FOOTNOTES:

[28] Lefthand column includes normal and desirable characteristics; righthand column includes abnormal or undesirable.

[29] Measured as length, child lying down, during first year.

[30] Snellen cards may be used for testing vision.

[31] Parents, brothers, sisters.

[32] During year before child’s birth.

CHAPTER XII
A CURRICULUM FOR BABYHOOD AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

“Knowledge has little or no intrinsic value in and of itself. Like light, knowledge is good not to see but to see by.... Ignorance is doubtless better than knowledge that does not make us better.”

—G. Stanley Hall.

“Where children are fed only on book knowledge, one fact is as good as any other.”

—John Dewey.

“If we seek the kingdom of heaven, educationally, all other things shall be added unto us—which, being interpreted, is that if we identify ourselves with the real instincts and needs of childhood, and ask only after its fullest assertion and growth, the discipline and information and culture of adult life shall all come in their due season.”

—Ibid.

The curriculum is to center, not about “subjects” in which the adult is interested but in

1. The child: (a) The phases of his life; (b) his age and stage of development; (c) therefore the vital interests characteristic of that stage; (d) his individual interests.

It will be modified in some degree by

2. The environment and what it provides of opportunity for physical activity, exploration, social relations, and for direction of interest.

The apotheosis of unnatural environment for the child is an expensive “high class” city apartment, no other children, one or more domestic servants, absentee parents who are interested and intelligent in everything but child care and training.

For the child under six years, and possibly under ten, the most educative environment, in every sense, is in the country with hills, valleys, woods, water, plants and trees, wild and domestic animals, other young children, the freedom of the kitchen, the necessity for personal physical care, and elders who enter sympathetically into his life, not obtrusively but intelligently, ready to give assistance when it is needed. With good library facilities, wholesome neighborhood recreations, and occasional trips to a city for its opportunities of art galleries, great music, wholesome plays, industrial activities, the simple home life and rural surroundings, even with mediocre teaching in a rural school, provide through early adolescence the environment most favorable for developing richness of life, greatness of personality, social efficiency.

As part of the environment which his guardians select are (a) his clothes, which have an influence both upon bodily health and on personality; (b) his furniture, which should be adapted to his size; (c) his toys and playthings, which are both a stimulus and a means for expression of his interest; (d) his pictures, books, and music, which are influencing his æsthetic taste, his emotions and his moral life; (e) his associates, both children and adults, who furnish the examples that he imitates constantly in speech, manners, actions, and whose personality subtly—and often unconsciously is molding his personality.

The scope of education is as comprehensive as life itself. The following aspects must therefore be developed in the complete education of the child:

1. Disciplinary: developing in the child his power to use efficiently his mental possibilities,—concentration, observation, memory, imagination, invention, judgment, his motor powers, his emotions, his will

2. Physical: training in habits and ideals of health, in skill and grace of motor coördinations

3. Cultural: bringing the child to a living interest in great literature, art, biography, history, and an appreciation and enjoyment of their values

4. Scientific: leading him to a knowledge and appreciation of the principles that control the world of nature and of mind

5. Social: training him to live harmoniously and serviceably with his fellows

6. Economic: fitting him to make his living by service rendered, of marketable value

7. Moral and religious: developing character,—the ideals and the realization of noble living,—which has its roots deep in the feelings and the soul, and depends upon these far more than upon mere thought, knowledge, and reasoning.

Intellectual and Play Interests

Birth to Six Months

Grasping
Mouthing
Staring
Watching bright objects, moving objects
Listening to sounds
Crumpling paper
Kicking
Rhythm
Crowing

Six Months to One Year

Handling
Mouthing
Looking at
Pulling
Shaking
Pounding
Producing noise
Creeping
Exploring environment
Hearing sounds, music, singing
Babbling
Imitating vocal sounds: vowels, consonants, singing
Animals, flowers, vivid colors
Ball, mirror
Rhythm

One to Two Years

Sensory experiences, motor coördination
Speech
Handling
Experimenting with touch
Tracing with finger
Walking
Exploring environment
Pouring
Filling and emptying
Building and knocking down
Hammering
Pounding, thumping
Throwing
Digging
Producing noise
Rhythm
Animals, flowers, chickens, bird in cage
Putting in and taking out

Curriculum

Sensory experience: Provide variety of shapes and sizes for handling; primary colors in objects both different and same shape; sounds, and objects for making sounds.

Singing of little tunes, chanting of music or poetry, by attendant while she works about near by, and while dressing, bathing, but not while feeding.

Motor experience: Freedom to move,—kick, roll, creep, climb, during waking hours; not tied in chair or carriage while awake, except for quarter-hour periods

Objects for grasping, pulling, pushing, during first year

Permit to assist in use of cup and spoon after nine months.

Provide door, drawer, lock and large key, wooden mallet, volley ball, for hand and arm exercise.

Provide low, short stair, ladder, swing, swinging rope, for second year.

Concentration: Do not interrupt staring, examination of objects, intensive activity.

Encourage continued looking, handling, listening, experimenting.

Memory training: Strict regularity of routine in feeding, giving of water, dressing, sleep

Motor, by gymnastic exercises performed each time in same order

Few pictures, songs, finger plays, given repeated short attention

Imitation: Pat-a-cake, waving good-by, other simple arm or hand movements

Consonant and vowel sounds

Cheerful, well-poised disposition

Reasoning: Reasons by association of circumstances, sequence of circumstances

Provide uniformity and consistency of sequences in handling and in daily care.

Language: Provide much spoken language, chanting and singing, after six months; repetition of sounds for baby’s direct imitation. Cultivate clear, distinct, correct enunciation.

After twelve months, teach gradually names of most common objects, members of family, most common verbs, adjectives. (A diary record of sounds, words, phrases, and sentences is both interesting and of assistance in teaching and noting progress during first four years.)

Æsthetic sense: Quiet colors, simple furniture and decorations in nursery

Variety of forms and toys, harmonious gay colors, attractive forms, features

Vivid standard spectrum colors in toys, pictures

Some large colored pictures in nursery; artistic; distinct; babies, cats, dogs; primitive Indian drawings

Exclusion of ugly, vulgar, rude pictures, cartoons, toys, and music

Well-modulated voices in attendants

Rhythmic quiet singing or chanting, and rhythmic gymnastic exercises daily

Soft, simple rhythmic instrumental music once a day when possible

Wide range of noise-producing toys, not harsh or rasping. Some toys producing mellow, musical sounds

Emotions: Reduce fretting or crying from discomfort by keeping comfortable, with strict regularity, and attention to hygiene. Anticipate waking and have attendant at hand to reassure as well as to make comfortable. Attendants should be well poised, cheerful, patient, sympathetic.

Prevent fear by avoiding sudden noises, clapping, shouting, excited action, loud talking in nursery, or any attempts to frighten.

Overcome anger and teasing by refusing to grant objects cried or teased for; avoid teasing the child, or other artificial situations that produce anger.

Moral training: Good humor. Remove defects, e.g., adenoids, phimosis, which produce local irritation, nervousness, irritable temper, fretfulness, and bad habits; prevent fatigue, overstimulation, overexcitement. Keep busy by ample simple play material, environment for exploration. Avoid unnecessary prohibitions, or unnatural conditions necessitating prohibitions.

Sense of law: Develop through strict regularity of daily regimen in feeding, eliminations, sleep; consistency in care and discipline.

Cleanliness: Cultivate sense of cleanliness by daily baths; beginning in second year, by always washing hands before and after meals and after toilet.

Obedience

Intellectual and Play Interests. 2 to 6 years.

Sensory and motor stage: Range of active sensory experiences,—tasting, touching, hearing, seeing

Interest in color, sound, tasting, strongest at 4 to 6 years

Constant sensory experimentation and exploration

Experimental science; taking apart; finding source of motion or noise

Nature interest; animals, birds, insects, flowers; watching actions, noting striking characteristics of appearance

Interest in experimenting with material (2 to 4 years); in making for use (4 to 6 years)

All work crude; materials large, coarse, utilizing fundamental muscles; periods short, to avoid strain of eyes or nerves

Handcrafts:

(a) Building, digging, sand play (from one year)

(b) Carpentry, drawing, painting, modeling (from two years)

(c) Cutting, pasting, heavy paper construction (from 4 years)

(d) Coarse weaving, cardboard construction (from 5 years)

Language: Articulation; increasing vocabulary; sentence construction

Comparison of words (sounds and meanings)

Beginnings of simple original story-telling

Fairy tales, myths, fables, animal stories, anecdotes of children; Mother Goose, selected poetry

Measuring, counting (after 4 years, if interested)

Rhythm: Marching, skipping, simple folk dancing, clapping

Music: Hearing and improvising instrumental and songs; much spontaneous singing

Motor coördinations: Walking on straight line; balancing, throwing, catching, consistency

Forming of clearer perceptions of objects, social actions, moral distinctions

Curriculum

For Religious, Moral, Emotional and Æsthetic Values

Sensory training: Variety of objects, varied sizes, shapes, texture, hardness

Prismatic colors in graded shades, in fabrics, paper, toys

Variety of musical instruments or musical sounds; piano, violin, cello, guitar, organ, fife, flute, horn, willow flute, drums, tubephone, cymbals, tambourine, Japanese gong, musical bells, musical glasses

Toy stringed instruments, drum, made by child

Attention called to sounds of nature: Wind, rain, splash and trickling of water, calls of animals, birds, insects

Taste, smell, temperature and weight senses of minor importance, to receive slight attention

Discrimination of finer differences in shades of color, loud and soft sounds, high or low tone, slow or quick rhythm, rough or smooth surface, soft or hard texture, weight, temperature

Memory of sensation, and ability to match it; applied to colors, shapes, textures, sounds

Motor Training: Coördination of eye and hand by aiming at a mark, catching ball, ring, dangling rope; pouring liquids, measuring liquid and dry measure, linear measure

Coördination of eyes and legs by jumping over or at a mark

Coördination of legs in marching, skipping, walking up and down a short stairway or stile

Acquiring balance by walking on a line, rail, plank; climbing low ladder, low trees, broad planks, low elevation

Coördination of arms and hands by carrying own cup and spoon at meals, eating without bib (after three years); neatness in table manners; assisting in serving and clearing away meals; dusting, sweeping

Climbing low ladder, bars, trees; swimming (4 years). Free, impromptu interpretation of instrumental rhythms of distinctive character, by dancing and pantomime

Habits of neatness and orderliness are taught by care of own clothing as removed, and putting away of toys. Social conventions taught through good examples and through dramatic play; promptness by immediate response when called; hygiene and cleanliness by brushing of own teeth, washing of face and hands, cleaning of finger nails, brushing of shoes (needing, of course, some supplementary treatment), putting own clothes off and on (after 3 years), fastening and unfastening own shoes and clothes. (Note that clothing should fasten in front or on shoulders, shoes preferably laced.)

Language: Distinct articulation and enunciation are taught through good examples, by training in special sounds that are omitted or incorrectly pronounced after four years of age, by training in modulation and control of pitch of voice. Vocabulary is increased through stories and daily conversation.

Store of classic nursery rhymes, poetry, folk-tales, fables, animal stories, fairy tales

Colloquial expressions, names of objects, songs, in foreign language, with pure native accent, after three or four years

Learning own name, address, father’s name.

Reading and writing are a hindrance to freedom of thought and a strain upon eyes, fingers, and nerves.

Construction: Building with large plain blocks (2-inches and larger) of wood, cement, stone; variety of geometric forms; new forms added singly and gradually.

Building with peg-lock blocks, meccano, and other interlocking and knockdown apparatus

Hammering, sawing, planing, boring

Making of simple whitewood furniture and toys

Cutting out toy birds, animals, toys, from soft wood, with coping saw

Making birdhouses and drinking fountains of wood, clay, cement

Making designs with large wooden beads (1-inch size), sticks (not less than ¼ inch diameter, 4 inches long), colored mosaics of stones (not less than 1-inch side), pegboards (pegs not less than ¼ inch diameter)

Stringing large wooden beads; buttons (after 3 years)

Filling in simple designs having distinct, heavy outlines, using water color or crayola; suggestions regarding technique given only as requested.

Painting walls, boxes, or other large surfaces with 2-inch brush, or pretending painting, using water

Modeling and building in sand; shaping land and water forms, building farms and villages

Imaginative work, not copying directly from objects, in modeling or drawing.

Free-hand paper cutting or tearing of circles, squares, utensils, furniture, fruits, animals, dolls

Cutting out pictures having simple, heavy outline

Making toys and furniture with spools, boxes

Simple paper folding (occasionally)

Coarse weaving with lamp wicking or cloth strips

Nature: Assistance in care of pets, garden, house plants

Exploration of meadows, garden, woods

Observation of many domestic and wild animals, chickens, birds, insects, and their ways, nests, food, enemies, protection

Observation in native habitat where possible, or in zoölogical gardens, home or public aquaria

Collections of stones, shells, flowers (not pressed); leaves (pressed and mounted), grasses, seeds, insects for vivarium

Observation of clouds, direction of wind; frost pictures, snow crystals; rising and setting of sun; length of shadows; evening star, milky way, phases of moon; chief land and water forms—mountains, hills, valleys, islands, rivers, lakes, waterfalls; changing seasons, their characteristics, special gifts; preparation of man, animals, plants for winter

Call attention to life processes in plants, including growth, blossoming, fertilization, protection of flowers and seeds, distribution of seeds; also care of animals for their young, preparation of nest or shelter.

Identification and naming of a few most common animals, flowers, insects, birds, trees

Attention called to types, as trees, trunks, branches, bark, leaves; plants, leaves, flowers, fruits

Geography and History: Methods of travel; industries, especially simple or primitive forms of providing shelter, food, clothing; children of any lands or times; their ways of living compared with his. After three years, tell stories of American history, constructive, not military

Hygiene: Care of teeth, eyes, ears; correct posture in sitting and standing; protection from germs by cleanliness, care in coughing and sneezing, disuse of public towels or drinking cups; first aid in bruises, cuts, burns, fire (clothing or dwelling)

Experimentation: Simple experiments in mechanics, electricity, chemistry, cooking

Concentration: cultivate through

(a) providing environment and material that foster exercise of spontaneous interests in handling, examining, experimenting, constructing;

(b) avoiding interruption when child is attentive to an action, unless for important reason such as physical regimen, danger of fatigue or satiety;

(c) Correlating interests into an organized play, e.g., building of a doll’s house; playing store; telling or dramatizing of a continued story, lasting for days or weeks (after two years);

(d) Giving a direction, request or command only once, and requiring attention and prompt response.

Æsthetic Appreciation: Rhythm acquired through hearing of rhythmic songs, music, chanting of nonsense or poetry; and through rhythmic plays, marching, dancing

Taste for good songs, music, pictures, color combinations, simplicity, orderliness, harmony, cultivated by good examples in housekeeping, furnishings, decorations, clothing, books, toys, music in home

Experimentation with color, modeling material, rhythm, musical sounds

Play with toy musical notation

Emotions: Train in control of temper, disappointment, in genuine but not gushing expression of affection and joy.

Discourage showing off, attempts to attract attention to self, or other forms of conceit, vanity or self-consciousness; direct this energy into thoughtfulness for others.

Treat bad temper, sulkiness, fretting, as symptoms of ill-health, and let the child sit down or lie down until relaxed and good-humored, diverting attention meanwhile to other subjects. In extreme cases, put gently to bed, possibly giving also a warm bath. Do not ridicule any expression of emotion or do anything to foster self-consciousness.

Set an example of wholesome emotional expression.

Avoid any conditions that might foster fear, such as fright, grewsome stories, nervousness, indigestion, excitement before bedtime.

Counteract instinctive and imaginary fears through example of poise, ideals of bravery, confidence in Providence and nature, closer acquaintance with special objects feared, as animals, darkness, closets.

Moral: (See Birth to 2 years) Add at this stage:

Strict obedience

Teasing, pouting, sulking and tantrums eliminated by denying objects thus sought

Generosity, sharing with others, giving gifts

Thoughtfulness for comfort and happiness of family and playmates

Learning to play with others peacefully; solitary play as natural consequence of quarrelling

Patience in accomplishing a desired end

Honesty. Differentiate between (a) imaginary tales and (b) attempts to deceive, usually for the sake of escaping punishment or gaining some desired object. Example of honesty in keeping promises to child, telling truth to others

Confidence in self, in universe (God and nature)

Show narrowness of tattling, snobbishness, unkind criticism

Respect for body; modesty; by example and in physical care

Large vocabulary of adjectives and exclamations as preventive of slang and vulgarity; examples of good speech; prompt eradication of slang or vulgarity, by natural consequences, such as washing of mouth, play alone

Answer child’s questions regarding origin of life reverently, seriously, honestly, with emphasis upon nurturing and on social coöperation of mother and father; give a bias toward the social and spiritual relations of family life, and a suggestion of the future parental responsibilities of the child.

Memorizing of mottoes, wise sayings, proverbs

Religious:

Respect for authority, by example, and by requirement of obedience

Foster sense of mystery and wonder through life and nature

Example of worship at home

Teaching of simple childish prayers, if child asks for this

Answering child’s theological questions reverently and seriously, as he asks them

Telling selected Bible stories

Occasionally taking to opening service at church

Singing of hymns informally at home

Teaching child hymns and carefully selected Bible verses

Intellectual and Play Interests. 6 to 9 Years

Extensiveness: Gathering experiences. Little attempt at organizing, systematizing, memorizing, or formal education. Less fragmentary than in previous stage

Great variety of interests; seeking knowledge of natural world

Experimental science—physics, chemistry, mechanics

Analysis of objects to find construction, source of motion, sound

Handcrafts: Carpentry, weaving, building, drawing, painting, modeling

Making for use; less interest in mere activity; interest in workmanship developing

Gardening: Care of pets; observing animals, insects

Collecting stones, leaves, seeds, curios, historical souvenirs

Rhyming; increasing vocabulary; conversation and original story-telling; foreign language (colloquial)

Primitive people and ways of living

Sources of supply of food, clothing, shelter

Curriculum

Sensory training: Sorting and examining fabrics, colors used in construction

Experimenting with sounds and improvising of melodies and rhythms continued

Permit attempts to pick out tunes on musical instrument

Frequent attentive hearing of good instrumental music, short duration

Occasional visit to art museum or store, without comments, giving information on request

Motor training: More difficult and complex coördination of muscles mentioned in previous period

Greater accuracy, skill, assurance, freedom

More use of forearm

Use of fingers in handcrafts

More complex and complicated movements in marching and dancing

Alertness in changing from one rhythm to another

Free impromptu pantomime, interpreting instrumental rhythms

Pantomime of stories

Posing, original ideas or copying famous pictures or statues

Tableaux; charades

Forms of housework: sweeping, dusting, scrubbing, washing, ironing, dishwashing, table-laying, making beds; for accuracy, neatness, dispatch, concentration, application, responsibility, as well as motor training

Skating, swimming

Use of swinging rings, parallel bars, rope ladder; climbing trees

Avoid activities that strain heart or produce great fatigue.

Language: Encourage conversation, discussion of topics of interest and value, story-telling. With models of correct grammar and idiomatic English in earlier childhood, there will be little incorrect language to correct.

Increase vocabulary especially by descriptive words in story-telling.

Continue models of distinct enunciation, well-modulated voice.

Encourage rhyming; do not ridicule or make light of rhymes.

Spontaneous dramatizing of stories; permit freedom, and absence of self-consciousness in expression; avoid criticism of technique or form of expression.

Teach colloquial expressions, poems, songs, from foreign language, with pure accent.

Avoid forcing of interest in reading, writing, or number; prohibit for nervous child; discourage for bookish child, and supply more real interests. For normal, active children, assist spontaneous interest, in short periods, with careful regard for hygiene of eyes.

Nature: Providing food and drink for wild birds, animals, insects not pests

Care of pets, gardening, with responsibility for daily care

Encourage collections as in previous period, adding insects and small live animals kept in vivarium, birds’ nests, pictures of birds.

Keep calendar of birds, flowers, weather conditions.

Observe effects of frost, wind, rain, streams, waves, upon soil and rocks.

Observe unfolding of leaves and blossoms, and formation of seeds from flowers; methods of protecting and distributing seeds.

Plant large seeds where process of germination can be observed.

Identification of trees, birds, flowers, insects

Gathering of nuts; drying of fruits and vegetables for winter

Observation of some inherited characteristics in flowers and animals

Raising of pigeons or chickens or a litter of kittens, rabbits, or guinea-pigs

Noting coöperation of father in care of birds

Study of primitive life, types of dwellings, providing of food and clothing, making of weapons

Learning days of week, months of year; telling time of day by clock and sun dial

Sciences: Simple experiments in physics and chemistry continued, in response to child’s questions regarding composition of substances, principles of mechanics and electricity, etc. For example: differences noted between solids, liquids and gases; acids and alkalies; adhesion, cohesion; composition of water

Cooking

Construction of batteries, and making of toy telephone

Application of water power to toy machines; wind power to sailboats, toy wind mills

Making toy steam engine and harnessing to toy machinery

Comparing specific gravity of different substances

Observation of stars in early evening

Identification of dipper, north star, evening stars, and a few constellations visible before child’s bedtime

Anatomy and physiology: Main facts and processes; principles of hygiene; first aid in drowning

Mathematics: Counting small quantities

Measuring as in previous period; use of pints, quarts, ounces, pounds, peck, bushel; playing store with real measures and wares; making change with toy money; metric measures

Use of common fractions in construction and store play

Buying at store and making change

Use of small weekly allowance

Measuring inches, feet, yards, rods, in construction and store play

Reading thermometer

Construction: Making of more difficult things

More attention to workmanship—accuracy and finish of product, skill in handling tools

Use of smaller and finer materials

Carpentry; wood carving; making of cement blocks; modeling with clay, having good pieces fired; use of potter’s wheel

Weaving with raffia, carpet woof, yarn, quarter-inch strips of cloth or silk

Stringing small wooden beads, glass beads, papers and straws, berries, seeds

Paper cutting, freehand, and following a line

Coarse sewing for dolls, simple personal mending, making of gifts (periods not longer than half hour)

Basket-making with raffia and other flexible material

Experiments in carding of wool, spinning of yarn and thread

Making miniature types of dwellings of primitive peoples, as Indians, Laplanders, Filipinos

Making toy theaters and puppets

Making scrapbooks classified for different subjects of interest

Drawing still from imagination, not directly from object, viz., an avenue of creative imagination, not of accurate observation nor logical analysis of line or form. Water color and crayola used in the same way; copying of objects or pictures permitted if spontaneous; coloring pictures

Little criticism of technique, avoiding any suggestions that might repress freedom of expression, individuality, or confidence

Suggestions for improvement in technique as requested

Improvising of melodies and little songs

Æsthetic Appreciation: As in previous period

Making collections of pictures from magazines, reproductions of paintings and sculpture, allowing free individual choice; abundance of good examples provided

Moral: As in previous periods

Little appeal to conscience, motives, ambitions

Training in good habits as part of regular routine

Stories of fidelity, loyalty, generosity, helpfulness, patience

Religious: As in previous period

Avoid forcing of religious interest or observance of forms

Select Sunday school with care. May be preferable to take child to opening portion of church service, and to full service on festival days

Bible stories especially of Old Testament history; boyhood of Christ

Stories from lives of religious leaders

Portions of religious allegories, as “Pilgrim’s Progress”

Cultivate tolerance for other sects.

Intellectual Interests. 8 or 9 to 12 Years

Tools of knowledge—reading, writing, spelling, numbers

Repetition and drill; learning by rote

Tests of observation, attention, mental alertness, power of inhibition

Little use for explanations or power of abstract reasoning

Language: Play upon words; secret language, foreign language

Collections: Collecting interest at greatest height; nature chief collecting interest; imitative in collecting interests

Mathematics: Simple arithmetical processes

Narrative history; action, adventure, biography

Physical geography: Social geography—customs, habits, living conditions of people in other countries

Nature: Care of pets, play with animals, gardening, collecting

Handcrafts: Great range; development of skill and workmanship

Coördination of muscular action with sense judgments

Mechanics, electricity, chemistry; mechanical puzzles (interest culminates at 11 years)

Toy interest decreasing toward end of period

Doll interest with girls reaches climax at 11 years; ceases with boys at 8 years.

Beginning interest in making livelihood.

CHAPTER XIII
PLAY

“Play is the highest phase of child-development—of human development at this period (childhood); for it is self-active representation of the inner, from inner necessity and impulse.”

“The plays of childhood are the germinal leaves of all later life; for the whole man is developed and shown in these.”

“Come, let us live with our children.”

—F. Froebel.

Play is spontaneous self-activity. It is not found among lower forms of animal life. The length of the play period with any species is directly related to the degree of intelligence of which it is capable.

Young children instinctively play activities which become work when they are mature, and which their ancestors have practiced as work. Among animals, play is Nature’s method of training for responsibilities of maturity in food-getting and protection from enemies.

Among the great educators of earlier days who have recognized the value of play as a means of education of children are Plato, Comenius, Rousseau, Locke, Rabelais. Pestalozzi and Froebel were the first modern educators to practically utilize play in the education of little children, and the widespread interest in play to-day is traceable to their efforts and influence.

Play and Work. In play the individual expresses his own desire, unhampered by artificial restriction or repressions, limited only by his own strength, his imagination, and the facilities of the environment. Play is not necessarily easy, in the sense of making small demands upon physical strength or mental energy. Any one who watches children at their play knows that the intensity of their interest and desire leads them into work requiring the utmost of their physical strength, endurance, and skill, and the greatest exercise of imagination, initiative, judgment, patience in the solving of problems; drudgery is performed with relative ease, because it is appreciated as a necessary means to a greatly desired end. There is no value in drudgery as such. It is a part of the great art of life to select motives and activities that are an expression of self-activity, and to perform the drudgery in the same spirit expressed by children in their play. Drudgery becomes irritating when it is not appreciated in its relation to an interest, as when it is a task set by some one else, with no relation to the life of the doer; or is the performance of labor for others merely for pay, without any personal interest in the work or its results.

The child must learn to perform many duties in his own personal care, in the life of the household, the family, and the community. It is of greater value to put imagination and the play spirit into these, to learn to make games of them, than it is to make dull, unimaginative drudgery of them. During his fourth or fifth year the child can begin to comprehend the values of these tasks, in self-dependence, service to others, coöperation in the advancement of human life, and that he has the part of a worker to play in the great game of life.

Learning, intellectual study, art, should by all means be forms of self-expression, a development of personality, a source of happiness in their acquirement,—play in a large sense. If the pupil is unhappy, disinterested, inattentive, the teacher or the educational system is at fault in not having discovered the vital, instinctive interests of the child and his natural, spontaneous way of learning. Better turn such a child out for free play and first learn from him what are his vital interests, and then utilize these, in this play spirit, to bring to him content and discipline of educational—that is, permanent and highest—value.

This ideal is practically possible by studying the child’s instinctive activities and interests at any given stage, and supplying (a) conditions in the environment which permit his full and rich expression of these interests; (b) content or goals that have permanent life value; (c) increasingly difficult and more complex conditions and problems, so that the child is advancing in skill and ability.

For example: The baby likes to handle objects. Cultivate this play interest educationally by giving him objects illustrating a great number of shapes and sizes. Utilize his love of sound by letting him hear, every day if possible, some good music. The three-year-old child loves to dramatize. Teach him good manners and courtesies in playing “tea-party” and “visiting”; instruct him in simple first aid and hygiene through playing “doctor.” Later, tell him great stories from the myths, from history, from classic literature, that he can “play out.”

At about five years of age children instinctively pour and measure. Instead of leaving this to chance play, it is possible to make it of permanent (educational) value by providing (a) a play space for various kinds of measuring; (b) a variety of substances to measure, as sand, sawdust, pebbles, water, colored water, long strips of paper, cheap tape or cloth, clothespins, even “real” fruits and vegetables; (c) standard measures,—pint, quart, gallon, dry quart, peck, bushel; later, gill and ounce, and the pound and ounce weights; (d) bottles with wide mouths, and other receptacles for pouring into, that will cultivate steadiness and carefulness. Begin with two or three measures, teaching their relation, as pint and quart, gradually adding more as these become known. Give at first measures and bottles easy to pour into, later those more difficult, requiring better coördination. Set a standard of neatness and accuracy. Watch for indications of fatigue and let the play stop before there is any strain.

Normal children in a normal environment do not wish to be amused, but they are full of ideas of their own that they wish to express. The adult very often desires to amuse children,—not primarily for their benefit but for his personal pleasure in watching them and participating with them; he (or she) needs a training in self-control and a deeper understanding of child nature, that he may come to find as keen satisfaction in standing aside and watching the child’s self-development, bringing forward his own personality only where it will be of educational or social value.

Children’s Parties. Children’s parties may be a means of social, physical, and spiritual grace, or they may be made a cause of nervousness, dissipation, corruptive ideals. As a means of grace, they should (a) be held in the daytime and last about two hours for children under six, three hours for the older group; (b) preferably outdoors; (c) include a small group of guests—only four or five for children three to five years, ten or twelve for children five to seven, and about twenty as a maximum for children seven to ten; (d) require simple dressing; (e) little preliminary excitement of preparation; (f) games carefully conducted, and alternated with stories to prevent fatigue or too much excitement; (g) a small amount of very simple refreshments, as fruit juice and lady fingers, or milk and animal crackers for children under five; or a small portion of pure ice cream and sponge cake for children five to seven; or a small amount of simple candy, nuts, popcorn for children over seven.

Play Room and Ground. The best playground is the home yard, where mother can keep an oversight; where other children can come so she knows the playmates, and where the child is kept in sympathy with home influences. For indoor play, there should be a room kept sacred to the uses of childhood. In this way both adults and children have more freedom, with less conflict of comfort and convenience. For children under three or four years this room will naturally be the nursery; for older children it should include facilities of a workshop.

The playroom should be well lighted and ventilated, with floors bare except rugs for small children to sit upon. The walls, curtains, and rugs should be washable. The color scheme should be cheerful and attractive to childhood. Yellow, warm gray, or green are especially good; red is too stimulating; violet is oppressive. Touches of rose or light blue might be added. The wall covering should preferably be a hard paint or Sanitas, at least to a four-foot wainscoting. Pictures should be easily removed, frequently changed, arranged with some regard to unity and symmetry. Pictures for little children should be hung low enough to be easily seen.

The furnishings should include tables adapted to the child’s height, chairs of hygienic design, cupboards and window seats for toys, apparatus, tools, books, where they will be kept out of the dust and in a reasonable order. The children should be responsible for the orderliness of rooms and cupboards, good condition of walls and furniture, and ordinary care of playground and playroom. Children over seven may well be responsible for sweeping, dusting, wiping of floors and woodwork.

Playground Apparatus. Sand pile, in framework or box, with cover for protection from stray animals and weather. White sea sand is cleanest.

Swings adapted to size and development of children

Playhouse

Place for pets and garden

Other apparatus, adapted to children at different stages, is listed under each period, in this and two subsequent chapters.

For the playroom, supply an aquarium and vivarium, tools, workbench, materials for handwork.

Play Interests and Activities. Infancy to Four Years

Sensory and motor activities
Individual play
Toys
Imitation; simple, imaginative, dramatic play
Quiet games preferred to active

One to Eight Months

Simple sense plays: Seeing, hearing, touching

Play with limbs: Arms, hands, legs, toes; grasping, sucking, reaching for objects, holding, pulling, shaking, kicking

Pleasure in passive rhythmic movement of limbs, given by attendant

Play with simple toys

Apparatus: Baby pen, toys

Eight to Twelve Months

Experiments with sounds: Crumpling paper, pounding, pulling bells

Surprise and recognition: Peek-a-boo

Play with limbs: Pat-a-cake, touching features

Handling objects, turning key, opening and closing doors

Imitation: Smiles, vocal sounds, manual work

Rolling ball: Receiving ball when rolled

Apparatus:

Chair swing, with support for feet
Chairs to climb up by and push

Low railing for support in standing and walking

Two or three low, broad stairs (about 6 inches high, 12 inches deep) to crawl up and down

One to Two Years

Sensory and motor experiments more extensive

Exploring, handling

Opening and shutting; taking out and putting in; turning key

Digging; pouring

Pounding for noise, tearing paper

Hiding self

Simple finger plays, e.g., “This Little Pig”, “Creep Mouse”, “Knock at Door”, Froebel’s “Play with Limbs”

Rolling and tossing ball in free play

Brief games, rolling and throwing ball, with adult

Play with toys, as doll, cart, train, animals

Apparatus:

Swinging chair, with board or wall to strike feet in swinging

Low stile or stairs, with side rail or bannister

Small, low ladder

12-inch plank, 6-10 feet long, laid on ground, or securely elevated 4 inches, making low bridge

Kitchen, cupboards, drawers, playroom, for exploration

Two to Four Years

Exploring wider range; watching activities, people, animals, machinery

Examining objects, taking apart and putting together

Digging, pouring; playing with sand, mud, water

Hammering, pounding; experimenting with sound

Building with blocks; piling up and tearing down

Simple ball play, chasing, rolling, trying to catch

Finger plays; only simple ones yet possible, “Thumbkin says, ‘I’ll Dance’”, “The Merry Little Men”,

“The Garden”, “Here’s a Ball for Baby”, (Poulsson)

Jumping and sliding begin; short running, being caught

Walking sidewise along fence, swinging on rope; climbing

Imitation of adult activities begins; household work, common industries

Hiding self, but without sufficient control to remain until found

Pounding and rolling modeling clay; pretend painting, drawing, sewing

Gathering stones, sticks, bright-colored objects

Experimenting with liquid color

Looking at pictures, especially of children, animals

Feeding pets, planting seeds

Play with dolls, toy animals, active toys

Apparatus as for previous age, and add:

Slide, purchased ready-made; or homemade one of 12-inch plank, smooth, waxed, firmly secured, raised at one end 2 feet, protected at sides by 3-inch strips, free from slivers

Board swing, with back, opposite board or wall to strike feet against

Heavy rope, knotted at end, suspended from tree or ceiling, to catch hold of and swing upon

Pit of straw, hay, sawdust, or sand to jump into

Playhouse with small doors and windows to crawl through; may be made of large packing boxes

Swinging bar, to hang from by hands, toes on ground. Should be raised just enough for difficult reach; may be homemade of broom handle, capped at ends with leather or cloth, suspended by ropes from tree or ceiling.

Shallow brook, watering trough, tub, or basin, for water play

For outdoor play, clothe the child in white or light seersucker rompers, with sandals, in summer, and knitted sweater and leggings in winter, for both boys and girls.

Teach children how to jump correctly, landing on soles of feet, bending the knees.

Children at this age are most likely to be at a loss what to do next. With ample opportunity and space for exploration, objects for examination, and suitable apparatus for instinctive physical activities, they will find this need met and will not need to be “amused.”

Four to Six Years

Sensory and motor activities

Dramatic imitation, industries, animals

Imaginative dramatic play; dressing up

Beginnings of group play, unorganized

Beginning interest in circle games, singing games, traditional games

Finger plays

Climbing, jumping, rolling, sliding, swinging; balancing, walking on straight line

Beginnings of marching, skipping, dancing, swimming, skating

Handcrafts: Carpentry, painting, drawing, modeling, pasting, building with blocks, mechanical construction

Pouring, filling, weighing, measuring

Play with water, sand

Planting, caring for garden; caring for pets

Collecting less crude; stones, sticks, leaves, insects, pictures, flags, buttons, bright colored paper, cloth

Doll play (boys and girls)

Hiding, hunting for persons and objects; with growing control

Simple tag games, short running, simple rules

Simple guessing, observation, surprise games; playing tricks

Play with words, as nonsense syllables, long words, rhyming

Experimenting with sound; improvising songs, melodies, on instruments

Experimenting with colors and shapes; sorting, matching, grading; coloring pictures

Looking at pictures with story value, historic value

Experimenting with problems in physics, chemistry

Exploring a wider environment

Apparatus and equipment:

Farmyard, garden, orchard, meadows, woods, beach

Sand pile; sand box for house

Swings, slide, jumping pit, playhouse, adapted to size

Swinging rings; made of rope secured with heavy surgeon’s plaster, and covered with cloth, suspended from tree or ceiling

Rope ladder, 6 feet high, with mattress, straw, or hay bed beneath

Fence for sidewise walking

Joist or rail, 2 inches wide, single or parallel, for straight-line walking

Aquarium, vivarium; boxes for collections

During this period there is need of much companionship with a few other children of from three to seven years. This will give training in generosity, social feeling, kindness, patience, self-control. It will provide larger opportunities for dramatic play, and thus for range of imagination.

Six to Ten Years

Sensory interests less marked

Ability to keep to rules of game

Group play, especially traditional, circle, singing games, group competitions, ball games

Running: Running games, catching, as in forms of tag

Doll play; usually confined to girls; in latter part of period, paper dolls, stunt dolls

Ball play and games, especially among boys

Dancing, balancing, swimming, skating, climbing, swinging, sliding, tumbling

Manual dexterity in catching, throwing, balancing, hitting at a mark, hitting at a ball

Dramatic play organized into serial play extending over days and weeks, especially industrial activities, as playing house, store, school, primitive life; playing at camping, hunting, imitating social life of adults as found in environment

Handcrafts: Carpentry, painting, drawing, modeling, weaving, sewing, knitting; pasting, papercutting; mechanical construction

Decorating, decorative designs, personal decoration

Weighing, measuring, counting

Housework, cooking

Rummaging, hoarding

Hiding and finding games more complex and difficult

Collecting interest strong; wide range, little classification; includes pictures, flags, stamps, shells, souvenirs, leaves, birds’ eggs, minerals, insects

Gardening; care of pets

Games of mental alertness, observation, shrewder guessing, physical alertness, accuracy, motor control

Play with words; rhyming, puns, riddles, counting out

Measuring strength of wit, patience, personality, will, with others, especially adults

Observing industries, visiting natural history museums, watching machinery in action

Exploring meadows, fields, woods, caves

Expression of natural ability in special phases of art

Apparatus and equipment:

As in previous period, except fence and rail

Ample space for running, climbing, group games

Companionship of comrades, boys and girls, for cultivation of social adjustment, fairness, generosity, competition.

CHAPTER XIV
GAMES

“The difference between a genius and a pedant consists exactly in this, that the genius performs his work playfully, while the pedant groans under the drudgery of his task.”

—Paul Carus.

“The real fall of man is to do things without zest.”

—G. Stanley Hall.

The Value of Games. All games are play, but not all plays are games. In a game some rule is involved, some goal or object is to be attained. Usually, though not always, in a game, two or more play together.

Most children under three years of age, and many under four, have not developed sufficient self-control, imagination, memory, and judgment to play a game. If “Hide-and-Seek” is attempted, they will run out of the hiding place before they are discovered. In “Hunt the Thimble”, they will point out where the object is hid. They are with difficulty held to the sequence of circle games, except of the simplest sort.

At about four years, however, most children have the mental and social development to find interest in circle games, traditional games, and some competitive games.

Supplementing the educational values of play in general, different games have some of these additional educational values:

Training in social relationships, in group action, coöperation, competition

Cultivating a sense of social interdependence Sharing experiences with mates

Subordination to the rights, desires, and leadership of others

Loyalty to a leader or a group

Incentive to improvement of skill in order to compete with others

Acceptance of the consequences of failure or inefficiency

Opportunity for leadership to him who is able

Realization of law, through rules of game

Measuring of personal ability and personality with that of mates

Kinds of Games. Games may be classified according to

(1) the degree of physical activity involved;

(2) the degree and kind of mental activity required;

(3) the moral and social traits cultivated.

Each of these groups would be subdivided according to age, although some games seem of interest at any age.

With little children in the home it is convenient to have at hand a classified list. This list should begin with the standard games, and be lengthened as new ones are found or, better still, are devised by the children.

Any game tried should be interesting, “fun”, that is,

(a) suited to the physical powers and mental development of the child;

(b) expressive of his spontaneous interests.[33]

Certain activities have play interest at every stage but could be played only in a very simple, brief game under four years, and for a longer time and more complexly after that age. These most common activities, or motifs, include surprise, imitation, observation, guessing, hiding, seeking, catching, chasing, running, ball play. The worker with young children should be able to invent many little games based on these motifs. Simple little songs, invented, spontaneously improvised, or gathered from kindergarten songbooks, add joyousness to the game, cultivate a love and expression of music, and teach the utilizing of art in everyday life.

Games may be analyzed by the following scheme, to discover their values.

Active:Quiet:
OutdoorOutdoor
IndoorIndoor
Sensory Training:Motor Training:
Sight, hearing, touchBodily control
Taste, smell, weightNeatness
Form, colorAlertness of response
AlertnessAccuracy of movement
AccuracyCoördination of different muscles
DiscriminationSkill
Grace
Mental Training:
ObservationMoral Training:
ConcentrationPerseverance
AlertnessCourtesy
ImitationGentleness
PerceptionGenerosity
ImaginationCourage
JudgmentPatience
AccuracyIndependence
InitiativeJustice
InventionSense of law
LeadershipCoöperation
Individuality
Inhibition
Relaxation
Humor

Every game involves some attention and conformity to rules. “Follow the Leader” involves activity, careful observation of the leader’s movements, imitation, alertness, motor control, and reasoning in guessing; if trade is represented, the leader must exercise ingenuity and initiative in thinking of a new movement. “Spin the Platter” and “Drop the Handkerchief” require mental alertness intermittent with attention. “Cat and Mouse” and “Hawk and Chickens” require physical alertness, dexterity, and quick judgment. “Ring-around-a-Rosie” involves rhythm, chanting, and a bit of the ludicrous. “Charlie Over the Water” is a step further, involving mental and physical alertness. “Little Sallie Waters” and “Farmer in the Dell” involve love of rhythm and music, dramatizing, and the choice of a partner.

Games for the Littlest

Eight to Eighteen Months. Motor control, finger plays, surprise

Finger Plays:Falling, Falling (Mother Play)
Peek-a-booRolling and receiving the ball
Pat-a-CakeHiding self
Open the DoorHiding things
This Little PigCatching

One to Three Years. Motor control, finger plays, hiding; observation, surprise, guessing, imitation

Hide and Seek (very simple)Finger Plays:
Hunt the Thimble (use ball or doll)Here’s a Ball for Baby
Chasing and catchingThe Merry Little Men
Rolling, tossing, and catching ballFinger Piano
Shut them, Open
Thumbkin says, “I’ll dance”

Nursery Finger Plays

1.This Little Pig Went to Market
2.Knock at the door (tap the forehead)
Peep in (lift the eyelid)
Lift up the latch (touch tip of nose)
Walk in (touch lips)
Take a little chair
Right down under there (chucking under the chin).
3.Here’s my father’s knives and forks (hands back to back, fingers standing up like rake)
Here’s my mother’s table (hands turned over, the interlaced fingers flat like a table)
Here’s my sister’s looking-glass (forefingers raised, forming a triangle)
And here’s the baby’s cradle (little fingers also raised, forming a triangle for front piece of cradle).
4.Here’s the church (position as in line 2 of preceding)
And here’s the steeple ” ” ” ” 3 ” ”
Open the door ” ” ” ” 1 ” ”
And see all the people.
5.“Shut them, open; shut them, open;
Give a little clap;
Open, shut them; open, shut them;
Fold them in your lap;
Creep them, creep them, creep them, creep them.
To the little chin;
Open wide the little mouth,
And pop a finger in.
“Shut them, open; shut them, open,
To the shoulders fly;
Open, shut them; open, shut them,
Up into the sky;
Falling, falling, falling, falling,
Almost to the ground;
Hold them up in front of you
And twirl them round and round.”
6.Thumbkin says, “I’ll dance,”
Thumbkin says, “I’ll sing,”
Dance and sing, ye merry little men,
Thumbkin says, “I’ll dance and sing.”
(Tapping with thumb, other fingers closed)
Pointer says, etc. Refrain
Tall man says, etc. ”
Ring man says, etc. ”
Little man says, etc. ”
(On refrain, all fingers tapping)
All men say they’ll rest
All men say they’ll sleep.
Rest and sleep, ye merry little men;
All men say they’ll rest and sleep.
(Last stanza, hands closed, thumb inside; sing softly)
7.Now see we here.
These friends so dear,
As they together meet.
With bows polite
And faces bright
Each other they will greet.
Oh, “How do you do,” and
“How do you do,” and
“How do you do,” again
And “How do you do,”
And “How do you do,”
Say all these little men.

(Hands held up with fingers erect, palms opposite. At line 7, thumbs bent toward each other, and following fingers on each succeeding greeting; all together on line 11.)

Three to Four Years. Children are usually not yet interested in group games; some children not until five or six years. At this age children can play together with their toys but cannot manage a game among themselves. They are able to play simple games with an adult. The parent or teacher can make simple games out of the daily activities.

Slightly more difficult finger plays and forms of games than those listed in previous age period can be used, and simple forms of those games listed in succeeding period.

Motor Accuracy:
Tenpins
Circle and Active Games:
Ring-around-a-Rosie
Cat and Mouse

Sense Games. These involve the “guessing” interest but require thought.

Sight and Observation. Tell what object, color, form is taken away from a group, or added. Match a color or form of flower or other object, first with object in hand, later from memory. “I saw”—relating what was seen on a walk, in a room, or when passing a store.

Touch. Tell the name of an object or form by handling it while blindfold.

Hearing. Tell the direction of a sound, instrument sounded, person speaking, while blindfolded.

Language Games. Many can be invented similar to the following, in which increase in speaking vocabulary is gained. Nouns: I went to the Zoo (store, boat, etc.) and there I saw—(name objects). Verbs: A train (bird, dog, wind, etc.) can—(name activities). Adjectives: I like squirrels (flowers, dolls, apples, etc.) because they are—(name adjectives).

Alertness. Children at this age, and until six, are often dawdling, dreamy. Games can be invented to cultivate dispatch and alertness, as “running a race” with a person or the clock, in dressing and undressing.

Poise, Relaxation, Concentration. What Montessori calls the “Game of Silence” cultivates these qualities. As played in the Montessori schools, the children sit quietly, relaxed, in a room slightly darkened, while all sounds are hushed, and all listen. After two or three minutes some one in an adjoining room whispers or calls faintly the name of a child, and the child goes as softly as possible, returning as softly. Ten or fifteen minutes is the limit of the children’s ability to play the game. Forms of it may be played when going through the house, or whenever quiet is especially desired; or when the children are becoming irritable or too nervous.

The imitative, imaginative, and dramatic play instincts of the years from three to six offer opportunity for a wide range of invention of games. These should not be formal but by their very nature must give freedom of initiative, imagination, and self-expression. They may be utilized, for instance, in social training, as in playing that the child is a prince or princess at a banquet, or is a parent to the doll who sits near by to be taught, making a game of neat table manners or careful chewing. They may be utilized for moral training, as in playing that the child is the fairy godmother who could bring sunshine wherever she went; or Siegfried, who could kill all the dragons of ugly temper or words.

Four to Six Years. Simple circle games, singing games, dramatic imitation, catching, finding. Utilize the sense games, alertness, language, imaginative and dramatic games described in previous period, using more complex and difficult situations.

Tag Games:
Drop the Handkerchief
Cat and Mouse
Pussy wants a Corner
Dramatic Kindergarten Games with Music:
The Pigeon House
The Chickadees
The Snail
Hiding Games:
I Spy
Hide the Thimble (using larger object)
Circle and Singing Games:
Ring-around-a-Rosie
Charlie over the Water
Little Sallie Waters
Button, Button
Magical Music
Here we go round the Mulberry Bush
Did you ever see a Lassie
Ball Games:
Variations in catching and throwing
Motor Ability:
Hitting at a mark
Tenpins
Ringtoss
Alertness:
Bird, Beast or Fish
(Many other simple games based on this idea of
classification can be invented, such as the following)
Hard or Soft
Tree, Vine or Plant
Vegetable or Mineral
Found or Made
Attention and Invention:
Stagecoach
(Similar games invented, such as Boat, Flower, Wardrobe, Mythology)

Six to Nine Years. Period of special interest in traditional circle games, running and catching, imitative action, observation and alertness, dramatic action. More complex games are invented, utilizing classification, invention.

Circle-singing:
London Bridge
Round and Round the Village
Farmer in the Dell
Counting-out Games:
Tag variations:
Wood Tag, Stone Tag, etc.
Catching Games:
Pom, Pom, Pull Away
Hawk and Chickens
Blind Man’s Buff
Dodging and dare games
Motor Control:
Hopscotch
Cat’s Cradle
Marbles, Jackstones
Honey Pots
Handicap races, as potato race
Alertness:
Going to Jerusalem
Spin the Platter
Bird, Beast, or Fish
Magical Music
Crambo
Riddles
Sense Games:
Taste
Smell
Touch
Table Games:
Checkers
Dominoes
Imitation or Invention:
Follow the Leader
Solomon says “Thumbs up”
Hold Fast and Let Go
Trades
Charades
Hitting at Mark:
Tenpins
Ringtoss
Archery
Volley ball
Faba Gaba
Croquet
Tennis