249. ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
SOCIAL ENGLAND
The population of England at the close of the seventeenth century exceeded five millions, of whom at least two-thirds lived in the country. Except for London there were only four towns of more than ten thousand inhabitants. London counted half a million people within its limits and had become the largest city in Europe. Town life still wore a medieval look, but the increase of wealth gradually introduced many new comforts and luxuries. Coal came into use instead of charcoal; tea, coffee, and chocolate competed with wine, ale, and beer as beverages; the first newspapers appeared, generally in weekly editions; amusements multiplied; and passenger coaches began to ply between London and the provincial centers. The highways, however, were wretched and infested with robbers. The traveler found some recompense for the hardships of a journey in the country inns, famous for their plenty and good cheer. The transport of goods was chiefly by means of pack horses, because of the poor roads and the absence of canals. Postal arrangements also remained very primitive, and in remote country districts letters were not delivered more than once a week. The difficulties of travel and communication naturally made for isolation; and country people, except the wealthy, rarely visited the metropolis.
[Illustration: A LONDON BELLMAN Title-page of a tract published in 1616 A.D. It was part of the duties of a bellman, or night-watchman, to call out the hours, the state of the weather, and other information as he passed by.]
ECONOMIC ENGLAND
As the population of England increased, old industries developed and new ones sprang up. The chief manufacture was that of wool, while that of silk flourished after the influx of Huguenots which followed the revocation [29] of the Edict of Nantes. The absence of large textile mills made it necessary to carry on spinning and weaving in the homes of the operatives. The vast mineral deposits, which in later times became the main source of England's prosperity, were then little worked. Farming and the raising of sheep and cattle still remained the principal occupations. But agriculture was retarded by the old system of common tillage and open fields, just as industry was fettered by the trade monopoly of the craft guilds. These survivals of the Middle Ages had not yet disappeared.
[Illustration: COACH AND SEDAN CHAIR
Title-page of a tract published in 1636 A.D.]
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS
The seventeenth century in England saw a notable advance in science. At this time Harvey revealed the circulation of the blood. [30] Napier, a Scotchman, invented logarithms, which lie at the basis of the higher mathematics. Boyle, an Irishman, has been called the "father of modern chemistry," so many were his researches in that field of knowledge. Far greater than any of these men was Sir Isaac Newton, who discovered the law of gravitation and the differential calculus. During the Civil War a group of students interested in the natural world began to hold meetings in London and Oxford, and shortly after the Restoration they obtained a charter under the name of the Royal Society. It still exists and enrolls among its members the most distinguished scientists of England. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich also dates from the period of the Restoration. Altogether much was being done to uncover the secrets of nature.
[Illustration: DEATH MASK OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON.
In the possession of the Royal Society of London.]
PROGRESS OF ART
Seventeenth century England produced no very eminent painters or sculptors, though foreign artists, such as Rubens and Van Dyck, were welcomed there. Among architects the most famous was Sir Christopher Wren, who did much to popularize the Renaissance style of building. [31] A great fire which destroyed most of old London during the reign of Charles II gave Wren an opportunity to rebuild about fifty parish churches, as well as St. Paul's Cathedral. His tomb in the crypt of the cathedral bears the famous inscription: Si monumentum requieris, circumspice: "If you seek his monument, look around you."
LITERATURE
English literature in the seventeenth century covered many fields. Shakespeare and Bacon, the two chief literary ornaments of the Elizabethan Age, did some of their best work during the reign of James I. In 1611 A.D. appeared the Authorized Version of the Bible, sometimes called the King James Version because it was dedicated to that monarch. The simplicity, dignity, and eloquence of this translation have never been excelled, and it still remains in ordinary use among Protestants throughout the English- speaking world. [32] The Puritan poet, John Milton, composed his epic of Paradise Lost during the reign of Charles II. About the same time another Puritan, John Bunyan, wrote the immortal Pilgrim's Progress, a book which gives an equal though different pleasure to children and adults, to the ignorant and the learned. But these are only a few of the eminent poets and prose writers of the age.
POSITION OF ENGLAND
Thus, aside from its political importance, the seventeenth century formed a noteworthy period in English history. England until this time had been, on the whole, a follower rather than a leader of Europe. The defeat of the Spanish Armada, the overthrow of Stuart absolutism, and the check administered to the aggressive designs of Louis XIV were so many indications that England had risen to a place of first importance in European affairs. During this century, too, the American colonies of England began to lay the basis for Anglo-Saxon predominance in the New World.