Part I.

LEARNING TO READ.

1. The Fundamental Principles in Learning to Read.
2. Elements of Reading:
(a) The Thought Element.
(b) The Symbol Element.
(c) The Phonic Element.
3. Methods of Teaching Reading.
4. Summary.

1.

THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES IN LEARNING TO READ.

Language Defined. Language is the conventional means by which man communicates his thoughts. It is a complex unity composed of thought and symbol, spoken or written. Because it is the means by which different minds are identified in thought, it becomes an essential factor in social organization.

Symbolism. In a wider sense all means of social communication, material and pictorial expressions, as well as spoken and written words, may be called language. Thought, through symbol, to thought, is the whole social process of language, spoken and written, for every meaning has a symbol and every symbol has a meaning.

The Problem in Learning to Read. The problem in teaching reading is to bring the symbol and its meaning into vital unity in the mind of the learner. Hence it is necessary that the teacher distinguish clearly between these elements. When the thought and the symbol have become so united that each is essential to the other, the problem of learning to read has been solved.

Fundamental Principles. There are three chief fundamental principles involved in the process of learning to read, namely:

First. Images. The thought aspect of language depends upon clear and vivid images. This is so important that unless children have such images they cannot master the symbols which represent them. One purpose of nature study, handicraft, and art is to give children these images.

Second. Wholes to Parts. In acquiring knowledge the mind moves from the vague whole to the parts and then back again to the clarified whole. An understanding of the parts gives a fuller meaning to the whole. The mind analyzes in order to reach a better synthesis. When we wish to make known to a child a coat, for instance, we do not show him separately the sleeves, the lapels, the pockets, the buttons. We hold up the whole garment and say, "Here is a coat." It is necessary to do the same in teaching reading. Give the child first an image of the whole situation which he is to think himself into, and then come to the details to make the whole clear.

Third. Self-Activity. The child is an active, creative agent, vitally concerned in adjusting himself to his physical and spiritual environment. Self-activity manifests itself in some external form, which in language is the symbol of the self-active thought. Success in teaching reading depends upon the amount of self-active response the symbol awakens in the thought of the child.

These three fundamental principles, namely, clear and vivid images, whole situations, and self-activity in the form of response and interest on the part of the child, should be kept in the foreground in teaching reading.

2.

ELEMENTS IN LEARNING TO READ.

Since language is composed of thought, symbol, and sound, the main elements to be considered in learning to read are the thought, the symbol, and the phonic elements.

THE THOUGHT ELEMENT.

The Purpose of the Thought Element. The problem of elementary reading is to establish a permanent association between the written or the printed symbols and the thoughts which they represent. The thought is all-important; it is the vitalizing element in learning to read. In learning to talk the child associates the meaning with the spoken symbol; in learning to read he associates a thought content with a sight symbol. The strength of the association depends in each case upon the worth the thought has for the child; hence the great necessity of giving especial attention to the thought element in learning to read.

Action Sentences. A sentence is the unit of language and the life-giving factor in the process of learning to read. It is important, therefore, that in the beginning the child should form the habit of grasping sentences. In the first reading lessons it is necessary to find subjects which interest the child and furnish clear mental pictures. Children are interested in actions. They like to move and will read for the purpose of performing an action. Action sentences appeal to all children, because that which a child does makes a deep impression and involves large self-activity.

Nursery Rhymes. Children are so influenced by rhythm that it is impossible to train them aright without giving due consideration to this form of expression. There are many interesting complete rhymes and poems that are valuable for reading lessons. In content the poetry of childhood should contain familiar images, tinged with enough of mystery to give that subtle mingling of sense and nonsense which stirs the imagination of the child and also relates him to the actual world in which he lives. The Mother Goose melodies fulfil these conditions, but it is the rhythm far more than the thought that attracts the child. Have the children learn the rhymes by ear and recite them with no thought other than that they are to be enjoyed. Incidentally, they will afford valuable exercise in pronunciation, articulation, and tone modulation, if the teacher is careful about these matters, for children are great imitators. Later the children will read these rhymes and poems with great pleasure, thus associating a valuable thought content with its printed symbol in a way that will make the association abiding.

Stories. Children express in action, and ultimately in character, the influences which they receive from stories. Therefore, stories containing true and good ideals should be selected. Children appreciate and love what appeals to the best and the highest in them. Nursery rhymes, fables, fairy lore, and classic myth should be used. They have nourished the race, and will also feed the soul life of the individual child. The outer form varies with the age and the country, but the inner meaning is of the spirit and will outlast the centuries. Every teacher should, therefore, carefully cultivate the art of story-telling. It is far better to present a story orally than to read it from a book. If it is told, the teacher can adapt it to the needs of her classes, and by the magnetism of voice, eye, and personality awaken an abiding love for good literature. At a later period the child will enjoy reading these same stories in the reading books of the first and second grades.

Observation Lessons. Observation and description should precede reading in the early lessons. The teacher may write on the blackboard simple sentences based upon these observations and descriptions. Anything in the environment of the home or the school which interests the child should be utilized. Encourage the children to observe their household pets and to tell the other children about them. Whatever the child makes in the time devoted to handicraft, or observes in the nature lessons, or plays in the recreation period may be used as material for reading lessons. Color is so intimately connected with the emotional life that its value and importance should be recognized.

THE SYMBOL ELEMENT.

Use. All thought which rises to the plane of self-consciousness is communicated by means of a material, a pictorial, or a lingual symbol. The thought element and the symbol element are two sides of the same thing, namely, language. They form the impression and expression of language, and hence of social communication and identity.

Kinds of Symbols. There are two kinds of symbols which must be mastered in learning to read, namely, the vocal and the graphic, appealing respectively to the ear and to the eye. These symbols are made by the voice and the hand, and are recognized by the ear and the eye. They must always be regarded in the light of that which they represent in connection with elementary reading, whether used in receiving or expressing thought. This thought must be kept clearly in mind in silent and oral reading, in word repetition, and in word drill. It will aid also in the spelling and the phonic work of the children.

THE PHONIC ELEMENT.

Definition. The phonic element deals with articulate sounds and the letters or the symbols which represent them. Here, as elsewhere in learning to read, the unity between meaning and symbol—impression and expression—must be kept clearly in mind. The spoken symbol implies training in pronunciation, enunciation, articulation, inflection, and all that makes for clear understanding and agreeable oral expression of thought. Ear and voice, eye and hand, are tools which must be trained to work with automatic perfection as the means in communicating thought.

Purpose. The purpose of the phonic lesson is the association of a sound with its written or printed symbol, so that the child will be able to get and to express the sound when the symbol is presented to him. The sight symbol and the sound symbol should be so thoroughly associated that immediately upon the presentation of either one of them the other will appear in consciousness.

Ear and Voice Training. It is of the utmost importance that children be given a broad experience with sound in the way of ear and voice training exercises for a few weeks before the formal study of phonics is begun. These exercises may be carried on in connection with the thought development in learning to read and in the music work. In the nature work the children should be trained to listen to bird note, insect hum, and other sounds of nature. Story-telling is most helpful in this ear training. It should begin in the first grade and continue through the entire elementary school period. The reading of poems aloud should be a regular part of the school program, not only to stimulate the imagination, but also to give the enjoyment that comes from the cadence of rhythmic language and to train the ear to make fine discriminations. Ear training and voice culture are so intimately related that it is impossible to cultivate one without cultivating the other, for they sustain to each other the vital relation of impression and expression.

Phonic Facts. The question of the exact number of elementary sounds in the English language is still unsettled. This Manual is based on the belief that there are forty-five elementary sounds in the English language, twenty vowel sounds and twenty-five consonant sounds. The difficulty in mastering the phonic element in learning to read English is greatly increased because some of the elementary sounds are represented by two letters, as th in thin, ea in head; and some sounds are represented by two or more symbols, as e in her, u in turn, and i in firm. It is neither necessary nor desirable that little children should learn all the equivalent symbols; nor is it considered wise to give to children all of the forty-five elementary sounds. Forty is the number taught in the phonic lessons of this Manual. Use has determined the order of presentation.

1. Vowel Sounds. The vowels are always pure sound. They express the emotions and are the rhythmic, musical element which gives language its beauty. There are many equivalent spellings for the twenty elementary vowel sounds in the English language. Those most frequently used are found on page 113; the others will be learned unconsciously as the child develops. See page 113 for a scientific arrangement of the vowel sounds.

2. Consonant Sounds. The consonants limit and define sound. Of the twenty-five elementary consonant sounds, ten have no vocal quality whatever. They are commonly known as breath sounds—f, h, k, p, s, t, ch, sh, th, wh. With the exception of h, every one of these breath sounds has its corresponding vocal sound:

fvocalizedbecomesv
p""b
t""d
th (thin)""th (then)
wh""w
k""g
s""z
ch""j
sh""zh

See p. 112 for a scientific arrangement of the consonant sounds.

3. Phonograms. In all the phonic lessons used in this Manual a phonogram is the symbol of a sound group, usually composed of a single vowel sound combined with a single consonant sound. For example, ing in s-ing is a phonogram, but in see-ing it is a syllable.

Diacritical Marks. Useless phonograms are a burden rather than a help; therefore the child should learn only those which he actually uses. For this reason it is not advisable to use diacritical marks during the earlier stages of learning to read. They make the symbol complex and cumbersome, and at the same time their need and great value do not become apparent until the child begins to use the dictionary, say, in the fourth school year. In the earlier stages of learning to read, symbols acquire meaning by being constantly associated with their respective sounds and thoughts. Habits of pronunciation are formed by always attaching the same sound values to letters and groups of letters. When a child forms an image of a word burdened with diacritical marks, he must later form an image of the word without these. When children are taught to look for diacritical marks their imaging power is centered upon the markings of the words instead of the thoughts for which these words stand; hence it takes longer to get the thought, and as a consequence they are apt to be slow readers. Rapid readers are usually thoughtful readers, because they have the power to grasp quickly a large number of words and to interpret them in mental pictures.

Phonic Drill. Phonic drill and reading are distinct processes and should be taught at different periods of the day during the first two years of school. The purpose of the elementary reading lesson is to associate permanently the thought and the symbols which represent it, so that the thought can be gained from the written or printed language. The purpose of the elementary phonic lesson is to associate permanently sounds and the characters which represent them, so that new words can be readily recognized. Both processes are necessary in teaching reading, but phonic lessons should be relegated to a subsidiary place so that they may not become an impediment to the main purpose.

Phonic Method. In the phonic method sight words are analyzed into their elements, which are then combined in new relations to form new words. These new combinations of familiar elements in new relations are recognized again and again, until the association grows permanent, and so new words are acquired. Consonant sounds are recognized as initial, final, and medial. Next the phonogram element is analyzed into its vowel and consonant sounds. By means of familiar symbols the child has the power to pronounce new words. A knowledge of individual symbols is the foundation upon which the sight recognition of words rests; hence the necessity of rapid and varied drills.

The method suggested in this Manual for phonic lessons is as follows:

1. Separate sight words into their consonant sounds and phonograms.

2. Separate phonograms into their consonant and vowel sounds.

3. Associate these sound elements with their symbols.

4. Combine the sound elements to form new words (Phonic Synthesis).

5. Teach initial and final syllables as phonograms.

3.

METHODS OF TEACHING READING.

Methods of learning to read are the result of bringing the different thought, symbol, and phonic elements into combination and active co-operation. The process is organic and all these features must be kept in mind. There are two kinds of reading, silent and oral.

Silent Reading. Silent reading is the personal, individual way of getting thought from the printed page. The teacher must lead the pupil to see that the sentences have meaning. From the very first the teacher should never lose sight of this fundamental principle and should train the child into the habit of interpreting the printed page into mental pictures. A good method of conducting the reading lesson is the following:

Let each child read the entire lesson silently to get the thought (whole to parts). When the child does not recognize a word and cannot get it from the context or the sound elements, tell him what it is, in as simple a way as he would be told about a new object in the home. When he has finished reading the child may show that he is ready to give the thought. The teacher requests a pupil to give in his own language what he has just read. It will then be seen how vivid his images are of what he has read and how fully it has appealed to him. At the same time, his expressing it in his own words will exercise his self-activity. It is not wise in the beginning to correct imperfect language to any great extent, for the reason that the child's attention is liable to be diverted from the main thought to some detail of the medium of expression. This is disastrous and will tend to make him unnatural in both his thinking and feeling. It destroys his appreciation for the whole, blurs his images, and takes away the chief motive for reading.

In learning to read the child begins with the image of some story, which he particularizes and clarifies by the thoughts in the sentences and the ideas in the words. He masters the word elements in this way, as a unity of meaning and symbol, which gives significance to the sentence and to the story as a whole. Thus the power of getting thought from the printed page develops.

Oral Reading. Oral reading is the process of interpreting thought from the printed page and imparting it to another by means of the voice. Silent reading should always precede oral reading, so that the child may get the thought before he attempts to give it. Silent reading is the power to translate the words into thoughts or emotions. Oral reading goes a step further and gives these thoughts and emotions audible expression and awakens them in another. Silent reading is a necessity; oral reading is an accomplishment. Oral reading is another way of telling a story. It implies the ability to awaken one's thoughts in another's mind. It lacks the freedom of expression usual in story-telling, for it demands power to interpret and transmit thought almost simultaneously.

There are many ways of conducting an oral reading lesson. Two methods are given for illustration:

A
1. The development of new words.
2. The silent reading of the complete story.
3. Oral reproduction of the complete story.
4. Oral reading of the complete story.
B
1. The development of new words.
2. Silent reading of paragraphs.
3. Oral reproduction of paragraphs.
4. Oral reading of paragraphs, then of the whole.

These methods differ only in the breadth and scope of the image of the whole that the child is to think through at one time.

Freedom of expression usually accompanies the reading of interesting thought. The child will usually use natural, clear tones in reading, as he does in talking, if he understands what he reads. Many children read poorly because they neither understand nor feel any meaning in the words. Both gesture and language will be spontaneous if prompted by right thinking and right feeling. The dramatic presentation of a story, however crude, becomes a great aid.

Word Repetition. Many repetitions of words, phrases, and sentences are necessary in mastering the symbol. It is quite possible to have a repetition of words with an ever-changing variety in valuable thought. This variety holds the interest of the children and at the same time accustoms the eye to the repeated symbol. The symbol elements in the action sentences, observation lessons, nursery rhymes, and stories must be repeated many times, but, to preserve interest in them and to increase their meaning, the greatest care must be taken in the selection and the presentation of the thought element. If the teacher of elementary reading can master this part of her work, her success is well-nigh assured.

SPELLING.

Notion and Purpose. Spelling is a finer analysis of the process of learning to read and hence involves all the elements of learning to read. The problem in learning to spell is to associate permanently the smallest symbols of the word, the letters, oral and written, with their appropriate meanings. In oral spelling the impression is received through the ear; the expression is by means of the voice. In written spelling the impression is received through the eye; the expression is by means of the hand. Because written spelling occupies a much larger place in life through the need of communicating ideas by means of writing, it should receive more attention in language teaching than oral spelling. The training of the eye and the hand is, therefore, more important in learning to spell than the training of the ear and the voice, although oral spelling sometimes helps by bringing in the auditory and the vocal memory to assist the visual and the manual. In the beginning children should learn to spell by writing, not as a drill in penmanship, but for the purpose of calling attention to the form of the word.

Elements. Spelling is a complex and difficult art and requires (a) training in elementary sounds and their symbols, or phonic drill; (b) training of eye and hand in forming the letters of a word, or written spelling; (c) training of ear and voice in naming the letters of a word, or oral spelling. Sound, form, and name of letters must be inseparably associated, so that they will become necessary elements in the vital combination of symbol and meaning in the word.

Method. In the method pursued the teacher writes Sing., for instance, upon the blackboard, with capital letter and period to indicate that it is the expression of a complete thought. The teacher then erases the word and requests the children to write it. Review this word at the next lesson and add a new one. Next the teacher writes I can sing. Can you sing?, and similar sentences, upon the blackboard, and proceeds in the same manner. As the work progresses the children should image a new sentence at each lesson, and in addition should be able to write from dictation several review sentences. In the early lessons the children should write at the blackboard, or use unruled paper and soft lead pencils with dull points. A clear image of the symbol will aid the child in writing it. This makes it essential that the teacher write a legible hand.

Word Drill. Drill upon the words learned is necessary to mechanize ear, voice, eye, and hand in the reading process so that the child may be left free to attend to the subject-matter. Have the children pronounce, write, and spell the unfamiliar words found in the reading lesson. Insist upon exact pronunciation and a natural, pleasing modulation of the voice. Later the children should use these same words in spoken and written sentences. After children have learned the names of the letters, both oral and written spelling should be used, since they are correlative processes. Oral spelling often deepens the impression and makes the image more permanent.

THE ALPHABET.

The alphabet should be taught in serial order, because of its use in reading card catalogs, dictionaries, etc. The alphabet characters have been learned in the phonic drill by associating the sounds with the letters as the children require them to master words, but not consecutively. The A B C's, however, in their old-fashioned significance, should be a part of the child's knowledge when he enters the second grade.

SUMMARY.

In the process of learning to read, certain elements are brought together and associated in vital organic unity in accordance with broad general principles. These the teacher must keep constantly in mind if she is to succeed. Reading, like all language, is a combination of thought and symbol. The thought gives the meaning and is the reason for reading, while the symbol is only the tool and instrument of the thought. Care must be taken to see (a) that the child forms clear images of what he is reading; and (b) that he obeys the fundamental law of mind of proceeding from wholes to parts. By holding these principles in full view and giving the thought element the leading place, the symbol and phonic elements will fall into their proper place in accomplishing the purpose of elementary reading, namely, the association of the symbol and its meaning in a vital unity.