EXPLANATION OF CHEMICAL TERMS.

Inasmuch as this manual is not solely intended for expert chemists and physiologists but also for the general public, a simple explanation of the use of the terms used in analytical data and tables is advisable.

Under the term moisture is included all the water which is present in a free state, that is, not combined in any way with the ingredients of the material, and other substances volatile at the temperature of drying. The water is determined by drying to a constant weight at the temperature of boiling water or slightly above. In bodies which are easily oxidized this drying takes place in a vacuum or in an inert gas like hydrogen or carbon dioxid.

Protein.

—Under this term is included all the nitrogenous compounds in a food product which contain in their composition sulfur, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, forming that class of tissues represented by the gluten in wheat, the white of an egg, muscular and tendinous fibers, etc.

Ether Extract.

—Under this term is included the fats and oils, the term fat being applied to animal fat and the term oil to vegetable products. These bodies are all soluble in ether and therefore are grouped together under the term “ether extract.” There are some fats both in animal and vegetable substances insoluble in ether, but they exist in minute quantities and therefore are not separated from the extracts, but the whole matter is given together and represents practically the fats and oils in food.

There are also minute quantities of bodies not fats in foods soluble in ether, and these are included in the ether extract.

Ash.

—The term ash is applied to the residue left after the burning of food products in the air at a low temperature until the carbon has disappeared. Ash is rather an indefinite term and is applied to that residual material of a mineral nature composed of sand or silica and the carbonates or oxids of alkaline earth or alkalies. The ash also contains the principal part of phosphorus present in food products and usually a small proportion of sulfur. These bodies in the ash exist as phosphoric and sulfuric acids or their salts.

Fiber.

—The term fiber is applied to those carbohydrate products in food which are insoluble in solutions of dilute acid and dilute alkalies at the boiling temperature. Inasmuch as these separated bodies are not wholly pure cellulose they are often designated as crude fiber.

Starch and Sugar.

—The terms starch and sugar are applied to the carbohydrates in a food product of a starchy or saccharine nature, together with the other carbohydrates present which are soluble in dilute acids and alkalies.

Calories.

—The term calorie is used to denote the amount of heat-forming material contained in one unit weight of a food product. The number given represents the number of degrees of temperature produced in a unit mass of water by the heat formed in burning the unit weight of food. The unit weights employed are usually as follows: Of the food product, one gram (15 grains); unit weight of water to be heated, one kilogram (2.2 pounds); unit increment of temperature, 1°C. (1.8°F.). The expression 4000 calories therefore means that if one gram of food substance in a dry state be burned the heat produced will raise one gram of water through a temperature of 4000°C., or the unit of water (one kilogram) through a temperature of 4°C. For convenience the calories are usually expressed as small calories, namely 4000, instead of large calories, namely 4. In this manual the expression in terms of small calories, that is, the temperature increase of one kilogram of water produced by burning one gram of substance, multiplied by 1000, will be uniformly employed.

FOODS
AND THEIR
ADULTERATION.

PART I.
MEATS.

One great division of human food is meat. Technically, perhaps, the edible flesh of every animal used for human food might be described as meat. In this manual, however, preference is given to the common meaning of the term.

The flesh of animals is by common consent divided into three principal classes, namely, the flesh of terrestrial mammals, or animals not provided with wings; second, aerial animals, or animals provided with wings, and, third, aquatic animals. A very common classification of these three kinds of food is flesh, fowl, and fish. There are animals, the flesh of which is eaten by many, which are not exactly included in this classification; for instance, animals of an amphibious nature, living partly on land and partly on sea. Also many of the animals classed as aerial live chiefly upon the earth; although having wings they do not use them, such as domesticated fowls. This classification, however, is sufficiently exact for the practical purposes of a food manual and, therefore, under the head of meat is included the edible flesh of mammals living on the land.

Animals Whose Flesh is Edible.

—Probably the only complete classification of this kind would be to include every animal living on the face of the earth since, perhaps, the flesh of every animal living has been more or less eaten by man. In a civilized community, however, except in times of disaster and dire necessity, certain classes of animals only furnish the principal meat food. Nearly all the meat food consumed in the United States is derived from cattle, sheep, and swine. Goat flesh is eaten only to a limited extent and horse meat scarcely at all, and the only other meats of importance are those of wild animals. The principal wild animals used for food are the deer, bear, rabbit, and squirrel. Many other wild animals, however, are eaten and in some cases highly prized. In this manual only the principal meat foods both of domesticated and wild animals will be mentioned.

Classification of Meat Food as Respects Age.

—The edible flesh of domesticated animals as well as of wild animals is eaten both in the young and full-grown state. Common names, however, designate these different classes. For instance, veal in the growing and beef for the full-grown animal, lamb for the young and mutton for the full-grown sheep, pig in the younger and pork in the full-grown swine, etc. There is no legal limit of age for such a distinction, but as long as the animal is not fully grown it may be classified under the name representing the young animal. There is a common understanding, however, that in the case of veal and lamb the animal must be under one year of age and usually not under two nor more than eight months of age. A classification of this kind is so indefinite, however, that no strict definition can be given other than that founded on the general principles above outlined.

Preparation of Animals.

—The proper sanitary conditions attending the fattening of animals intended for slaughter are of great importance to the consumer. It is a common understanding that animals intended for slaughter should be plump and healthy. Poor animals, either those which are meager from lack of food or from disease, are to be rigidly excluded from the slaughter pen. Animals intended for slaughter should be fattened under sanitary conditions with plenty of fresh water and fresh air as well as good food. The stalls in which they are fattened should be clean and well ventilated, and the sanitary conditions surrounding them should be such as to exclude contagious and epidemic diseases and provide the most favorable environment for growth and preparation for the market.

It is evident that all these conditions are to be secured by proper inspection of the animals while preparing for the market. The time will, doubtless, soon arrive in this country when the supervision of the preparation of animals for the market, the sanitary conditions under which they live, and the general environment which surrounds them shall be subjects of local, municipal, and state inspection. Since the power of the general government cannot extend to states and municipalities, these corporate bodies should take uniform and scientific action concerning all these matters. National and state conventions of municipal and state sanitary authorities should decide upon uniform systems of inspection and sanitation to which all state and municipal authorities must agree, so that a uniform and effective method of inspection and sanitation will be secured throughout the country.

When animals are transported before slaughter from one state to another the national government is then entitled to inspect and certify respecting the condition of the animal thus to be transported from state to state. By thus combining municipal, state, and national inspection the rights of the consumer may be conserved, and this is the only means by which they can be kept inviolate.

It is assumed, therefore, that the animal which has been brought for slaughter has been fattened under proper sanitary conditions, has not been exposed to epidemic or contagious diseases, and outwardly is not afflicted with any disease of its own. Such a healthy animal may then be certified as fattened for slaughter.

Inspection after Slaughter.

—The inspection after slaughter is of the utmost importance, not even second to that of the proper inspection during fattening and before slaughter. The veterinarian, skilled in his science, can tell by the inspection of the vital organs of the slaughtered animal whether it is affected with any organic disease. Among cattle the most frequent organic diseases are lumpy jaw and tuberculosis. In the case of swine one of the most common of diseases is trichinosis. In the latter case an inspection of the vital organs of the animal is not sufficient. The muscles of the swine, first and most commonly affected by trichinosis, must be examined microscopically in order to eliminate the possibility of the flesh of such animals going into commerce untagged or unnoticed.

If the flesh of the swine impregnated with trichinosis be thoroughly cooked practically all of the danger to man is eliminated. The consumer, however, should not be subjected to the chance of imperfect cooking. A swine affected with trichinosis should either be refused admission into consumption or should be so tagged that the consumer should know the danger to which he is exposed in order to take the necessary precaution to safeguard his health.

Tuberculosis.

—There is a difference of opinion among veterinary and hygienic experts respecting the disposition which is to be made of carcasses affected with tuberculosis. It is claimed by some that if the tuberculosis is local, that is, does not extend beyond the lungs, there is no reason why the flesh of the animal should be refused to the consumer. The basis of this contention is founded upon the opinion of some of the most eminent veterinarians that bovine tuberculosis and human tuberculosis are entirely distinct diseases and cannot be transmitted either from the cow to man or vice versâ. It is not the province of this manual to decide this controversy, although it is only right that the consumer should be given the benefit of the doubt. Therefore, if the carcass of an animal affected with local tuberculosis is to be passed into consumption it should be plainly marked as the flesh of a tuberculosed animal,—not only the carcass as a whole, but every piece thereof that is introduced into consumption directly or after canning or mincing. The consumer is thus left free to choose for himself whether to eat such meat or not. There is a universal agreement among hygienists and veterinarians that where tuberculosis is generalized, that is, has affected practically all the organs of the body, the carcasses should be condemned. No one will take exceptions to this ruling, though it does not appear very plain to the ordinary consumer why a little tuberculosis is not a bad thing if a great deal of it is a very bad thing. There is an unfortunate tendency in many quarters to neglect minute effects and only pay attention to mass action. This does not seem to be a reasonable or desirable method of procedure.

The Right of the Consumer.

—In all these cases of post mortem inspection it is the right of the consumer to be informed respecting the condition of the animal admitted to slaughter. Only the undoubtedly sound and healthy carcass should be given a free certificate. The badly diseased carcass should be condemned and refused admission to consumption. If the partially diseased carcass is to be consumed, it should be done under such a system of tagging as will absolutely protect any consumer against the use of the partially diseased carcass without his knowledge.

Summary.

—The general conclusion reached is that the consumer has the right to protection in the character of food which comes upon his table. This protection begins at the time the animals are being fed for slaughter. It continues during the time the animals are slaughtered and afterwards in the preparation of their carcasses for consumption. It does not end until the meat is delivered to the consumer properly certified as being sound and wholesome and warranted to be free from deleterious coloring matter and preservatives. The consumers of this country can have this protection if they demand it. They outnumber the makers of meat products to such an overwhelming extent as to be able to secure proper legislation, because the manufacturers themselves, as consumers, are equally interested with others in this most important point, and should themselves receive for their families the same protection that the consumer who has nothing to do with the preparation of meat products is entitled to.

Since the above paragraph was written the Congress has provided for a complete inspection of meats as outlined therein.

Slaughter and Preparation of Carcasses.

—It is not the purpose of this manual to enter into any discussion of the technique of slaughter and preparation of animals whose meat is intended to be eaten. It is believed that in this country the mechanism of this process is very near perfection, and especially so in the larger establishments where the highest skill is employed. In small slaughtering establishments and in farm slaughter there are found many points of technique which should be greatly improved. The principal thing to be considered is, first, a sudden and in so far as possible a painless death of the animal; second, the immediate withdrawal of the blood of the slaughtered animal if slaughtered otherwise than by opening the principal artery; third, the removal of the intestines and hair or hide of the animal; fourth, immediate cooling at a moderately low temperature until the animal heat is entirely radiated; fifth, the cutting of the carcass into the usual form for consumption and the removal and utilization of the débris for food or other purposes; sixth, the delivery of the meat, if to be eaten in a fresh state, in a condition secured from contamination and decay until it is in the hands of the consumer; seventh, the curing of the meat in a proper manner by salt, sugar, vinegar, and wood smoke, and the delivery thereof in an uncontaminated form to the consumer.

Natural Appearance of Cuts of Healthy Beef

Beef is the most important of any of the meat or flesh foods. To be able to judge of its freshness and freedom from disease is of great practical value. The following colored plates show the appearance of some of the principal cuts of beef in the proper condition for cooking. By comparing the appearance of the beef bought in all markets with these plates it is possible to form a sound judgment of their suitability for consumption.

These seven Plates are
reproduced by courtesy of
Armour & Co., Chicago

Beef Tenderloin

Beef Sirloin

Beef Ribs—Regular Cut

Beef Ribs—Spencer Cut

Sirloin Butts

Beef Rib

Beef Loin

It is not established that any further manipulation than that above outlined is desirable or necessary. The use of any kind of dye or coloring matter directly or indirectly, of any so-called preservative substance other than those of a condimental nature already mentioned, or any further manipulation save that to secure low temperature and freedom from infection is not useful, necessary, nor desirable. The sooner the manufacturer of these products understands the rights of the consumer in this respect and recognizes the fundamental verity of the above postulates the better it will be for all parties. When these conditions are met all of the many and just objections which have been made to the meats of this country will pass away and they will assume in the markets of the world that position to which their natural merits, when not interfered with by maltreating during curing, entitle them.

Names Applied to the Different Pieces of Edible Animals.

—In the preparation of animals for the market experience has shown that they are best cut in certain pieces of a shape determined by the race of the animal itself and to these pieces or cuts certain definite names have been applied. The method of making these cuts is not the same in all parts of this country and various parts of different countries. In the United States the most common cuts are illustrated in the accompanying figures, with the names which are attached thereto.

The analyses here reported apply to cuts as indicated by the following diagrams. These show the positions of the different cuts, both in the live animal and in the dressed carcass as found in the markets. The lines of division between the different cuts will vary slightly, according to the usage of the local market, even where the general method of cutting is as here indicated. The names of the same cuts likewise vary in different parts of the country.

Fig. 1.—Cuts of Beef.—(Nutrition Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations.)

The Cuts of Beef.

—The general method of cutting up a side of beef is illustrated in [Fig. 1], which shows the relative position of the cuts in the animal and in a dressed side. The neck piece is frequently cut so as to include more of the chuck than is represented by the diagram. The shoulder clod is usually cut without bone, while the shoulder (not indicated in diagram) would include more or less of the shoulder blade and of the upper end of the fore shank. Shoulder steak is cut from the chuck. In many localities the plate is made to include all the parts of the fore quarter designated on the diagrams as brisket, cross ribs, plate, and navel, and different portions of the plate, as thus cut, are spoken of as the “brisket end of plate” and “navel end of plate.” This part of the animal is largely used for corning. The ribs are frequently divided into first, second, and third cuts, the latter lying nearest the chuck and being slightly less desirable than the former. The chuck is sometimes subdivided in a similar manner, the third cut of the chuck being nearest the neck. The names applied to different portions of the loin vary considerably in different localities. The part nearest the ribs is frequently called “small end of loin” or “short steak.” The other end of the loin is called “hip sirloin” or “sirloin.” Between the short and the sirloin is a portion quite generally called the “tenderloin,” for the reason that the real tenderloin, the very tender strip of meat lying inside the loin, is found most fully developed in this cut. Porterhouse steak is a term most frequently applied to either the short steak or the tenderloin. It is not uncommon to find the flank cut so as to include more of the loin than is indicated in the figures, in which case the upper portion is called “flank steak.” The larger part of the flank is, however, very frequently corned, as is also the case with the rump. In some markets the rump is cut so as to include a portion of the loin, which is then sold as “rump steak.” The portion of the round on the outside of the leg is regarded as more tender than that on the inside, and is frequently preferred to the latter. As the leg lies upon the butcher’s table this outside of the round is usually on the upper, or top, side, and is therefore called “top round.” Occasionally the plate is called the “rattle.”

In [Fig. 2] is shown a side of beef with the various cuts indicated as used for commercial designation.

1.Shank5.Rib9.Clod
2.Round6.Flank10.Neck
3.Rump7.Plate
4.Loin8.Chuck

Tenderloins, Sirloin Butts and Strips cut from No. 4.

Rib Rolls cut from No. 5.

Fig. 2.—Commercial Cuts of Beef.—(Courtesy of Armour & Co.)

In [Fig. 6] (page 20) is shown the interior view of a hog carcass with the cuts indicated as known to the trade.

Fig. 3.—Diagram of Cuts of Veal.—(Nutrition Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations.)

The Cuts of Veal.

—The method of cutting up a side of veal differs considerably from that employed with beef. This is illustrated by [Fig. 3], which shows the relative position of the cuts in the animal and in a dressed side. The chuck is much smaller in proportion, and frequently no distinction is made between the chuck and the neck. The chuck is often cut so as to include a considerable of the portion here designated as shoulder, following more nearly the method adopted for subdividing beef. The shoulder of veal as here indicated includes, besides the portion corresponding to the shoulder in beef, the larger part of what is here classed as chuck in the adult animal. The under part of the fore quarter, corresponding to the plate in the beef, is often designated as breast in the veal. The part of the veal corresponding to the rump of beef is here included with the loin, but is often cut to form part of the leg. In many localities the fore and hind shanks of veal are called the “knuckles.”

Fig. 4.—Diagram of Cuts of Lamb and Mutton.—(Nutrition Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations.)

The Cuts of Lamb and Mutton.

—[Fig. 4] shows the relative position of the cuts in a dressed side of mutton or lamb and in a live animal. The cuts in a side of lamb and mutton number but six, three in each quarter. The chuck includes the ribs as far as the end of the shoulder blades, beyond which comes the loin. The flank is made to include all the under side of the animal. Some butchers, however, make a larger number of cuts in the fore quarter, including a portion of the cuts marked “loin” and “chuck” in [Fig. 4], to make a cut designated as “rib,” and a portion of the “flank” and “shoulder” to make a cut designated as “brisket.” The term “chops” is ordinarily used to designate portions of either the loin, ribs, chuck, or shoulder, which are either cut or “chopped” by the butcher into pieces suitable for frying or broiling. The chuck and ribs are sometimes called the “rack.”

Fig. 5.—Diagram of Cuts of Pork.—(Nutrition Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations.)

The Cuts of Pork.

—The method of cutting up a side of pork differs considerably from that employed with other meats. A large portion of the carcass of a dressed pig consists of almost clear fat. This furnishes the cuts which are used for “salt pork” and bacon. [Fig. 5] illustrates a common method of cutting up pork, showing the relative position of the cuts in the animal and in the dressed side. The cut designated as “back cut” is almost clear fat and is used for salting and pickling. The “middle cut” is the portion quite generally used for bacon and for “lean ends” salt pork. The belly is salted or pickled, or may be made into sausages.

Fig. 6.—Commercial Cuts of Pork.—(Courtesy of Armour & Co.)

1—Hind Foot
2—Ham
3—Rib Belly
4—Fat Back
5—Pork Loin
6—Cala Ham Butt
7—California Ham
8—Fore Foot
9—Neck

Beneath the “back cut” are the ribs and loin, from which are obtained “spareribs,” “chops,” and roasting pieces, not designated in the figure. The hams and shoulders are more frequently cured, but are also sold fresh as pork “steak.” The tenderloin proper is a comparatively lean and very small strip of meat lying under the bones of the loin and usually weighing a fraction of a pound. Some fat is usually trimmed off from the hams and shoulders which is called “ham and shoulder fat” and is often used for sausages, etc. What is called “leaf lard,” at least in some localities, comes from the inside of the back. It is the kidney fat.

As stated above, cuts as shown in the diagrams herewith correspond to those of which analyses are reported in the table beyond, but do not attempt to show the different methods of cutting followed in markets in different parts of the United States.

Delivery of Fresh Meat to Consumers.

—Perhaps the most important aid to the manufacturer, as well as a protection to the consumer, which modern science has offered to the public is the possibility of delivering fresh meats to consumers at a low temperature. A well equipped abattoir is provided with apparatus by means of which a constantly low temperature may be maintained in the room where the fresh meat is kept after the preparation described above. When the meats are to be distributed over long distances refrigerator cars or boats are provided where low temperature may be maintained.

Roast Beef.

—The parts of the beef which are used for roasting are shown in the [diagram], comprising a considerable portion of the hind quarter of the beef and part of the ribs. The roast is perhaps the most important of the parts of the beef for edible purposes. The average composition of the edible part of roast beef (before cooking) is given below:

Water,60.14percent
Solids,39.86„
Nitrogen,4.47„
Phosphoric acid,.54„
Sulfur,.26„
Fat,10.48„
Ash,1.30„
Protein,27.95„

Beefsteak.

—The most important parts of the beef next to the roast are the parts used for steak. Beefsteaks have different names, such as tenderloin and sirloin, and when the latter two are joined together by the bone the whole is called porterhouse. There are also round steaks and rump steaks which are less highly prized portions of the meat, but in nutritive value are probably quite as valuable as the others mentioned. The average composition of the edible part of a large number of samples of beefsteak is given in the following table:[1]

Water,63.95percent
Solids,36.05„
Nitrogen,4.54„
Phosphoric acid,.59„
Sulfur,.27„
Fat,5.93„
Ash,1.48„
Protein,28.37„

[1] Means of numerous analyses in Bureau of Chemistry.

It is seen that the roast beef contains less water, less protein, and decidedly more fat than the steak.

Roast Lamb.

—The parts of the lamb which are used for roasting are usually the hind quarters, although all of the parts are roasted at times. The average composition of a number of samples of lamb roast is given in the following table:[2]

Water,58.56percent
Solids,41.44„
Nitrogen,4.91„
Phosphoric acid,.61„
Sulfur,.28„
Fat,9.12„
Ash,1.30„
Protein,30.71„

[2] From numerous analyses made in the Bureau of Chemistry.

Lamb chops

or mutton chops are the short ribs with attached flesh of lamb or young sheep. They are considered to be the most desirable part of the young sheep or lamb for edible purposes. The average composition of the edible portion of a number of samples of lamb chops is given in the following table:

Water,63.98percent
Solids,36.02„
Nitrogen,4.35„
Phosphoric acid,.61„
Sulfur,.24„
Fat,7.09„
Ash,1.49„
Protein,27.18„

Roast lamb, as shown by the above data, has less water, more fat, and more protein than lamb chops.

Preservation of Fresh Meats.

—After delivery the meats are at once consigned to refrigerator departments in the markets, where they are preserved until they pass into the consumer’s hands. Thus, a properly fattened, properly slaughtered, and properly dressed piece of fresh meat may be brought into the consumer’s hands in a manner at once unobjectionable and at the same time one which secures it admirably from contamination of any kind. So perfect are these means of transportation that fresh meat may be sent not only from city to city but across the sea, and reach the consumer as near perfection as human ingenuity can devise.

Length of Storage.

—The question of how long meat can be safely kept in cold storage of this kind is one which has not been decided. It may be said, however, that the period should not be extended any longer than is necessary and that the consumers of meat should be provided in ordinary times, if transportation is undisturbed, with practically fresh meat. It is evident that if the principal meat-packing centers are Chicago, Omaha, and Kansas City the cities and parts of the country remote from these localities must have meat somewhat older than those which are near by. If we pass to distant countries, as for instance, Europe, where fresh meats are received from the United States or even from Australia, the time elapsing between slaughter and consumption must necessarily be long. Thus the length of time in which meat should be left in cold storage after it is properly matured depends upon its geographic distribution and is not a matter to be decided arbitrarily.

When meats are not only kept in cold storage for transportation but are actually frozen, as is often the case, they can, of course, be kept for a much longer time than when subjected merely to a low temperature at or slightly above the freezing point. For this reason meats that are to be carried to a long distance and not to be consumed for a long time after preparation are usually frozen and kept so during transport.

Effect of Low Temperature on Enzymic Action.

—Attention has been called to the fact that low temperature does not inhibit enzymic action, and, therefore, it must be admitted that this continued activity must gradually deteriorate the quality of the product. The question, therefore, which is the most important is not how long can meat be kept in a frozen condition but how short a time must it be kept. In all cases, therefore, of this kind the consumer is entitled to know the length of time during which his meat has been kept frozen, and this desirable condition of affairs is easily secured by the necessary local, state, and national inspection already mentioned.

Disposition of Fragments Arising From the Dressing of Beef.

—It is evident that the fragments of sound, wholesome meat which is dressed for delivery to commerce are themselves edible and hence there can be no hygienic or other objection to preparations made from these fragments, such as sausage and other minced and comminuted meats which appear upon the market. In other words, the consumer is entitled to know that because a piece of meat is comminuted is no reason for supposing that it is not edible.

Sausage, mince meat, comminuted meat, potted, canned, and other meats or preparations from these sound, clean, edible fragments, necessarily rejected in the process of preparing fresh meats for curing and for consumption, are entitled to the same consideration and may be looked upon with the same certainty of purity by the consumer when properly inspected and prepared as the larger pieces.

The possibility of detecting any effects of disease in meats by inspection at the time of or after delivery is very remote and therefore the inspection before killing and during the process of manufacture should be a most rigid one in the case of these fragments. Such inspection and certification would restore public confidence in the purity and hygienic properties of these meats which not only are nutritious but by the spicing and condimental treatment which they receive are rendered highly palatable and desirable.