PLANTING.
Distances for Muscat Vines.
—An examination of the various vineyards in any or in all the different raisin districts will not help us much in deciding upon how far apart the vines should be set, as most vineyards have been planted by men of no previous experience in the raisin business, and when that experience was at last acquired the vineyards were already established and could not easily be changed. In planting, we are too apt to do as other people do without first inquiring from them if their experience has not taught them anything else, and if they would not do otherwise if they had to commence over again. For years the standard distances between raisin-vines have been eight by eight feet. Of late years this distance was considered too small, as our soil was supposed to be so rich, that all that was required, in order to get large crops, was to give the vines plenty of room. Many vineyards have been set nine by nine, nine by ten, ten by ten, or even ten by twelve and twelve by sixteen feet. The effect has, however, been different from that which was expected. Instead of producing larger crops, those vines which were given more room produced only more wood and more leaves. They followed that law of nature, which causes any animal or vegetable to grow luxuriantly when overfed, and which, on the contrary, causes seed and fruit to form when the vegetable system is restricted to certain proportions, which, of course, we can only determine by actual experience. By giving the vines less space, some inconvenience will be experienced in working the soil, and in drying the crop between the rows. On that account some vineyards have been planted with the vines closer one way than the other, thus giving plenty of room in which to work the soil, while on the other hand sufficiently confining the vines in order to cause them to bear well. I therefore now recommend that the vines be set four and a half by eleven, five by ten and a half, or five by eleven feet. The first would probably be my choice. I claim for this system many advantages, and beg intending growers to carefully consider the following points:
It gives us more vines to the acre, which means more grapes to the acre, as long as the land is of the best quality, and no raisin grapes should ever be planted on inferior soil, or at least the soil should be sufficiently rich to supply plant food to the greater number of vines.
It makes the working of the soil cheaper, and fully one-third more of the work can be done by two-horse plows. The single-horse work can be confined to plowing a furrow on each side of the vines, and to running a cultivator crosswise. As the number of rows in this system is less, it also follows that less single-team work is needed.
The vines protect themselves from the hot sun and hot winds which cause sunscald. The short distances should be in the direction of the hot wind, if any there be, or in the direction of east and west if there are no hot winds in the district. The spaces between the rows will thus catch the morning sun, which is of importance when we dry on trays between the vines.
Less roads will be needed in the vineyard, as the larger distance is sufficient to enable any teams to pass between every row of vines, and distribute trays, boxes, etc., without interfering with the vines. The saving thereby of labor in carrying the boxes and trays is quite an item in vineyards where the vines are planted say eight by eight feet or closer.
Land Scrapers.
The trimmings of the vines can be burned in the vineyard between the rows, and will thus help to fertilize the soil. Besides, the expense of hauling the trimmings away will be saved.
The Marking Out of a Vineyard.
—As any practical horticulturist knows how to stake out an orchard or vineyard, a minute description is not here needed. I will only indicate the most important points. Cut a large number of small pegs, one inch or so square and a foot or so long. Next get two lines of twisted wire, each say 150 feet long. Mark off on one wire every five feet by inserting a small, bright copper wire in the twist, and wind it around the iron wire three or four times, enough to show the place. On the other wire mark off similarly every ten or eleven feet, always supposing these are the distances decided upon. Now stretch one of the wires along one end of the future vineyard and call this line the base line No. 1. Set a peg close to every copper ringlet, on the side of the wire away from the vineyard. When done, stretch the other wire, No. 2, at a right angle with the former, and set pegs similarly. Remove wire No. 1 from base line No. 1 and stretch it at the end of wire No. 2, parallel to the base line. Call this base line No. 2. Set pegs as before every eight feet. It is now evident that, by stretching successively the wire No. 2 between the pegs set on the two base lines, and by setting cuttings or rooted vines close to the copper ringlets on the wire line, perfectly straight and even rows can be had in every direction.
Too much stress cannot be laid on this work. Remember that the vineyard is to last for a lifetime or more, and that any careless work will ever be an eyesore and a drawback. Unsightly vineyards, carelessly staked out, are never worth as much as those carefully planted, where every row is straight, and where plowing, cultivating and other farming and vineyard work can be performed without meeting any obstacles in the way of crooked rows, or of vines standing out of line. Only too frequently vineyard rows are plowed out, and the cuttings are “slapped” in anyway in order to get the work quickly done. In after years, when the proprietor’s taste and experience has improved, he finds that his reputation as a careless or ignorant grower cannot be changed; for the vineyard is there to last, and to tell the tale of early ignorance or neglect.
1-a, b, c, d.—Vineyard Tools used in the Currant Vineyards of Zante.
Relative Value of Cuttings and Rooted Vines.
—Cuttings and rooted vines have their advocates, but the majority of vineyardists are now in favor of planting rooted vines, and I would myself choose the latter every time. As, however, rooted vines and cuttings are both likely to be used as long as vines are planted, a few words in regard to their respective merits may be of general interest. In planting cuttings, we are never sure that they will all grow. Cuttings if cared for generally do well, but sometimes, even with good care, they fail, and the loss and annoyance is then always great, and even in very careful planting seldom over ninety per cent live, while often twenty-five per cent die. The reason is often careless planting, when the season is favorable, but in unfavorable seasons the failure must be attributed to other causes. Those cuttings which grow, generally grow well and often make as good vines as those raised from previously rooted ones.
The replanting of the cuttings that failed to live is both expensive and troublesome. Every vineyardist knows how difficult it is to succeed in making cuttings, or even vines, grow on places in the vineyard where other ones have failed to grow before. Some attribute this difficulty to some poison in the soil, but I believe the cause will be found in the greater difficulty to attend to a few young vines in among the older ones. The older vines will naturally use up the moisture in the soil, and the cuttings, with their young and tender roots, will have but little chance in the general struggle for life. But even if we suppose that the replanted vines will do equally well, it will be found that the replanting of the cuttings is actually more expensive than the first planting. The reason why this is so lies in the greater work in getting the soil in first-class condition after the first planting failed. In the first planting, the soil has been put in order with the help of horses and plows, while, when we replant, the very spots where the vines are to be located cannot be reached by other means than by a pick or shovel, as, no matter how well the old vineyard is plowed, there will always be a hard spot around every vine, or around the place where the vine should be, and where it failed to grow. If only a few cuttings have taken root, it is better to plow up the whole vineyard and reset, and in so doing endeavor to do better work. I know of vineyards where the owners have not succeeded in replanting during ten years, every year spending money and labor with little success. There will always be a few cuttings that fail to live.
The causes of the uncertainty of cuttings are our inability to foresee the outcome of the season’s climatic conditions. More or less rain has a direct influence on our success. Thus in very rainy seasons the cuttings should be small or rather short, so as to be as much as possible in the upper, dryer and warmer soil. In dry seasons, again, the cuttings should be long, so as to be in the moist ground, but as we can never foresee what the season will be, we had better have a recourse to rooted vines, which, if in good condition, will be comparatively independent of weather and wind.
The Making of Cuttings.
—The making of cuttings is not a difficult process, but nevertheless it should be carefully done in order to insure final success. After the vines have been trimmed and the trimmings have been placed in small piles along the rows of the vineyard, the cuttings should be made as quickly as possible on the spot, the laborers moving from pile to pile as they finish up. The shears should be sharp and kept sharp, both to insure good cuttings and to hasten the work. A poor shear is worse than a poor farmhand, and it pays to keep the best kind of every tool that is used in vineyard work. The size of the cutting must be decided upon according to the conditions of the soil. If the land is very wet and is likely to remain so, an eight-inch, or even a six-inch, cutting, will do, and will grow better than a long one. Long cuttings will reach down into the wet soil and decay at the lower end before they take root. In dry and warm soils the cuttings may be from twelve to eighteen inches long, or even longer if it is desirable to bend them in a circular way in the holes in which they are to be planted, or if the soil is very warm and dry, when it is of importance that the cutting should reach the deeper moisture. A twelve or fourteen inch cutting is probably an average size cutting, and one that will answer most conditions, in case they are not previously known.
A nurseryman, or any one who can give his cuttings as much attention as they require, can use even the very tips of the vines and make them grow. But for general planting, especially direct in the field, seldom more than one or two cuttings can be made from a branch. The cutting should be cut immediately below an eye or joint. Such cuttings grow better, are easier to plant and are less apt to dry out. The more eyes a cutting contains the better is the cutting, as the roots mostly form at the joints. Many make the cuttings with a heel of old wood, but I do not believe such cuttings are in any way preferable to those made of only one season’s wood. The old wood does not grow any better than young wood, generally not so well, and, besides, such cuttings with heels are more difficult to plant and handle. When the cuttings are made, they should at first be placed in small piles, with the top ends all the same way, and as soon as possible afterwards tied up in bundles, with at least two strings to every bundle. For tying, any string will do, but split basket-willow twigs are probably the strongest and least apt to root. Still any stout twine will answer the purpose. From one hundred to two hundred cuttings may conveniently be put in each bundle, according to the size of the cuttings.
The Care of Cuttings.
—After the cuttings are made and bundled, they should be labeled with wooden labels and immediately taken to some place where they can be heeled in. The lead-pencil is the best for writing the names. The best place in which to heel in the cuttings is on the north side of some large building, under an open shed or under some large trees. In fact, any place which is partially shaded and cool will do. If the bundles are to be used soon or shipped, they might be placed on the wet ground, and only covered with sacks or with straw, but, if they are to remain any longer time, they must be placed in the ground and carefully covered. A trench should be dug half the depth of the cutting, but slightly wider. The bundles are placed in the trench upright, and after the trench is full the soil from the new trench, parallel with the first one, is thrown on and around the bundles so as to keep them moist. It is best not to keep the cuttings too moist, and on no account should they be wet, as they will then begin to root rapidly, and when they are again removed these roots will break or dry up to the great injury of the cutting. If unavoidably the planting is delayed longer than expected, the bundles of cuttings may be taken out and placed in dry air for a day or for a few hours, and then replaced in the soil. This may be done several times without any injury accruing to the cuttings, the only effect of the drying being to retard their rooting and sprouting, but it should of course not be done after they have once begun to callus or root. To place cuttings in water for any length of time is nearly always injurious, and especially so if the water is bad or contains manure. Manure water always kills cuttings readily. If the cuttings have sprouted, or begun to make roots, or form callus, a careful vineyardist will take his bundles to the field submerged in a barrel or bucket of water, or at least wrapped in wet sacks or blankets. If again the cuttings are dry and a fresh cut does not show a flow of sap, they may be freshened by soaking in fresh water over night. Even very poor and dry cuttings are easily revived this way, but a continuous immersion for several days will injure the cuttings and cause them to rot. It is also of importance that the water should be clear and cold, or at least not warm. Instead of immersing the cuttings in water, they may be set down in cool and moist soil for three or four days before being planted. The soaking in water is the simplest, quickest and most effective for slightly dried cuttings.
Planting Cuttings.
—Planting cuttings in the vineyard can be done in several different ways. They may be planted with a spade, with a flat planting bar, or with the “sheep’s-foot.” Each one of these tools will answer the purpose if properly used, but their selection must depend upon the quality of the soil, and upon the nature of the land generally. In all planting of cuttings, the following points must be observed as of importance in insuring success. The cuttings must be set in moist and cool soil. The lower end of the cuttings must lodge in solid ground, and there must be no air space at the bottom. Only one eye should be left above the surface of the soil. The soil must be tamped well around the cutting from the bottom to the top. All inferior cuttings should be thrown away, and every cutting should be examined before it is planted.
For a description of the tools used in planting, I beg to refer to the [end of this chapter]. I will now further consider the above points. Many failures are made by not planting in moist soil. If irrigation is needed, irrigate before planting, then plow and harrow, and then plant. When moist cuttings are planted in dry and warm soil, the latter will extract all the moisture from the cuttings, and the latter will fail to grow. I have seen parties first plow deep furrows through the vineyard, so as to air and dry the ground before planting the cuttings. This is not necessary and even harmful. Moist and warm ground is essential to the starting and growth of cuttings. The lower end of the cutting should be lodged in solid ground, or the cutting will fail to grow. This point is of the utmost importance, and should be carefully observed. If, when the cutting is pushed down in the soil, a small air chamber form at the lower end, the butt end of the cutting will mold, and the latter will be poisoned and die. Nine-tenths of all the failures in planting are caused by neglect in this respect. Care is especially needed when the sheep’s-foot is used. Only one eye should be left above ground, which is enough for all purposes. Any more eyes will exhaust the cutting before it is rooted, and the additional length of the cutting will expose it to the danger of being broken or otherwise injured. The soil must be tamped hard all along the cutting so as to cause the latter to attract the necessary moisture. Loosely set cuttings very often fail, especially in dry seasons. All inferior cuttings, especially those frosted or otherwise injured, should be thrown out before being brought to the field. A cutting costs so little that it pays to use only the strongest and best, when a much better stand will be the result. Frosted cuttings can be detected by their darker color. Fresh and healthy cuttings should have a green and fresh cambium or inner bark, and a fresh cut should show fresh sap oozing out.
When the sheep’s-foot is used in planting, the butt end of the cutting is inserted in the forked end of this tool, and this explains why it is necessary to have as little wood as possible below the last eye of the cutting. By pushing the sheep’s-foot down in the soil, the cutting is pushed simultaneously down to the proper length; a twist is then given the sheep’s-foot so as to get it loose from the cutting, and the former is then pulled up. It may in some instances be necessary to push down the cutting with the left hand, while the sheep’s-foot is being pulled back, as care must be taken that in pulling back the sheep’s-foot the cutting is not lifted. Even the smallest lift will cause the lower end of the cutting to hang in an air chamber, and this will, as I have stated, cause the cutting to mold and die. When planted, a few sharp taps with the foot will sufficiently fix the cutting. When the flat bar is used, a hole is first made by the bar, the cutting is then inserted, and the hole filled up by again inserting the bar near the cutting, and by pressing it forward towards the latter. Neither of these tools can be used in dry or stony soils, but in moist and loamy soil, which has been previously well prepared, they are most excellent, as doing the work both quickly and well. The sheep’s-foot is unexcelled for speed in loose soil, while the flat bar is of advantage where the soil is a little harder. The flat spade is used when rocky and stony or even gravelly soil interferes with the using of the former tools. Every farmer will know how to use the spade, and no further explanation is required here.
Some plant the cuttings slantingly in the soil, in order to bring them as near the surface as possible. This is well enough and proper in very wet soils, where the lower strata are too cool, but in this warm country the perpendicular planting is easier and better. By twisting and bending the cutting in the dug hole a longer cutting can be used, but I have seldom found any advantage of very long cuttings, and few soils are suited to raisin grapes when such methods are needed to produce strong and rapidly growing vines.
Care of Young Cuttings.
—In places where irrigation is needed and used, many irrigate the cuttings immediately after they are planted, so as to settle the soil. This, however, is only needed where the ground is very dry or very sandy. It is much the better way to irrigate before planting and to plant on the loose soil after it has been replowed and properly prepared. Such soil keeps the moisture for a long time, and even in dry climates will require no irrigation for months after the planting. The principal care, after the cuttings have been planted, but before they are fairly started, is to keep the ground loose and to prevent it from baking on the surface. The best way to accomplish this is to run a revolving randel harrow over the land regardless of the cuttings. This kind of harrow consists of a row of vertical, slightly concave steel discs, which revolve when the harrow is pulled over the land. No regard need be paid to the rows of cuttings, provided they do not stand too high above the surface, or have begun to swell. Not one cutting in a hundred is injured, and those that are cut off are sure to sprout from below. After every shower of rain, the land should be harrowed or pulverized in this way. If the soil is baked and hard around the cuttings, the latter will be slow to start, but a loosening of the soil will have the desired effect almost immediately. The amount of irrigation needed for young plantations can only be decided upon on the ground. The cuttings should be kept growing, and young leaves should always be seen at the tips of the branches. Long before these young leaves cease growing, a copious supply of water should be added to keep the soil from becoming too dry.
Transporting Cuttings to Distant Parts.
—When cuttings are to be shipped any distance, they must be packed. The simplest method of packing for short distances is to fill the bottom of a sack with wet straw, and then slip the bundle of cuttings down in the sack, and a single string will then suffice to secure the sack to the bundle. Packed this way, cuttings can stand a voyage of a week or more if the weather is not too hot. If a longer voyage, of say several weeks’ duration, is necessary, the cuttings should be packed in dry-goods boxes, and, if the time of transit is not too long, no other packing is needed. If, however, a very long transit is in view, more precautions for the safe arrival of the cuttings are required. After the bundles have been pressed down in the box, moist and fresh moss is packed tightly down all along the sides of the box. Such packing will keep the cuttings fresh for over a month. For a longer time, coarse, pulverized charcoal filled in between the cuttings is a splendid packing. The charcoal must be dry, the moisture in the cuttings being enough to keep them alive for several months. Packed first in tin boxes surrounded by charcoal, and then the boxes soldered tightly, so as to allow no air to enter, is the safest method for transporting cuttings long distances. If there is a possibility to repack at certain stations on the road, wooden boxes may be used instead of tin. The waxing of the ends of the cuttings will help to keep them moist. All lumber boxes should be lined with waxed paper, and all cracks carefully nailed up, as by the drying of the boards the contents are very liable to run out. Large and heavy boxes should be surrounded by iron bands.
Rooting Cuttings.
—There are two ways of planting cuttings in the nursery in order to have them rooted for next season’s planting. One way is to plant in nursery rows four feet apart; the other is to set in beds. For such nursery, a plat of land with rich soil and with good water facilities should be selected. Water should never fail in the nursery, as cuttings always require more water than old plants set farther apart. The rows should be staked out four feet from each other. Six or eight inch cuttings should be used, according to the depth to moisture; the more moisture, the shorter need be the cuttings. With a big, flat hoe the soil along the line of the row is thrown up on one side, the cuttings are set down upright close to the perpendicular side, and the soil is again raked back with the same kind of hoe, and then tamped hard around the cuttings. The latter need not be over two or three inches apart, and from forty to fifty thousand may be set on one acre of ground. In no instance should the cutting be left more than one or two inches above the surface of the ground. The best instrument or tool for opening the soil and for covering the cuttings is the large flat-faced Italian hoe, used by Italian workmen both in Europe and in this country.
If the bed system is adopted, much smaller cuttings may be used, although it is not necessary to have them smaller than six inches. The beds may be two feet wide and four feet apart, in this respect resembling nursery rows, and treated just as such. The cuttings are set in the beds two or three inches apart each way. We must remember that such cuttings require much more water than cuttings planted in four-foot rows, as the quantity soon exhausts the moisture in the soil. The beds may also be square, each one surrounded by a little bank or levee of soil in order to hold the water. In these beds, which should be slightly below the general surface of the ground, the cuttings are set very close,—two or three inches apart,—until the whole bed is filled up. These beds are never cultivated in any other way than by pulling the weeds out by hand. They must be frequently irrigated by flooding, except when the soil is immensely wet or moist.
Vines may also be propagated from a single eye, or from cuttings containing a single eye. Such cuttings may be set perpendicularly in beds or in rows, or they may be placed horizontally in boxes with pure sand, and entirely covered over. The single eyes soon sprout and make nice little plants, with a well-developed system of roots.
All these cuttings planted in beds, if properly watered during the summer, will make excellent vines to be set in vineyard form next season. Being set so close, they require much moisture and irrigation, the many new roots soon exhausting the moisture in the soil. It is better, however, to have the cuttings set as closely as possible, so as not to get too strong vines. An overgrown vine is more expensive to plant and more difficult to handle than one of medium growth. Besides, the latter has a greater number of fibrous roots, which, if in good condition, will give a quick start and rapid growth to the new vine.
Care of Rooted Vines.
—The same precautions are to be observed with rooted vines as with cuttings, only more care is required to shield the roots from the sun and wind. Wet blankets or sacks should always be used when the roots are taken to the field, and, if the vines show the least sign of being dry, they should be soaked for several hours in pure water, and in this respect treated just like cuttings.
Planting Rooted Vines.
—Planting rooted vines is not attended with many difficulties. The most important points to observe are these. The vines must be freshly dug. If not, or if the least dry, soak in water over night. Cut away all dead or dry rootlets. Prune the top of the vine down to two or three buds, and leave only one spur. Have the vines covered while carried out in the field, and plant only in moist ground. The young and tender roots are easily dried if set in warm and dry soil, and they will afterwards decay and injure the vine. A carefully planted vineyard, where rooted vines alone have been used, and where every precaution has been taken to insure success, should have about ninety-seven per cent of the vines growing. To make every one grow would only be possible in a very small plantation. In the large raisin centers, all this planting may be contracted for. The cost of planting cuttings is generally calculated at one-half cent per cutting, and for rooted vines at one cent per vine. Frequently parties contract to supply cuttings and to plant the land for from eighteen to twenty dollars per acre or less. It is generally better to pay the higher price and get the work done properly.
Proper Time for Planting.
—The time for planting cuttings depends greatly upon the season, the quality of the soil and the moisture. In wet seasons the dry land should be planted first, and cuttings might be started there as soon as the first frost allows us to make them with advantage. The moister the soil the later should the planting be begun, and on the contrary the drier the soil and the warmer, the sooner should the cuttings as well as the rooted vines be planted in the fall. December and January are the best months to plant, although with care cuttings as well as rooted vines may be set as late as in April or even in May. As a rule, early planting is better, as it gives the cuttings chance to root well before the hot weather causes the shoots to start. In very rainy seasons, or in wet places, cuttings should be planted later than rooted vines. Moisture in undue degree will cause cuttings to rot, while its influence on the roots of the vines is not as great. Rooted vines stand both moisture and drought better than cuttings do. On sandy, dry soil and in dry seasons I would wish my cuttings planted as early in December as possible; while, on wet places, I would delay planting until after the frost is over in February. The same rule applies to rooted vines, but we must remember that roots begin to send out rootlets almost as soon as they are dug, and that early planting will preserve these for the early use of the vine, while, in late planting, almost every one of these new roots will be destroyed in planting and must be produced over again. We might also say that both cuttings and rooted vines should be set as soon as the soil is in proper condition in the fall. Do not wait for anything after the soil is dry enough to permit planting. Early planted vines will have a good start.
Cost of Cuttings and Rooted Vines.
—The price of Muscat or raisin-grape cuttings generally varies from two dollars and fifty cents to five dollars per thousand, and have been sold as low as one dollar per thousand cuttings. Rooted vines again vary from ten to twenty dollars per thousand, according to the demand and supply. The cost of planting is, of course, different in different localities. In Fresno the ruling prices for vineyard planting with cuttings is one-half cent per cutting. The men board and lodge themselves for this sum. For rooted vines the price is from sixty cents to one dollar per hundred vines. The ground must be in a perfect condition, but the success of the work is never guaranteed, as so much depends upon after treatment. While the actual cost of planting the grapes is insignificant, it will be found that the many different expenses of a large vineyard of say 160 acres will be quite considerable, and few of our larger raisin vineyards in irrigated districts have cost less than fifty dollars per acre during the first year. This includes labor, buildings, tools, etc., but not the first cost of land. With experience and constant supervision, this cost may be reduced somewhat, and under very favorable circumstances from twenty to forty dollars even per acre may cover the cost of planting and maintenance during the first season. But estimates in this direction are not reliable, as one man will spend twice as much as another under similar circumstances.