THE MYSTIC HIGHLANDS OF ASIA
The statement that "one half the world does not know how the other half lives, nor how it is influenced," applies with double force to the peoples living on the high plateau of Tibet beyond the titanic Himalayas. Here is a vast region only one-twentieth of which is covered with vegetation. Chains of mountains with snow-capped peaks encircle it, and spurs from the main ranges, together with lesser ridges and isolated elevations, diversify its surface.
Amidst these desolate wastes are fertile valleys which are capable of producing excellent crops; in many other sections good crops are produced by very primitive methods of irrigation. As a whole the plateau may be classed among the infertile regions of the earth.
On account of its great elevation, Tibet is often called the roof of the world. Starting from its borders several large rivers break through its rocky ramparts, among them the Indus, Brahmaputra, Irawadi, and Hoang. Some of the plains of the great plateau range from fifteen to eighteen thousand feet above sea level. Scattered over these are single lakes and chains of lakes, many of which are salt. These vast areas, storm-swept in winter and baked by heat in summer, are frequented by bandits and nomads. They live in tents made of the almost black hair of the yak, and move from place to place with their flocks and herds to seek food for their animals. The stable population resides chiefly in the few cities and villages.
For nearly a thousand years a veil of religious mystery has shrouded this section of the world; and the sacred city of Lasa with its holy places has been doubly guarded against the visits of foreigners.
This mysterious land has been able to maintain its position of isolated seclusion because of the high mountain barriers that are massed in a series of gigantic walls on all sides. It is approachable only through narrow passes that are constantly guarded.
Our knowledge of the "forbidden land," as it is called, has been obtained chiefly from adventurers who have travelled through it in disguise, and from a few others who took more desperate chances by forcing their way in. Among these may be mentioned Bower, Thorald, the Littledales, Rockhill, Captain Deasy, Sven Hedin, and Walter Savage Landor. Landor was taken prisoner by the Tibetans and suffered at their hands horrible tortures, from the effects of which he will never recover.
Dunkar Spiti, Himalaya Mountains, India
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Because the Tibetans for many years had insulted the government of India and had seized territory claimed by it, English troops under Colonel Younghusband were sent against the invaders in 1903, and after several severe battles reached the forbidden city of Lasa, where a forced treaty was negotiated and signed. But on the withdrawal of the English troops the policy of exclusion was immediately resumed. Russia to-day has much greater influence in Tibet than has England.
The present condition of Tibet resembles in many respects that of Europe during the Middle Ages. The country is under the suzerainty of China, which has a representative called an amaban and several thousand troops at Lasa to maintain its claim.
Though an extremely trying climate prevails on these highlands, the hermit-like, priest-ridden people know no better home and are contented with their lot. Of its three and one-half million inhabitants, one in seven belongs to the priestly class called lamas.
At the head of this priesthood, as well as at the head of the state, are two leaders, the chief one, the Dalai Lama, or "ocean of learning," and the other the Bogodo Lama, or "precious teacher." With their subordinates, these two are supposed to have power not only over life and death, but over the reincarnation of the soul and entrance to the regions beyond rebirth.
This isolated table-land is the seat of a former Buddhism better known by the name of Lamaism. A deep but crude religious feeling tainted with the grossest superstitions pervades the whole people, whose ignorance of other learning is appalling.
When a person dies a lama must be present to see that the soul is properly separated from the body and to direct the spirit on its journey to paradise; the lama must also influence its rebirth in a happy existence and provide for its entrance upon Nirvana, or eternal rest.
Many a mountain contains hollowed-out cells in which hermit monks spend their lives in silent meditation. On an island in one of the lakes, where they can be reached only when the lake freezes, reside twenty monks. In the midst of this wild and majestic scenery each rock and stream has its deity and saint, together with its appropriate legend.
Although the Buddhist monks do not believe in God as a creator, their religion demands audible and written prayers; indeed, prayer-wheels are frequently used to facilitate the repetition of prayers. Prayers numbering hundreds and even thousands are carefully written and placed, rolled up, in drum-wheels, which are revolved by wind, water, or hand power. Each revolution of a wheel is supposed to say all the prayers enclosed in it.
Many prayer-wheels, each with appropriate prayers, are mounted on axles and placed convenient to frequented paths so that they may be whirled around by those who pass by. Others provided with suitable fans are placed where they may be revolved by the wind. Sometimes water power is made to turn the wheels, but most of them are made of a size convenient to be carried about and operated by hand.
The capital of Tibet and seat of the Dalai Lama is Lasa, situated in a plain nearly twelve thousand feet above sea level. The city is surrounded by a marsh and is reached by a causeway raised above the morass. It has wide and regular streets, the principal buildings being made of stone, but the majority of the structures are adobe and sun-dried brick.
This interesting city contains forty-five thousand inhabitants, two-thirds of whom are monks. Streams formed by the melting snow course down the surrounding mountains, flooding the plain. At a distance the city presents an imposing appearance with the adjacent Potala as the crowning glory.
In the centre of the city stands a cathedral, called the Jo-Kang, which contains one of the most renowned statues of Buddha. This image, of life size, is an object of the greatest reverence and adoration. It is made of a composition of metals, gold and silver predominating. Priests are always in attendance and lamps are constantly burning before it. The roof of the temple is gilded and the interior is richly furnished.
Situated in the suburbs, on a rocky elevation above the plain which overlooks the city, is a wonderful group of buildings forming the Potala, or palace of the Dalai Lama. This huge, conglomerate structure of granite rising story above story to an immense height fascinates the beholder, who marvels at the skill and patience of the builders.
As though to heighten its beauty, the Potala is separated from the city by a park of grass and trees about a mile wide, making the stately edifice look like a huge diamond encircled with emeralds. Nothing but a blind religious zeal could have brought to completion such a series of connected edifices with their miles of halls, courts, corridors, and labyrinthine passageways.
Scattered throughout Tibet are upward of three thousand monasteries, or lamaseries. Some of them are built in remote and inaccessible places and contain as many as seven thousand monks. Each lamasery has set apart for its use the best land in that vicinity, the cultivation of which is done by the common people, who are little better than serfs, or peons.
It is a notable fact that in this strange land there are many more men than women, although the reverse would be expected. The support of the hordes of lazy monks is a great incubus and retards the development of the country.
The yak not only serves as a beast of burden, but furnishes milk, butter, and meat
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The use of water for cleansing purposes seems to be no part of the religion of the people; they never bathe their bodies and seldom wash the face and hands. To protect themselves from the biting cold they smear their faces with rancid butter, which, catching the smoke and dust, adds to the effectiveness as well as the strength of the odor. Their homes and places of worship reek with dirt and filth; small-pox, ailments of the eyes, and other contagious diseases are prevalent. Harelip, in a great measure due to lack of proper nutrition, is a very common ailment.
In leather and inlaid work the Tibetans show great skill, much of the decorative work on the handles of their swords and daggers being very artistic. The common people live in constant terror of evil spirits in this world and of terrible punishments in the hereafter; the educated classes believe they can drive off or propitiate all evil influences in this world, but fear they may be changed in a future rebirth to some vile form of being. In general, the people are treacherous and cowardly. For weapons of defence they use matchlocks; in firing them, the weapon is held directly in front of the nose.
Of domestic animals the yak is one of the most useful, since it not only serves as a beast of burden but furnishes rich milk, butter, and meat. The long hair of the animal is used for making ropes, tents, and cloth.
The yak resembles the ox in body, head, and legs; but it is covered with long, silky hair which hangs like the fleece of an Angora goat. The long, flowing hair of the tail reaches nearly to the ground. Thousands of these tails find their way to India where they are used for various household purposes.
Wild yaks are found in considerable numbers near the limits of perpetual snow, but at the approach of winter they descend to the wooded valleys just below the snow line. During the summer they pasture on the higher elevations. In their wild state yaks are fierce and dangerous. Being accustomed to high elevations, they fall sick and die when removed to the lowlands.
Milk is obtained not only from the yaks but from the sheep and goats. The sheep, being of large size, are frequently used to bear small loads. Many horses are raised, but they are used chiefly for riding.
Tibet is rich in gold, and for thousands of years the precious metal has been washed out of its surface by the crudest of methods. In fact, gold is washed from every river which has its sources in the Tibetan plateau. Most of it in time finds its way to China. Silver, copper, iron, lead, and mercury abound in the southeastern part and considerable quantities are mined.
Traffic is carried on by means of caravans, the most common pack animal being the yak. Almost all the commerce is controlled by Chinese merchants, and the chief article of trade is tea, which is received in exchange for wool, hides, musk, amber, and gold. The tea is an inferior kind known as "brick tea," being composed of the refuse, stems, and leaves of the plants cemented with rice water and pressed into hard bricks. This kind of tea is preferred by the Tibetans, who brew it with butter and other ingredients and consume the entire concoction. The tea trade amounts to several million pounds annually.