Oblique Illumination.
Wenham’s Parabolic Condenser.—Mr. Wenham’s many useful additions to the microscope and its accessories demand especial notice. When mention is made of the various immersion condensers (illuminators, as he preferred to call them), his original right-angled prism, his truncated hemispherical lens, his immersion paraboloid, and his reflex illuminator, in which rays beyond the angle of total reflexion are utilised by reflex action from cover-glass on to the surface of the object, every one of these well-devised inventions will always be spoken of in terms of praise. All in their turn conferred a great service upon the microscope, and enabled the student to clear up difficulties that stood in the way of developing structure when achromatic lenses and dry-objectives were considered perfect. The superior illumination of the object was wholly due to, and effected by, reflected rays from the object to the aperture of the objective, and obviously, reflex action could only take place with dry-objectives. This reflex action must be regarded as Mr. Wenham’s special discovery. It must be observed, however, that it is not the same as the more modern achromatic appliances used for throwing direct rays upon the object, and which proved the existence of apertures capable of direct transmission up to 27° measured in the body of the front lens.
Fig. 144.—Wenham’s Parabolic Reflector.
The most practical of Mr. Wenham’s inventions is probably the hemispherical lens, since adopted by Messrs. Ross in connection with their excellent Zentmayer stand, and which has proved eminently serviceable. But the fact is that devices of the kind for obtaining direct oblique light require a thin stage, and therefore most of those who possess the earlier-made microscope stand would doubtless hail the appearance of any appliance which will convert axial light into oblique light; as by so doing the possessors of such instruments, in which the stage is generally of considerable thickness, would enjoy the pleasure of seeing the best resolution it is possible to get with their dry-objectives.[27]
Wenham’s Parabolic Reflector.—This will be better understood by reference to [Fig. 145], which represents it in section A B C, and shows that the rays of light r r′ r′′, entering perpendicularly at its surface C, and then reflected by its parabolic surface A B to a focus at F, can form no part of the largest pencil of light admitted by the object-glass and represented by G F H; but an object placed at F will interrupt the rays and be strongly illuminated. A stop at S prevents any light from passing through direct from the mirror.
In the microscope the parabolic reflector fits into the cylindrical fitting under the stage, and the adjustment of its focus upon the object is made by giving it a spiral motion when fitted in—that is, carefully pushing it up or down at the same time that it is turned round by the milled edge B B. It must then be focussed by the rack and pinion motion. As the rays of light must be parallel when they enter it, a flat mirror, which in this case should be added to the instrument, is generally used; daylight will then require only direct reflection, but the rays from an artificial source will have to be made parallel by placing a side condenser between the light and the mirror, about 1¾ inch from the former and 4½ inches from the latter. Nearly the whole surface of the mirror should be equally illuminated; this may be tested by temporarily placing upon it a card or piece of white paper. Parallel rays can also be obtained from the concave mirror, if the light is placed about 2½ inches from it. Dark-ground illumination is not suitable for very transparent objects—that is, unless there is a considerable difference in their index of refraction, or they are pervaded by air-cells.
Fig. 145.—Parabolic Reflector.
One very remarkable example of this may be seen in the tracheal system of insects. If any of the transparent larvæ of the various kinds of gnat be mounted in gelatine and glycerine jelly, slightly warmed but not enough to kill the insect outright, about the third day the fluids circulating in the body will be absorbed and replaced by air. Illuminated by the parabolic condenser, and viewed with a binocular microscope, and a low power, the gnat-larva becomes a superb object. The body of the insect is but faintly visible, and in its place is displayed a marvellous tracheal skeleton, with the tubes standing out in perspective, shining brilliantly, like a structure of burnished silver. Unfortunately, such objects are not permanent, for when the whole of the water dries up, the tracheal tubes either collapse or become refilled with fluid.
As to the blackness of field, and luminosity of the object, this depends upon excess of light from the paraboloid received beyond the angle of aperture of the object-glass. It is found in practice that more and more of the inner annulus of rays from the paraboloid has to be stopped off, until at last, with high-angled objectives, it is scarcely possible to obtain a black field.
The light, on the whole, most suitable for this method of illumination is lamp, the rays of which should in all cases be rendered more parallel by means of a large plano-convex lens, or condenser.
Fig. 146.—Wenham’s Hemispherical Lens.
Wenham’s Immersion Condenser.—Mr. Wenham, in the year 1856, described various forms of oblique illuminators, one of which was an immersion; a simple right-angled prism, connected by a fluid medium of oil of cloves. This, however, was abandoned for a nearly hemispherical lens connected with the slide, and although an improvement, did not touch the point of excellence Mr. Wenham was looking for. Ultimately he adopted a semi-circular disc of glass of the exact form and size represented in the drawing, [Fig. 146], having a quarter-inch radius, with a well-polished rounded edge, the sides being grasped by a simple kind of open clip attached to the sub-stage, the fluid medium used for connecting the upper surface with the slide being either water, glycerine, or oil; an increase of oblique illumination being obtained by swinging the ordinary mirror sideways. By means of an illuminator of the kind difficult objects mounted in balsam are resolved. This simple piece of glass collects and concentrates light in a marvellous manner, and is by no means a bad substitute for some of the more costly forms of achromatic condenser. It can be used either in fluid contact with the slide, or dry, as an ordinary condenser.
Mr. Wenham subsequently contrived a small truncated glass paraboloid, for use in fluid contact with the slide; water, glycerine, oil, or other substance being employed as a contact medium. The rays of light in this illuminator, being internally reflected from a convex surface of glass, impinge obliquely on the under surface of the slide, and are transmitted by the fluid uniting medium, and internally reflected from the upper surface of the cover-glass to the objective. To use the reflex illuminator efficiently it must be racked up to a level with the stage. The centre of rotation is then set true by a dot on the fitting, seen with a low power, a drop of water is then placed on the top, and upon this the slide is laid. Minute objects on the slide must be found either by the aid of a low power, by their greater brilliancy, or by rotating the illuminator; the effect on the podura scale is superb, the whole scale appearing dotted with bright blue spots in a zig-zag direction. Objects for this illuminator should be especially selected and mounted.
Fig. 147.—The Amici Prism.
The Amici Prism, originally designed for oblique illumination, consists of a flattened triangular glass prism, the two narrower sides of which are slightly convex, while the third or broadest side forms the reflecting surface. When properly used, it is capable of transmitting a very oblique pencil of light. The prism is either mounted, as in [Fig. 147], for slipping into the fitting of the sub-stage, or on an independent stand, as arranged for Powell’s microscope, page 85, [Fig. 56].