
Palm oil	1,854,384	1,571,691	1,462,162	1,402,799
Cocoa	157,480	171,751	313,946	393,101
Cotton lint	159,223	150,791	56,351	243,949
Mahogany and timber	106,050	86,522	54,559	49,361
Groundnuts	174,716	179,219	72,177	473,653
Hides and skins	197,214	505,785	302,420	538,917
Shea products	74,471	52,843	69,823	32,529
Rubber	—	38,854	38,113	34,192
Benniseed	—	—	5,225	16,523
Continued:		1917	1918	1919
		£	£	£
Palm kernels		2,581,702	3,226,306	4,947,995
Palm oil		1,882,997	2,610,448	4,245,893
Cocoa		499,004	235,870	1,067,675
Cotton lint		234,338	97,399	484,744
Mahogany and timber		21,282	68,480	116,820
Groundnuts		710,308	920,137	698,702
Hides and skins		198,332	293,019	1,262,142
Shea products		40,189	4,884	37,222
Rubber		32,350	19,667	43,903
Benniseed		2,876	696	53,541

---

INDEX

• Abassi, [110]
• Abbradi, [44]
• “Abe bobe,” [71], [100]
• “Abe dam,” [70], [100]
• “Abe Ohene,” [71], [100]
• Abeokuta, [119]
• Abeokuta-Ibadan, [106]
• “Abe pa,” [22], [70], [100], [132]
• Abetifi, [43]
• “Abe tuntum,” [70]
• Abrotoo, [44]
• Abuko, [3], [4]
• Aburi, [47], [49], [57], [63], [65], [66], [79]
• Acacia, [89], [91], [122], [134]
• Acacia albida, [134]
• Acacia arabica, [13], [62], [89], [134], [143]
• Acacia Caffra, [134]
• Acacia mellifera, [134]
• Acacia Senegal, [134]
• Acacia Sieberiana, [89]
• Acacia Verek, [134]
• Accra, [56], [106]
• Accra copal, [82], [106]
• Accras, [44]
• “Acha,” [154]
• Adampes, [44]
• Adda, [90]
• Administration, [121]
• “Affia-ko-jub,” [100]
• African mahogany, [72]
• African mango, [103]
• African rubber, [59]
• Afzelia africana, [72], [119]
• Agbede, [95], [109], [112]
• “Agbesi,” [144]
• Agege, [106], [109], [113]
• Agoonahs, [44]
• Agriculture in Haussaland, [133]
• Ahantas, [44]
• Ahedua, [72]
• Aimensa, [56]
• “Akee apple,” [95]
• Akim, [73]
• Akims, [45]
• “Ak-poro-jub,” [100]
• “Akwabohori,” [72]
• “Alkama,” [156]
• Allium escalonicum, [160]
• Allium cepa, [160]
• Alstonia congoensis, [105]
• Alstonia sp., [62]
• Amedika, [77]
• Amelonado, [46]
• American rice, [157]
• Anaphe infracta, [81], [117], [163]
• Anaphe Moloneyi, [163]
• Anaphe venata, [81], [117]
• Angola, [71]
• Ankobra, [72]
• Annatto, [54]
• Anogeissus leiocarpus, [96]
• Antiaris toxicaria var. africana, [74]
• Anum, [77]
• Aphis sorghi, [12], [153]
• Apis mellifera var. Adansonii, [10], [40], [91]
• Apocynaceæ, [64]
• Appolonias, [44], [74]
• Aquapim, [44]
• Arachis hypogæa, [3], [6], [84], [115], [132], [158]
• “Aribedda,” [128]
• Armatosterna buquetiana, [51]
• Aros, [94]
• Artichokes, [124], [160]
• Ashanti, [43], [44], [91]
• Ashanti-Akim, [47], [51]
• Ashanti kings, [63]
• “Ashanti lump,” [60]
• “Ashmouni,” [110]
• “Asidigero,” [152]
• “Asidonono,” [151]
• Askia, [86]
• “Asoge-e-jub,” [100]
• Aspidiotus destructor, [117]
• Assin, [44]
• “Attifufu,” [128]
• Aubergine, [161]
• “Au-su-ku,” [100]
• Axim, [47], [63], [66], [72], [74], [80]
• Badagri, [96], [117]
• Baga, [24]
• “Baggarua,” [143]
• “Bajra,” [154]
• Bakau, [9], [10]
• “Bako,” [72]
• Baku, [156]
• “Balata,” [127], [128]
• “Balsam of Copaiba,” [90], [147]
• “Bambarra” groundnut, [158]
• Bananas, [39], [95]
• “Baowe,” [17], [18]
• Baphia nitida, [37], [83], [96], [161]
• Barbetu, [86]
• Bark cloth, [74]
• Baro, [121], [130], [137]
• Baro-Kano Railway, [131], [137], [140], [141]
• Baro Prison Farm, [162]
• Basel Mission, [47]
• Bassa, [119], [120], [126], [128], [135], [136], [137], [139], [140], [145], [148], [157]
• “Bassi,” [12]
• Bathurst, [8], [9], [29]
• Batkanu, [28]
• Bauchi, [120], [124], [142], [144], [163]
• Bauhinia reticulata, [62], [160]
• Beans, [13], [88], [95], [157]
• Beer, [85]
• Beeswax, [10], [40], [91], [162]
• Belgian Congo, [25]
• Bendi, [93]
• Bengal rice, [157]
• Benin, [107]
• Benin City, [95]
• Benis, [94], [95]
• Benniseed, [124], [127], [142], [164]
• Benue, [137], [144], [151]
• Betel nut, [73], [116]
• Bida, [132], [137], [159], [160]
• Bissao, [29]
• “Black arm,” [112]
• “Black dye,” [144]
• Black gram, [42]
• Black oil, [98]
• “Black Rattler,” [79], [110]
• “Black smut,” [153]
• “Black Volta,” [43], [90]
• Bleaching gum, [135]
• Blighia sapida, [95]
• Bo, [18], [28], [38]
• “Boganderi,” [151]
• Boia, [24]
• “Bokin doka,” [163]
• “Bokin sosia,” [151]
• Bole, [86], [87]
• Bollworm, [112], [139]
• Borassus flabellifer, [162]
• Bordeaux mixture, [52], [63]
• Borers (copal), [82]
• Borgu, [122]
• Boring beetles, [51], [65]
• Bornu, [120], [124], [134], [139], [152], [156]
• Bread making, [156]
• Bridelia sp., [164]
• British Cotton Cultivation, [12], [78], [110], [136], [140]
• British Cotton Growing Association, [33], [77], [80], [87], [88], [108], [110], [112], [113], [131], [135], [140], [141]
• Brown beans, [157]
• “Brown cluster,” [128]
• “Brown medium,” [128]
• Buettnerieæ, [46]
• Bullelai, [3]
• Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, [8], [9], [11], [14], [23], [28], [39], [40], [59], [63], [66], [67], [69], [70], [71], [72], [73], [78], [80], [82], [90], [95], [102], [103], [105], [106], [113], [114], [115], [116], [117], [118], [125], [131], [133], [134], [135], [141], [143], [147], [152], [153], [155], [156], [157], [158], [161]
• Bullom, [16], [38], [40]
• “Bulrush millet,” [152], [154]
• Bumban, [24]
• Burkea africana, [89]
• “Bush,” [15], [17], [19], [41], [42], [45], [84], [94]
• Butter, [90], [115], [130], [142], [163]
• Butyrospermum Parkii, [90], [115], [128], [130]
• Cajanus indicus, [42], [88], [158]
• “Calabacillo,” [46]
• Calabar, [105]
• Calabash, [91], [144]
• “Cambodia” cotton, [34]
• Camwood, [37], [83], [96], [161]
• Canavalia ensiformis, [42]
• Candles, [70], [98], [103], [115], [130]
• Capnodium sp., [153]
• Capsicum annuum, [29], [141]
• Capsicum frutescens, [29], [141]
• Capsicum sp., [84]
• Capsid, [106]
• Caracas, [46]
• Caracas, [57]
• Carapa procera, [71]
• Caravans, [73], [136], [143]
• Carpodinus, [96]
• Carpodinus hirsutus, [65], [104], [128]
• Casamance River, [2], [6]
• Cassava, [3], [13], [19], [45], [84], [85], [88], [95], [114], [125], [126], [138], [158], [160]
• Castilloa elastica, [10], [65]
• Catch crops, [49]
• Cattle, [2], [3], [56], [73], [91], [118], [124], [151], [152], [153], [162], [163]
• Cattle food, [113], [142], [151], [154]
• Cayor, [6]
• Ceara rubber, [9], [65], [103], [129], [130]
• Central Province, [120], [122]
• Cercospora personata, [38]
• “Chena,” [45]
• Chew sticks, [96]
• Chillies, [141]
• China grass, [33]
• Chloridea obsoleta, [112], [139]
• Chlorita flavescens, [112]
• Chlorophora excelsa, [62], [72], [118]
• Clifford, Sir Hugh, [66]
• Clitandra elastica, [104]
• Clitandra laxiflora, [27]
• Clitandra Manni, [27]
• Cloth, native, [34]
• Cocoa, [38], [45], [46], [92], [94], [95], [106], [164]
• Cocoa-bark bug, [51]
• Cocoa borer, [51]
• Cocoa butter, [46]
• Cocoa, colouring, [54]
• Cocoa, tables of exports of, [59], [107]
• Cocoineæ, [67]
• Coconut, [67], [83], [96], [117]
• Cocoons, [81], [117], [163]
• Cocos, [67]
• Cocos nucifera, [83]
• Coffea Liberica, [39]
• Coffea robusta, [66]
• Coffea stenophylla, [39]
• Coffee, [39], [47], [66]
• Coir, [83]
• Colocasia antiquorum, [84], [115], [159]
• Colocasia yams, [95], [126]
• Colœoptera, [82]
• Colœopterous larvæ, [147]
• Communal rubber plantations, [103]
• Congo, [90]
• Conopharyngia crassa, [62]
• Conopharyngia sp., [105]
• Cooking oils, [88], [90]
• Coops, [91]
• Copaifera Guibourtiana, [37]
• Copal, [37], [81], [89], [92], [96], [106], [147]
• Copal resin, [127]
• Copra, [83], [92], [96]
• Corchorus, [33]
• Corchorus capsularis, [13], [32]
• Cotton, [11], [33], [74], [87], [92], [94], [95], [108], [124], [127], [135], [141], [159], [163], [164]
• Cotton, cultivation of, [111], [140]
• Cotton lint stainer, [112], [139]
• Cotton seed bugs, [110], [139]
• Cotton seed-cake, [113]
• Cotton seeds, [113], [148]
• Cow Fulani, [163]
• Cowpea, [42], [125], [133]
• Crabnut, [71]
• Criollo, [46], [57]
• Cross River, [94], [115], [118]
• Cucurbitaceæ, [84]
• “Culpepper’s Big Boll,” [110]
• Cundeamor, [57]
• Custard apples, [85]
• “Cutlass,” [22], [50], [52]
• “Cutlass bean,” [103]
• Cyanothyrsus oblongus, [84], [96], [106]
• Cyanothyrsus ogea, [106]
• Cyanothyrsus sp., [72], [106]
• Daboya, [87], [90], [91]
• Dagartis, [86]
• Dagomba, [86], [87], [89], [156]
• Dahomey, [29], [101], [120]
• Daka River, [43]
• Dakar, [29]
• Dakman, [156]
• “Dancing” cocoa, [54]
• Daniella thurifera, [89], [128], [147]
• “Dankali.” [160]
• “Danko Gawa,” [129]
• “Danko Kadainya,” [129]
• Date palm, [162]
• Dauro, [154]
• “Dawa,” [151]
• “Dawadawa,” [92]
• Denkera, [44]
• “Derba,” [153]
• “Dhall,” [88], [158]
• “Dhoole,” [34], [109]
• “Dhura,” [151]
• “Difumbe,” [71]
• Digitaria ternata, [154]
• Dioscorea alata, [88]
• Dioscorea colocasifolia, [88]
• Dioscorea sativa, [88], [159]
• Dioscorea sp., [84], [115]
• Diospyros sp., [118]
• Diparopsis castanea, [112]
• “Djenje,” [27]
• Dodowa, [56]
• Dolichos lablab, [42]
• “Domana,” [153]
• Dombeya buettneri, [96]
• Donkeys, [73], [126]
• “Dorowa,” [162]
• “Doya,” [159]
• Dressed skins, [127]
• “Dubini,” [72]
• “Dumjeri,” [121]
• Dunstan, Professor Wyndham, [12], [78], [110], [136], [140], [162]
• Dwarf cattle, [119]
• Dwarf goats, [119]
• Dwarf horses, [119]
• Dysdercus nigrofasciatus, [76]
• Dysdercus superstitiosus, [112], [139]
• Earias biplaga, [139]
• Earias imbricata, [112]
• Earias insulana, [112], [139]
• Earias sp., [139]
• Earthenware, [119]
• “Earth pea.” See Groundnut
• Eastern agriculture, [124]
• Eastern Akim, [47]
• Eastern Sudan, [86]
• “Ebo,” [128]
• Ebony, [117], [118]
• Ebute Metta, [105]
• “Eduege-Eyop,” [100]
• “Efi-ako-Eyop,” [100]
• Egga, [137]
• Egg-plant, [95]
• Egypt, [86], [124]
• Egyptian boll-worm, [112], [139]
• Egyptian cotton, [11], [76], [78], [109], [110], [136], [137]
• Egyptian wheat, [155]
• Eket, [107]
• Elæis guineensis, [11], [19], [67], [70], [132]
• Elæis Thompsonii, [71], [100]
• Elephants, [88]
• Eleusine coracana, [155]
• Embroidery, silk, [163]
• Entandrophragma sp., [118]
• “Eponkon,” [108], [109], [110]
• Euphorbia, [126]
• “Fai” or “Fawe” beans, [40]
• Fallow, [138]
• Famine conditions, [126], [149]
• Fan palm, [7]
• “Fande Wa,” [34]
• Fanti, [25], [44], [74]
• “Farafara,” [151]
• “Farin rama,” [144]
• Farmers’ Association, [30]
• “Fatainya,” [125]
• Fernando Po, [38], [46], [47], [57]
• Fetish nut, [100]
• Fibre preparation, [145]
• Fibres, [13], [17], [31], [80], [89], [96], [116], [127], [144], [146]
• Fibrous plants, [94], [145]
• Fibrous pulp (oil palm), [97]
• Ficus, [59], [65], [128], [163]
• Ficus platyphylla, [128]
• Ficus trachyphylla, [129]
• Ficus Vogelii, [9], [65], [129]
• Fig rubber, [65]
• “Findi,” [12]
• “First Niggers,” [104]
• “Flake rubber,” [65], [128]
• Floods, [12]
• Flour, [153], [154], [156]
• Fogni, [2], [8]
• Fogola, [145]
• “Folio,” [9]
• Food crops, [148]
• “Forastero,” [46]
• “Forastero-Amelonado,” [47], [57]
• Forest produce, [127]
• Forest products, [45], [94]
• Forest reserve, [119], [130]
• Forestry, [42]
• Fork “kodalli hoe,” [17]
• Fossil copal, [82], [106]
• Foulahs, [1], [16]
• Four-eyed palm-nuts, [100]
• Fowls, [91]
• Fra-Fra potato, [89]
• Freetown, [27], [28], [40]
• French Guinea, [28], [120]
• French Sudan, [43], [120]
• Fruit, [39], [95]
• Fuel, [97], [119]
• Fulani, [1], [122], [124]
• Funtumia africana, [26], [60], [62], [105]
• Funtumia elastica, [10], [26], [60], [66], [95], [96], [103], [128], [129], [130]
• Funtumia rubber, [27], [28], [60], [61], [63], [66], [103]
• Furniture making, [118]
• Gallinas, [16], [39]
• Gambaga, [85]
• Gambaga-Kumassi Road, [86]
• Gambia, [38], [88], [91], [99], [100]
• GAMBIA, introductory remarks, geographical position, [1]; area and population, [1]; tribes, [1]; political divisions, [2]; natural conditions, [2]; chief crops, [3]; implements, [3]; ploughing, [3]; land tenure, [3]; labour, [4]; agricultural schools, [4]; chief exports, [5]; Ground Nuts, uses, [5]; classification and description, [6]; Rubber, [8]; Beeswax, [10]; Palm Kernels, [11]; Cotton, [11]; Grain, [12]; Root and other Crops, [13]; Tanning, [13]; Fibres, [13]; Timber, [13]; Trade, [14]
• Gambian groundnut, [132]
• “Gamopale,” [70]
• “Gara,” [39]
• “Garma,” [125]
• “Gawo,” [134]
• Gbemas, [16]
• “Gboi-gboi,” [26]
• “Geda,” [132]
• Geidam, [121]
• Gelechiadæ, [112]
• Gelechia gossypiella, [112]
• “Georgia” cotton, [110], [112]
• German African Colonies, [129], [163]
• German ports, [134]
• German territory, [86], [104]
• “Gero,” [152], [154]
• “Giginia,” [162]
• Gingelly, [142]
• Ginger, [30]
• Ginnery, [33], [77], [108]
• Ginning centres, [137]
• Ginning machines, [77]
• Gins, [76]
• “Gir,” [154]
• “Girigiri,” [158]
• “Giro,” [154]
• Glenea sp., [51]
• Gliadin, [156]
• Glossina morsitans, [91]
• Glossina pallidipes, [91], [119]
• Glossina palpalis, [91], [119]
• Gluten, [156]
• Glycerine, [70]
• Glycine hispida, [158]
• Glycine soja, [42], [158]
• Glyphodes ocellata, [63]
• Goat manure for wheat, [155]
• Goat skins, [13], [116], [142]
• Gober, [123]
• Gola Forest, [26]
• Gold Coast, [1], [10], [22], [27], [29], [36], [99], [116], [132], [145], [148]
• GOLD COAST, Ashanti and Northern Territories, introductory remarks, geographical position, [43]; area and population, [43]; divisions, [43]; Part I. Gold Coast and Ashanti, origin of tribes, [44]; Cocoa, [45]; pruning, [50]; insect pests and vegetable parasites, [50]; harvesting and preparing, [52]; markets, [54]; improvement of quality, [56]; exports, [59]; Rubber, indigenous species, [59]; “Ofruntum” tree, [59]; distribution of Funtumia elastica, [60]; native methods of preparing, [60]; improved methods, [62]; plantations, [63]; insect pest, [63]; fungoid pest, [63]; rubber machinery, [63]; vine rubber, [64]; fig rubber, [65]; introduced species, [65]; Palm Oil and Kernels, [66]; habits of the oil palm, [67]; preparation of palm oil, [68]; kernel oil, [69]; commercial uses, [69]; varieties of oil palms, [70]; Other Oil Seeds, [71]; Timber, mahogany, [72]; other timber trees, [72]; Kola, [73]; Cotton, [74]; American and other exotic cottons, [78]; attempts at hybridisation, [78]; valuation of samples at Imperial Institute, [79]; Fibres, [80]; Silk, [81]; Copal, [81]; Copra, [83]; Dyes and Pigments, [83]; Indigo, [83]; Field Crops, [84]; Part II. Northern Territories, tribes, [85]; Field Crops, [87]; cotton, [87]; other field crops, [88]; fibre, [89]; tobacco, [89]; Gums, [89]; Wood Oil, [89]; Shea Butter, [90]; Rubber, [90]; Dyes, [90]; Beeswax, [91]; Leather, [91]; Cattle and Poultry, [91]; Exports, [92]
• Gongola, [151]
• Gonjas, [85]
• Gossypium arboreum var. sanguineum, [136]
• Gourds, [84]
• Gpakas, [16]
• Grain, [12], [94]
• Grass cloth, [74]
• Grass fires, [90]
• Great or Indian millet, [151]
• “Green seed” cotton, [75], [78]
• Groundnut, [1], [3], [4], [5], [12], [14], [38], [42], [84], [85], [87], [88], [92], [95], [96], [115], [124], [125], [126], [127], [132], [133], [142], [158], [164]
• Groundnut, origin of, [6]
• Grunshis, [86]
• Guarea, [118]
• Guavas, [85], [95]
• “Guinea corn,” [3], [12], [41], [73], [84], [87], [88], [95], [124], [126], [137], [142], [149], [151], [152], [153], [154], [155], [157], [159]
• “Guinea fowls,” [91]
• Gums and resins, [37], [81], [87], [127], [134]
• Gurara, [151]
• “Gutta,” [128]
• Guttapercha, [127], [129]
• “Gutta-shea,” [130], [131]
• Gwari, [123], [124], [126], [154], [155], [158], [163]
• “Gwaza,” [160]
• Hamburg, [134]
• Hand plough, [3]
• “Hard” oil, [97]
• Haussa, [13], [74], [89], [90], [94], [116], [122], [123], [124], [126], [132], [144], [154], [156], [157], [158], [159], [160], [162]
• Haussa Land, [122]
• Head load as trading standard, [54]
• Head loads, [73], [91]
• Hedges, [126]
• Helianthus tuberosus, [160]
• Helopeltis, [52]
• Helopeltis Antonii, [52]
• Henna, [161]
• Hevea brasiliensis, [10], [28], [61], [65], [129], [130]
• Hibiscus, [13], [89], [116], [140], [144], [146]
• Hibiscus esculentus, [13], [32], [84], [161]
• Hibiscus guineensis, [96], [145]
• Hibiscus lunariifolius, [144], [145]
• Hibiscus quinquelobus, [32]
• Hibiscus sabdariffa, [89], [145], [161]
• Hides, [127], [164]
• Hippopotami, [88]
• Hoe, [3], [17], [87], [125]
• Holarrhena Wulfsburgii, [105]
• Honckya ficifolia, [31]
• Honey, [40], [91], [162]
• Horse beans, [42]
• Horse food, [152]
• Horses, [2], [91]
• Husking rice, [156]
• Hybridisation, cotton, [78], [109], [111]
• Ibadan, [97], [110], [112], [113], [115], [117], [139]
• “Iboru,” [155]
• Ibos, [94]
• Ida, [105]
• “Ifa,” [100]
• Ifon, [95], [119]
• Ijoas, [94]
• Ilaro, [116]
• Ilesha, [119]
• Illara, [119]
• Illushi, [109], [113]
• Ilorin, [110], [115], [120], [121], [123], [129], [130], [131], [135], [137], [139], [140], [141], [144], [145], [146], [148], [157], [159], [161], [162]
• Immunity from fly disease, [119]
• Imperial Institute, [12], [34], [57], [62], [70], [71], [79], [82], [89], [90], [91], [99], [102], [109], [131], [135], [136], [145], [153], [154], [155], [157], [160], [162]
• Implements, agricultural, [18], [125]
• Incense, [147], [148]
• Indigenous cotton, [109]
• Indigo, [13], [34], [39], [83], [90], [95], [119], [144], [161]
• Indigofera sp., [13], [39], [83], [88], [95], [161]
• Ink, [13]
• Insect pests, [50], [87], [110], [112], [117], [139]
• Ipomœa Batatas, [84]
• “Ire,” [128]
• “Irök-eyop,” [100]
• “Iroko,” [118]
• Irrigated crops, [126], [151], [155], [156], [159], [161]
• Irrigation, [94], [137], [142], [145], [155], [157]
• Irvingia Barteri, [103]
• Ishan, [112], [119]
• Ishans, [95]
• Itu, [107]
• “Ivioronmila,” [100]
• Ivory Coast, [62]
• Iwo, [113]
• “Janari,” [151]
• “Jannovitch,” [110]
• Jars, [119]
• Java beans, [42]
• “Jawe,” [27]
• Jebba, [137], [141]
• Jebu, [98]
• Jolahs, [1], [2], [7], [8], [11]
• Joloffs, [1], [2], [3], [4]
• Juar, [151]
• Jute, [13], [31], [80], [81], [89], [145], [146], [147]
• Jute substitute, [116], [146]
• Kabba, [120], [128], [135], [142], [145], [148], [161]
• “Kabe-kalako,” [100]
• “Kadainya,” [130]
• Kaduna River, [148], [151], [156]
• Kainabai, [24]
• “Kalal,” [17], [18]
• Kamabai, [24]
• Kamerun, [23], [25], [70], [71], [101], [120]
• “Kamu,” [159]
• Kangahun, [32]
• Kano, [120], [121], [122], [123], [124], [125], [128], [132], [133], [134], [135], [137], [138], [141], [142], [143], [144], [148], [149], [150], [153], [155], [156], [157], [159], [160], [161], [162]
• Kano leather, [91], [142]
• Karaga, [86]
• “Karandeffi,” [144], [152]
• “Karantalaka,” [152]
• “Karantudi,” [144]
• Karene, [38]
• “Kari,” [17], [18]
• “Karu,” [134]
• “Karu wai,” [17], [18]
• Kataguni, [121]
• “Katala,” [17], [18]
• “Katala kabana,” [17], [18]
• Katsena, [124]
• “Kaura-ferin-sosia,” [151]
• “Kawa,” [89]
• Kernel, palm, [11], [19], [23], [24], [26], [45], [69], [92], [127], [132], [164]
• Kernel, palm, Special Committee, [69]
• Kernel, shea, [130]
• Kernels, exports, [102], [127]
• Kernels, palm, export tax, [101]
• Khaki cotton, [34]
• “Kharif,” [142]
• Khaya, [118]
• Khaya senegalensis, [14], [72]
• Kicksia africana, [60]
• “Kidney” cotton, [75], [109], [110]
• “King palm” nut, [100]
• King’s market, Ibadan, [117]
• “Kinto,” [12]
• Knepp, [121]
• Kobbo, [9]
• “Kodalli” fork-hoe, [17]
• Kogin-Serikin-Pawa River, [131]
• Koinadugu, [15], [24]
• “Koko” yams, [84], [115], [159]
• Kola acuminata, [29], [73], [116]
• Kolas, [4], [17], [19], [29], [47], [73], [92], [94], [95], [116], [148]
• Kola vera, [29], [116]
• Kombe, [85]
• Kommbo, [2], [11]
• Konnohs, [16]
• Kontagora, [120], [121], [122], [134], [135], [144], [161]
• Korankos, [13], [16]
• “Korwey,” [32]
• Kotoo, [9], [10], [13]
• Krachi, [87]
• Krepes, [45], [75]
• “Krepi ball,” [62], [64], [65]
• Krepi country, [76], [85]
• Krims, [16]
• “Krobo,” [82], [83]
• Krobo Hills, [67]
• Krobo plantations, [69]
• Krobos, [45], [69]
• “Kubiewa,” [161]
• “Kubiwa,” [161]
• Kumassi, [43], [47], [55], [63], [64], [79]
• Kumassi Agricultural Exhibition, [64]
• Kussassis, [86]
• Kwahu, [47], [66], [73]
• Kwahus, [45]
• “Kwakwa,” [100], [132]
• Kwalu, [37]
• “Kwonde,” [34]
• “Laboji,” [148]
• Labolabo, [77], [78], [79], [87]
• “Ladybird” beetles, [117]
• Lafenwa, [113]
• Lagos, [12], [19], [74], [93], [97], [98], [101], [102], [106], [107], [115], [116], [148], [161]
• “Lagos fine grade” oil, [97]
• Lagos Government Railway, [135]
• “Lagos silk rubber,” [10], [96]
• Lammin, [4]
• Landolphia, [90], [96], [128]
• Landolphia florida, [104], [128], [148]
• Landolphia Heudelottii, [8], [28]
• Landolphia owariensis, [27], [28], [62], [64], [65], [90], [104], [128]
• Landolphia senegalensis, [104]
• Landolphia Thollonii, [90]
• Landolphia Thompsoni, [104], [128], [148]
• Lapita, [115]
• Latex, [8], [9], [10], [26], [28], [60], [61], [64], [104], [129], [148]
• Latex-yielding plants, [104]
• Lawsonia inermis, [161]
• “Leaf-blistering blight,” [112]
• Leather, [13], [91], [96], [116], [142], [152]
• Leguminosæ, [6], [82], [83], [147]
• Leguminous crops, [115], [151], [157]
• Lemu, [160]
• Lever Bros., [24], [25]
• Liberia, [15], [28], [80]
• Licences to collect wild rubber, [103], [105]
• Limbas, [16]
• Lime juice, [144]
• Limes, [85]
• “Lisombe,” [23], [70], [71], [101]
• Livestock, [127]
• Lobis, [86]
• Locust beans, [162]
• Lokoja, [121], [128], [130], [135], [139], [140]
• Lokoja Ginnery, [140], [141], [148]
• Lonchocarpus cyanescens, [39], [90], [95], [144], [161]
• Longicorn beetles, [51]
• Looms, [11], [34]
• Lophira alata, [40], [103]
• Lophira procera, [40]
• Lugard, Sir Frederick, [121], [122]
• Lumber, [92]
• Mabang, [18]
• M’Carthy Island, [2]
• “Machete,” [22], [50]
• Machinery, rubber, [64]
• Machines for nut cracking, [69], [98]
• Macrolobium sp., [163]
• Madam Yoko, [28]
• Mafokoyia, [21], [24]
• Mahogany, [14], [72], [117], [119], [164]
• Maifoni, [121]
• “Maiwa,” [154]
• Maize, [3], [12], [19], [42], [45], [75], [84], [85], [95], [96], [114], [115], [124], [126], [140], [151], [155]
• “Makafo dewayo,” [151]
• Makump, [24]
• Mallams, [4]
• Malted grain, [154]
• Mampong, [47]
• Mamprussi, [85]
• Mamu, [103]
• “Mandingo butter,” [40]
• Mandingoes, [1], [3], [7], [9], [10], [11], [12], [16]
• Mango, African, [103]
• Mangroves, [1]
• Manihot Glaziovii, [9], [65], [129]
• Manihot palmata, [13]
• Manihot utilissima, [84], [158]
• Manjagos, [9]
• Mano, [28]
• “Manoh twist,” [27]
• Manure, [49], [94], [126], [138], [142], [147], [153], [158], [159], [160], [161]
• Manuring, [125]
• Marseilles, [8], [14], [134]
• “Mazgua,” [152]
• Meko, [109], [111]
• Meliaceæ, [72], [118]
• Meliola, [63]
• “Memeluku,” [65]
• Mendi, [16], [22], [25], [26], [27], [32], [34], [35], [37], [39], [40]
• Meteorological reports, [38], [150]
• Milk, [151], [163]
• Millet, [3], [12], [42], [87], [88], [124], [126], [137], [142], [149], [154], [157]
• Milling trials, [156]
• Mimosa group, [122]
• Mimusops sp., [72]
• Minna, [155]
• Monkey nut. See Groundnut
• Monodora myristica, [89]
• Mordant, [96]
• Morocco leather, [143]
• Moshis, [86]
• Mossi, [86]
• Moyamba, [28], [33], [37]
• Munchi, [137]
• Muri, [120], [144], [146]
• Musa sapientum, [84]
• “Mussara,” [155]
• Muzzling cattle, [153]
• “Napunti,” [31]
• Naraguta, [121]
• Nassarawa, [120], [135], [139]
• Native beer, [119]
• Native cloths, [87]
• Native cotton, [90]
• Native leather, [111]
• Native levies, [86]
• Navigation of Volta River, [87]
• “Neou,” [89]
• “Neul,” [100]
• “Niama,” [62]
• Nicotiana tabacum, [13], [161]
• Niger, [94], [104], [105], [111], [113], [120], [122], [134], [135], [136], [137], [139], [144], [145], [146], [147], [151], [153], [155], [156], [159]
• Nigeria, [22], [25], [27], [81], [105]
• NIGERIA—NORTHERN PROVINCES, introductory remarks, [120]; administration and political divisions, [121]; natural divisions, [122]; implements, [125]; Rubber, [127]; sources, [128]; plantations, [129]; Shea Nuts, [130]; Palm Oil and Kernels, [132]; Groundnuts, [132]; Gums, [134]; Cotton, [135]; Exotic cottons, [136]; valuation of cottons, [136]; improvement of plant, [138]; Capsicums, [141]; Benniseed, [142]; Kano Leather, [142]; Fibres, [144]; Wood Oil, [147]; Kola, [148]; Cottonseed, [148]; Food Crops, [148]; Guinea Corn, [151]; Bulrush Millet, [154]; Maize, [155]; Wheat, [155]; Rice, [156]; Sugar Cane, [157]; Leguminous Plants, [157]; Soya Beans, [158]; Cassava, [158]; Yams, [159]; Sweet Potatoes, [159]; artichokes and small root crops, [160]; onions, [160]; minor crops, [161]; Other Field Crops, dye plants, [161]; Tobacco, [161]; Miscellaneous: beeswax, [162]; locust bean, [162]; date palms, [162]; Cattle, [162]; Silk, [163]
• NIGERIA—SOUTHERN PROVINCES, introductory remarks, administrative divisions, [93]; geographical position, [93]; area and population, [93]; natural divisions, [93]; inhabitants, [94]; cultivation, [94]; principal crops, [95]; Oil Palm, [96]; other oil seeds, [102]; Rubber, [103]; export, [105]; Copal, [106]; Cocoa, [106]; Cotton, [103]; Maize, [114]; Cassava, [114]; Yams, [115]; Groundnuts, [115]; Shea Nuts, [115]; Kola, [116]; Fibre, [116]; Leather, [116]; Tobacco, [117]; Silk, [117]; Coconuts, [117]; Mahogany and Ebony, [117]; Cattle, [118]; Pottery, [119]; Forest Reserves, [119]
• “Niggers,” [60]
• Nimrod, [123]
• Njala, [41], [42]
• North Bornu, [121]
• Northern Nigeria, [1], [13], [65], [82], [90], [91], [99], [100], [105], [110], [116]
• Northern Sherbro, [39]
• Northern Territories (Gold Coast), [85]
• Nupe, [120], [122], [131], [132], [135], [139], [141], [144], [146], [148], [155], [156], [159], [160], [161]
• Nupes, [94], [123], [126], [128], [133], [140], [158]
• Nut-cracking machinery, [69], [98]
• Nuts, [98], [99]
• “Oapottoa,” [129]
• “Obi abatta,” [116]
• “Obi gbanja,” [116]
• Obuassi, [79]
• “Odum,” [62], [72]
• Odumase, [46]
• Odumassi, [67]
• Œcophylla sp., [51]
• Ofin River, [43], [66]
• “Ofo,” [62]
• “Ofruntum,” [59]
• “Ogbagba,” [128]
• “Ogea gum,” [96], [106]
• “Ogea” resin, [82]
• “Ogedudin,” [100]
• “Ogudu” cotton, [110]
• Ogudu Ginnery, [135], [139], [140]
• Oil, [90], [99]
• Oil, crab-nut, [71]
• Oil, edible, [102]
• Oil, groundnut, [5], [85], [133], [142]
• Oil, kernel, [69]
• Oil mill, [113]
• Oil, olive, [5], [134], [142]
• Oil, palm, [11], [19], [22], [24], [26], [45], [66], [68], [80], [85], [92], [94], [96], [119], [132], [140], [143], [164]
• Oil, palm exports, [102]
• Oil seeds, [40], [102]
• Oil, sesamum, [142]
• Oil, soya bean, [158]
• “Ojuku,” [100]
• “Okporukpu,” [100]
• “Okra,” [13], [32], [84], [89], [95], [161]
• “Okre,” [62]
• “Okumankra,” [72]
• Old Calabar, [105], [107]
• Oleo margarine, [6]
• Oleo resinous exudation, [147]
• Olokemeji, [93], [110], [116]
• Ondo, [119]
• Onions, [126], [159], [160]
• Onitsha, [97], [119]
• “Opapeh,” [72]
• “Ope arunfo,” [100]
• “Ope Ifa,” [71], [100]
• “Ope pankora,” [100]
• “Ope yope,” [100]
• Opobo, [93], [102]
• Oranges, [39], [85], [95]
• Oryza sativa, [12], [88]
• “Osese,” [62]
• Oshogbo, [97], [98]
• Ostrich feathers, [127]
• “Otakataka,” [62]
• Ouassoulou, [86]
• Owo, [119]
• “Owya,” [125]
• Oxycarenus, [139]
• Oxycarenus Dudgeoni, [76], [112]
• Oxycarenus gossipinus, [76], [112]
• Oxycarenus hyalinipennis, [76], [112]
• Oyo, [113], [115]
• Paddy, [156]
• Paganism, [86]
• Pagans, [94], [124], [155], [159]
• “Pagns,” [11]
• Palmæ, [67], [80]
• Palm fruit pulp, [85]
• Palm wine, [11], [67], [85]
• Pamphlets in Twi, [58]
• Panguma, [26]
• Paper manufacture, [146]
• Papilionaceæ, [6]
• “Para” rubber, [10], [28], [47], [50], [61], [63], [65], [66], [103], [105], [129]
• Parkia filicoidea, [92], [162]
• “Paruru,” [158]
• “Paste” rubber, [9], [104], [128], [148]
• Pawpaws, [85], [95]
• Pendembu, [34]
• Pennisetum typhoideum, [12], [150], [152], [154]
• Pentaclethra macrophylla, [40], [103]
• Pentadesma butyracea, [40]
• Pentagona, [57]
• Pepper, [29], [84], [95], [126], [141]
• Petroleum, [140]
• Petroleum-soap emulsion, [51]
• Phaseolus lunatus, [42]
• Phaseolus mungo, [42]
• Phœnix dactylifera, [162]
• Piassava, [13], [33], [80], [116]
• “Pidgin English,” [16]
• Pigeon peas, [42], [88], [158]
• Pigments, [83]
• Pillows, [143]
• Pineapples, [39], [85], [95]
• Plaits (tobacco), [161]
• Plantains, [84], [85]
• Plantations (rubber), [129]
• Plectranthus sp., [89], [160]
• Ploughs, [3], [17], [124], [138], [150], [153]
• Poisonous guinea corn, [153]
• Polishing cocoa, [54]
• Porridge, [12], [153], [155]
• Port Lokko, [35], [40]
• Port Lokkos, [16]
• Portuguese Guinea, [6], [9]
• Potato, [160]
• Pottery, [119]
• Poultry, [91]
• Pra River, [43], [72]
• Pruning cocoa, [50]
• Pseudocedrela, [118]
• Pseudocedrela Kotschyi, [72], [89]
• Pterocarpus erinaceus, [14], [161]
• Pterocarpus sp., [96], [161]
• Pterocarpus tinctorius, [96]
• Pumpkins, [95], [161]
• Pyralidæ, [63]
• “Quaqua.” See “Kwakwa”
• Rabba, [137]
• “Rabi,” [142]
• Railways, [115], [121], [150]
• Rainfall, [2], [39], [48], [93], [120], [126], [141], [149], [150], [154], [155]
• “Rama” fibre, [126], [144], [145], [147]
• “Ramie” fibre, [33]
• “Ramo” fibre, [144], [145]
• Rano, [123]
• Raphia vinifera, [13], [33], [80], [116]
• Raw cotton, [12], [88]
• Red dye, [144], [152], [161]
• Red earth, use of, [54]
• “Red Kano” rubber, [128]
• “Red nigger rubber,” [27], [128]
• Red onions, [160]
• Red rice, [88]
• Red wood, [118]
• “Reke,” [157]
• Renovation of rubber forest, [63]
• Resin, [81], [89], [147]
• Retting fibre, [81], [146]
• “Rhizome rubber,” [90], [104]
• Rice, [3], [12], [19], [35], [42], [88], [95], [124], [125], [126], [151], [156], [157]
• “Richmond” cotton, [79], [110]
• Ridge cultivation, [125]
• “Rizga,” [160]
• Rogo, [126]
• “Rogo,” [159]
• “Root rubber,” [27], [65], [90], [104], [128]
• Roots, [94]
• Ropes, [13], [96], [144], [145], [161]
• Rosewood, [14]
• Rotation of crops, [3], [13], [41], [75], [133], [159]
• Rubber, [17], [45], [47], [59], [80], [90], [92], [94], [95], [96], [103], [127], [140], [148], [164]
• Rubber Commission, [63]
• Rubber export, [66], [92], [105], [127]
• Rubber, vine, [8], [27], [64], [103], [128]
• Rufisque, [6]
• Run palm, [162]
• Saccharum officinale, [157]
• Saddlery, [143]
• Sahara, [143]
• Sahlbergella singularis, [51]
• Sahlbergella theobroma, [51]
• Salaga, [88], [91]
• Saloum, [6]
• Salt, [88]
• Samodu Almami, [86]
• Samory, [86]
• “Sangumi,” [125]
• “Sankonuabe,” [51]
• “Sannio,” [12]
• San Thomé, [38], [46], [57]
• “Sanyan,” [81], [117]
• Sapari Hills, [86]
• Sapele, [105]
• Savelugu, [86]
• “Scale insect,” [117]
• “Scrap rubber,” [8], [64], [65], [104], [128], [129]
• “Sea Island” cotton, [34], [76], [78], [110]
• Seasons, [149]
• “Seed bugs,” [76]
• Seed cake, [113], [142]
• Seed cotton, [87], [135], [138]
• Seedless palm fruit, [71]
• Seed selection, [138]
• Segbwema, [28]
• Sekondi, [47], [55], [63], [66], [72], [80]
• Senegal, [2], [6], [8], [122], [133], [134]
• Serabu, [28]
• Sesamum indicum, [142]
• Shade crop, [159]
• “Shaduf,” [124], [126], [155], [161]
• Shallot, [160]
• Shari, [137], [140]
• “Shea butter,” [73], [88], [90], [115], [127], [130], [143]
• Shea-butter tree, [128]
• “Shea gutta,” [129]
• Shea nut, [102], [115], [130]
• Shea-nut products, [127], [164]
• Sheep skins, [116], [142]
• Sherbro Island, [15], [16], [22]
• Sherbros, [16]
• “Shinkafa,” [156]
• Sierra Leone, [12], [70], [74], [80], [88], [91], [96], [99], [100], [109], [157]
• SIERRA LEONE, introductory remarks, geographical position, [15]; area and population, [15]; administrative divisions, [15]; natural features, [15]; natives, [16]; land tenure, [16]; labour, [17]; cultivation, [17]; agricultural schools, [18]; principal crops, [19]; forest products, [19]; Oil Palm, localities and the influence of position, [19]; small export of oil compared to kernels, [23]; proposal to introduce new varieties, [23]; improvements in local manufacture, [24]; export figures, [26]; Rubber, native method of preparation, [26]; vine rubber, [27]; quality of indigenous rubbers and the export, [27]; plantations, [28]; Kola Nuts, [29]; Red Pepper, [29]; Ginger, [30]; export trade, [31]; Fibres, jute class, [31]; Ramie, [33]; Piassava, [33]; Cotton, [33]; indigenous varieties, [34]; native weaving, [34]; exotic cottons, [34]; Rice, [35]; exports, [36]; Camwood, [37]; Copal, [37]; Groundnuts, [38]; Cocoa, [38]; importance of correct climatic conditions, [38]; Coffee, [39]; Indigo, [39]; Fruit, [39]; Beeswax, [40]; Oilseeds, [40]; progress in agriculture, [41]; forestry, [42]
• Silk, [81], [117], [163]
• Silk cotton tree, [51]
• “Silk rubber.” See Lagos silk rubber
• Silkworms, wild, [117]
• Silver, [55]
• “Sindru,” [62]
• Skins, [73], [127], [143], [144], [164]
• Skin staining, [96], [161]
• Small-bolled cotton, [136]
• Smut-blights, [153]
• Smut fungus, [12]
• Snuff, [13], [89], [161]
• Soap, [40], [70], [71], [98], [103], [115]
• Soap emulsion, [51]
• Sokoto, [120], [121], [135], [152], [156]
• Solanum melongena, [161]
• Solanum sp., [161]
• Songhay, [86], [123], [124]
• Sonni Ali, [86]
• Sonninkis, [1]
• Sorghum guineensis var. robustum, [88], [144]
• Sorghum saccharum, [152]
• Sorghum sp., [144]
• Sorghum vulgare, [12], [84], [151]
• Sorrel hibiscus, [89], [161]
• Southern Nigeria, [10], [23], [39], [71], [101], [120], [123], [127], [132], [135], [140], [157]
• Soya beans, [42], [158]
• Spices, [95]
• Spinning, [145]
• Squatter’s licence, [16]
• “Stainers,” cotton, [76], [112]
• Staining leather, [88]
• Steirostoma depressa, [51]
• Steirostoma histrionica, [51]
• Sterculia barteri, [96]
• Sterculiaceæ, [45], [73]
• Stilbum nanum, [52]
• Strunk, Dr., [23]
• Sudan, [73], [74], [134]
• Sudan boll-worm, [139]
• Sudan gum, [89]
• Sugar cane, [95], [125], [126], [157]
• Sumatra, [102]
• Susus, [16]
• Sun-cured tobacco, [117]
• Swamp crops, [126], [156]
• Sweet potatoes, [19], [84], [95], [126], [159]
• Sword beans, [42]
• Sword scabbards, [143]
• “Tabel-tiloli,” [100]
• “Takanda,” [152]
• “Talh,” [89]
• Tamale, [88], [91]
• Tamarind, [163]
• Tanned skins, [142]
• Tannin-yielding plants, [62]
• Tapioca, [115]
• Tapping implements, [61]
• Tapping rubber, [66]
• “Targets,” [161]
• Tarkwa, [63], [66]
• Tchad Lake, [124]
• Terminalia superba, [118]
• Temperature, [2], [121]
• “Tengo,” [100]
• “Tete Quasshi,” [47]
• Theobroma cacao, [46]
• Thomas Agricultural College, [18]
• “Thread blight,” [52]
• Threshing wheat, [156]
• “Til,” [142]
• Tiliaceæ, [80]
• Tillage, hand, [124]
• Timani, [16], [22], [25], [31], [35]
• Timber, [45], [72], [90], [118], [164]
• Tinainahun, [28]
• “Tio jarankoro,” [7]
• Tobacco, [13], [95], [117], [126], [161]
• Togoland, [10], [43], [66], [77]
• Tolyposporium sp., [153]
• Tomato, [161]
• “Tomba,” [155]
• Torches, [82], [148]
• Training yams, [159]
• Transplanting onions, [160]
• Transport, [99], [133], [143], [150]
• Transport (cocoa), [56]
• Transport (cotton), [80], [87], [138]
• Traps, [139]
• Trinidad, [45], [48], [51]
• Triplochiton johnsoni, [119]
• Triticum compositum, [155]
• Triumfetta cordifolia, [80]
• Triumfetta semitriloba, [80]
• “Tsamia,” [163]
• “Tsamian bauri,” [163]
• “Tsamian doka,” [163]
• “Tsamian fakali,” [163]
• “Tsamian tsamia,” [163]
• “Tsetse” fly, [2], [56], [91], [118], [122], [162]
• Tufel, [44]
• “Tug bore,” [100]
• “Tumuku,” [89], [160]
• Turmeric, [144]
• Twi language, [58]
• “Udin,” [100]
• Ugboha, [112]
• “Upland cotton,” [111], [136], [138]
• Ustilago sp., [12]
• Ustilago Reiliana, [153]
• Uwet, [116]
• Varnish, [31], [82]
• Vegetable butter, [115], [130]
• Vegetable fat, [90], [131]
• “Vegetable whalebone,” [80]
• Veis, [16]
• Vigna catjang, [42], [133]
• Voandzeia subterranea, [158]
• Volta, [43], [55], [74], [79], [80], [82]
• “Volta” cotton, [75], [78]
• Volta River district, [47], [54]
• Wa, [85], [86], [90]
• Walas, [85]
• “Wanki,” [157], [158]
• Waterloo, [28]
• Water yam, [88]
• Wax, [91], [162]
• Weaving, [34], [74]
• Weevilly maize, [114]
• Wells, [151], [155]
• Western Sudan, [123]
• West Indies, [16], [46], [49], [50], [51], [53], [54], [115]
• Wet season, [126], [149]
• Wet zone, [93], [94]
• Whalebone, [33], [80]
• Wheat, [124], [126], [155]
• White ball, [64], [65]
• “White Egyptian onion,” [160]
• White fungus, [7]
• White haricot, [157]
• White maize, [114]
• White rice, [157]
• Wild cotton, [75]
• Wild kola, [73]
• Wild sesamum, [142]
• Wine, [80]
• Wine palm, [33]
• Winged yam, [88]
• Wire-haired sheep, [91]
• Wood ashes, [89], [96]
• “Wood oil,” [89], [128], [147]
• Wood oil, mode of collection of, [147]
• “Wound-response,” [61]
• Wounds, pruning, [50]
• “Yakwa,” [161]
• “Yalo,” [161]
• Yalunkas, [16]
• Yams, [19], [42], [45], [75], [84], [85], [87], [88], [95], [96], [115], [126], [159]
• Yarn, [117], [163]
• Yauris, [123]
• Yeji, [88], [90]
• Yellow dye, [144]
• Yellow maize, [155]
• Yendi, [86]
• “Yi-ku-niche,” [100], [132]
• Yola, [120], [121], [137]
• Yonnibannah, [24]
• Yoruba, [25], [94], [108], [111], [114], [116], [123], [126], [133], [140], [141], [144], [145], [155], [158], [159]
• Zanfara, [124]
• Zaria, [120], [121], [122], [123], [124], [125], [131], [133], [135], [137], [140], [141], [142], [144], [148], [149], [150], [153], [154], [155], [156], [158], [159], [160], [162]
• Zaria Ginnery, [140]
• Zea mays, [84], [155]
• Zebu, [119], [163]
• Zingiber officinale, [30]
• Zungeru, [121], [130], [132], [137]

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