House Plumbing
A system of house plumbing consists of pipes carrying the water into the house, the fixtures or receptacles which are used to receive the waste and refuse from the household and the processes that are performed in the house. The latter includes the fixtures of the bathroom—the stool, bath tub, lavatory and foot tub; those of the kitchen such as the sink; those of the laundry; and the system of pipes which carry the refuse from the house into the main sewer.
Between the pipes which carry the water into the house and those which carry the sewage out are placed the house fixtures. There is a pipe leading to each fixture which carries the water to dilute the sewage, and a pipe leading from each of these fixtures carrying the sewage to the main house drain. The admission of sewer gas into the house through the fixtures is prevented by the trap which contains water known as the seal. The trap is of no value unless it is properly sealed. The trap is simply a bend in the pipe, as shown in the illustration, in which water is contained. This water keeps the sewer air from coming back into the house.
A system of house plumbing, in order to meet the requirements of hygiene, must be properly trapped. There is a small trap for each fixture and in some cities an additional outside trap is required which protects the entire system.
When some fixture loses its seal then there is great danger of sewer air coming into the house. The main causes for traps becoming unsealed are: the forcible ejection of the seal by the momentum of the flush; loss of seal through siphon; the evaporation of the water when the fixture is not in use; and by capillary attraction as when waste paper or some similar material is left in the trap and projects through. Siphonage is caused by a large volume of water passing down through a vertical pipe with which the fixture is connected.
The loss of the seal by evaporation may be prevented by frequent use of the fixture, or if the fixture is not to be used for some time the trap may be filled with oil or some substance that will not evaporate. The loss of the seal from momentum may be averted by providing proper flushing tanks, while the protection from capillary attraction may be effected by not allowing anything to remain in the trap which will exert this capillary attraction on the water in the trap.
Prevention of siphonage is accomplished by providing proper ventilation for each trap so there may be a column of air which may be drawn upon in lieu of the seal.
Care should be taken that the seal does not become foul. The fouling of the seal is the result of back pressure from the sewer and may be avoided by providing a vent pipe through which the air may pass from the sewer and thus relieve the pressure on the seal.
The sewage is carried from the house by the house sewer into the street sewer, from the street sewer into the district sewers, and then into the large trunk sewers. There are also relief sewers, storm sewers, under drains, and intercepting sewers. The entire system is known as the sewerage system.
The amount of water required to carry away the sewage varies in different cities. In the smaller towns it may be as low as fifty gallons a day per capita, while in some of the larger cities it may be as much as 200 gallons per capita per day.
At one time the sewer gas was considered the greatest menace to workmen in the sewers. But it has been found that there is little danger from this gas. Sewer air is very objectionable because of the very foul odor, but even those who contend that germs cause dis-ease maintain that there is little danger of contracting dis-ease from breathing sewer air.
CHAPTER III
AIR
AIR
CONSTITUENTS OF AIR
General Considerations
AIR, MIXTURE OF GASES
ATMOSPHERE
AQUASPHERE
PETROSPHERE
FUNCTION OF AIR
Oxygen
PER CENT OF OXYGEN
USE IN BODY
AMOUNT REQUIRED VARIES
Nitrogen
MORE IMPORTANT TO PLANT LIFE
USE IN BODY
Argon
MEANING OF NAME
AMOUNT IN ATMOSPHERE
ARGON GROUP
Carbon Dioxide
AMOUNT IN AIR
SOURCES OF
PROPERTIES OF
COURSE IN BLOOD
Ozone
NOT CONSTANT ELEMENT
WHERE FOUND
HOW FORMED
Ammonia
HOW PRODUCED
WHERE FOUND
Other Constituents
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
HELIUM
KRYPTON
NEON
XENON
NITROGEN AND SULPHURIC ACID
AIR PRESSURE
Normal Air Pressure
AVERAGE PRESSURE
INTELLECTUAL ADAPTATION
Reduced Air Pressure
INCREASED RATE OF BREATHING
EXPERIMENT
SYMPTOMS IN REDUCED AIR PRESSURE
Increased Air Pressure
CONDITIONS IN SAME
DANGER FROM
Caisson Dis-ease
SEVERE PAIN IN MUSCLES AND JOINTS
DIVER’S PALSY
BENDS
HUMIDITY AND TEMPERATURE OF AIR
Humidity
RELATIVE
ABSOLUTE
Cold Dry Air
ADAPTING BODY TO CHANGE
HEAT STROKE
HEAT EVAPORATION NECESSARY
Warm Moist Air
INTERFERENCE IN ADAPTATION
EFFECTS UPON BODY
Cold Damp Air
PRODUCES CHILLING OF BODY
INTERFERES WITH INTELLECTUAL ADAPTATION
Warm Dry Air
VERY DESIRABLE
LOSS OF MOISTURE FROM BODY
Proper Temperature and Humidity
CHAPTER III
AIR
CONSTITUENTS OF AIR
Air is a mixture of gases, not a chemical compound, which envelops the earth and it is estimated to be at least one hundred miles high. This gaseous envelope is known as the atmosphere. The water upon the earth’s surface is called the aquasphere. The solid substance composing the earth is known as the petrosphere.
Air performs a very important function in the interchanging of gases in respiration and in the regulation of bodily temperature. The gases contained in the atmosphere are given by most authorities in the following proportions, per volume:
| Oxygen | 20.93% |
| Nitrogen | 78.10% |
| Argon | 0.94% |
| Carbon Dioxide | 0.03% |
With traces of helium, krypton, neon, xenon, hydrogen, ammonia, ozone and hydrogen peroxide.
It is also found that there is a varying amount of water in the air, as well as dust and other substances. It is worthy of note that the air maintains a wonderful uniformity of composition over the entire surface of the earth. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that the atmosphere is in constant motion which maintains its proper mixture. It must also be noted that the air is not a chemical compound but is a mixture of gases.