TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
Obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.
More detail can be found at the end of the book.
A PRIMITIVE USE OF THE ANIMAL MACHINE THAT IS STILL IN VOGUE IN MANY EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.
(From the painting by J. Didier, in the Musée du Luxembourg, Paris.)
[EVERY-DAY SCIENCE]
BY
HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS, M.D., L.L.D.
ASSISTED BY
EDWARD H. WILLIAMS, M.D.
VOLUME VI
THE CONQUEST OF NATURE
ILLUSTRATED
NEW YORK AND LONDON
THE GOODHUE COMPANY
PUBLISHERS MDCCCCIX
Copyright, 1910, by The Goodhue Co.
All rights reserved
[CONTENTS]
| ILLUSTRATIONS | [ vii] | |
| THE CONQUEST OF NATURE | [ 1] | |
| CHAPTER I | MAN AND NATURE | [ 3] |
| CHAPTER II | HOW WORK IS DONE | [ 29] |
| CHAPTER III | THE ANIMAL MACHINE | [ 43] |
| CHAPTER IV | THE WORK OF AIR AND WATER | [ 62] |
| CHAPTER V | THE STORY OF THE STEAM ENGINE | [ 79] |
| CHAPTER VI | THE MASTER WORKER | [ 110] |
| CHAPTER VII | GAS AND OIL ENGINES | [ 133] |
| CHAPTER VIII | THE SMALLEST WORKERS | [ 148] |
| CHAPTER IX | MAN'S NEWEST CO-LABORER: THE DYNAMO | [ 173] |
| CHAPTER X | NIAGARA IN HARNESS | [ 184] |
| CHAPTER XI | THE BANISHMENT OF NIGHT | [ 202] |
| CHAPTER XII | THE MINERAL DEPTHS | [ 242] |
| CHAPTER XIII | THE AGE OF STEEL | [ 271] |
| CHAPTER XIV | SOME RECENT TRIUMPHS OF APPLIED SCIENCE | [ 298] |
| APPENDIX | [ 320] |
CHAPTER I
MAN AND NATURE
The Conquest of Nature, p. 4—Man's use of Nature's gifts, p. 6—Man the "tool-making animal," p. 7—Science and Civilization, p. 8—Clothing and artificially heated dwellings of primitive man, p. 10—Early domestication of animals, p. 11—Early development to the time of gunpowder, p. 12—The coming of steam and electricity, p. 15—Mechanical aids to the agriculturist, p. 19—The development of scientific agriculture, p. 20—Difficulties of the early manufacturer, p. 21—The development of modern manufacturing, p. 24—The relation of work to human development, p. 25—The decline of drudgery and the new era of labor-saving devices, p. 27.
CHAPTER II
HOW WORK IS DONE
Primitive man's use of the lever, p. 29—The use of the lever as conceived by Archimedes, p. 21—Wheels and pulleys, p. 32—Other means of transmitting power, p. 35—Inclined planes and derricks, p. 37—The steam-scoop, p. 38—Friction, p. 39—Available sources of energy, p. 41.
CHAPTER III
THE ANIMAL MACHINE
The oldest machine in existence, p. 43—The relation of muscle to machinery, p. 44—How muscular energy is applied, p. 44—The two types of muscles, p. 45—How the nerve-telegraph controls the muscles, p. 47—The nature of muscular action, p. 49—Applications of muscular energy, p. 52—The development of the knife and saw, p. 53—The wheel and axle, p. 55—Modified levers, p. 57—Domesticated animals, p. 59—Early application of horse-power, p. 60—The horse-power as the standard of the world's work, p. 61.
CHAPTER IV
THE WORK OF AIR AND WATER
First use of sails for propelling boats, p. 62—The fire engine of Ctesibius, p. 63—Suction and pressure as studied by the ancients, p. 64—Studies of air pressure, p. 65—The striking demonstration of Von Guericke, p. 66—The sailing chariot of Servinus, 1600 a.d., p. 68—The development of the windmill, p. 69—The development of the water-wheel, p. 70—The invention of the turbine, p. 72—Different types of turbines, p. 73—Hydraulic power and its uses, p. 74—The hydraulic elevator, p. 76—Recent water motors, p. 77.
CHAPTER V
CAPTIVE MOLECULES: THE STORY OF THE STEAM ENGINE
The development of the steam engine, p. 79—The manner in which energy is generated by steam, p. 80—Action of cylinder and piston, p. 81—Early attempts to utilize steam, p. 82—Beginnings of modern discovery, p. 83—The "engine" of the Marquis of Worcester, p. 84—Thomas Savery's steam pump, p. 85—Denis Papin invents the piston engine, p. 88—Newcomen's improved engine, p. 89—The use of these engines in collieries, p. 90—The wastefulness of such engines, p. 92—The coming of James Watt, p. 93—Early experiments of Watt, p. 95—The final success of Watt's experiments, p. 97—Some of his early engines, p. 98—Rotary motion, p. 99—Watt's engine, "Old Bess," p. 101—Final improvements and missed opportunities, p. 102—The personality of James Watt, p. 107.
CHAPTER VI
THE MASTER WORKER
Improvements on Watt's engines, p. 110—Engines dispensing with the walking beam, p. 111—The development of high-pressure engines, p. 112—Advantages of the high-pressure engine, p. 114—How steam acts in the high-pressure engine, p. 116—Compound engines, p. 117—Rotary engines, p. 119—Turbine engines, p. 124—The Turbinia and other turbine boats, p. 125—The action of steam in the turbine engine, p. 126—Advantages of the turbine engine, p. 127.
CHAPTER VII
GAS AND OIL ENGINES
Some early gas engines, p. 133—Dr. Stirling's hot-air engine, p. 133—Ericsson's hot-air engines, p. 134—The first practical gas engine, p. 135—The Otto gas engine, p. 136—Otto's improvement by means of compressed gas, p. 138—The "Otto cycle," p. 139—Adaptation of gas engines to automobiles, p. 140—Rapid increase in the use of gas engines, p. 141—Defects of the older hot-air engines, p. 145—Recent improvements and possibilities in the use of hot-air engines, p. 146.
CHAPTER VIII
THE SMALLEST WORKERS
The relative size of atoms and electrons, p. 148—What is electricity? p. 149—Franklin's one-fluid theory, p. 150—Modern views, p. 153—Cathode rays and the X-ray, p. 156—How electricity is developed, p. 159—The work of the dynamical current, p. 162—Theories of electrical action, p. 165—Practical uses of electricity, p. 168.
CHAPTER IX
MAN'S NEWEST CO-LABORER: THE DYNAMO
The mechanism of the dynamo, p. 173—The origin of the dynamo, p. 176—The work of Ampère, Henry, and Faraday, p. 177—Perfecting the dynamo, p. 178—A mysterious mechanism, p. 180—Curious relation between magnetism and electricity as exemplified in the dynamo, p. 182.
CHAPTER X
NIAGARA IN HARNESS
The volume of water at the falls, p. 184—The point at which the falls are "harnessed," p. 185—Within the power-house, p. 186—Penstocks and turbines, p. 188—A miraculous transformation of energy, p. 189—Subterranean tail-races, p. 191—The effect on the falls, p. 192—The transmission of power, p. 194—"Step-up" and "step-down" transformers, p. 198.
CHAPTER XI
THE BANISHMENT OF NIGHT
Primitive torch and open lamp, p. 202—Tallow candle and perfected lamp, p. 205—Gas lighting, p. 207—The incandescent gas mantle, p. 208—Early gas mantles, p. 209—How the incandescent gas mantle is made, p. 211—The introduction of acetylene gas, p. 212—Chemistry of acetylene gas, p. 214—Practical gas-making, p. 215—The triumph of electricity, p. 218—Davy and the first electric light, p. 220—Helpful discoveries in electricity, p. 222—The Jablochkoff candle, p. 223—Defects of the Jablochkoff candle, p. 225—The improved arc light, p. 226—Edison and the incandescent lamp, p. 228—Difficulties encountered in finding the proper material for a practical filament, p. 230—"Parchmentized thread" filament, p. 233—The tungsten lamp, p. 234—The mercury-vapor light of Peter Cooper Hewitt, p. 236—Advantages and peculiarities of this light, p. 240.
CHAPTER XII
THE MINERAL DEPTHS
Early mining methods, p. 242—Prospecting and locating mines, p. 243—"Booming," p. 246—Conditions to be considered in mining, p. 248—Dangerous gases in mines, p. 249—Artificial lights and lighting, p. 251—Ventilation and drainage, p. 252—Electric machinery in mining, p. 253—Electric drills, p. 254—Traction in mining, p. 256—Various types of electric motors, p. 257—"Telphers," p. 261—Electric mining pumps, p. 263—Some remarkable demonstrations of durability of electric pumps, p. 265—Electricity in coal mining, p. 266—Electric lighting in mines, p. 269.
CHAPTER XIII
THE AGE OF STEEL
Rapid growth of the iron industry in recent years, p. 271—The Lake Superior mines, p. 272—Methods of mining, p. 273—"Open-pit" mining, p. 274—Mining with the steam shovel, p. 276—From mine to furnace, p. 278—Methods of transportation, p. 279—Vessels of special construction, p. 281—The conversion of iron ore into iron and steel, p. 283—Blast furnaces, p. 284—Poisonous gases and their effect upon the workmen, p. 286—From pig iron to steel, p. 287—Modern methods of producing pig iron, p. 288—The Bessemer converter, p. 289—Sir Henry Bessemer, p. 291—The "Bessemer-Mushet" process, p. 293—Open-hearth method, p. 294—Alloy steels, p. 295.
CHAPTER XIV
SOME RECENT TRIUMPHS OF APPLIED SCIENCE
The province of electro-chemistry, p. 298—Linking the laboratory with the workshop, p. 299—Soda manufactories at Niagara Falls, p. 300—Producing aluminum by the electrolytic process, p. 300—Old and new methods compared, p. 301—Nitrogen from the air, p. 303—What this discovery means to the food industries of the world, p. 304—Prof. Birkeland's method, p. 307—Another method of nitrogen fixation, p. 309—Cost of production, p. 312—Electrical energy, p. 313—Production of high temperatures with the electric arc, p. 314—The production of artificial diamonds by the explosion of cordite, p. 315—Industrial problems of to-day and to-morrow, p. 316.
[ILLUSTRATIONS]
| A PRIMITIVE USE OF THE ANIMAL MACHINE THAT ISSTILL IN VOGUE IN MANY EUROPEAN COUNTRIES | [Frontispiece] | |
| HORSE AND CATTLE POWER | Facing p. | [32] |
| CRANES AND DERRICKS | " | [38] |
| A BELGIAN MILK-WAGON | " | [56] |
| TWO APPARATUSES FOR THE UTILIZATION OF ANIMAL POWER | " | [60] |
| WINDMILLS OF ANCIENT AND MODERN TYPES | " | [68] |
| WATER WHEELS | " | [72] |
| HYDRAULIC PRESS AND HYDRAULIC CAPSTAN | " | [76] |
| THOMAS SAVERY'S STEAM ENGINE | " | [86] |
| DIAGRAMS OF EARLY ATTEMPTS TO UTILIZE THE POWER OF STEAM | " | [88] |
| A MODEL OF THE NEWCOMEN ENGINE | " | [92] |
| WATT'S EARLIEST TYPE OF PUMPING-ENGINE | " | [96] |
| WATT'S ROTATIVE ENGINE | " | [100] |
| JAMES WATT | " | [108] |
| OLD IDEAS AND NEW APPLIED TO BOILER CONSTRUCTION | " | [114] |
| COMPOUND ENGINES | " | [118] |
| ROTARY ENGINES | " | [122] |
| THE ORIGINAL PARSONS' TURBINE ENGINE AND THE RECORD-BREAKING SHIP FOR WHICHIT IS RESPONSIBLE | " | [128] |
| GAS AND OIL ENGINES | " | [136] |
| AN ELECTRIC TRAIN AND THE DYNAMO THAT PROPELS IT | " | [174] |
| WILDE'S SEPARATELY EXCITED DYNAMO | " | [178] |
| THE EVOLUTION OF THE DYNAMO | " | [180] |
| VIEW IN ONE OF THE POWER HOUSES AT NIAGARA | " | [186] |
| ELECTRICAL TRANSFORMERS | " | [198] |
| THOMAS A. EDISON AND THE DYNAMO THAT GENERATED THE FIRST COMMERCIALINCANDESCENT LIGHT | " | [228] |
| A FLINT-AND-STEEL OUTFIT, AND A MINER'S STEEL MILL | " | [248] |
| THE LOCOMOTIVE "PUFFING BILLY" AND A MODERN COLLIERY TROLLEY | " | [258] |
[THE CONQUEST OF NATURE]
In the earlier volumes we have been concerned with the growth of knowledge. For the most part the scientific delvers whose efforts have held our attention have been tacitly unmindful, or even explicitly contemptuous, of the influence upon practical life of the phenomena to the investigation of which they have devoted their lives. They were and are obviously seekers of truth for the mere love of truth.
But the phenomena of nature are not dissociated in fact, however much we may attempt to localize and classify them. And so it chances that even the most visionary devotee of abstract science is forever being carried into fields of investigation trenching closely upon the practicalities of every-day life. A Black investigating the laws of heat is preparing the way explicitly, however unconsciously, for a Watt with his perfected mechanism of the steam engine.
Similarly a Davy working at the Royal Institution with his newly invented batteries, and intent on the discovery of new elements and the elucidation of new principles, is the direct forerunner of Jablochkoff, Brush, and Edison with their commercial revolution in the production of artificial light.
Again Oersted and Faraday, earnestly seeking out the fundamental facts as to the relations of electricity and magnetism, invent mechanisms which, though they seem but laboratory toys, are the direct forerunners of the modern dynamos that take so large a share in the world's work.
In a word, all along the line there is the closest association between what are commonly called the theoretical sciences and what with only partial propriety are termed the applied sciences. The linkage of one with the other must never be forgotten by anyone who would truly apprehend the status of those practical sciences which have revolutionized the civilization of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in its most manifest aspects.
Nevertheless there is, to casual inspection, a somewhat radical distinction between theoretical and practical aspects of science—just as there are obvious differences between two sides of a shield. And as the theoretical aspects of science have largely claimed our attention hitherto, so its practical aspects will be explicitly put forward in the pages that follow. In the present volume we are concerned with those primitive applications of force through which man early learned to add to his working efficiency, and with the elaborate mechanisms—turbine wheels, steam engines, dynamos—through which he has been enabled to multiply his powers until it is scarcely exaggeration to say that he has made all Nature subservient to his will. It is this view which justifies the title of the volume, which might with equal propriety have been termed the Story of the World's Work.
THE CONQUEST OF NATURE