The Golden Bough: A Study in Comparative Religion (Vol. 2 of 2)

by James George Frazer

Footnotes

[1.] W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, pp. 1-6. [2.] W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf und Roggenhund (Danzig, 1865), p. 5; id., Antike Wald-und Feldkulte, p. 318 sq.; id., Mythol. Forsch. p. 103; Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, p. 213. [3.] W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf u. Roggenhund, p. 7 sqq.; id., A. W. F. p. 319. [4.] W. Mannhardt, Roggenwolf, etc. p. 10. [5.] W. Mannhardt, M. F. p. 104. [6.] Ib. [7.] Ib. p. 104 sq. On the Harvest-May, see above, vol. i. p. 68. [8.] Ib. p. 105. [9.] Ib. p. 30. [10.] Ib. pp. 30, 105. [11.] Ib. p. 105 sq. [12.] A. W. F. p. 320; Roggenwolf, p. 24. [13.] Roggenwolf, p. 24. [14.] Roggenwolf, p. 24. [15.] Ib. p. 25. [16.] Ib. p. 28; A. W. F. p. 320. [17.] Roggenwolf, p. 25. [18.] Ib. p. 26. [19.] Ib. p. 26; A. W. F. p. 320. [20.] A. W. F. p. 321. [21.] A. W. F. p. 321 sq. [22.] A. W. F. p. 320. [23.] A. W. F. p. 320 sq. [24.] A. W. F. p. 322. [25.] Ib. p. 323. [26.] Die Korndämonen, p. 13. [27.] Ib.; Schmitz, Sitten und Sagen des Eifler Volkes, i. p. 95; Kuhn, Westfälische Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche, ii. p. 181; Kuhn und Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche, p. 398. [28.] G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens, p. 21. [29.] Die Korndämonen, p. 13. Cp. Kuhn and Schwartz, l.c. [30.] Die Korndämonen, p. 13. [31.] Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, p. 220. [32.] Die Korndämonen, p. 13 sq.; Kuhn, Westfälische Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche, ii. p. 180 sq.; Pfannenschmid, Germanische Erntefeste, p. 110. [33.] Die Korndämonen, p. 14; Pfannenschmid, op. cit. pp. 111, 419 sq. [34.] Die Korndämonen, p. 15. So in Shropshire, where the corn-spirit is conceived in the form of a gander (see above, vol. i. p. 407), the expression for overthrowing a load at harvest is “to lose the goose,” and the penalty used to be the loss of the goose at the harvest supper (Burne and Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, p. 375); and in some parts of England the harvest supper was called the Harvest Gosling, or the Inning Goose (Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 23, 26, Bohn's ed.) [35.] Die Korndämonen, p. 14. [36.] Ib. p. 15. [37.] M. F. p. 30. [38.] Die Korndämonen, p. 15. [39.] Ib. p. 15 sq. [40.] Ib. p. 15; M. F. p. 30. [41.] Die Korndämonen, p. 1. [42.] Folk-lore Journal, vii. 47. [43.] Die Korndämonen, p. 3. [44.] Lemke, Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen, i. 24. [45.] G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens, p. 21. [46.] Above, vol. i. p. 408. [47.] M. F. p. 29. [48.] M. F. p. 29 sq.; Die Korndämonen, p. 5. [49.] A. W. F. pp. 172-174; M. F. p. 30. [50.] W. Mannhardt, A. W. F. p. 155 sq. [51.] Ib. p. 157 sq. [52.] Ib. p. 159. [53.] Ib. p. 161 sq. [54.] W. Mannhardt, A. W. F. p. 162. [55.] Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 232 sq. No. 426; A. W. F. p. 162. [56.] Panzer, op. cit. ii. p. 228 sq. No. 422; A. W. F. p. 163. [57.] A. W. F. p. 163. [58.] Ib. p. 164. [59.] A. W. F. p. 164. [60.] Ib. p. 164 sq. [61.] Ib. p. 165. [62.] Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 24, Bohn's ed.; A. W. F. p. 165. [63.] Above, vol. i. p. 380. [64.] A. W. F. p. 165. [65.] A. W. F. p. 166; M. F. p. 185. [66.] A. W. F. p. 166. [67.] Above, p. [11]. [68.] Holzmayer, Osiliana, p. 107. [69.] G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten u. Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens, p. 19. Cp. B. K. p. 482 sqq. [70.] Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 225 sqq. No. 421; A. W. F. p. 167 sq. [71.] A. W. F. p. 168. [72.] E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 445, No. 162; A. W. F. p. 168. [73.] A. W. F. p. 169. [74.] Panzer, op. cit. ii. p. 224 sq. No. 420; A. W. F. p. 169. [75.] A. W. F. p. 169. [76.] Ib. p. 170. [77.] Ib. p. 170. [78.] Praetorius, Deliciae Prussicae, p. 23 sq.; B. K. p. 394 sq. [79.] M. F. p. 58. [80.] Ib. [81.] M. F. p. 62. [82.] M. F. p. 59. [83.] Above, p. [6]. [84.] M. F. p. 59. [85.] E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 440 sq. Nos. 151, 152, 153; Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 234, No. 428; M. F. p. 59. [86.] Panzer, op. cit. ii. p. 233, No. 427; M. F. p. 59. [87.] M. F. p. 59 sq. [88.] M. F. p. 58. [89.] M. F. p. 58 sq. [90.] M. F. p. 60. [91.] E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 444 sq. No. 162; M. F. p. 61. [92.] Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 233, No. 427. [93.] M. F. p. 61 sq. [94.] M. F. p. 62. [95.] M. F. p. 62. [96.] E. Meier, op. cit. p. 445 sq. No. 163. [97.] M. F. p. 60. [98.] M. F. p. 62. [99.] Above, vol. i. p. 343 sq. [100.] Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France, ii. 135. [101.] M. F. p. 62, “Il fait le veau.” [102.] M. F. p. 62. [103.] M. F. p. 63. [104.] M. F. p. 167. [105.] Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 24, Bohn's ed. [106.] Burne and Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, p. 373 sq. [107.] M. F. p. 167. [108.] Laisnel de la Salle, Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France, ii. 133; M. F. p. 167 sq. [109.] Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, p. 213, No. 4. [110.] Holzmayer, Osiliana, p. 107; M. F. p. 187. [111.] Birlinger, Aus Schwaben, ii. 328. [112.] Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. pp. 223, 224, Nos. 417, 419. [113.] M. F. p. 112. [114.] E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 445, No. 162. [115.] Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. 425, No. 379. [116.] Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. pp. 221-224, Nos. 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 418. [117.] M. F. p. 186 sq. [118.] Above, p. [3]. [119.] Above, p. [26] sq. [120.] M. F. p. 187. [121.] M. F. p. 187 sq.; Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, pp. 189, 218; W. Kolbe, Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche (Marburg, 1888), p. 35. [122.] M. F. p. 188; Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 220. [123.] A. W. F. p. 197 sq.; Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. p. 491; Jamieson, Dictionary of the Scottish Language, s.v. “Maiden”; Afzelius, Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und neuerer Zeit, übersetzt von Ungewitter, i. 9. [124.] Above, p. [6] sq. [125.] L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, pp. 169 sq., 182. On Christmas night children sleep on a bed of the Yule straw (ib. p. 177). [126.] Jahn, Deutsche Opfergebräuche, p. 215. Cp. above, vol. i. p. 60. [127.] Afzelius, op. cit. i. 31. [128.] Afzelius, op. cit. i. 9; Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, pp. 181, 185. [129.] Above, pp. [8] sq., [11], [12], [15] sq., [21], [23], [28]. In regard to the hare the substitution of brandy for hare's blood is doubtless comparatively modern. [130.] Die Korndämonen, p. 1. [131.] Herodotus, ii. 46. [132.] Preller, Griechische Mythologie, 3 i. 600; A. W. F. p. 138. [133.] A. W. F. p. 139. [134.] Pollux, iv. 118. [135.] A. W. F. p. 142 sq. [136.] Ovid, Fasti, ii. 361; iii. 312; v. 101; id., Heroides, iv. 49. [137.] Macrobius, Sat. i. 22, 3. [138.] Homer, Hymn to Aphrodite, 262 sqq. [139.] Pliny, N. H. xii. 3; Ovid, Metam. vi. 392; id., Fasti, iii. 303, 309; Gloss. Isid. Mart. Cap. ii. 167, cited by Mannhardt, A. W. F. p. 113. [140.] Pliny, N. H. xii. 3; Martianus Capella, ii. 167; Augustine, Civ. Dei, xv. 23; Aurelius Victor, Origo gentis Romanae, iv. 6. [141.] Servius on Virgil, Ecl. vi. 14; Ovid, Metam. vi. 392 sq.; Martianus Capella, ii. 167. [142.] B. K. p. 138 sq.; A. W. F. p. 145. [143.] Servius on Virgil, Georg. i. 10. [144.] Above, p. [12] sqq. [145.] A. W. F. ch. iii. [146.] Above, vol. i. p. 379 sq. [147.] Above, vol. i. p. 326 sq. [148.] Above, vol. i. p. 325 sq. [149.] Above, p. [19] sqq. [150.] A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, ii. 232. [151.] Pausanias, i. 24, 4; id., i. 28, 10; Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 29 sq.; Aelian, Var. Hist. viii. 3; Schol. on Aristophanes, Peace, 419; Hesychius, Suidas, and Etymol. Magnum, s.v. βούφονια. The date of the sacrifice (14th Skirophorion) is given by the Schol. on Aristophanes and the Etym. Magn.; and this date corresponds, according to Mannhardt (M. F. p. 68), with the close of the threshing in Attica. No writer mentions the trial of both the axe and the knife. Pausanias speaks of the trial of the axe, Porphyry and Aelian of the trial of the knife. But from Porphyry's description it is clear that the slaughter was carried out by two men, one wielding an axe and the other a knife, and that the former laid the blame on the latter. Perhaps the knife alone was condemned. That the King Archon (on whom see above, vol. i. p. 7), presided at the trial of all lifeless objects, is mentioned by Pollux, viii. 90; cp. id. viii. 120. [152.] The real import of the name bouphonia was first perceived by Prof. W. Robertson Smith. See his Religion of the Semites, i. 286 sqq. [153.] Varro, De re rustica, ii. 5, 4. Cp. Columella, vi. praef. § 7. Perhaps, however, Varro's statement may be merely an inference drawn from the ritual of the bouphonia and the legend told to explain it. [154.] B. K. p. 409. [155.] See above, vol. i. p. 243. [156.] Hecquard, Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West-Afrika, pp. 41-43. [157.] Above, p. [3], and vol. i. p. 408. [158.] China Review, i. 62, 154, 162, 203 sq.; Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, p. 375 sq., ed. Paxton Hood; Gray, China, ii. 115 sq. [159.] Above, vol. i. pp. 261, 267. [160.] See above, p. [26] sqq. [161.] Schol. on Aristophanes, Acharn. 747. [162.] Overbeck, Griechische Kunstmythologie, ii. 493; Müller-Wieseler, Denkmäler d. alt. Kunst, ii. pl. viii. 94. [163.] Hyginus, Fab. 277; Cornutus, De nat. deor. c. 28; Macrobius, Sat. i. 12, 23; Schol. on Aristophanes, Acharn. 747; id. on Frogs, 338; id. on Peace, 374; Servius on Virgil, Georg. ii. 380; Aelian, Nat. Anim. x. 16. [164.] For the authorities on the Thesmophoria and a discussion of some doubtful points in the festival, I may be permitted to refer to my article “Thesmophoria” in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, ninth ed. [165.] Photius, s.v. στήνια, speaks of the ascent of Demeter from the lower world; and Clement of Alexandria speaks of both Demeter and Proserpine as having been engulfed in the chasm (Protrept. ii. § 17). The original equivalence of Demeter and Proserpine must be borne steadily in mind. [166.] Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 69; Photius, s.v. στήνια. [167.] E. Rohde, “Unedirte Luciansscholien, die attischen Thesmophorien und Haloen betreffend,” in Rheinisches Museum, N. F. xxv. (1870) 548 sqq. Two passages of classical writers (Clemens Alex., Protrept. ii. § 17 and Pausanias, ix. 8, 1) refer to the rites described by the Scholiast on Lucian, and had been rightly interpreted by Lobeck (Aglaophamus, p. 827 sqq.) [168.] The scholiast speaks of them as megara and adyta. Megara (from a Phoenician word meaning “cavern,” “subterranean chasm,” Movers, Die Phoenizier, i. 220) were properly subterranean vaults or chasms sacred to the gods. See Hesychius, quoted by Movers, l.c. (the passage does not appear in M. Schmidt's minor edition of Hesychius); Porphyry, De antro nymph. 6. [169.] We infer this from Pausanias, ix. 8, 1, though the passage is incomplete and apparently corrupt. For ἐν Δωδώνῃ Lobeck proposes to read ἀναδῦναι or ἀναδοθῆναι. At the spring and autumn festivals of Isis at Tithorea geese and goats were thrown into the adyton and left there till the following festival, when the remains were removed and buried at a certain spot a little way from the temple. Pausanias, x. 32, 14 (9). This analogy supports the view that the pigs thrown into the caverns at the Thesmophoria were left there till the next festival. [170.] Ovid, Fasti, iv. 461-466, upon which Gierig remarks, “Sues melius poeta omisisset in hac narratione.” Such is the wisdom of the commentator. [171.] Pausanias, i. 14, 3. [172.] Schol. on Aristophanes, Frogs, 338. [173.] Above, p. [15] sq. [174.] Above, p. [20] sq. [175.] Above, p. [9]. [176.] Above, p. [29]. [177.] Above, p. [29] sq. [178.] In Clemens Alex., Protrept. ii. 17, for μεγαρίζοντες χοίρους ἐκβάλλουσι Lobeck (Aglaophamus, p. 831) would read μεγάροις ζῶντας χοίρους ἐμβάλλουσι. For his emendation of Pausanias, see above, p. 45. [179.] It is worth noting that in Crete, which was an ancient seat of Demeter worship (see above, vol. i. p. 331), the pig was esteemed very sacred and was not eaten, Athenaeus, 375 f·376 a. This would not exclude the possibility of its being eaten sacramentally, as at the Thesmophoria. [180.] Pausanias, viii. 42. [181.] Above, p. [24] sqq. [182.] Pausanias, viii. 25 and 42. On the Phigalian Demeter, see W. Mannhardt, M. F. p. 244 sqq. [183.] Above, vol. i. p. 296 sq. [184.] Above, vol. i. p. 296. [185.] Demosthenes, De corona, p. 313. [186.] Above, vol. i. p. 281. [187.] Cureton, Spicilegium Syriacum, p. 44. [188.] Lucian, De dea Syria, 54. [189.] The heathen Harranians sacrificed swine once a year and ate the flesh; En-Nedim, in Chwolsohn's Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, ii. 42. My friend Professor W. Robertson Smith has conjectured that the wild boars annually sacrificed in Cyprus on 2d April (Joannes Lydus, De mensibus, iv. 45) represented Adonis himself. See his Religion of the Semites, i. 272 sq., 392. [190.] Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. iv. 5. [191.] Isaiah lxv. 3, 4, lxvi. 3, 17. [192.] Herodotus, ii. 47; Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 8; Aelian, Nat. Anim. x. 16. [193.] Herodotus, l.c. [194.] Plutarch and Aelian, ll.cc. [195.] Herodotus, l.c. [196.] Herodotus, ii. 47 sq.; Aelian and Plutarch, ll.cc. Herodotus distinguishes the sacrifice to the moon from that to Osiris. According to him, at the sacrifice to the moon, the extremity of the pig's tail, together with the spleen and the caul, were covered with fat and burned; the rest of the flesh was eaten. On the evening (not the eve, see Stein on the passage) of the festival the sacrifice to Osiris took place. Each man slew a pig before his door, then gave it to the swineherd, from whom he had bought it, to take away. [197.] Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, pp. 432, 452. [198.] Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington), p. 225. [199.] Ib. p. 231. [200.] J. Crevaux, Voyages dans l'Amérique au Sud, p. 59. [201.] Turner, Samoa, pp. 17 sq., 50 sq. [202.] Leviticus xvi. 23 sq. [203.] Porphyry, De abstin. ii. 44. For this and the Jewish examples I am indebted to my friend Prof. W. Robertson Smith. [204.] Mariner, Tonga Islands, i. 434, note; ii. 82, 222 sq. [205.] Above, vol. i. p. 167 sqq. [206.] Casalis, The Basutos, p. 211; Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, p. 255; John Mackenzie, Ten Years north of the Orange River, p. 135 note. [207.] J. Mackenzie, l.c. [208.] Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington), p. 225. [209.] Ib. p. 275. [210.] Turner, Samoa, p. 76. [211.] Ib. p. 70. [212.] Diogenes Laertius, Vitae Philos. viii. 8. [213.] Aelian, Nat. Anim. x. 16. The story is repeated by Pliny, Nat. Hist. xviii. 168. [214.] Lefébure, Le mythe Osirien, i. 44. [215.] Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 8. Lefébure (op. cit. p. 46) recognises that in this story the boar is Typhon himself. [216.] This important principle was first recognised by Prof. W. Robertson Smith. See his article “Sacrifice,” Encycl. Britann. 9th ed. xxi. 137 sq. Cp. his Religion of the Semites, pp. 353 sq., 391 sq. [217.] Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 31. [218.] Lefébure, Le mythe Osirien, p. 48 sq. [219.] Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 33, 73; Diodorus, i. 88. [220.] Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 31; Diodorus, i. 88. Cp. Herodotus, ii. 38. [221.] Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 20, 29, 33, 43; Strabo, xvii. 1, 31; Diodorus, i. 21, 85; Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums,5 i. 55 sqq. On Apis and Mnevis, see also Herodotus, ii. 153, iii. 27 sq.; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14, 7; Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 184 sqq.; 17.; Solinus, xxxii. 17-21; Cicero, De nat. deor. i. 29; Aelian, Nat. Anim. xi. 10 sq.; Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. viii. 1, 3; id., Isis et Osiris, 5, 35: Eusebius, Praepar. Evang. iii. 13, 1 sq.; Pausanias, i. 18, 4, vii. 22, 3 sq. Both Apis and Mnevis were black bulls, but Apis had certain white spots. [222.] Diodorus, i. 21. [223.] On the religious reverence of pastoral peoples for their cattle, and the possible derivation of the Apis and Isis-Hathor worship from the pastoral stage of society, see W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, i. 277 sqq. [224.] Herodotus, ii. 41. [225.] Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 184; Solinus, xxxii. 18; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14, 7. The spring or well in which he was drowned was perhaps the one from which his drinking water was procured; he might not drink the water of the Nile. Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 5. [226.] Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 56. [227.] Maspero, Histoire ancienne,4 p. 31. Cp. Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums,5 i. 56. [228.] See above, p. [24] sqq. [229.] Athenaeus, 587 a; Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 204. Cp. Encycl. Britann. 9th ed. art. “Sacrifice,” xxi. 135. [230.] Varro, De agri cult. i. 2, 19 sq. [231.] Herodotus, ii. 42. [232.] Festus, ed. Müller, pp. 178, 179, 220; Plutarch, Quaest. Rom. 97; Polybius, xii. 4 B. The sacrifice is referred to by Julian, Orat. 176 d. [233.] Ovid, Fasti, iv. 731 sqq., cp. 629 sqq.; Propertius, v. 1, 19 sq. [234.] Above, p. [41] sq. [235.] Above, vol. i. p. 408, vol. ii. p. [3]. [236.] Above, p. [30]. [237.] Livy, ii. 5. [238.] Festus, ed. Müller, pp. 130, 131. [239.] The October horse is the subject of an essay by Mannhardt (Mytholog. Forsch. pp. 156-201), of which the above account is a summary. [240.] M. F. p. 179. [241.] B. K. p. 205. It is not said that the dough-man is made of the new corn; but probably this is, or once was, the case. [242.] Praetorius, Deliciae Prussicae, pp. 60-64; A. W. F. p. 249 sqq. [243.] Bezzenberger, Litauische Forschungen (Göttingen, 1882), p. 89. [244.] Simon Grunau, Preussische Chronik, ed. Perlbach, i. 91. [245.] Holzmayer, Osiliana, p. 108. [246.] On iron as a charm against spirits, see above, vol. i. p. 175 sq. [247.] Folk-lore Journal, vii. 54. [248.] Communicated by the Rev. J. J. C. Yarborough, of Chislehurst, Kent. See Folk-lore Journal, vii. 50. [249.] G. A. Wilken, Bijdrage tot de kennis der Alfoeren van het eiland Boeroe, p. 26. [250.] P. N. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” in Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, vii. (1863) p. 127. [251.] N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over het land en volk van Bolaang Mongondou,” in Mededeel. v. w. h. Nederl. Zendelinggen. xi. 369 sq. [252.] H. Harkness, Description of a Singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting the Summit of the Neilgherry Hills, p. 56 sq. [253.] Gover, Folk-songs of Southern India, p. 105 sqq.; Folk-lore Journal, vii. 302 sqq. [254.] Gover, “The Pongol Festival in Southern India,” Journ. R. Asiatic Society, N. S. v. (1871) p. 91 sqq. [255.] Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, p. 103. [256.] Crowther and Taylor, The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger, p. 287 sq. Mr. Taylor's information is repeated in West African Countries and Peoples, by J. Africanus B. Horton (London, 1868), p. 180 sq. [257.] Speckmann, Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika, p. 150 sq. On the Zulu feast of first-fruits, see also N. Isaacs, Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa, ii. 291 sq.; Arbousset et Daumas, Voyage d'exploration, etc. p. 308 sq.; Callaway, Religious System of the Amazulu, p. 389 note; South African Folk-lore Journal, i. 135 sqq.; Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas, p. 143; Lewis Grout, Zululand, p. 160 sqq. From Mr. Grout's description it appears that a bull is killed and its gall drunk by the king and people. In killing it the men must use nothing but their naked hands. The flesh of the bull is given to the boys to eat what they like and burn the rest; the men may not taste it. As a final ceremony the king breaks a green calabash in presence of the people, “thereby signifying that he opens the new year, and grants the people leave to eat of the fruits of the season.” If a man eats the new fruits before the festival, he will die or is actually put to death. [258.] The ceremony is described independently by James Adair, History of the American Indians (London, 1775), pp. 96-111; W. Bartram, Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida (London, 1792), p. 507 sq.; B. Hawkins, “Sketch of the Creek country,” in Collections of the Georgia Historical Society, iii. (Savannah, 1848), pp. 75-78; A. A. M'Gillivray, in Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, v. 267 sq. Adair's description is the fullest and has been chiefly followed in the text. In Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians, by William Bartram (1789), with prefatory and supplementary notes, by E. G. Squier, p. 75, there is a description—extracted from an MS. of J. H. Payne (author of Home, Sweet Home)—of the similar ceremony observed by the Cherokees. I possess a copy of this work in pamphlet form, but it appears to be an extract from the transactions or proceedings of a society, probably an American one. Mr. Squier's preface is dated New York, 1851. [259.] W. Bartram, Travels, p. 507. [260.] So amongst the Cherokees, according to J. H. Payne, an arbour of green boughs was made in the sacred square; then “a beautiful bushy-topped shade-tree was cut down close to the roots, and planted in the very centre of the sacred square. Every man then provided himself with a green bough.” [261.] So Adair. Bartram, on the other hand, as we have seen, says that the old vessels were burned and new ones prepared for the festival. [262.] B. Hawkins, “Sketch,” etc., p. 76. [263.] See Note on “Offerings of first-fruits” at the end of the volume. [264.] Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies, bk. v. c. 24, vol. ii. pp. 356-360 (Hakluyt Society, 1880). [265.] Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, iii. 297-300 (after Torquemada); Clavigero, History of Mexico, trans. by Cullen, i. 309 sqq.; Sahagun, Histoire générale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne, traduite et annotée par Jourdanet et Siméon (Paris, 1880), p. 203 sq.; J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 605. [266.] Clavigero, i. 311; Sahagun, pp. 74, 156 sq.; Müller, p. 606; Bancroft, iii. 316. This festival took place on the last day of the 16th month (which extended from 23d December to 11th January). At another festival the Mexicans made the semblance of a bone out of paste and ate it sacramentally as the bone of the god. Sahagun, p. 33. [267.] See above, vol. i. p. 5 sq. [268.] Festus, ed. Müller, pp. 128, 129, 145. The reading of the last passage is, however, uncertain (“et Ariciae genus panni fieri; quod manici † appelletur”). [269.] Varro, De ling. lat. ix. 61; Arnobius, Adv. nationes, iii. 41; Macrobius, Saturn, i. 7, 35; Festus, p. 128, ed. Müller. Festus speaks of the mother or grandmother of the larvae; the other writers speak of the mother of the lares. [270.] Macrobius, l.c.; Festus, pp. 121, 239, ed. Müller. The effigies hung up for the slaves were called pilae, not maniae. Pilae was also the name given to the straw-men which were thrown to the bulls to gore in the arena. Martial, Epigr. ii. 43, 5 sq.; Asconius, In Cornel. p. 55, ed. Kiessling and Schoell. [271.] The ancients were at least familiar with the practice of sacrificing images made of dough or other materials as substitutes for the animals themselves. It was a recognised principle that when an animal could not be easily obtained for sacrifice, it was lawful to offer an image of it made of bread or wax. Servius on Virgil, Aen. ii. 116. (Similarly a North-American Indian dreamed that a sacrifice of twenty elans was necessary for the recovery of a sick girl; but the elans could not be procured, and the girl's parents were allowed to sacrifice twenty loaves instead. Relations des Jesuites, 1636, p. 11, ed. 1858). Poor people who could not afford to sacrifice real animals offered dough images of them. Suidas, s.v. βοῦς ἕβδομος; cp. Hesychius, s. vv. βοῦς, ἕβδομος βοῦς. Hence bakers made a regular business of baking cakes in the likeness of all the animals which were sacrificed to the gods. Proculus, quoted and emended by Lobeck, Aglaophamus, p. 1079. When Cyzicus was besieged by Mithridates and the people could not procure a black cow to sacrifice at the rites of Proserpine, they made a cow of dough and placed it at the altar. Plutarch, Lucullus, 10. In a Boeotian sacrifice to Hercules, in place of the ram which was the proper victim, an apple was regularly substituted, four chips being stuck in it to represent legs and two to represent horns. Pollux, i. 30 sq. The Athenians are said to have once offered to Hercules a similar substitute for an ox. Zenobius, Cent. v. 22. And the Locrians, being at a loss for an ox to sacrifice, made one out of figs and sticks, and offered it instead of the animal. Zenobius, Cent. v. 5. At the Athenian festival of the Diasia cakes shaped like animals were sacrificed. Schol. on Thucydides, i. 126, quoted by Lobeck, l.c. We have seen above (p. [53]) that the poorer Egyptians offered dough images of pigs and ate them sacramentally. [272.] P. J. Veth, Borneo's Wester Afdeeling, ii. 309. [273.] N. Graafland, De Minahassa, i. 326. [274.] Shway Yoe, The Burman, ii. 138. [275.] James Adair, History of the American Indians, p. 133. [276.] Alfred Simson, Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador (London, 1887), p. 168; id. in Journal of the Anthrop. Institute, vii. 503. [277.] Theophilus Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi, p. 106. Compare John Buchanan, The Shire Highlands, pg. 138; Callaway, Religious System of the Amazulu, p. 438 note. [278.] Jerome Becker, La Vie en Afrique, (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 366. [279.] Callaway, Nursery Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the Zulus, p. 175 note. [280.] Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 33. [281.] St. John, Life in the Forests of the Far East,2 i. 186, 206. [282.] Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, pp. 10, 262. [283.] James Chalmers, Pioneering in New Guinea, p. 166. [284.] Proceedings Royal Geogr. Society, N. S. viii. (1886) p. 307. [285.] J. Henderson, “The Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,” Journ. North China Branch R. Asiatic Society, New Series, i. (Shanghai, 1865) p. 35 sq. [286.] Müller on Saxo Grammaticus, vol. ii. p. 60. [287.] Leared, Morocco and the Moors, p. 281. [288.] Vambery, Das Türkenvolk, p. 218. [289.] Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, vi. 8. [290.] Felkin, “Notes on the For tribe of Central Africa,” in Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xiii. (1884-1886) p. 218. [291.] W. Ridley, Kamilaroi, p. 160. [292.] Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, ii. 313. [293.] Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” in Mittheilungen d. Wiener Geogr. Gesellschaft, 1882, p. 154. [294.] Magyar, Reisen in Süd-Afrika in den Jahren 1849-1857, pp. 273-276. [295.] Casalis, The Basutos, p. 257 sq. [296.] Callaway, Nursery Tales, Traditions and Histories of the Zulus, p. 163 note. [297.] John Buchanan, The Shire Highlands, p. 138. [298.] Journal of the North China Branch Royal Asiatic Society, l.c. [299.] R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants (London, 1870), p. 352. Cp. ib. p. 173; Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. 358; J. Dumont D'Urville, Voyage autour du Monde sur la corvette Astrolabe, ii. 547; Journal of the Anthrop. Inst. xix. 108. [300.] On the custom of eating a god, see also a paper by Felix Liebrecht, “Der aufgegessene Gott,” in Zur Volkskunde, pp. 436-439; and especially W. R. Smith, art. “Sacrifice,” Encycl. Britann. 9th ed. vol. xxi. p. 137 sq. On wine as the blood of a god, see above, vol. i. p. 183 sqq. [301.] This does not refer to the Californian peninsula, which is an arid and treeless wilderness of rock and sand. [302.] Boscana, in Alfred Robinson's Life in California (New York, 1846), p. 291 sq.; Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, iii. 168. [303.] Turner, Samoa, p. 21, cp. pp. 26, 61. [304.] Herodotus, ii. 42. The custom has been already referred to, above, p. [63]. [305.] Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alterthums, i. § 58. Cp. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, iii. 1 sqq. (ed. 1878). [306.] Above, p. [61] sq. [307.] Above, p. [15] sq. [308.] The Italmens of Kamtchatka, at the close of the fishing season, used to make the figure of a wolf out of grass. This figure they carefully kept the whole year, believing that it wedded with their maidens and prevented them from giving birth to twins; for twins were esteemed a great misfortune. Steller, Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka, p. 327 sq. According to Hartknoch (Dissertat. histor. de variis rebus Prussicis, p. 163; Altpreussen, p. 161) the image of the old Prussian god Curcho was annually renewed. But see Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen, p. 27. [309.] Above, vol. i. p. 81. [310.] T. J. Hutchinson, Impressions of Western Africa (London, 1858), p. 196 sq. The writer does not expressly state that a serpent is killed annually, but his statement implies it. [311.] Revue d'Ethnographie, iii. 397. [312.] Varro in Priscian, x. 32, vol. i. p. 524, ed. Keil; Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. § 14. Pliny's statement is to be corrected by Varro's. [313.] Mr. Frank H. Cushing, “My Adventures in Zuñi,” in The Century, May 1883, p. 45 sq. [314.] Mr. Cushing, indeed, while he admits that the ancestors of the Zuni may have believed in transmigration, says, “Their belief, to-day, however, relative to the future life is spiritualistic.” But the expressions in the text seem to leave no room for doubting that the transmigration into turtles is a living article of Zuni faith. [315.] Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, iv. 86. On the totem clans of the Moquis, see J. G. Bourke, Snake-Dance of the Moquis of Arizona, pp. 116 sq., 334 sqq. [316.] For this information I am indebted to the kindness of Captain J. G. Bourke, 3d. Cavalry, U.S. Army, author of the work mentioned in the preceding note. [317.] The old Prussian and Japanese customs are typical. For the former, see above, vol. i. p. 177. For the latter, Charlevoix, Histoire et Description générale du Japon, i, 128 sq. Thunberg, Voyages au Japon, etc. iv. 18 sqq. A general account of such customs must be reserved for another work. [318.] B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” in Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens (Yokama), Heft xxii. p. 45. [319.] Transactions of the Ethnological Society, iv. 36. [320.] Rein, Japan, i. 446. [321.] H. von Siebold, Ethnologische Studien über die Ainos auf der Insel Yesso, p. 26. [322.] Miss Bird, Unbeaten Tracks in Japan (new ed. 1885), p. 275. [323.] Trans. Ethnol. Soc. l.c. [324.] Miss Bird, op. cit. p. 269. [325.] Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 4. [326.] Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc. p. 45; Joest, in Verhandlungen d. Berliner Gesell. f. Anthropologie, 1882, p. 188. [327.] Trans. Ethnol. Soc. l.c. [328.] Miss Bird, op. cit. p. 277. [329.] Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 15; Siebold, op. cit. p. 26; Trans. Ethnol. Soc. l.c.; Rein, Japan, i. 447; Von Brandt, “The Ainos and Japanese,” in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. iii. 134; Miss Bird, op. cit. pp. 275, 276. [330.] Scheube, Die Ainos, pp. 15, 16; Journ. Anthrop. Inst. iii. 134. [331.] Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 16. [332.] Reclus (Nouvelle Géographie Universelle, vii. 755) mentions a (Japanese?) legend which attributes the hairiness of the Ainos to the fact of their first ancestor having been suckled by a bear. But in the absence of other evidence this is no proof of totemism. [333.] Rein, Japan, i. 447. [334.] “Der Baerencultus,” etc. See above. [335.] Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc. p. 46; id., Die Ainos, p. 15; Miss Bird, op. cit. p. 273 sq. [336.] Miss Bird, op. cit. p. 276 sq. Miss Bird's information must be received with caution, as there are grounds for believing that her informant deceived her. [337.] Siebold, Ethnolog. Studien über die Ainos, p. 26. [338.] “Baerencultus,” etc. p. 50 note. [339.] They inhabit the banks of the lower Amoor and the north of Saghalien. E. G. Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur, p. 389. [340.] “Notes on the River Amur and the adjacent districts,” translated from the Russian, Journal Royal Geogr. Soc. xxviii. (1858) p. 396. [341.] Compare the custom of pinching the frog before cutting off his head, above vol. i. p. 93. In Japan sorceresses bury a dog in the earth, tease him, then cut off his head and put it in a box to be used in magic. Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika, i. 475 note, who adds “wie im ostindischen Archipelago die Schutzseele gereizt wird.” He probably refers to the Batta Pang-hulu-balang. See Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel, p. 59 sq.; W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” in Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xii. (1885) 478 sq.; Neumann, “Het Pane-en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra,” in Tijdschrift v. h. Nederl. Aardrijks Genootsch. ii. series, dl. iii. Afdeeling: meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, p. 306. [342.] W. Joest, in Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 17; Revue d'Ethnographie, ii. 307 sq. (on the authority of Mr. Seeland); Internationales Archiv für Ethnologie, i. 102 (on the authority of Captain Jacobsen). What exactly is meant by “dancing as bears” (“tanzen beide Geschlechter Reigentänze, wie Bären,” Joest, l.c.) does not appear. [343.] Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur, p. 379 sq.; T. W. Atkinson, Travels in the Regions of the Upper and Lower Amoor (London, 1860), p. 482 sq. [344.] A Bushman, questioned by the Rev. Mr. Campbell, “could not state any difference between a man and a brute—he did not know but a buffalo might shoot with bows and arrows as well as a man, if it had them.” John Campbell, Travels in South Africa, being a Narrative of a Second Journey in the Interior of that Country, ii. 34. When the Russians first landed on one of the Alaskan islands the people took them for cuttle-fish, “on account of the buttons on their clothes.” Petroff, Alaska, p. 145. [345.] Rev. J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 10, p. 221. Cp. C. Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” in Tijdschrift voor Neêrland's Indië, 1846, dl. iii. 160; S. Müller, Reizen en onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel, i. 238; Perelaer, Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dayaks, p. 7. [346.] Sibree, The Great African Island, p. 269. [347.] Raffenel, Voyage dans l'Afrique Occidentale (Paris, 1846), p. 84 sq. [348.] Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, v. 65. [349.] Marsden, History of Sumatra, p. 292. [350.] Steller, Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka, pp. 280, 331. [351.] Voyages au Nord (Amsterdam, 1727), viii. 41, 416; Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs, iii. 64; Georgi, Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs, p. 83. [352.] Erman, Travels in Siberia, ii. 43. For the veneration of the polar bear by the Samoyedes, who nevertheless kill and eat it, see ib. 54 sq. [353.] Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte, iii. 26. [354.] Max Buch, Die Wotjäken, p. 139. [355.] Scheffer, Lapponia (Frankfort, 1673), p. 233 sq. The Lapps “have still an elaborate ceremony in hunting the bear. They pray and chant to his carcase, and for several days worship before eating it.” E. Rae, The White Sea Peninsula (London, 1881), p. 276. [356.] Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, v. 173 sq.; Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 172-181 (Paris, Michel Lévy, 1870). [357.] Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, vi. 171. Morgan states that the names of the Otawa totem clans had not been obtained (Ancient Society, p. 167). From the Lettres édifiantes, vi. 168-171, he might have learned the names of the Hare, Carp, and Bear clans, to which may be added the Gull clan, as I learn from an extract from The Canadian Journal (Toronto) for March 1858, quoted in the Academy, 27th September 1884, p. 203. [358.] A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt, p. 117 (Middletown, 1820), p. 133 (Edinburgh, 1824). [359.] Stephen Kay, Travels and Researches in Caffraria (London, 1833), p. 138. [360.] Alberti, De Kaffers aan de Zuidkust van Afrika (Amsterdam, 1810), p. 95. Alberti's information is repeated by Lichtenstein (Reisen im südlichen Afrika, i. 412), and by Rose (Four Years in Southern Africa, p. 155). The burial of the trunk is also mentioned by Kay, l.c. [361.] Jerome Becker, La Vie en Afrique (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 298 sq. 305. [362.] Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste, ii. 243. [363.] Im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, p. 352. [364.] Mouhot, Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China, i. 252; Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge, i. 422. [365.] Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, v. 420. [366.] J. G. Gmelin, Reise durch Sibirien, ii. 278. [367.] W. Dall, Alaska and its Resources, p. 89. [368.] Relations des Jésuites, 1634, p. 24, ed. 1858. Nets are regarded by the Indians as living creatures who not only think and feel but also eat, speak, and marry wives. Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, p. 256 (p. 178 sq. of the Paris reprint, Librairie Tross, 1865); S. Hearne, Journey to the Northern Ocean, p. 329 sq.; Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 109; ib. 1639, p. 95; Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, v. 225; Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, p. 140 sqq. [369.] Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 175, 178. They will not let the blood of beavers fall on the ground, or their luck in hunting them would be gone. Relations des Jésuites, 1633, p. 21. Compare the rule about not allowing the blood of kings to fall on the ground, above, vol. i. p. 179 sqq. [370.] Hennepin, Nouveau voyage d'un pais plus grand que l'Europe (Utrecht, 1698), p. 141 sq.; Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 109; Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, p. 255 (p. 178 of the Paris reprint). Not quite consistently the Canadian Indians used to kill every elan they could overtake in the chase, lest any should escape to warn their fellows (Sagard, l.c.) [371.] Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, viii. 339. [372.] Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, iii. 230. [373.] Relations des Jésuites, 1634, p. 26. [374.] Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, v. 443. [375.] Garcilasso de la Vega, Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, First Part, bk. i. ch. 10, vol. i. p. 49 sq., Hakluyt Society. Cp. id., ii. p. 148. [376.] Relations des Jésuites, 1667, p. 12. [377.] Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, p. 255 sqq. (p. 178 sqq. of the Paris reprint). [378.] Schleiden, Das Salz, p. 47. For this reference I am indebted to my friend Prof. W. Robertson Smith. [379.] W. Powell, Wanderings in a Wild Country, p. 66 sq. [380.] R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui; or, New Zealand and its Inhabitants, p. 200; A. S. Thomson, The Story of New Zealand, i. 202; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” Journal Anthrop. Inst. xix. 109. [381.] Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation,4, p. 277, quoting Metlahkatlah, p. 96. [382.] W. Dall, Alaska and its Resources, p. 413. [383.] Stephen Powers, Tribes of California, p. 31 sq. [384.] Alex. Ross, Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or Columbia River, p. 97. [385.] Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, iv. 324, v. 119, where it is said, “a dog must never be permitted to eat the heart of a salmon; and in order to prevent this, they cut the heart of the fish out before they sell it.” [386.] H. C. St. John, “The Ainos,” in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. ii. 253; id. Notes and Sketches from the Wild Coasts of Nipon, p. 27 sq. [387.] Scheffer, Lapponia, p. 242 sq.; Journ. Anthrop. Inst. vii. 207; Revue d'Ethnographie, ii. 308 sq. [388.] James, Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, i. 257. [389.] Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 278. [390.] Keating, Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, i. 452. [391.] E. J. Jessen, De Finnorum Lapponumque Norwegicorum religione pagana tractatus singularis, pp. 46 sq., 52 sq., 65. The work of Jessen is bound up (paged separately) with the work of C. Leem, De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita, et religione pristina commentatio (Latin and Danish), Copenhagen, 1767. Compare Leem's work, pp. 418-420 (Latin), 428 sq., also Acerbi, Travels through Sweden, Finnland, and Lapland, ii. 302. [392.] Steller, Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka, p. 269; Kraschennikow, Kamtschatka, p. 246. [393.] See Erman, referred to above, p. [111] sq.; Gmelin, Reise durch Sibirien, i. 274, ii. 182 sq., 214; Vambery, Das Türkenvolk, p. 118 sq. When a fox, the sacred animal of the Conchucos in Peru, had been killed, its skin was stuffed and set up. Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika, i. 443. Cp. the bouphonia, above, p. [38] sq. [394.] At the annual sacrifice of the White Dog, the Iroquois were careful to strangle the animal without shedding its blood or breaking its bones. The dog was afterwards burned. L. H. Morgan, League of the Iroquois, p. 210. It is a rule with some of the Australian blacks that in killing the native bear they must not break his bones. They say that the native bear once stole all the water of the river, and that if they were to break his bones or take off his skin before roasting him, he would do so again. Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, i. 447 sqq. When the Tartars whom Carpini visited killed animals for eating, they might not break their bones but burned them with fire. Carpini, Historia Mongalorum (Paris, 1838), cap. iii. § i. 2, p. 620. North American Indians might not break the bones of the animals which they ate at feasts. Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, vi. 72. In the war feast held by Indian warriors after leaving home, a whole animal was cooked and had to be all eaten. No bone of it might be broken. After being stripped of the flesh the bones were hung on a tree. Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner, p. 287. On St. Olaf's Day (29th July) the Karels of Finland kill a lamb, without using a knife, and roast it whole. None of its bones may be broken. The lamb has not been shorn since spring. Some of the flesh is placed in a corner of the room for the house-spirits, some is deposited on the field and beside the birch-trees which are destined to be used as May-trees next year. W. Mannhardt, A. W. F. p. 160 sq. note. The Innuit (Esquimaux) of Point Barrow, Alaska, carefully preserve unbroken the bones of the seals which they have caught and return them to the sea, either leaving them in an ice-crack far out from the land or dropping them through a hole in the ice. By doing so they think they secure good fortune in the pursuit of seals. Report of the International Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska (Washington, 1885), p. 40. In this last custom the idea probably is that the bones will be reclothed with flesh and the seals come to life again. The Mosquito Indians of Central America carefully preserved the bones of deer and the shells of eggs, lest the deer or chickens should die or disappear. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, i. 741. The Yurucares of Bolivia “carefully put by even small fish bones, saying that unless this is done the fish and game will disappear from the country.” Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 278. [395.] Relations des Jésuites, 1634, p. 25, ed. 1858; A. Mackenzie, Voyages through the Continent of America, civ; J. Dunn, History of the Oregon Territory, p. 99; Whymper in Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc. xxxviii. (1868) p. 228; id. in Transact. Ethnolog. Soc. vii. 174; A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. iii. 111. After a meal the Indians of Costa Rica gather all the bones carefully and either burn them or put them out of reach of the dogs. W. M. Gabb, On the Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica (read before the American Philosophical Society, 20th Aug. 1875), p. 520 (Philadelphia, 1875). The fact that the bones are often burned to prevent the dogs getting them does not contradict the view suggested in the text. It may be a way of transmitting the bones to the spirit-land. The aborigines of Australia burn the bones of the animals which they eat, but for a different reason; they think that if an enemy got hold of the bones and burned them with charms, it would cause the death of the person who had eaten the animal. Native Tribes of South Australia, pp. 24, 196. [396.] Mannhardt, Germanische Mythen, pp. 57-74; id., B. K. p. 116; Cosquin, Contes populaires de Lorraine, ii. 25; Hartland, “The physicians of Myddfai,” Archaeological Review, i. 30 sq. In folk-tales, as in primitive custom, the blood is sometimes not allowed to fall on the ground. See Cosquin, l.c. [397.] W. Mannhardt, Germ. Myth. p. 66. [398.] Jamblichus, Vita Pythag. §§ 92, 135, 140; Porphyry, Vit. Pythag. § 28. [399.] Pindar, Olymp. i. 37 sqq., with the Scholiast. [400.] Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 18. This is one of the sacred stories which the pious Herodotus (ii. 48) concealed and the pious Plutarch divulged. [401.] Adam Hodgson, Letters from North America, i. 244. [402.] Adair, History of the American Indians, p. 137 sq. [403.] Petitot, Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié? (Paris, 1867), pp. 77, 81 sq.; id., Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-ouest (Paris, 1886), p. 132 sqq., cp. pp. 41, 76, 213, 264. [404.] The first part of this suggestion is that of my friend Prof. W. Robertson Smith. See his Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, first series, p. 360, note 2. The Faleshas, a Jewish sect of Abyssinia, after killing an animal for food, “carefully remove the vein from the thighs with its surrounding flesh.” Halévy, “Travels in Abyssinia,” in Publications of the Society of Hebrew Literature, second series, vol. ii. p. 220. [405.] It seems to be a common custom with hunters to cut out the tongues of the animals which they kill. Omaha hunters remove the tongue of a slain buffalo through an opening made in the animal's throat. The tongues thus removed are sacred and may not touch any tool or metal except when they are boiling in the kettles at the sacred tent. They are eaten as sacred food. Third Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington), p. 289 sq. Indian bear-hunters cut out what they call the bear's little tongue (a fleshy mass under the real tongue) and keep it for good luck in hunting or burn it to determine from its crackling, etc., whether the soul of the slain bear is angry with them or not. Kohl, Kitschi-Gami, ii. 251 sq.; Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, v. 173; Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 179 sq., 184. In folk-tales the hero commonly cuts out the tongue of the wild beast which he has slain and preserves it as a token. The incident serves to show that the custom was a common one, since folk-tales reflect with accuracy the customs and beliefs of a primitive age. For examples of the incident, see Blade, Contes populaires recueillis en Agenais, pp. 12, 14; Dasent, Tales from the Norse, p. 133 sq. (“Shortshanks”); Schleicher, Litauische Märchen; Sepp, Altbayerischer Sagenschatz, p. 114; Köhler on Gonzenbach's Sicilianische Märchen, ii. 230; Apollodorus, iii. 13, 3; Mannhardt, A. W. F. p. 53; Poestion, Lapplandische Märchen, p. 231 sq. It may be suggested that the cutting out of the tongues is a precaution to prevent the slain animals from telling their fate to the live animals and thus frightening away the latter. At least this explanation harmonises with the primitive modes of thought revealed in the foregoing customs. [406.] Holzmayer, Osiliana, p. 105 note. [407.] Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens, p. 15 sq. [408.] E. Krause, “Aberglaubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xv. (1883) p. 93. [409.] Geoponica, xiii. 5. According to the commentator, the field assigned to the mice is a neighbour's, but it may be a patch of waste ground on the farmer's own land. [410.] R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” in Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, N.S. viii. (1879) p. 125. [411.] Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren, § 405. [412.] Lagarde, Reliquiae juris ecclesiastici antiquissimae, p. 135. For this passage I am indebted to my friend Prof. W. Robertson Smith, who kindly translated it for me from the Syriac. [413.] Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 255. [414.] Compare Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 280, with the customs referred to in the following note. [415.] Catlin, O-Kee-pa, Folium reservatum; Lewis and Clarke, Travels to the Source of the Missouri River (London, 1815), i. 205 sq. [416.] A. Bastian, in Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte, 1870-71, p. 59. Reinegg (Beschreibung des Kaukasus, ii. 12 sq.) describes what seems to be a sacrament of the Abghazses (Abchases). It takes place in the middle of autumn. A white ox called Ogginn appears from a holy cave, which is also called Ogginn. It is caught and led about amongst the assembled men (women are excluded) amid joyful cries. Then it is killed and eaten. Any man who did not get at least a scrap of the sacred flesh would deem himself most unfortunate. The bones are then carefully collected, burned in a great hole, and the ashes buried there. [417.] Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, vi. 632 note. On the Kalmucks as a people of shepherds and on their diet of mutton, see Georgi, Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs, p. 406 sq., cp. 207; B. Bergmann, Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kalmücken, ii. 80 sqq., 122; Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs, i. 319, 325. According to Pallas, it is only rich Kalmucks who commonly kill their sheep or cattle for eating; ordinary Kalmucks do not usually kill them except in case of necessity or at great merry-makings. It is, therefore, especially the rich who need to make expiation. [418.] W. E. Marshall, Travels amongst the Todas, p. 129 sq. On the Todas, see also above, vol. i. p. 41. [419.] Marshall, op. cit. pp. 80 sq. 130. [420.] R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Madi or Moru tribe of Central Africa,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xii. (1882-84) p. 336 sq. [421.] The fact that the flesh of sheep appears to be now eaten by the tribe as a regular article of food (Felkin, op. cit. p. 307), is not inconsistent with the original sanctity of the sheep. [422.] See W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, i. p. 325 sq. [423.] Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. No. 555. [424.] See Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 195 sq., Bohn's ed.; Swainson, Folk-lore of British Birds, p. 36; E. Rolland, Faune populaire de la France, ii. 288 sqq. The names for it are βασιλίσκος, regulus, rex avium (Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 90; x. 203), re di siepe, reyezuelo, roitelet, roi des oiseaux, Zaunkönig, etc. [425.] Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 194. [426.] Chambers, Popular Rhymes of Scotland, p. 188. [427.] Ib. p. 186. [428.] P. Sébillot, Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute Bretagne, ii. 214. [429.] Rolland, op. cit. ii. 294 sq.; Sébillot, l.c.; Swainson, op. cit. p. 42. [430.] G. Waldron, Description of the Isle of Man (reprinted for the Manx Society, Douglas, 1865), p. 49 sqq.; J. Train, Account of the Isle of Man, ii. 124 sqq. 141. [431.] Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 195; Swainson, Folk-lore of British Birds, p. 36 sq.; Rolland, Faune populaire de la France, ii. 297; Professor W. Ridgeway in Academy, 10th May 1884, p. 332; Dyer, British Popular Customs, p. 497. [432.] Henderson, Folk-lore of the Northern Counties, p. 125. [433.] Swainson, op. cit. p. 40 sq. [434.] Rolland, op. cit. ii. 295 sq.; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 437 sq. [435.] Rolland, op. cit. ii. 296 sq. [436.] Brand's Popular Antiquities, iii. 198. The “hunting of the wren” may be compared with a Swedish custom. On the 1st of May children rob the magpies' nests of both eggs and young. These they carry in a basket from house to house in the village and show them to the housewives, while one of the children sings some doggerel lines containing a threat that, if a present is not given, the hens, chickens, and eggs will fall a prey to the magpie. They receive bacon, eggs, milk, etc., upon which they afterwards feast. L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, p. 237 sq. The resemblance of such customs to the “swallow song” and “crow song” of the ancient Greeks (on which see Athenaeus, pp. 359, 360) is obvious and has been remarked before now. Probably the Greek swallow-singers and crow-singers carried about dead swallows and crows or effigies of them. In modern Greece it is said to be still customary for children on 1st March to go about the streets singing spring songs and carrying a wooden swallow, which is kept turning on a cylinder. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 636. [437.] John Ramsay, Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, ii. 438 sq.; cp. Chambers, Popular Rhymes of Scotland, p. 166 sq.; Samuel Johnson, Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland, p. 228 sq. (first American edition, 1810). The custom is clearly referred to in the “Penitential of Theodore,” quoted by Kemble, Saxons in England, i. 525; Elton, Origins of English History, p. 411; “Si quis in Kal. Januar. in cervulo vel vitula vadit, id est in ferarum habitus se communicant, et vestiuntur pellibus pecudum et assumunt capita bestiarum,” etc. [438.] Chambers, l.c. [439.] Such are the Bohemian processions at the Carnival when a man called the Shrovetide Bear, swathed from head to foot in peas-straw and sometimes wearing a bear's mask, is led from house to house. He dances with the women of the house, and collects money and food. Then they go to the alehouse, where all the peasants assemble with their wives. For at the Carnival, especially on Shrove Tuesday, it is necessary that every one should dance, if the flax, the corn, and the vegetables are to grow well. The higher they leap the better will be the crops. Sometimes the women pull out some of the straw in which the Shrovetide Bear is swathed, and put it in the nests of the geese and fowls, believing that this will make them lay well. Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 49-52. On similar customs, see W. Mannhardt, A. W. F. pp. 183-200. [440.] J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, pp. 266 sq., 305, 357 sq.; cp. id. pp. 141, 340. [441.] J. Dawson, Australian Aborigines, p. 59. [442.] Dapper, Description de l'Afrique, p. 117. [443.] John Campbell, Travels in South Africa (second journey), ii. 207 sq. [444.] Ellis, History of Madagascar, i. 422 sq.; cp. id. pp. 232, 435, 436 sq.; Sibree, The Great African Island, p. 303 sq. [445.] Ellis, op. cit. i. 374; Sibree, op. cit. p. 304; Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, iii. 263. [446.] Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xii. (1885) 478. [447.] Leviticus xiv. 7, 53. For a similar use in Arabia see Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentumes, p. 156; W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, i. 402. [448.] R. Andree, Ethnographische Parallele und Vergleiche, p. 29 sq. [449.] A. Leared, Morocco and the Moors, p. 301. [450.] J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” in Journ. Straits Branch Royal Asiatic Soc. No. 10, p. 232. [451.] S. Mateer, Native Life in Travancore, p. 136. [452.] H. Harkness, Singular Aboriginal Race of the Neilgherry Hills, p. 133; Metz, The Tribes Inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills, p. 78; Jagor, “Ueber die Badagas im Nilgiri-Gebirge,” Verhandl. d. Berlin. Gesell. f. Anthropol. (1876), p. 196 sq. For the custom of letting a bullock go loose after a death, compare also Grierson, Bihar Peasant Life, p. 409; Ibbetson, Settlement Report of the Panipat, Tahsil, and Karnal Parganah of the Karnal district (Allahabad, 1883) p. 137. In the latter case it is said that the animal is let loose “to become a pest.” Perhaps the older idea was that the animal carried away death from the survivors. The idea of sin is not primitive. [453.] Geoponica, xiii. 9, xv. 1; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxviii. § 155. The authorities for these cures are respectively Apuleius and Democritus. The latter is probably not the atomic philosopher. See Archaeological Review, i. 180, note. [454.] Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxviii. § 86. [455.] Plato, Laws, xi. c. 12, p. 933 b. [456.] Ch. Rogers, Social Life in Scotland, iii. 226. [457.] G. Lammert, Volkmedizin und medizinischer Aberglaube in Bayern, p. 264. [458.] Ib. p. 263. [459.] Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, i. § 85. [460.] Carl Meyer, Der Aberglaube des Mittelalters, p. 104. [461.] Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 979. [462.] Henderson, Folk-lore of the Northern Counties, p. 143. Collections of cures by transference will be found in Strackerjan's work, cited above, i. § 85 sqq.; W. G. Black, Folk-medicine, ch. ii. Cp. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. c. 36. [463.] Blackwood's Magazine, February 1886, p. 239. [464.] Aubrey, Remains of Gentilisme and Judaisme (Folk-lore Society, 1881), p. 35 sq. [465.] Bagford's letter in Leland's Collectanea, i. 76, quoted by Brand, Popular Antiquities, ii. 246 sq., Bohn's ed. [466.] In the Academy, 13th Nov. 1875, p. 505, Mr. D. Silvan Evans stated that he knew of no such custom anywhere in Wales; and Miss Burne knows no example of it in Shropshire. Burne and Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, p. 307 sq. [467.] The authority for the statement is a Mr. Moggridge, reported in Archaeologia Cambrensis, second series, iii. 330. But Mr. Moggridge did not speak from personal knowledge, and as he appears to have taken it for granted that the practice of placing bread and salt upon the breast of a corpse was a survival of the custom of “sin-eating,” his evidence must be received with caution. He repeated his statement, in somewhat vaguer terms, at a meeting of the Anthropological Institute, 14th December 1875. See Journ. Anthrop. Inst. v. 423 sq. [468.] Dubois, Moeurs des Peuples de l'Inde, ii. 32. [469.] R. Richardson, in Panjab Notes and Queries, i. No. 674. [470.] Panjab Notes and Queries, i. No. 674; ii. No. 559. Some of these customs have been already referred to in a different connection. See above, vol. i. p. 232. [471.] Op. cit. iii. No. 745. [472.] E. Schuyler, Turkistan, ii. 28. [473.] E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, p. 356 sq. [474.] Paul Reina, “Ueber die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde, N. F. iv. 356. [475.] R. Parkinson, Im Bismarck-Archipel, p. 142. [476.] [P. N. Wilken], “De godsdienst en godsdienstplegtigheden der Alfoeren in de Menahassa op het eiland Celebes,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, December 1849, pp. 392-394; id., “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” Mededeelingen v. w. het Nederland. Zendelinggenootsch. vii. (1863) 149 sqq.; J. G. F. Riedel, “De Minahasa in 1825,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xviii. (1872), 521 sq. Wilken's first and fuller account is reprinted in Graafland's De Minahassa, i. 117-120. [477.] Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” in Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie, xvii. (1885) 82; G. A. Wilken, Het Shamanisme bij de Volken van de Indischen Archipel, p. 58. [478.] Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 239. [479.] Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias, p. 116 sq., Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel, p. 174 sq. Cp. Chatelin, “Godsdienst en Bijgeloof der Niassers,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxvi. 139. The Dyaks also drive the devil at the point of the sword from a house where there is sickness. See Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers” in Tijdschrift voor Neêrland's Indië, viii. (1846) dl. iii. p. 149. [480.] Forbes, British Burma, p. 233; Shway Yoe, The Burman, i. 282, ii. 105 sqq.; Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, ii. 98. [481.] Lewin, Wild Tribes of South-Eastern India, p. 226. [482.] Hecquard, Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West Afrika, p. 43. [483.] Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, p. 279 sqq. (195 sq. of the Paris reprint). Compare Relations des Jésuites, 1639, pp. 88-92 (Canadian reprint), from which it appears that each man demanded the subject of his dream in the form of a riddle, which the hearers tried to solve. The propounding of riddles is not uncommon as a superstitious observance. Probably enigmas were originally a kind of divination. Cp. Vambery, Das Türkenvolk, p. 232 sq.; Riedel, De sluiken kroesharige rassen, etc. p. 267 sq. In Bolang Mongondo (Celebes) riddles may never be asked except when there is a corpse in the village. N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over het land en volk van Bolaäng Mongondou,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsch. Zendelinggenootschap, xi. (1867) p. 357. [484.] The Rev. W. Ridley, in J. D. Lang's Queensland, p. 441; cp. Ridley, Kamilaroi, p. 149. [485.] Report of the International Polar Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska (Washington, 1885), p. 42 sq. [486.] Franz Boas, “The Eskimo,” Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada for 1887, vol. v. (Montreal, 1888), sect. ii. 36 sq. [487.] Above, p. [162]. [488.] Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, vi. 82 sqq.; Timothy Dwight, Travels in New England and New York, iv. 201 sq.; L. H. Morgan, League of the Iroquois, p. 207 sqq.; Mrs. E. A. Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1883), p. 112 sqq.; Horatio Hale, “Iroquois sacrifice of the White Dog,” American Antiquarian, vii. 7 sqq.; W. M. Beauchamp, “Iroquois White Dog feast,” ib. p. 235 sqq. [489.] Squier's notes upon Bartram's Creek and Cherokee Indians, p. 78, from the MS. of Mr. Payne. See above, p. [75] note. [490.] Garcilasso de la Vega, Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, pt. i. bk. vii. ch. 6, vol. ii. p. 228 sqq., Markham's translation; Molina, “Fables and Rites of the Yncas,” in Rites and Laws of the Yncas (Hakluyt Society, 1873), p. 20 sqq.; Acosta, History of the Indies, bk. v. ch. 28, vol. ii. p. 375 sq. (Hakluyt Society, 1880). The accounts of Garcilasso and Molina are somewhat discrepant, but this may be explained by the statement of the latter that “in one year they added, and in another they reduced the number of ceremonies, according to circumstances.” Molina places the festival in August, Garcilasso and Acosta in September. According to Garcilasso there were only four runners in Cuzco; according to Molina there were four hundred. Acosta's account is very brief. In the description given in the text features have been borrowed from all three accounts, where these seemed consistent with each other. [491.] Bosman's “Guinea,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, xvi. 402. Cp. Pierre Bouche, La Côte des Esclaves, p. 395. [492.] S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor. The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger, p. 320. [493.] Mansfield Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia, p. 285 sqq. [494.] Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 196 sq. [495.] Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, p. 103. [496.] W. Macpherson, Memorials of Service in India, p. 357 sq. Possibly this case belongs more strictly to the class of mediate expulsions, the devils being driven out upon the car. Perhaps, however, the car with its contents is regarded rather as a bribe to induce them to go than as a vehicle in which they are actually carted away. Anyhow it is convenient to take this case along with those other expulsions of demons which are the accompaniment of an agricultural festival. [497.] R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, N. S. viii. (1879) 58-60. Van Eck's account is reprinted in J. Jacobs's Eenigen tijd onder de Baliërs (Batavia, 1883), p. 190 sqq. [498.] U.S. Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology, by H. Hale, p. 67 sq.; Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, iii. 90 sq. According to the latter, the sea-slug was eaten by the men alone, who lived during the four days in the temple, while the women and boys remained shut up in their houses. [499.] Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, v. 367. [500.] Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. No. 792; D. C. J. Ibbetson, Outlines of Panjab Ethnography, p. 119. [501.] Baron, “Description of the Kingdom of Tonqueen,” Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, ix. 673, 695 sq.; cp. Richard, “History of Tonquin,” ib. p. 746. The account of the ceremony by Tavernier (whom Baron criticises very unfavourably) is somewhat different. According to him the expulsion of wicked souls at the New Year is combined with sacrifice to the honoured dead. See Harris, Voyages and Travels, i. 823. [502.] Aymonier, Notice sur le Cambodge, p. 62. [503.] Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, iii. 237, 298, 314, 529 sq.; Pallegoix, Royaume Thai ou Siam, i. 252. Bastian (p. 314), with whom Pallegoix seems to agree, distinctly states that the expulsion takes place on the last day of the year. Yet both state that it occurs in the fourth month of the year. According to Pallegoix (i. 253) the Siamese year is composed of twelve lunar months, and the first month usually begins in December. Hence the expulsion of devils would commonly take place in March, as in Cambodia. [504.] J. Anderson, Mandalay to Momien, p. 308. [505.] Max Buch, Die Wotjäken, p. 153 sq. [506.] Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte, ii. 94. [507.] J. G. von Hahn, Albanesische Studien, i. 160. Cp. above, vol. i. p. 276. [508.] Vincenzo Dorsa, La tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore, p. 42 sq. [509.] Von Alpenburg, Mythen und Sagen Tirols, p. 260 sq. A Westphalian form of the expulsion of evil is the driving out the Süntevögel, Sunnenvögel, or Sommervögel, i.e., the butterfly. On St. Peter's Day, 22d February, children go from house to house knocking on them with hammers and singing doggerel rhymes in which they bid the Sommervögel to depart. Presents are given to them at every house. Or the people of the house themselves go through all the rooms, knocking on all the doors, to drive away the Sunnenvögel. If this ceremony is omitted, it is thought that various misfortunes will be the consequence. The house will swarm with rats, mice, and other vermin, the cattle will be sick, the butterflies will multiply at the milk-bowls, etc. Woeste, Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark, p. 24; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, i. 87; A. Kuhn, Westfälische Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen, ii. §§ 366-374; Montanus, Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbräuche, etc., p. 21 sq.; Jahn, Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht, pp. 94-96. [510.] Usener, “Italische Mythen,” in Rheinisches Museum, N. F. xxx. 198. [511.] S. Powers, Tribes of California, p. 159. [512.] G. Catlin, North American Indians, i. 166 sqq.; id., O-kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the Mandans. [513.] Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge, i. 172. Cp. above, p. [178]. [514.] A. Bastian, in Verhandl. d. Berlin. Gesellsch. f. Anthropol. 1881, p. 151; cp. id., Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra, p. 6 sq. Amongst the Chukmas of South-east India the body of a priest is conveyed to the place of cremation on a car; ropes are attached to the car, the people divide themselves into two equal bodies and pull at the ropes in opposite directions. “One side represents the good spirits; the other, the powers of evil. The contest is so arranged that the former are victorious. Sometimes, however, the young men representing the demons are inclined to pull too vigorously, but a stick generally quells this unseemly ardour in the cause of evil.” Lewin, Wild Tribes of South-Eastern India, p. 185. The contest is like that between the angels and devils depicted in the frescoes of the Campo Santo at Pisa. In Burma a similar contest takes place at the funeral of a holy man; but there the original meaning of the ceremony appears to be forgotten. See Sangermano, Description of the Burmese Empire (ed. 1885), p. 98; Forbes, British Burma, p. 216 sq.; Shway Yoe, The Burman, ii. 334 sq., 342. Sometimes ceremonies of this sort are instituted for a different purpose. In some East Indian islands when the people want a rainy wind from the west, the population of the village, men, women, and children, divide into two parties and pull against each other at the ends of a long bamboo. But the party at the eastern end must pull the harder, in order to draw the desired wind out of the west. Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 282. The Cingalese perform a ceremony like “French and English” in honour of the goddess Patiné. Forbes, Eleven Years in Ceylon (London, 1840), i. 358. [515.] Folk-lore Journal, vii. 174. [516.] François Valentyn, Oud-en nieuw Ost-Indiën, iii. 14. Backer, L'Archipel Indien, p. 377 sq., copies from Valentyn. [517.] Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 304 sq. [518.] Ib. p. 25 sq. [519.] Ib. p. 141. [520.] Riedel, op. cit. p. 78. [521.] Ib. p. 357. [522.] Ib. pp. 266, 304 sq., 327, 357. For other examples of sending away disease-laden boats in these islands, ib. pp. 181, 210; Van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, N.S. viii. (1879) p. 104; Bastian, Indonesien, i. 147; Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” Tijdschrift voor Neêrland's Indië, 1846, dl. iii. 150; Campen, “De godsdienstbegrippen der Halmaherasche Alfoeren,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxvii. (1882) p. 441; Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 12, pp. 229-231; Van Hasselt, Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra, p. 98. [523.] J. Dumont D'Urville, Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse, sur la corvette Astrolabe, v. 311. [524.] Roepstorff, “Ein Geisterboot der Nicobaresen,” Verhandl. der Berlin. Gesellsch. f. Anthropologie (1881), p. 401. For Siamese applications of the same principle to the cure of individuals, see Bastian, Die Volker des östlichen Asien, iii. 295 sq., 485 sq. [525.] Panjab Notes and Queries, i. No. 418. [526.] Id. iii. No. 373. [527.] Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. No. 1127. [528.] Id. ii. No. 1123. [529.] F. Fawcett, “On the Saoras (or Savaras),” Journ. Anthrop. Soc. Bombay, i. 213 note. [530.] Journ. Anthrop. Soc. Bombay, i. 37. [531.] R. Andree, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche (first series), p. 30. [532.] J. H. Gray, China, ii. 306. [533.] Panjab Notes and Queries, i. 598. [534.] Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 393. [535.] Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte, ii. 93. [536.] Id. ii. 91. [537.] Asiatic Researches, ix. 96 sq. [538.] J. H. Gray, China, ii. 306 sq. [539.] T. J. Hutchinson, Impressions of Western Africa, p. 162. [540.] Bogle and Manning, Tibet, edited by C. R. Markham, p. 106 sq. [541.] E. T. Atkinson, “Notes on the History of Religion in the Himalaya of the North-West Provinces,” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, liii. pt. i. (1884), p. 62. [542.] Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, from the MSS. of John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 439. [543.] W. M. Beauchamp, “The Iroquois White Dog Feast,” American Antiquarian, vii. 237. [544.] Ib. p. 236; T. Dwight, Travels in New England and New York, iv. 202. [545.] Above, p. [165] sq. [546.] Leviticus xvi. Modern Jews sacrifice a white cock on the eve of the Festival of Expiation, nine days after the beginning of their New Year. The father of the family knocks the cock thrice against his own head, saying, “Let this cock be a substitute for me, let it take my place, let death be laid upon this cock, but a happy life bestowed on me and on all Israel.” Then he cuts its throat and dashes the bird violently on the ground. The intestines are thrown on the roof of the house. The flesh of the cock was formerly given to the poor. Buxtorf, Synagoga Judaica, c. xxv. [547.] S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger, pp. 343-345. Cp. J. F. Schon and S. Crowther, Journals, p. 48 sq. The account of the custom by J. Africanus B. Horton (West African Countries and Peoples p. 185 sq.) is entirely from Taylor. [548.] Turpin, “History of Siam,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, ix. 579. [549.] Ködding, “Die Bataksche Götter,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xii. (1885) pp. 476, 478. [550.] The ceremony referred to is probably the one performed on the tenth day, as described in the text. [551.] “Report of a Route Survey by Pundit—from Nepal to Lhasa,” etc., Journal Royal Geogr. Soc. xxxviii. (1868) pp. 167, 170 sq.; “Four Years' Journeying through Great Tibet, by one of the Trans-Himalayan Explorers,” Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc. N.S. vii. (1885) p. 67 sq. [552.] Aeneas Sylvius, Opera (Bâle, 1571), p. 423 sq. [553.] Usener, “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, N.F. xxx. 198. [554.] J. Thomas Phillips, Account of the Religion, Manners, and Learning of the People of Malabar, pp. 6, 12 sq. [555.] Herodotus, ii. 39. [556.] Herodotus, ii. 38-41; Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, iii. 403 sqq. (ed. 1878). [557.] Herodotus, l.c. [558.] See above, pp. 95 sqq., 137 sq. [559.] Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. No. 335. [560.] Strabo, xi. 4, 7. For the custom of standing upon a sacrificed victim, cp. Demosthenes, p. 642; Pausanias, iii. 20, 9. [561.] In the Dassera festival, as celebrated in Nepaul, we seem to have another instance of the annual expulsion of demons preceded by a time of licence. The festival occurs at the beginning of October and lasts ten days. “During its continuance there is a general holiday among all classes of the people. The city of Kathmandu at this time is required to be purified, but the purification is effected rather by prayer than by water-cleansing. All the courts of law are closed, and all prisoners in jail are removed from the precincts of the city.... The Kalendar is cleared, or there is a jail-delivery always at the Dassera of all prisoners.” This seems a trace of a period of licence. At this time “it is a general custom for masters to make an annual present, either of money, clothes, buffaloes, goats, etc., to such servants as have given satisfaction during the past year. It is in this respect, as well as in the feasting and drinking which goes on, something like our ‘boxing-time’ at Christmas.” On the seventh day at sunset there is a parade of all the troops in the capital, including the artillery. At a given signal the regiments commence firing, the artillery takes it up, and a general firing goes on for about twenty minutes, when it suddenly ceases. This probably represents the expulsion of the demons. “The grand cutting of the rice-crops is always postponed till the Dassera is over, and commences all over the valley the very day afterwards.” See the description of the festival in Oldfield's Sketches from Nipal, ii. 342-351. On the Dassera in India, see Dubois, Moeurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l'Inde, ii. 329 sqq. Amongst the Wasuahili of East Africa New Year's Day was formerly a day of general licence, “every man did as he pleased. Old quarrels were settled, men were found dead on the following day, and no inquiry was instituted about the matter.” Ch. New, Life, Wanderings, and Labours in Eastern Africa, p. 65. In Ashantee the annual festival of the new yams is a time of general licence. See the Note on “Offerings of first fruits” at the end of the volume. [562.] See above, vol. i. p. 275 sq. [563.] Above, pp. [186] sq., [192]. [564.] H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, N. F. (1875) xxx. 194. [565.] Joannes Lydus, De mensibus, iii. 29, iv. 36. Lydus places the expulsion on the Ides of March, that is 15th March. But this seems to be a mistake. See Usener, “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, xxx. 209 sqq. Again, Lydus does not expressly say that Mamurius Veturius was driven out of the city, but he implies it by mentioning the legend that his mythical prototype was beaten with rods and expelled the city. Lastly, Lydus only mentions the name Mamurius. But the full name Mamurius Veturius is preserved by Varro, Ling. Lat. vi. 45; Festus, ed. Muller, p. 131; Plutarch, Numa, 13. [566.] Usener, op. cit. p. 212 sq.; Roscher, Apollon und Mars, p. 27; Preller, Römische Mythologie,3 i. 360; Vaniček, Griechisch-lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, p. 715. The three latter scholars take Veturius as = annuus, because vetus is etymologically equivalent to ἔτος. But, as Usener argues, it seems quite unallowable to take the Greek meaning of the word instead of the Latin. [567.] Cato, De agri cult. 141. [568.] Varro, De lingua latina, v. 85. [569.] See the song of the Arval Brothers in Acta Fratrum Arvalium, ed. Henzen, p. 26 sq.; Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, p. 158. [570.] Above, p. [64]. [571.] Cato, De agri cult. 83. [572.] Above, vol. i. p. 70 sqq. p. 105 sq. [573.] Preller, Römische Mythologie,3 i. 360; Rosscher, Apollon und Mars, p. 49; Usener, op. cit. The ceremony also closely resembles the Highland New Year ceremony described above, p. 145 sq. [574.] Propertius, v. 2, 61 sq.; Usener, op. cit. p. 210. One of the functions of the Salii or dancing priests, who during March went up and down the city dancing, singing, and clashing their swords against their shields (Livy, i. 20; Plutarch, Numa, 13; Dionysius Halicarn. Antiq. ii. 70) may have been to rout out the evils or demons from all parts of the city, as a preparation for transferring them to the scapegoat Mamurius Veturius. Similarly, as we have seen (above, p. [194] sq.), among the Iroquois, men in fantastic costume went about collecting the sins of the people as a preliminary to transferring them to the scapegoat dogs. We have had many examples of armed men rushing about the streets and houses to drive out demons and evils of all kinds. The blows which were showered on Mamurius Veturius seem to have been administered by the Salii (Servius on Virgil, Aen. vii. 188; Minucius Felix, 24, 3; Preller, Röm. Myth.3 i. 360, note 1; Rosscher, Apollon und Mars, p. 49). The reason for beating the scapegoat will be explained presently. As priests of Mars, the god of agriculture, the Salii probably had also certain agricultural functions. They were named from the remarkable leaps which they made. Now dancing and leaping high are common sympathetic charms to make the crops grow high. See Peter, Volksthümliches aus Oesterreichisch Schlesien, ii. 266; E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 499, No. 333; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, p. 49; O. Knoop, Volkssagen, etc., aus dem östlichen Hinterpommern, p. 176, No. 197; E. Sommer, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen, p. 148; Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, p. 190, No. 13; Woeste, Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark, p. 56; Bavaria, ii. 298; id., iv. Abth. ii. pp. 379, 382; Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten u. Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens, p. 11 sq.; Schulenberg, Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche, p. 252; Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube,2 § 657; Jahn, Die deutsche Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht, p. 194 sq.; cp. Schott, Walachische Mährchen, p. 301 sq.; Gerard, The Land beyond the Forest, i. 264; Cieza de Leon, Travels (Hakluyt Soc. 1864), p. 413. Was it one of the functions of the Salii to dance and leap on the fields at the spring or autumn sowing, or at both? The dancing processions of the Salii took place in October as well as in March (Marquardt, Sacralwesen,2 p. 436 sq.), and the Romans sowed both in spring and autumn (Columella, ii. 9, 6 sq.) In their song the Salii mentioned Saturnus or Saeturnus the god of sowing (Festus, p. 325, ed. Müller. Saeturnus is an emendation of Ritschl's. See Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, p. 405). The weapons borne by the Salii, while effective against demons in general, may have been especially directed against the demons who steal the seed corn or the ripe grain. Compare the Khond and Hindoo Koosh customs described above, p. [173]. In Western Africa the field labours of tilling and sowing are sometimes accompanied by dances of armed men on the field. See Labat, Voyage du Chevalier des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines, et à Cayenne, ii. p. 99 of the Paris ed., p. 80 of the Amsterdam ed.; Olivier de Sanderval, De l'Atlantique au Niger par le Foulah-Djallon (Paris, 1883), p. 230. In Calicut (Southern India) “they plough the land with oxen as we do, and when they sow the rice in the field they have all the instruments of the city continually sounding and making merry. They also have ten or twelve men clothed like devils, and these unite in making great rejoicing with the players on the instruments, in order that the devil may make that rice very productive.” Varthema, Travels (Hakluyt Soc. 1863), p. 166 sq. The resemblance of the Salii to the sword-dancers of northern Europe has been pointed out by K. Müllenhoff, “Ueber den Schwerttanz,” in Festgaben für Gustav Homeyer (Berlin, 1871). In England the Morris Dancers who accompanied the procession of the plough through the streets on Plough Monday (the first Monday after Twelfth Day) sometimes wore swords (Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 505, Bohn's ed.), and sometimes they “wore small bunches of corn in their hats, from which the wheat was soon shaken out by the ungainly jumping which they called dancing.... Bessy rattled his box and danced so high that he showed his worsted stockings and corduroy breeches.” Chambers, Book of Days, i. 94. It is to be observed that in the “Lord of Misrule,” who reigned from Christmas till Twelfth Night (see Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 497 sqq.), we have a clear trace of one of those periods of general licence and suspension of ordinary government which so commonly occur at the end of the old year or beginning of the new one in connection with a general expulsion of evils. The fact that this period of licence immediately preceded the procession of the Morris Dancers on Plough Monday seems to indicate that the functions of these dancers were like those which I have attributed to the Salii. But the parallel cannot be drawn out here. Cp. meantime Dyer, British Popular Customs, pp. 31, 39. The Salii were said to have been founded by Morrius, King of Veii (Servius on Virgil, Aen. viii. 285). Morrius seems to be etymologically the same with Mamurius and Mars (Usener, Italische Mythen, p. 213). Can the English Morris (in Morris dancers) be the same? Analogy suggests that at Rome the Saturnalia, which fell in December when the Roman year began in January, may have been celebrated in February when the Roman year began in March. Thus at Rome, as in so many places, the public expulsion of evils at the New Year would be preceded by a period of general licence, such as the Saturnalia was. A trace of the former celebration of the Saturnalia in February or the beginning of March may perhaps be seen in the Matronalia, celebrated on 1st March, at which mistresses feasted their slaves, just as masters feasted theirs at the Saturnalia. Macrobius, Saturn. i. 12, 7; Solinus, i. 35, p. 13, ed. Mommsen; Joannes Lydus, De mensibus, iii. 15. [575.] Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. vi. 8. [576.] See above, pp. [176], [194]. [577.] Servius on Virgil, Aen. iii. 57, from Petronius. [578.] Helladius, in Photius, Bibliotheca, p. 534 a, ed. Bekker; Schol. on Aristophanes, Frogs, 734, and on Knights, 1136; Hesychius, s.v. φαρμακοί; cp. Suidas, s.vv. κάθαρμα, φαρμακοός, and φαρμακούς; Lysias, Orat. vi. 53. That they were stoned is an inference from Harpocration. See next note. [579.] Harpocration, s.v. φαρμακός, who says δύο ἄνδρας Ἀθήνησιν ἑξῆγον καθάρσια ἐσομένους τῆς πόλεως ἐν τοῖς Θαργηλίοις, ἕνα μὲν ὑπερ τῶν ἀνδρῶν, ἕνα δὲ ὑπερ τῶν γυναικῶν. He does not expressly state that they were put to death; but as he says that the ceremony was an imitation of the execution of a mythical Pharmacus who was stoned to death, we may infer that the victims were killed by being stoned. Suidas (sv. φάρμακος) copies Harpocration. [580.] Strabo, x. 2, 9. I do not know what authority Wordsworth (Greece, Pictorial, Historical, and Descriptive, p. 354) has for saying that the priests of Apollo, whose temple stood near the edge of the cliff, sometimes flung themselves down in this way. [581.] Tzetzes, Chiliades, v. 726-761. Tzetzes's authority is the satyrical poet Hipponax. [582.] This may be inferred from the verse of Hipponax, quoted by Athenaeus, 370 b, where for φαρμάκου we should perhaps read φαρμακοῦ with Schneidewin (Poetae lyr. Gr.3 ed. Bergk, ii. 763). [583.] See his Mytholog. Forschungen, p. 113 sqq., especially 123 sq. 133. [584.] Pliny, Nat. Hist. xx. 101; Dioscorides, De mat. med. ii. 202; Lucian, Necyom. 7; id., Alexander, 47; Theophrastus, Superstitious Man. [585.] Theocritus, vii. 106 sqq. with the scholiast. [586.] Cp. Aug. Mommsen, Heortologie, 414 sqq.; W. Mannhardt, A. W. F. p. 215. [587.] At certain sacrifices in Yucatan blood was drawn from the genitals of a human victim and smeared on the face of the idol. De Landa, Relation des choses de Yucatan, ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864) p. 167. Was the original intention of this rite to transfuse into the god a fresh supply of reproductive energy? [588.] Aelian, Nat. Anim. ix. 26. [589.] De Santa-Anna Nery, Folk-lore Brésilien (Paris, 1889) p. 253. [590.] Above, pp. [148] sq. [187]. Compare Plutarch, Parallela, 35, where a woman is represented as going from house to house striking sick people with a hammer and bidding them be whole. [591.] Acosta, History of the Indies, ii. 375 (Hakluyt Soc.) See above, p. [169]. [592.] Osculati, Esplorazione delle regioni equatoriali lungo il Napo ed il fiume delle Amazzoni (Milan, 1854), p. 118. [593.] Ed. Beardmore, Anthropological Notes collected at Mowat, Dandai, New Guinea (1888) (in manuscript). [594.] Hahn, Albanesische Studien, i. 155. [595.] F. S. Krauss, Kroatien und Slavonien (Vienna, 1889), p. 108. [596.] W. Mannhardt, B. K. p. 257. [597.] W. Mannhardt, B. K. p. 258-263. See his whole discussion of such customs, pp. 251-303, and Myth. Forsch. pp. 113-153. [598.] Acosta, History of the Indies, ii. 323 (Hakluyt Soc. 1880). [599.] Sahagun, Histoire des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne (Paris, 1880), pp. 61 sq., 96-99, 103; Acosta, History of the Indies, ii. 350 sq.; Clavigero, History of Mexico, trans. by Cullen, i. 300; Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, ii. 319 sq. For other Mexican instances of persons representing deities and slain in that character, see Sahagun, pp. 75, 116 sq., 123, 158 sq., 164 sq., 585 sqq., 589; Acosta, ii. 384 sqq.; Clavigero, i. 312; Bancroft, ii. 325 sqq., 337 sq. [600.] Sahagun, pp. 18 sq., 68 sq., 133-139; Bancroft, iii. 353-359. [601.] Sahagun, p. 584 sq. For this festival see also id. pp. 37 sq. 58 sq. 60, 87 sqq. 93; Clavigero, i. 297; Bancroft, ii. 306 sqq. [602.] Clavigero, i. 283. [603.] Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, ii. 142. [604.] Memorials of Japan (Hakluyt Society, 1850), pp. 14, 141; Varenius, Descriptio regni Japoniae, p. 11; Caron, “Account of Japan,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, vii. 613; Kaempfer, “History of Japan,” in id., vii. 716. [605.] Ellis, Polynesian Researches, iii. 102 sq. ed. 1836; James Wilson, Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean, p. 329. [606.] Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte, iii. 81. [607.] Athenaeus, 514 C. [608.] Bancroft, l.c. [609.] Kaempfer, “History of Japan,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, vii. 717; Caron, “Account of Japan,” id. vii. 613; Varenius, Descriptio regni Japoniae, p. 11, “Radiis solis caput nunquam illustrabatur: in apertum aërem non procedebat.” [610.] Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker, iv. 359. [611.] Alonzo de Zurita, “Rapport sur les differentes classes de chefs de la Nouvelle-Espagne,” p. 30, in Ternaux-Compans's Voyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux (Paris, 1840); Waitz, l.c.; Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika, ii. 204. [612.] Cieza de Leon, Second Part of the Chronicle of Peru (Hakluyt Soc. 1883), p. 18. [613.] Pechuel-Loesche, “Indiscretes aus Loango,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, x. (1878) 23. [614.] Rev. James Macdonald (Reay Free Manse, Caithness), Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and Religions of South African Tribes (in manuscript). [615.] The Rev. G. Brown, quoted by the Rev. B. Danks, “Marriage Customs of the New Britain Group,” Journ. Anthrop. Institute, xviii. 284 sq.; cp. Rev. G. Brown, “Notes on the Duke of York Group, New Britain, and New Ireland,” Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc. xlvii. (1877) p. 142 sq. Powell's description of the New Ireland custom is similar (Wanderings in a Wild Country, p. 249). According to him the girls wear wreaths of scented herbs round the waist and neck; an old woman or a little child occupies the lower floor of the cage: and the confinement lasts only a month. Probably the long period mentioned by Mr. Brown is that prescribed for chiefs' daughters. Poor people could not afford to keep their children so long idle. This distinction is sometimes expressly stated; for example, among the Goajiras of Colombia rich people keep their daughters shut up in separate huts at puberty for periods varying from one to four years, but poor people cannot afford to do so for more than a fortnight or a month. F. A. Simons, “An exploration of the Goajira Peninsula,” Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc. N.S. vii. (1885) p. 791. In Fiji, brides who were being tattooed were kept from the sun. Williams, Fiji and the Fijians, i. 170. This was perhaps a modification of the Melanesian custom of secluding girls at puberty. The reason mentioned by Mr. Williams, “to improve her complexion,” can hardly have been the original one. [616.] Chalmers and Gill, Work and Adventure in New Guinea, p. 159. [617.] Schwaner, Borneo, Beschrijving van het stroomgebied van den Barito, etc. ii. 77 sq.; Zimmerman, Die Inseln des Indischen und Stillen Meeres, ii. 632 sq.; Otto Finsch, Neu Guinea und seine Bewohner, p. 116. [618.] Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 138. [619.] Sproat, Scenes and Studies of Savage Life, p. 93 sq. [620.] Erman, “Ethnographische Wahrnehmungen u. Erfahrungen an den Küsten des Berings-Meeres,” Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie, ii. 318 sq.; Langsdorff, Reise um die Welt, ii. 114 sq.; Holmberg, “Ethnogr. Skizzen über die Völker d. russischen Amerika,” Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae, iv. (1856) p. 320 sq.; Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, i. 110 sq.; Krause, Die Tlinkit-Indianer, p. 217 sq.; Rev. Sheldon Jackson, “Alaska and its Inhabitants,” American Antiquarian, ii. 111 sq.; W. M. Grant, in Journal of American Folk-lore, i. 169. For caps, hoods, and veils worn by girls at such seasons, compare G. H. Loskiel, History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians, i. 56; Journal Anthrop. Institute, vii. 206; G. M. Dawson, Report of the Queen Charlotte Islands, 1878 (Geological Survey of Canada), p. 130 B; Petitot, Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié, pp. 72, 75; id., Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest, p. 258. [621.] Holmberg, op. cit. p. 401; Bancroft, i. 82; Petroff, Report on the Population, etc. of Alaska, p. 143. [622.] Lafitau, Moeurs des Sauvages amériquains i. 262 sq. [623.] Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, viii. 333. On the Chiriguanos see Von Martius, Zur Ethnographie Amerika's zumal Brasiliens, p. 212 sqq. [624.] Thevet, Cosmographie Universelle (Paris, 1575) ii. 946 B sq.; Lafitau, op. cit. i 290 sqq. [625.] Schomburgk, Reisen in Britisch Guiana, ii. 315 sq.; Martius, Zur Ethnographie Amerika's, p. 644. [626.] Labat, Voyage du Chevalier des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines, et à Cayenne, iv. p. 365 sq. (Paris ed.), p. 17 sq. (Amsterdam ed.) [627.] Above, p. [213] sq., vol. i. p. 153 sq. [628.] This interpretation of the custom is supported by the fact that beating or scourging is inflicted on inanimate objects expressly for the purpose indicated in the text. Thus the Indians of Costa Rica hold that there are two kinds of ceremonial uncleanness, nya and bu-ku-rú. Anything that has been connected with a death is nya. But bu-ku-rú is much more virulent. It can not only make one sick but kill. “The worst bu-ku-rú of all is that of a young woman in her first pregnancy. She infects the whole neighbourhood. Persons going from the house where she lives carry the infection with them to a distance, and all the deaths or other serious misfortunes in the vicinity are laid to her charge. In the old times, when the savage laws and customs were in full force, it was not an uncommon thing for the husband of such a woman to pay damages for casualties thus caused by his unfortunate wife.... Bu-ku-rú emanates in a variety of ways; arms, utensils, even houses become affected by it after long disuse, and before they can be used again must be purified. In the case of portable objects left undisturbed for a long time, the custom is to beat them with a stick before touching them. I have seen a woman take a long walking stick and beat a basket hanging from the roof of a house by a cord. On asking what that was for, I was told that the basket contained her treasures, that she would probably want to take something out the next day, and that she was driving off the bu-ku-rú. A house long unused must be swept, and then the person who is purifying it must take a stick and beat not only the movable objects, but the beds, posts, and in short every accessible part of the interior. The next day it is fit for occupation. A place not visited for a long time or reached for the first time is bu-ku-rú. On our return from the ascent of Pico Blanco, nearly all the party suffered from little calenturas, the result of extraordinary exposure to wet and cold and want of food. The Indians said that the peak was especially bu-ku-rú, since nobody had ever been on it before.” One day Mr. Gabb took down some dusty blow-guns amid cries of bu-ku-rú from the Indians. Some weeks afterwards a boy died, and the Indians firmly believed that the bu-ku-rú of the blow-guns had killed him. “From all the foregoing, it would seem that bu-ku-rú is a sort of evil spirit that takes possession of the object, and resents being disturbed; but I have never been able to learn from the Indians that they consider it so. They seem to think of it as a property the objects acquires.” W. M. Gabb, Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica (read before the American Philosophical Society, 20th August 1875), p. 504 sq. [629.] A. R. Wallace, Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, p. 496. [630.] Bose, The Hindoos as they are, p. 86. Similarly, after a Brahman boy has been invested with the sacred thread, he is for three days strictly forbidden to see the sun. He may not eat salt, and he is enjoined to sleep either on a carpet or a deer's skin, without a mattress or mosquito curtain. Ib. p. 186. In Bali, boys who have had their teeth filed, as a preliminary to marriage, are kept shut up in a dark room for three days. Van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, N. S. ix. (1880) 428 sq. [631.] Moura, Royaume du Cambodge, i. 377. [632.] Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” Cochinchine Française, Excursions et Reconnaissances, No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), p. 193 sq. Cp. id. Notice sur le Cambodge, p. 50. [633.] B. Schmidt, Griechische Märchen, Sagen und Volkslieder, p. 98. [634.] Schneller, Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol, No. 22. [635.] J. G. von Hahn, Griechische und albanesische Märchen, No. 41. [636.] Gonzenbach, Sicilianische Märchen, No. 28. The incident of the bone occurs in other folk-tales. A prince or princess is shut up for safety in a tower and makes his or her escape by scraping a hole in the wall with a bone which has been accidentally conveyed into the tower; sometimes it is expressly said that care was taken to let the princess have no bones with her meat. Hahn, op. cit. No. 15; Gonzenbach, Nos. 26, 27; Pentamerone, No. 23. From this we should infer that it is a rule with savages not to let women handle the bones of animals during their monthly seclusions. We have already seen the great respect with which the savage treats the bones of game (see above, p. [116] sqq.); and women in their courses are specially forbidden to meddle with the hunter or fisher, as their contact or neighbourhood would spoil his sport (see below, p. [238] sqq.) In folk-tales the hero who uses the bone is sometimes a boy; but the incident might easily be transferred from a girl to a boy after its real meaning had been forgotten. Amongst the Hare-skin Indians a girl at puberty is forbidden to break the bones of hares. Petitot, Traditions indiennes du Canada Nordouest, p. 258. On the other hand, she drinks out of a tube made of a swan's bone (Petitot, l.c. and id., Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié, p. 76), and we have seen that a Thlinkeet girl in the same circumstances used to drink out of the wing-bone of a white-headed eagle (Langsdorff, Reise um die Welt, ii. 114). [637.] W. Radloff, Proben der Volkslitteratur der türkischen Stämme Süd-Sibiriens, iii. 82 sq. [638.] Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, i. 416, vi. 25; Turner, Samoa, p. 200; Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. No. 797. [639.] Amongst the Chaco Indians of South America a newly-married couple sleep the first night on a skin with their heads towards the west; “for the marriage is not considered as ratified till the rising sun shines on their feet the succeeding morning.” T. J. Hutchinson, “The Chaco Indians,” Transact. Ethnolog. Soc. iii. 327. At old Hindoo marriages, the first ceremony was the “Impregnation-rite” (Garbhādhāna). “During the previous day the young married woman was made to look towards the sun, or in some way exposed to its rays.” Monier Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, p. 354. Amongst the Turks of Siberia it was formerly the custom on the morning after marriage to lead the young couple out of the hut to greet the rising sun. The same custom is said to be still practised in Iran and Central Asia, the belief being that the beams of the rising sun are the surest means of impregnating the new bride. Vambery, Das Türkenvolk, p. 112. [640.] Above, vol. i. p. 170. [641.] Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 186; E. J. Eyre, Journals, ii. 295, 304; W. Ridley, Kamilaroi, p. 157; Journ. Anthrop. Inst. ii. 268, ix. 459 sq.; Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, i. 65, 236. Cp. Sir George Grey, Journals, ii. 344; J. Dawson, Australian Aborigines, ci. sq. [642.] Bleek, Brief Account of Bushman Folk-lore, p. 14; cp. ib. p. 10. [643.] Gumilla, Histoire de l'Orénoque, i. 249. [644.] James Adair, History of the American Indians, p. 123 sq. [645.] S. Hearne, Journey to the Northern Ocean, p. 314 sq.; Alex. Mackenzie, Voyages through the Continent of North America, cxxiii.; Petitot, Monographie des Dènè-Dindjié, p. 75 sq. [646.] C. Leemius, De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua vita et religione pristina (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 494. [647.] Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. § 64 sq., xxviii. § 77 sqq. Cp. Geoponica, xii. c. 20, 5, and c. 25, 2; Columella, xi. 3, 50. [648.] A. Schleicher, Volkstümliches aus Sonnenberg; p. 134; B. Souché, Croyances, Présages et Traditions diverses, p. 11; V. Fossel, Volksmedicin und medicinischer Aberglaube in Steiermark (Graz, 1886), p. 124. The Greeks and Romans thought that a field was completely protected against insects if a menstruous woman walked round it with bare feet and streaming hair. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xvii. 266, xxviii. 78; Columella, x. 358 sq., xi. 3, 64; Palladius, De re rustica, i. 35, 3; Geoponica, xii. 8, 5 sq.; Aelian, Nat. Anim. vi. 36. A similar remedy is employed for the same purpose by North American Indians and European peasants. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, v. 70; Wiedemann, Aus dem inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten, p. 484. Cp. Haltrich, Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger Sachsen, p. 280; Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens, p. 14; Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 iii. 468. [649.] For an example of the beneficent application of the menstrual energy, see note on p. [241]. [650.] The rules just discussed do not hold exclusively of the persons mentioned in the text, but are applicable in certain circumstances to other tabooed persons and things. Whatever, in fact, is permeated by the mysterious virtue of taboo may need to be isolated from earth and heaven. Mourners are taboo all the world over; accordingly in mourning the Ainos wear peculiar caps in order that the sun may not shine upon their heads. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, v. 366. During a solemn fast of three days the Indians of Costa Rica eat no salt, speak as little as possible, light no fires, and stay strictly indoors, or if they go out during the day they carefully cover themselves from the light of the sun, believing that exposure to the sun's rays would turn them black. W. M. Gabb, Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica, p. 510. On Yule night it has been customary in parts of Sweden from time immemorial to go on pilgrimage, whereby people learn many secret things and know what is to happen in the coming year. As a preparation for this pilgrimage, “some secrete themselves for three days previously in a dark cellar, so as to be shut out altogether from the light of heaven. Others retire at an early hour of the preceding morning to some out-of-the way place, such as a hayloft, where they bury themselves in the hay, that they may neither hear nor see any living creature; and here they remain, in silence and fasting, until after sundown; whilst there are those who think it sufficient if they rigidly abstain from food on the day before commencing their wanderings. During this period of probation a man ought not to see fire.” L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, p. 194. During the sixteen days that a Pima Indian is undergoing purification for killing an Apache he may not see a blazing fire. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, i. 553. Again warriors on the war-path are strictly taboo; hence Indians may not sit on the bare ground the whole time they are out on a warlike expedition. J. Adair, History of the American Indians, p. 382; Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner, p. 123. The holy ark of the North American Indians is deemed “so sacred and dangerous to be touched” that no one, except the war chief and his attendant, will touch it “under the penalty of incurring great evil. Nor would the most inveterate enemy touch it in the woods for the very same reason.” In carrying it against the enemy they never place it on the ground, but rest it on stones or logs. Adair, History of the American Indians, p. 162 sq. The sacred clam shell of the Elk clan among the Omahas is kept in a sacred bag, which is never allowed to touch the ground. E. James, Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains, ii. 47; J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” Third Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1884), p. 226. Newly born infants are strongly taboo; accordingly in Loango they are not allowed to touch the earth. Pechuel-Loesche, “Indiscretes aus Loango,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, x. (1878) p. 29 sq. In Laos the hunting of elephants gives rise to many taboos; one of them is that the chief hunter may not touch the earth with his foot. Accordingly when he alights from his elephant, the others spread a carpet of leaves for him to step upon. E. Aymonier, Notes sur le Laos, p. 26. In some parts of Aberdeenshire, the last bit of standing corn (which, as we have seen, is very sacred) is not allowed to touch the ground; but as it is cut, it is placed on the lap of the “gueedman.” W. Gregor, “Quelques coutumes du Nord-Est du Comté d'Aberdeen,” Revue des Traditions populaires, iii. (1888) 485 b. Sacred food may not, in certain circumstances, touch the ground. F. Grabowsky, “Der Distrikt Dusson Timor in Südost-Borneo und seine Bewohner,” Ausland (1884), No. 24, p. 474; Ch. F. Hall, Narrative of the Second Arctic Expedition, edited by Prof. J. E. Nourse (Washington, 1879), p. 110; Gerard, The Land beyond the Forest, ii. 7. In Scotland, when water was carried from sacred wells to sick people, the water-vessel might not touch the ground. C. F. Gordon Cumming, In the Hebrides, p. 211. On the relation of spirits to the ground, compare Denzil Ibbetson in Panjab Notes and Queries, i. No. 5. [651.] Die Edda, übersetzt von K. Simrock,8 pp. 286-288, cp. pp. 8, 34, 264. In English the Balder story is told at length by Prof. Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, p. 529 sqq. [652.] It is strange to find so learned and judicious a student of custom and myth as H. Usener exactly inverting their true relation to each other. After showing that the essential features of the myth of the marriage of Mars and Nerio have their counterpart in the marriage customs of peasants at the present day, he proceeds to infer that these customs are the reflection of the myth. “Italische Mythen,” Rheinisches Museum, N. F. xxx. 228 sq. Surely the myth is the reflection of the custom. Men not only fashion gods in their own likeness (as Xenophanes long ago remarked) but make them think and act like themselves. Heaven is a copy of earth, not earth of heaven. [653.] See Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 502, 510, 516. [654.] Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 518 sq. [655.] In the following survey of these fire-customs I follow chiefly W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, kap. vi. p. 497 sqq. Compare also Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 500 sqq. [656.] Schmitz, Sitten und Sagen etc. des Eifler Volkes, i. pp. 21-25; B. K. p. 501. [657.] B. K. p. 501. [658.] Vonbun, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, p. 20; B. K. p. 501. [659.] E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 380 sqq.; Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. 59 sq. , 66 sq.; Bavaria, ii. 2, p. 838 sq.; Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, i. p. 211, No. 232, B. K. p. 501 sq. [660.] Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen, p. 189; Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 207; B. K. p. 500 sq. [661.] Th. Vernalcken, Mythen und Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich, p. 293 sq.; B. K. p. 498. See above, vol. i. p. 267. [662.] Schmitz, Sitten, u. Sagen des Eifler Volkes, i. p. 20; B. K. p. 499. [663.] Strackerjan, Aberglaube u. Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, ii. 39, No. 306; B. K. p. 499. [664.] B. K. p. 499. [665.] B. K. p. 498 sq. [666.] B. K. p. 499. [667.] Schneller, Märchen u. Sagen aus Wälschtirol, p. 234 sq.; B. K. p. 499 sq. [668.] B. K. pp. 502-505; Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube,2 § 81; Zingerle, Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes,2 p. 149, §§ 1286-1289; Bavaria, i. 1, p. 371. [669.] Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, i. p. 212 sq., ii. p. 78 sq.; B. K. p. 505. [670.] Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, ii. p. 43 sq., No. 313; B. K. p. 505 sq. [671.] Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, i. 75 sq.; B. K. p. 506. [672.] Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 512; B. K. p. 506 sq. [673.] H. Pröhle, Harzbilder, p. 63; Kuhn und Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche, p. 373; B. K. p. 507. [674.] Kuhn, Markische Sagen und Märchen, p. 312 sq.; B. K. p. 507. [675.] Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, i. p. 211 sq.; B. K. p. 507 sq. [676.] Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. p. 82, No. 106; B. K. p. 508. [677.] B. K. p. 508; cp. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutsch. Myth. i. 74; Grimm, Deutsche Myth.4 i. 512. The two latter writers only state that before the fires were kindled it was customary to hunt squirrels in the woods. [678.] Kuhn, l.c.; B. K. p. 508. [679.] Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 224 sq., Bohn's ed., quoting Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland, 1794, xi. 620; Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, from the MSS. of John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, edited by Alex. Allardyce, ii. 439-445; B. K. p. 508. [680.] Pennant, “Tour in Scotland,” Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, iii. 49; Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 226. [681.] L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, p. 233 sq. [682.] B. K. p. 509; Brand, Pop. Antiq. i. 298 sq.; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 516. [683.] Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. p. 96 sqq. No. 128, p. 103 sq. No. 129; E. Meier, Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben, p. 423 sqq.; B. K. p. 510. [684.] Leoprechting, Aus dem Lechrain, p. 182 sq.; B. K. p. 510. Cp. Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, i. 210; Bavaria, iii. 956. [685.] Panzer, op. cit. ii. 549. [686.] Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, pp. 306-311; B. K. p. 510. For the custom of burning a tree in the midsummer bonfires, see vol. i. p. 79. [687.] Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch, ii. 144 sqq. [688.] Grimm, D. M.4 i. 515 sq.; B. K. p. 510 sq. [689.] Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 393; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 517; B. K. p. 511. [690.] Sébillot, Coutumes populaires de la Haute Bretagne, p. 193 sq. Wolf, op. cit. ii. 392 sq. [691.] Zingerle, Sitten, etc. des Tiroler Volkes,2 p. 159, No. 1354; Panzer, Beitrag, i. 210; B. K. p. 511. [692.] Kuhn u. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche, p. 390; B. K. 511. [693.] Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 300 sq., 318, cp. pp. 305, 306, 308 sq.; B. K. p. 512. [694.] Aubrey, Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 96, cp. id. p. 26. [695.] Brand, op. cit. i. 311. [696.] Id. i. 303, 318, 319; Dyer, British Popular Customs, p. 315. [697.] Brand, op. cit. i. 318. [698.] J. Train, Account of the Isle of Man, ii. 120. [699.] Brand, i. 303, quoting Sir Henry Piers's Description of Westmeath. [700.] Brand, l.c., quoting the author of the Survey of the South of Ireland. [701.] Brand, i. 305, quoting the author of the Comical Pilgrim's Pilgrimage into Ireland. [702.] Brand, i. 304, quoting The Gentleman's Magazine, February 1795, p. 124. [703.] Quoted by Dyer, British Popular Customs, p. 321 sq. [704.] Brand, i. 311, quoting Statistical Account of Scotland, xxi. 145. [705.] B. K. p. 512. [706.] Brand, i. 337. [707.] J. Ramsay and A. Allardyce, Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, ii. 436. [708.] Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 240; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 519. [709.] Ralston. l.c. [710.] Tettau und Temme, Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens, p. 277; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 519. [711.] Töppen, Aberglauben aus Masuren,2 p. 71. [712.] Grimm, l.c.; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen, p. 307 note. [713.] Grimm, l.c. [714.] Grimm, l.c. [715.] Grimm, D. M.4 i. 518. [716.] Above, vol. i. p. 291. [717.] Gubernatis, Mythologie des Plantes, i. 185. [718.] Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 317; Grimm, l.c. [719.] G. Ferraro, Superstizioni, usi e proverbi Monferrini, p. 34 sq., referring to Alvise da Cadamosto, Relazion dei viaggi d'Africa, in Ramusio. [720.] Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. 100 sq.; B. K. p. 513 sq. [721.] Zingerle, Sitten, etc., des Tiroler Volkes,2 p. 159, No. 1353, cp. No. 1355; B. K. p. 513. [722.] Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 392; B. K. p. 513. [723.] B. K. p. 513. [724.] Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 240. [725.] Above, vol. i. p. 272 sq. [726.] Above, vol. i. p. 22 sqq. [727.] Above, p. [262]. [728.] Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. 57, 97; B. K. p. 510; cp. Panzer, Beitrag, ii. 240. [729.] Cp. Grimm, D. M.4 i. 521; Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 389; Ad. Kuhn, Herabkunft des Feuers,2 pp. 41 sq., 47; W. Mannhardt, B. K. p. 521. [730.] See above, pp. [254], [255], [260], [265]. [731.] On the need-fires, see Grimm, D. M. i. 501 sqq.; Wolf, op. cit. i. 116 sq., ii. 378 sqq.; Kuhn, op. cit. p. 41 sqq.; B. K. p. 518 sqq.; Elton, Origins of English History, p. 293 sq.; Jahn, Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht, p. 26 sqq. [732.] This is the view of Grimm, Wolf, Kuhn, and Mannhardt. [733.] Herabkunft des Feuers,2 p. 47. [734.] Panzer, Beitrag, ii. 240. [735.] Ch. E. Gover, “The Pongol festival in Southern India,” Journ. Royal Asiatic Society, N.S. v. (1870) p. 96 sq. [736.] Diego de Landa, Relation des choses de Yucatan (Paris, 1864), p. 233. [737.] Kolben, Present State of the Cape of Good Hope, i. 129 sqq. [738.] P. 253. The torches of Demeter, which figure so largely in her myth and on the monuments, are perhaps to be explained by this custom. To regard, with Mannhardt (B. K. p. 536), the torches in the modern European customs as imitations of lightning seems unnecessary. [739.] Above, vol. i. p. 70 sqq. [740.] Pp. [250], [267]. [741.] Pp. [247], [248], [253], [259], [266]. [742.] P. [250] sq. [743.] Pp. [247], [248]. [744.] Vol. i. p. 272. [745.] B. K. p. 524. [746.] Bavaria, iii. 956; B. K. p. 524. [747.] Birlinger, Volksthümliches aus Schwaben, ii. 121 sq., No. 146; B. K. p. 524 sq. [748.] Caesar, Bell. Gall. vi. 15; Strabo, iv. 4, 5, p. 198; Casaubon; Diodorus, v. 32. See Mannhardt, B. K. p. 525 sqq. [749.] Strabo, iv. 4, 4, p. 197, τὰς δὲ φονικὰς δίκας μάλιστα τούτοις [i.e. the Druids] ἐπετέτραπτο δικάζειν, ὅταν τε φορὰ τούτων ἧ, φορὰν καὶ τῆς χώρας νομίζουσιν ὐπάρχειν. On this passage see Mannhardt, B. K. p. 529 sqq. [750.] See vol. i. p. 88 sqq. [751.] B. K. p. 523, note. [752.] B. K. p. 523, note; John Milner, The History, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and Survey of the Antiquities of Winchester, i. 8 sq.; Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 325 sq.; James Logan, The Scottish Gael, ii. 358 (new ed.); Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Calendrier Belge, p. 123 sqq. [753.] Puttenham, Arte of English Poesie, 1589, p. 128, quoted by Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 323. [754.] King's Vale Royal of England, p. 208, quoted by Brand, l.c. [755.] Liebrecht, Gervasius von Tilbury, p. 212 sq.; B. K. p. 514. [756.] B. K. pp. 514, 523. [757.] Athenaeum, 24th July 1869, p. 115; B. K. p. 515 sq. [758.] Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 388; B. K. p. 515. [759.] B. K. p. 515. [760.] Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 i. 519; B. K. p. 515. [761.] B. K. p. 515. [762.] Ib. [763.] Above, vol. i. p. 408, vol. ii. p. 1 sqq. [764.] Some of the serpents worshipped by the old Prussians lived in hollow oaks, and as oaks were sacred among the Prussians, the serpents may have been regarded as genii of the trees. Simon Grunau, Preussische Chronik, ed. Perlbach, i. p. 89; Hartknoch, Altund Neues Preussen, pp. 143, 163. Serpents, again, played an important part in the worship of Demeter, as we have seen. But that they were regarded as embodiments of her can hardly be assumed. In Siam the spirit of the takhien tree is believed to appear, sometimes in the form of a woman, sometimes in the form of a serpent. Bastian, Die Volker des östlichen Asien, iii. 251. [765.] Pliny derives the name Druid the Greek drūs, “oak.” He did not know that the Celtic word for oak was the same (daur), and that therefore Druid, in the sense of priest of the oak, was genuine Celtic, not borrowed from the Greek. See Curtius, Griech. Etymologie,5 p. 238 sq.; Vaniček, Griechisch-lateinisches etymolog. Wörterbuch, p. 368 sqq.; Rhys, Celtic Heathendom, p. 221 sqq. In the Highlands of Scotland the word is found in place-names like Bendarroch (the mountain of the oak), Craigandarroch, etc. [766.] It is still a folk-lore rule not to cut the mistletoe with iron; some say it should be cut with gold. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie4 ii. 1001. On the objection to the use of iron in such cases, see Liebrecht, Gervasius von Tilbury, p. 103; and above, vol. i. p. 177 sqq. [767.] Pliny, Nat. Hist. xvi. § 249 sqq. On the Celtic worship of the oak, see also Maximus Tyrius, Dissert. viii. 8, Κελτοὶ σέβουσι μὲν Δία ἄγαλμα δὲ Διὸς Κελτικὸν ὐψηλὴ δρῦς. With this mode of gathering the mistletoe compare the following. In Cambodia when a man perceives a certain parasitic plant growing on a tamarind-tree, he dresses in white and taking a new earthen pot climbs the tree at mid-day. He puts the plant in the pot and lets the whole fall to the ground. Then in the pot he makes a decoction which renders invulnerable. Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,” in Cochinchine Française, Excursions et Reconnaissances, No. 16, p. 136. [768.] Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube,2 § 123; Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren, §§ 673-677; Gubernatis, Mythologie des Plantes, ii. 144 sqq.; Friend, Flowers and Flower Lore, p. 362; Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 314 sqq.; Vonbun, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, p. 133 sqq.; Burne and Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, p. 242. Cp. Archaeological Review, i. 164 sqq. [769.] Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 307, 312; Dyer, Folk-lore of Plants, pp. 62, 286; Friend, Flowers and Flower Lore, pp. 147, 149, 150, 540; Wuttke, § 134. [770.] Grimm, D. M.4 i. 514 sq., ii. 1013 sq., iii. 356; Grohmann, op. cit. § 635-637; Friend, op. cit. p. 75; Gubernatis, Myth. des Plantes, i. 189 sq., ii. 16 sqq. [771.] Aubrey, Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 25 sq.; Brand, Pop. Ant. i. 329 sqq.; Friend, p. 136. [772.] Brand, i. 333. [773.] Grohmann, § 1426. [774.] Grohmann, § 648. [775.] Grohmann, § 681; Wuttke, § 134; Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch, i. 9; Gubernatis, Mythologie des Plantes, i. 190. [776.] Grimm, D. M.4 iii. 78, 353. [777.] Gubernatis, Mythologie des Plantes, ii. 73. [778.] Friend, Flowers and Flower Lore, p. 378. Hunters believe that the mistletoe heals all wounds and brings luck in hunting. Kuhn, Herabkunjt des Feuers,2 p. 206. [779.] Grimm, D. M.4 ii. 1009. [780.] L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, p. 269. [781.] Lloyd, op. cit. p. 259; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 517 sq. [782.] Lloyd, l.c. [783.] Grimm, D. M.4 iii. 78, who adds, “Mahnen die Johannisfeuer an Baldrs Leichenbrand?” This pregnant hint, which contains in germ the solution of the whole myth, has been quite lost on the mythologists who since Grimm's day have enveloped the subject in a cloud of learned dust. [784.] Above, p. [285], and vol. i. pp. 58, 64. [785.] Grimm, D. M.4 i. 55 sq., 58 sq., ii. 542, iii. 187 sq. [786.] Preller, Röm. Mythol.3 i. 108. [787.] Livy, i. 10. Cp. C. Bötticher, Der Baumkultus der Hellenen, p. 133 sq. [788.] Bötticher, op. cit. p. 111 sqq.; Preller, Griech. Mythol.4 ed. C. Robert, i. 122 sqq. [789.] Without hazarding an opinion on the vexed question of the primitive home of the Aryans, I may observe that in various parts of Europe the oak seems to have been formerly more common than it is now. In Denmark the present beech woods were preceded by oak woods and these by the Scotch fir. Lyell, Antiquity of Man, p. 9; J. Geikie, Prehistoric Europe, p. 486 sq. In parts of North Germany it appears from the evidence of archives that the fir has ousted the oak. O. Schrader, Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte,2 (Jena, 1890), p. 394. In prehistoric times the oak appears to have been the chief tree in the forests which clothed the valley of the Po; the piles on which the pile villages rested were of oak. W. Helbig, Die Italiker in der Poebene, p. 25 sq. The classical tradition that in the olden time men subsisted largely on acorns is borne out by the evidence of the pile villages in Northern Italy, in which great quantities of acorns have been discovered. See Helbig, op. cit. pp. 16 sq., 26, 72 sq. [790.] Above, p. [265] sq. [791.] Praetorius, Deliciae Prussicae, p. 19 sq. Mr. Ralston states (on what authority I do not know) that if the fire maintained in honour of the Lithuanian god Perkunas went out, it was rekindled by sparks struck from a stone which the image of the god held in his hand. Songs of the Russian People, p. 88. [792.] Grimm, D. M.4 i. 502, 503; Kuhn, Herabkunft des Feuers,2 p. 43; Pröhle, Harzbilder, p. 75; Bartsch, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg, ii. 150; Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch, ii. 148. The writer who styles himself Montanus says (Die deutschen Volksfeste, etc., p. 127) that the need-fire was made by the friction of oak and fir. Sometimes it is said that the need-fire should be made with nine different kinds of wood (Grimm, D. M.4 i. 503, 505; Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. 380; Jahn, Die deutschen Opfergebräuche, p. 27); but the kinds of wood are not specified. [793.] John Ramsay, Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century, ii. 442; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 506. See above, p. [255]. [794.] Above, vol. i. p. 58. [795.] Montanus, Die deutschen Volksfeste, etc., p. 127. [796.] Above, vol. i. p. 100. [797.] Mary Frere, Old Deccan Days, p. 12 sqq. [798.] Maive Stokes, Indian Fairy Tales, p. 58 sqq. For similar stories, see id. p. 187 sq.; Lal Behari Day, Folk-tales of Bengal, p. 121 sq.; F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, Wide-awake Stories, p. 58 sqq. [799.] Old Deccan Days, p. 239 sqq. [800.] Lal Behari Day, op. cit. p. 1 sqq. For similar stories of necklaces, see Old Deccan Days, p. 233 sq.; Wide-awake Stories, p. 83 sqq. [801.] J. H. Knowles, Folk-tales of Kashmir (London, 1888), p. 49 sq. [802.] J. H. Knowles, Folk-tales of Kashmir (London, 1888), p. 134. [803.] Id. p. 382 sqq. [804.] Lal Behari Day, op. cit. p. 85 sq., cp. id. p. 253 sqq.; Indian Antiquary, i. (1872) 117. For an Indian story in which a giant's life is in five black bees, see Clouston, Popular Tales and Fictions, i. 350. [805.] Indian Antiquary, i. 171. [806.] A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, iv. 340 sq. [807.] Lal Behari Day, op. cit. p. 189. [808.] Wide-awake Stories, pp. 52, 64. [809.] G. W. Leitner, The Languages and Races of Dardistan, p. 9. [810.] Apollodorus, i. 8; Diodorus, iv. 34; Pausanias, x. 31, 4; Aeschylus, Choeph. 604 sqq. [811.] Apollodorus, iii. 15, 8; Aeschylus, Choeph. 612 sqq.; Pausanias, i. 19, 4. According to Tzetzes (Schol. on Lycophron, 650) not the life but the strength of Nisus was in his golden hair; when it was pulled out, he became weak and was slain by Minos. According to Hyginus (Fab. 198) Nisus was destined to reign only so long as he kept the purple lock on his head. [812.] Apollodorus, ii. 4, §§ 5, 7. [813.] Hahn, Griechische und Albanesische Märchen, i. p. 217; a similar story, id. ii. p. 282. [814.] Hahn, op. cit. ii. p. 215 sq. [815.] Id. ii. p. 275 sq. Similar stories, id. ii. pp. 204, 294 sq. In an Albanian story a monster's strength is in three pigeons, which are in a hare, which is in the silver tusk of a wild boar. When the boar is killed, the monster feels ill; when the hare is cut open, he can hardly stand on his feet; when the three pigeons are killed, he expires. Dozon, Contes albanais, p. 132 sq. [816.] Hahn, op. cit. ii. p. 260 sqq. [817.] Id. i. p. 187. [818.] Id. ii. p. 23 sq. [819.] Legrand, Contes populaires grecs, p. 191 sqq. [820.] Plutarch, Parallela, 26. In both the Greek and Italian stories the subject of quarrel between nephew and uncles is the skin of a boar, which the nephew presented to his lady-love and which his uncles took from her. [821.] Basile, Pentamerone, ii. p. 60 sq. (Liebrecht's German trans.) [822.] R. H. Busk, Folk-lore of Rome, p. 164 sqq. [823.] Ralston, Russian Folk-tales, p. 103 sq.; so Dietrich, Russian Popular Tales, p. 23 sq. [824.] Ralston, op. cit. p. 109. [825.] Ib. [826.] Ralston, Russian Folk-tales, p. 113 sq. [827.] Id., p. 114. [828.] Id., p. 110. [829.] Mijatovics, Serbian Folk-lore, edited by the Rev. W. Denton, p. 172; F. S. Krauss, Sagen und Märchen der Südslaven, i. (No. 34) p. 168 sq. [830.] A. H. Wraitslaw, Sixty Folk-Tales from exclusively Slavonic sources (London, 1889), p. 225. [831.] Haltrich, Deutsche Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in Siebenbürgen,4 No. 34 (No. 33 of the first ed.), p. 149 sq. [832.] J. W. Wolf, Deutsche Marchen und Sagen, No. 20, p. 87 sqq. [833.] Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg, ii. p. 306 sq. [834.] K. Müllenhoff, Sagen, Märchen und Lieder der Herzogthümer Schleswig-Holstein und Lauenburg, p. 404 sqq. [835.] Asbjörnsen og Moe, Norske Folke-Eventyr, No. 36; Dasent, Popular Tales from the Norse, p. 55 sqq. [836.] Asbjörnsen og Moe, Norske Folke-Eventyr, Ny Samling, No. 70; Dasent, Tales from the Fjeld, p. 229 (“Boots and the Beasts.”) [837.] Mannhardt, Germanische Mythen, p. 592; Jamieson, Dictionary of the Scottish Language, s.v. “Yule.” [838.] J. F. Campbell, Popular Tales of the West Highlands, i. p. 10 sq. [839.] J. F. Campbell, Popular Tales of the West Highlands, i. p. 80 sqq. [840.] Sébillot, Contes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne (Paris, 1885), p. 63 sqq. [841.] F. M. Luzel, Contes populaires de Basse-Bretagne (Paris, 1887), i. 445-449. [842.] Maspero, Contes populaires de l'Égypte ancienne (Paris, 1882), p. 5 sqq. [843.] Lane's Arabian Nights, iii. 316 sq. [844.] G. Spitta-Bey, Contes arabes modernes (Leyden and Paris, 1883), No. 2, p. 12 sqq. The story in its main outlines is identical with the Cashmeer story of “The Ogress Queen” (J. H. Knowles, Folk-tales of Kashmir, p. 42 sqq.) and the Bengalee story of “The Boy whom Seven Mothers Suckled” (Lal Behari Day, Folk-tales of Bengal, p. 117 sqq.; Indian Antiquary, i. 170 sqq.) In another Arabian story the life of a witch is bound up with a phial: when it is broken, she dies. W. A. Clouston, A Group of Eastern Romances and Stories, p. 30. A similar incident occurs in a Cashmeer story. Knowles, op. cit. p. 73. In the Arabian story mentioned in the text, the hero, by a genuine touch of local colour, is made to drink the milk of an ogress's breasts and hence is regarded by her as her son. Cp. W. Robertson Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, p. 149; and for the same mode of creating kinship among other races, see D'Abbadie, Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie, p. 272 sq.; Tausch, “Notices of the Circassians,” Journ. Royal Asiatic Soc. i. (1834) p. 104; Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, pp. 77, 83 (cp. Leitner, Languages and Races of Dardistan, p. 34); Denzil Ibbetson, Settlement Report of the Panipat, Tahsil, and Karnal Parganah of the Karnal District, p. 101; Moura, Royaume du Cambodge, i. 427; F. S. Krauss, Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven, p. 14. [845.] Rivière, Contes populaires de la Kabylie du Djurdjura, p. 191. [846.] W. H. Jones and L. L. Kropf, The Folk-tales of the Magyar (London, 1889), p. 205 sq. [847.] R. H. Busk, The Folk-lore of Rome, p. 168. [848.] Castren, Ethnologische Vorlesungen über die Altaischen Völker, p. 173 sqq. [849.] Schiefner, Heldensagen der Minussinschen Tataren, pp. 172-176. [850.] Schiefner, op. cit. pp. 108-112. [851.] Schiefner, op. cit. pp. 360-364; Castren, Vorlesungen über die finnische Mythologie, p. 186 sq. [852.] Schiefner, op. cit. pp. 189-193. In another Tartar poem (Schiefner, op. cit. p. 390 sq.) a boy's soul is shut up by his enemies in a box. While the soul is in the box, the boy is dead; when it is taken out, he is restored to life. In the same poem (p. 384) the soul of a horse is kept shut up in a box, because it is feared the owner of the horse will become the greatest hero on earth. But these cases are, to some extent, the converse of those in the text. [853.] Schott, “Ueber die Sage von Geser Chan,” Abhandlungen d. Königl. Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1851, p. 269. [854.] W. Radloff, Proben der Volkslitteratur der türkischen Stämme Süd-Siberiens, ii. 237 sq. [855.] W. Radloff, op. cit. ii. 531 sqq. [856.] Id., iv. 88 sq. [857.] W. Radloff, op. cit. i. 345 sq. [858.] G. A. Wilken, “De Simsonsage,” De Gids, 1888, No. 5, p. 6 sqq. (of the separate reprint). Cp. Backer, L'Archipel Indien, pp. 144-149. [859.] Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het eiland Nias,” Verhandel. van het Batav. Genootsch. v. Kunsten en Wetenschappen, xxx. p. 111; Sundermann, “Die Insel Nias,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xi. (1884) p. 453. [860.] Above, vol. i. p. 134. [861.] B. F. Matthes, Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes, p. 54. [862.] F. Valentyn, Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indiën, ii. 143 sq.; G. A. Wilken, De Simsonsage, p. 15 sq. [863.] Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, p. 137. [864.] B. Schmidt, Das Volksleben der Neugriechen, p. 206. [865.] Above, pp. [305], [307], [309], [311]. [866.] Revue d'Ethnographie, ii. 223. [867.] Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste, i. 165. [868.] Bastian, Ein Besuch in San Salvador, p. 103 sq.; id., Der Mensch in der Geschichte, iii. 193. [869.] R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui; or, New Zealand and its Inhabitants,2 p. 184; Dumont D'Urville, Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La Pérouse sur la corvette Astrolabe, ii. 444. [870.] Matthes, Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes, p. 59. [871.] Van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, N. S. ix. (1880) p. 417 sq. [872.] G. A. Wilken, De Simsonsage, p. 26. [873.] Gubernatis, Mythologie des Plantes, i. xxviii. sq. [874.] W. Mannhardt, B. K. p. 50; Ploss, Das Kind,2 i. 79. [875.] K. Bartsch, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg, ii. 43, No. 63. [876.] Gentleman's Magazine, October 1804, p. 909, quoted by Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 289; W. G. Black, Folk-medicine, pp. 31 sq., 67. [877.] Moore's Life of Lord Byron, i. 101. [878.] Cedrenus, Compend. Histor. p. 625 b, vol. ii. p. 308, ed. Bekker. [879.] F. Mason, “Physical Character of the Karens,” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1866, pt. ii. p. 9. [880.] Matthes, Makassarsch-Hollandsch Woordenboek, s.v. soemâñgá, p. 569; G. A. Wilken, “Het animísme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” De Indische Gids, June 1884, p. 933. [881.] R. H. Codrington, “Notes on the Customs of Mota, Banks Islands” (communicated by the Rev. Lorimer Fison), Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria, xvi. 136. [882.] F. Speckmann, Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika (Hermannsburg, 1876), p. 167. [883.] Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific Coast, i. 661. The words quoted by Bancroft (p. 662, note) “Consérvase entre ellos la creencia de que su vida está unida à la de un animal, y que es forzoso que mueran ellos cuando éste muere,” are not quite accurately represented by the statement of Bancroft in the text. [884.] Otto Stoll, Die Ethnologie der Indianerstämme von Guatemala (Leyden, 1889), p. 57 sq.; Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, i. 740 sq.; Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika, ii. 282. [885.] A. W. Howitt, “Further Notes on the Australian Class Systems,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xviii. 58. [886.] Gerard Krefft, “Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Lower Murray and Darling,” Transact. Philos. Soc. New South Wales, 1862-65, p. 359 sq. [887.] A. W. Howitt, l.c. [888.] Dawson, Australian Aborigines, p. 52. [889.] Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xiv. 350, xv. 416, xviii. 57 (the “nightjar” is apparently an owl). [890.] Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, pp. 194, 201 sq., 215; Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xv. 416, xviii. 56 sq. [891.] The chief facts of totemism have been collected by the present writer in a little work, Totemism (Edinburgh, A. and C. Black, 1887). [892.] (Sir) George Grey, Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and Western Australia, ii. 228 sq. [893.] Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, p. 169. [894.] De la Borde, “Relation de l'Origine, etc. des Caraibes,” p. 15, in Recueil de divers Voyages faits en Afrique et en l'Amérique (Paris, 1684). [895.] Washington Matthews, The Hidatsa Indians, p. 50. [896.] Bastian, Die Volker des ostlichen Asien, iii. 248. [897.] I. B. Neumann, “Het Pane-en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra,” Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijks, Genootsch., Tweede Serie, dl. iii. Afdeeling: meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, p. 311 sq.; id., dl. iv. No. 1, p. 8 sq.; Van Hoëvell, “Iets over 't oorlogvoeren der Batta's,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indie, N. S. vii. (1878) p. 434; G. A. Wilken, Over de verwantschap en het huwelijks-en erfrecht bij de volken van het maleische ras, pp. 20 sq., 36; id., Iets over de Papoewas van de Geelvunksbaai, p. 27 sq. (reprint from Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned.-Indië, 5e Volgreeks ii.); Journal Anthrop. Inst. ix. 295; Backer, L'Archipel Indien, p. 470. [898.] B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde xxviii. 514. J. B. Neumann (op. cit. dl. iii. No. 2, p. 299) is the authority for the seven souls. [899.] Th. Benfey, Pantschatantra, i. 128 sq. [900.] A. L. P. Cameron, “Notes on some Tribes of New South Wales,” Journ. Anthrop. Instit. xiv. 358. [901.] A. W. Howitt, “On Australian Medicine Men,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xvi. 47 sq. On the Bullroarer (a piece of wood fastened to a cord or thong and swung round so as to produce a booming sound), see A. Lang, Custom and Myth, p. 29 sqq. The religious use of the Bullroarer is best known in Australia, but in the essay just referred to Mr. Andrew Lang has shown that the instrument has been similarly employed not only in South Africa and by the Zunis of New Mexico, but also by the ancient Greeks in their religious mysteries. As a sacred instrument it also occurs in Western Africa (R. F. Burton, Abeokuta and the Cameroons Mountains, i. 197 sq.; Bouche, La Côte des Esclaves, p. 124), and in New Guinea (J. Chalmers, Pioneering in New Guinea, p. 85). [902.] A. W. Howitt, “On some Australian ceremonies of initiation,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xiii. 453 sq. The “class-name” is the name of the totemic division to which the man belongs. [903.] L. Fison, “The Nanga, or sacred stone enclosure of Wainimala, Fiji,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xiv. 22. [904.] W. H. Bentley, Life on the Congo (London, 1887), p. 78 sq. [905.] A. Bastian, Ein Besuch in San Salvador, pp. 82 sq. 86. [906.] Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste, ii. 183; cp. id., pp. 15-18, 30 sq. On these initiatory rites in the Congo region see also H. H. Johnston in Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc. N. S. v. (1883) p. 572 sq., and in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xiii. 472; E. Delmar Morgan, in Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc. N. S. vi. 193. [907.] Dapper, Description de l'Afrique, p. 268 sq. Dapper's account has been abbreviated in the text. [908.] (Beverley's) History of Virginia (London, 1722), p. 177 sq. [909.] J. Carver, Travels through the Interior Parts of North America, pp. 271-275. [910.] Carver, op. cit. p. 277 sq.; Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, iii. 287, v. 430 sqq.; Kohl, Kitschi-Gami, i. 64-70. [911.] Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt (Middletown, 1820), p. 119. [912.] Id., p. 44. For the age of the prince, see id., p. 35. [913.] Holmberg, “Ueber die Völker des russischen Amerika,” Acta Soc. Scient. Fennicae, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) pp. 292 sqq., 328; Petroff, Report on the Population, etc. of Alaska, p. 165 sq.; A. Krause, Die Tlinkit-Indianer, p. 112; R. C. Mayne, Four years in British Columbia and Vancouver Island, p. 257 sq., 268. [914.] Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, v. 683. In a letter dated 16th Dec. 1887, Mr. A. S. Gatschet, of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, writes to me: “Among the Toukawe whom in 1884 I found at Fort Griffin [?], Texas, I noticed that they never kill the big or gray wolf, hatchukunän, which has a mythological signification, ‘holding the earth’ (hatch). He forms one of their totem clans, and they have had a dance in his honor, danced by the males only, who carried sticks.” [915.] Reina, “Ueber die Bewohner der Insel Rook,” Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde, N. F. iv. (1858) p. 356 sq. [916.] R. Parkinson, Im Bismarck Archipel, pp. 129-134; Rev. G. Brown, “Notes on the Duke of York Group, New Britain, and New Ireland,” Journ. Royal Geogr. Soc. xlvii. (1878) p. 148 sq.; H. H. Romilly, “The Islands of the New Britain Group,” Proceed. Royal Geogr. Soc. N. S. ix. (1887) p. 11 sq.; Rev. G. Brown, ib. p. 17; W. Powell, Wanderings in a Wild Country, pp. 60-66; C. Hager, Kaiser Wilhelm's Land und der Bismarck Archipel, pp. 115-128. The inhabitants of these islands are divided into two exogamous classes, which in the Duke of York Island have two insects for their totems. One of the insects is the mantis religiosus; the other is an insect that mimicks the leaf of the horse-chestnut tree very closely. Rev. B. Danks, “Marriage customs of the New Britain Group,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xviii. 281 sq. [917.] J. G. F. Riedel, “Galela und Tobeloresen,” Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie, xvii. (1885) p. 81 sq. [918.] The Kakian association and its initiatory ceremonies have often been described. See Valentyn, Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën, iii. 3 sq.; Von Schmid, “Het Kakihansch Verbond op het eiland Ceram,” Tijdschrift v. Neêrlands Indië, v. dl. ii. (1843) 25-38; Van Ekris, “HetCeramsche Kakianverbond,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederland. Zendelinggenootschap, (1865) ix. 205-226 (repeated with slight changes in Tijdschrift v. Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xvi. 1866, pp. 290-315); F. Fournier, “De Zuidkust van Ceram,” Tijdschrift v. Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xvi. 154 sqq.; Van Rees, Die Pionniers der Beschaving in Neêrlands Indië, pp. 92-106; Van Hoëvell, Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de Oeliasers, p. 153 sqq.; Schulze, “Ueber Ceram und seine Bewohner,” Verhandl. d. Berliner Gesell. f. Anthropologie, etc. (1877) p. 117; W. Joest, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Eingebornen der Insel Formosa und Ceram,” id. (1882), p. 64; Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel, p. 318; Bastian, Indonesien, i. 145-148; Riedel, De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua, pp. 107-111. The best accounts are those of Valentyn, Von Schmid, Van Ekris, Van Rees, and Riedel, which are accordingly followed in the text. [919.] Laws of Manu, ii. 169, trans. by Bühler; Dubois, Moeurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de l'Inde, i. 125; Monier Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, pp. 360 sq. 366 sq. [920.] Lampridius, Commodus, 9; C. W. King, The Gnostics and their Remains,2 pp. 127, 129. [921.] Above, p. [309]. [922.] Above, p. [312] sq. [923.] Above, p. [308] sq. [924.] Above, p. [324] sq. In the myth the throwing of the weapons and of the mistletoe at Balder and the blindness of Hödur who slew him remind us of the custom of the Irish reapers who kill the corn-spirit in the last sheaf by throwing their sickles blindfold at it. (See above, vol. i. p. 339). In Mecklenburg a cock is sometimes buried in the ground and a man who is blindfolded strikes at it with a flail. If he misses it, another tries, and so on till the cock is killed. Bartsch, Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg, ii. 280. In England on Shrove Tuesday a hen used to be tied upon a man's back, and other men blindfolded struck at it with branches till they killed it. Dyer, British Popular Customs, p. 68. Mannhardt (Die Korndämonen, p. 16 sq.) has made it probable that such sports are directly derived from the custom of killing a cock upon the harvest-field as a representative of the corn-spirit (see above, p. [9]). These customs, therefore, combined with the blindness of Hödur in the myth suggest that the man who killed the human representative of the oak-spirit was blindfolded, and threw his weapon or the mistletoe from a little distance. After the Lapps had killed a bear—which was the occasion of many superstitious ceremonies—the bear's skin was hung on a post, and the women, blindfolded, shot arrows at it. Scheffer, Lapponia, p. 240. [925.] Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 1001, 1010. [926.] Folk-lore Journal, vii. 61. [927.] Col. E. T. Dalton, “The Kols of Chota-Nagpore,” Trans. Ethnol. Soc. vi. 36. [928.] Jens Kamp, Danske Folkeminder (Odense, 1877), pp. 172, 65 sq. referred to in Feilberg's Bidrag til en Ordbog over Jyske Almuesmål, Fjerde hefte (Copenhagen, 1888), p. 320. For a sight of Feilberg's work I am indebted to the kindness of the Rev. Walter Gregor, M.A., Pitsligo, who pointed out the passage to me. [929.] E. T. Kristensen, Iydske Folkeminder, vi. 380, referred to by Feilberg, l.c. [930.] Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube,2 § 128; L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, p. 269. [931.] Extract from a newspaper, copied and sent to me by the Rev. Walter Gregor, M.A., Pitsligo. Mr. Gregor does not mention the name of the newspaper. [932.] Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, iii. 661 [933.] Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch, i. 9. [934.] Virgil, Aen. vi. 203 sqq., cp. 136 sqq. On the mistletoe (viscum) see Pliny, Nat. Hist. xvi. 245 sqq. [935.] Virgil (Aen. vi. 201 sqq.) places the Golden Bough in the neighbourhood of Lake Avernus. But this was probably a poetical liberty, adopted for the convenience of Aeneas's descent to the infernal world. Italian tradition, as we learn from Servius, placed the Golden Bough in the grove at Nemi. [936.] See above, vol. i. p. 4 sq. [937.] A custom of annually burning a human representative of the corn-spirit has been noted among the Egyptians, Pawnees, and Khonds. See above, vol. i. pp. 382, 387, 401 sq. In Semitic lands there are traces of a practice of annually burning a human god. For the image of Hercules (that is, of Baal) which was periodically burned on a pyre at Tarsus, must have been a substitute for a human representative of the god. See Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 33, vol. ii. p. 16, ed. Dindorf; W. R. Smith, The Religion of the Semites, i. 353 sq. The Druids seem to have eaten portions of the human victim. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxx. § 13. Perhaps portions of the flesh of the King of the Wood were eaten by his worshippers as a sacrament. We have seen traces of the use of sacramental bread at Nemi. See above, p. [82] sq. [938.] Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, ii. 1009, pren puraur. [939.] Virgil, Aen. vi. 137 sq. [940.] Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren, § 673. [941.] Grohmann, op. cit. § 676; Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube, § 123. [942.] Zingerle, Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes,2 § 882. [943.] Zingerle, op. cit. § 1573. [944.] Grohmann, op. cit. § 675; Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 98. [945.] L. Bechstein, Deutsches Sagenbuch No. 500; id., Thüringer Sagenbuch (Leipzig, 1885), ii. No. 161. [946.] For gathering it at midsummer, see above, p. [289]. The custom of gathering it at Christmas still survives among ourselves. At York “on the eve of Christmas Day they carry mistletoe to the high altar of the cathedral, and proclaim a public and universal liberty, pardon, and freedom to all sorts of inferior and even wicked people at the gates of the city, towards the four quarters of heaven.” Stukeley, Medallic History of Carausius, quoted by Brand, Popular Antiquities, i. 525. This last custom is of course now obsolete. [947.] Afzelius, Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und neuerer Zeit, i. 41 sq.; Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 iii. 289; L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden, p. 266 sq. [948.] Above, p. [293]. [949.] Fern-seed is supposed to bloom at Easter as well as at midsummer and Christmas (Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, p. 98 sq.); and Easter, as we have seen, is one of the times when sun-fires are kindled. [950.] Burne and Jackson, Shropshire Folk-lore, p. 242. [951.] P. [288]. [952.]

The reason why Virgil represents Aeneas as taking the mistletoe with him to Hades is perhaps that the mistletoe was supposed to repel evil spirits (see above, p. [362]). Hence when Charon is disposed to bluster at Aeneas, the sight of the Golden Bough quiets him (Aen. vi. 406 sq.) Perhaps also the power ascribed to the mistletoe of laying bare the secrets of the earth may have suggested its use as a kind of “open Sesame” to the lower world. Compare Aen. vi. 140 sq.—

“Sed non ante datur telluris operta subire,
Auricomos quam qui decerpserit arbore fetus.”

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