NOUNS

These are substantive and adjective. Both may be grouped [[10]]in the following classes: primitive, diminutive, figurative, verbal, compound, derivative, proper, common, positive, comparative, superlative, cardinal, ordinal, partitive, distributive and collective. Nothing particular needs be said about the primitive.

DIMINUTIVE

Examples:

PRIMITIVE DIMINUTIVE
baláy (house) balaybálay
saróual (trousers) sarouálay
carahà (frying-pan) caraháay
balóto (little boat) balotóhay

As is seen, the diminutive is formed by the repetition of the primitive or by adding to the latter the affix ay or hay.

The primitive is repeated when it has not more than two syllables. As,

from

dáhon (leave), dahondáhon,
cáhoy (tree), cahoycáhoy.

The affix ay or hay is added when the primitive has more than two syllables; ay being used in cases where the noun ends with a consonant, or a vowel with a grave or angular accent; and hay being employed when the primitive ends with a vowel otherwise accented or non-accented or a vowel that is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it, or is preceded by more than one consonant. As,

from

sacayán (boat), sacayánay,
habobò (low), habobóay,
balicô (crooked), balicóay,[4] [[11]]
abacá (hemp), abacáhay,
babaye (woman), babayéhay,
banat-i (a tree so called), banat-ihay,
malacsi (fast), malacsihay.

But the dissyllabic primitive is not repeated when its first vowel is followed by more than one consonant, or when the last vowel has an acute accent or is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it. In such cases the affix ay or hay is employed, the rules established for the use of these affixes being applicable to such diminutives. As,

from

támsi (bird), tamsíhay, not tamsitamsi,
túl-an (bone), tul-ánay, not tul-antul-an,
pulá (red color), puláhay, not pulapula,[5]
sagpò (plug), sagpóay, not sagposagpò,
sab-a (a kind of banana), sab-áhay, not sab-asab-a,
bungto (town), bungtóhay not bungtobungto.

Generally, as it has been observed in the preceding examples, the adjectives follow the same rules. As,

from

matám-is (sweet), matam-isay,
malomó (soft), malomóhay,
halípot (short), halipótay.

But in must of the adjectives formed with ma (a particle bearing the idea of abundance) and ha[6] (a particle that bears the idea of place), like maopay, mabusag, mapulá, hatáas, halabà, the prefixes ma or ha are disregarded in the formation of their diminutives, their abstract roots being the only elements taken into consideration, as if such [[12]]adjectives were dyssillabic. Thus, opay, busag, pulá, táas, lubà, being the abstract roots of the last mentioned adjectives, their diminutives will be:

from

maópay (good), maopay-ópay
mabuság (white), mabusagbúsag
mapulá (red), mapulapulá
hatáas (high), hataastáas
halabà (long), halabalabà[7]

There are some adjectives that have irregular diminutives. Such are the following:

DIMINUTIVE
from REGULAR IRREGULAR
dacò (large), dacòdacò dacolaay[8]
gutì (small) gutigutì gutirurù[9]

FIGURATIVE

We call those nouns figurative that are applied to the objects which, not being of the same nature as that which is expressed by their roots, show nevertheless analogy or similarity with those represented by the corresponding primitive, in their meaning, form, use, or application.

Examples:

from

bobón (fountain), mobonbóbon[10] (fontanel);
cabáyo (horse), carocabáyo, (objects that are like a horse or cloud).
dámpog (cloud), darodámpog,

When the primitive has not more than two syllables, the formation of its figurative follows the same rules as those for the dissyllabic diminutive. As,

from [[13]]

hadì (king), we have
hadihadi (a person who, by his vanity or harshness, resembles the figure of a king).

But when thy primitive has more than two syllables, or its last vowel is preceded by more than one consonant or is pronounced separately from the consonant—preceding it, its figurative is formed by adding to the root a prefix composed of its first syllable if it begins with a consonant or of its first vowel if it begins with a vowel and the syllable ro (a particle that bears the idea of imitation, repetition, or collection). As,

from

sacayán (boat), sarosacáyan
ulalahípan (centipede), uroulalahipan
isdà (fish), iroisdà
can’on (cooked rice) carocan’on[11]

NOTE.—Many of the figurative nouns have the same forms as the collective. There are few figuratives among the adjectives; of these, those having the form of figuratives are really comparatives.[12]

VERBAL

These are formed from the verb-root transformed by particles referring to the agents or the objects of the roots.

Examples:

from

from

from

from

from

from

from

[[15]]

from

It may be observed that not all of the verb-roots produce the same number of verbal nouns. It depends on the particular character of every idea conveyed in the root, and mainly on the use.

From the preceding examples, it is seen that the transformative particles of the verbal nouns are various, the said particles being the prefixes para, tig, mag, ma, hi, the interfixes[16] r, ro, um or the affixes an, on. These particles are very important in Bisayan as they greatly help to enrich the limited vocabulary of this tongue.

For the sake of clearness, we shall see first the affixes.

An, on.

These particles refer to the complement of the verb-root, an to the indirect object of the action (generally regarding the place where the act occurs), and on to the direct object (generally referring to the termination of the action).

An or on is used when the root ends with a consonant or a vowel with a grave or angular accent.

An h preceds them when the roots ends with a vowel otherwise accented or non-accented, or pronounced separately from the preceding consonant or consonants.

The particle an or han is simply added to the root, as,

from

catúrog (to sleep), caturogán (sleeping place);
sing̃ba (to adore), sing̃báhan (church);
taclob (to cover), taclóban[17] (covering place);[[16]]
tan-ao (to see at a distance), tan-aoan[18] (watching place);

or is employed either with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the root or with the first consonant and vowel of the root instead, as

from

cáon (to eat) caraonán

from

tíroc (to assembly) titiroeán (meeting place);

or with its first vowel if the root commences with a vowel, as

from

aro (to ask) aaroán (place designed for asking).

The particle on has the same use as an, as

caturogón,
siringbahon,
lilibácon (from libác, to backbite),
aaroon.

NOTE.—The affix an is sometimes doubled, as,

from

lohód (to kneel down), lodhanán[19]

from

tambò (to lock out), tamboànan, from tambóan (window).
Para, tig.

Para bears the idea of habit, custom or occupation. Tig conveys the idea of a repeated, but not frequent, act. [[17]]

They are simply prefixed to the root without any other complementary particle, as,

from

Ma, with on, with ro, or with r.

The particle ma conveys the idea of fondness, desirableness, or passive potentiality or possibility.

When, it means fondness, it is employed either by putting it at the beginning of the root without any other particle, as

from

cáon (to eat), macáon (glutton),

or by combining it with the affix on or hon, according to the case, as

from

catúrog (to sleep), macaturogón (sleepy head),

from

arába (to moan), maarabahón (person fond of moaning).

When the prefix ma, bears the idea of desirableness, it is placed before the doubled root, when the root has not more than two syllables and its last vowel is preceded by not more than two consonants or is not pronounced separately from its preceding consonant or consonants, as

from

cáon, macaoncaón (thing inviting to be eaten)[20]

[[18]]

from

oná (to commence), maonaoná (provocative, quarrelsome),

and in cases where the root has more than two syllables, or if not, where its last vowel is preceded by more than two consonants or is pronounced separately from the consonant or consonants preceding it, then this prefix is employed in combination with the interfix ro preceded by the first consonant and vowel of the root or by the vowel only if the root begins with a vowel, as

from catúrog, macarocaturóg,
from,, bányac, (to kick), maharobányac,
from,, síd-ap, (to look at), masirosíd-ap,
from,, arába, maaroarabá,
from,, ígham, (to grunt), mairoígham,
from,, ós-og (to draw near from afar), maoroós-og.

When the particle ma conveys the idea of passive potentiality or possibility, it is used with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the root. The r with its complementary vowel is put after the first syllable of the root. As,

from bóong (to break), maboroóng (brittle)
from,, abót (to reach), maarábot (attainable).

The particle ma is frequently replaced by the prefix ig or i combined with the interfix r or its substitutes, as

from tambal (to cure), igtarámbal or itárambal (medicine),
from,, surat (to write), isusúrat (thing to write with).
Mag and the r.

The prefix mag bears the idea of forcible, necessary, or continuous agency. It is employed with the interfix r combined with and before the first vowel of the root. This combination is placed between the first and the second syllable of the root. But when there is an r in the root, the interfix r is replaced by the first consonant of the [[19]]said root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix r is sometimes suppressed, the said first vowel being used instead of the interfix. As,

from sódoy (to stroll about), magsotodóy (one who strolls about)
from,, bilíng̃ (to seek or search), magbiríling̃ (searcher),
from,, siríng̃ (to request), magsisíring̃, (petitioner), not magsiríring̃,
from,, ósoc (to set up), mag-orosóc (person designed to set up),
from,, arót (to cut the hair), mag-aárot (barber).

The particle mag is frequently contracted into ma, in which case the root is considered as having an r, as

from suláy (to tempt), manunúlay (tempter),
from,, tábang̃ (to assist), mananábang̃ (helper).
Hi

This particle conveys the idea of boldness. When the root begins with a labial consonant, except the m, the said consonant is transformed into m, as

from bása (to read), himása (person bold in reading),
from,, pitíc (to leap), himític (person bold in leaping).

When the root begins with an m, the prefix hi is not commonly used but the prefix para ma, or tig, as

from múlay (to teach), para-, ma-, or tigmulay, not himúlay,
from,, mogó (to observe), para-, ma-, or tigmógo, not himógo.

When the root begins with a vowel, ng̃ is[21] appended to the prefix; ng̃ is also appended when the root begins with a guttural consonant, but then the said consonant is suppressed. As,

from ásoy (to refer), hing̃ásoy (garrolous),
from,, cáon (to eat) hingáon (bold in eating), [[20]]
from,, gúbat (to invade), hing̃úbat (bold in invading).

When the root commences with the nasal consonant ng̃, the prefix hi is ordinarily replaced by the prefix para, ma, or tig, or the first syllable of the root is made long, as

from ng̃isi (to laugh, showing the teeth), para-, ma, or tig̃ngisi, or ñgisi (person fond of grinning).

When the root begins with any other consonant, except l, n, r, the said consonant is suppressed and the letter n is appended to the prefix, as

from dolóng, (to struggle), hinólong (bold in struggling),
from,, sosón (to correct), hinóson (bold in correcting),
from,, tápod (to confide), hinápod[22] (bold in confiding)

In all of these cases, the syllable following the prefix hi is sometimes doubled, according to the use, as,

from himític, himimític,
from,, hing̃ásoy, hing̃ang̃asóy,
from,, hinóson, hinonoson,[23] etc.
Um.

This particle bears the idea of option. It is used among the verbs for the subjunctive mode. It is always combined with the interfix r or its substitutes, and is placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. When the root begins with a vowel, the interfix is placed immediately before the vowel. Examples:

from cáon (to eat), cumaraón (person going to, or expected to, eat), [[21]]
from,, abót (to arrive), umarábot (person expected to arrive),
from,, arò (to ask), umaarô (person expected to ask).

Some roots without r follow the rule as if they had an r, as,

from sacá (to go up, to board), sumasáca (boarder).

Observations: 1. There are verbals formed with ma combined with the interfix r or its substitutes. This formation takes place only in the intransitive verbs commencing with the particle ca which then conveys the idea of passivity. As,

from caauód (to be ashamed), macaaráuod (shameful),
from,, cabórong̃ (to be confused), macabobórong̃ (confusing),
from,, casína (to be angry), macasisína (odious).

2. The infinitives of the verbs, which are always preceded by the particle pag, are frequently employed as substantives. In such cases the particle pag is transformed in the plural, its g being then replaced by the letter ng̃ if the root begins with a vowel or a guttural consonant, except g, or by the consonant n when the root commences with a dental consonant, or by the m if it begins with a labial. In the plural, the roots commencing with a consonant lose said consonant. When the root begins with a nasal or with the guttural g, said consonant is preserved and the g of pag is replaced by n. Examples:

from arò (to ask), cáon (to eat), dáop (to approach) bása (to read), ng̃oyng̃oy (to groan), gábot (to, pull), we have:

SINGULAR PLURAL
pag-arò (asking) pang̃arò,
pagcáon (eating) pang̃áon,
pagdáop (approaching) panáop,
pagbása (reading) pamása,
pagngoyngoy (groaning) panngóyagoy,
paggábot (pulling) pangábot,

[[22]]

3. The infinitives of roots commencing with the particle ca are also used as substantives, and then with or without the prefix pag.

from cabido (to be sorry), pagcabídò, cabídò, (sorrow).

In such cases, the affix an or on is sometimes employed, as

from casáquit (to be sad), casaquítan (sadness),
from,, casína (to be angry), casinahón (anger).

COMPOUND

The use gives the following:

from solód (to enter) and baláy (house), sólodbálay, which means the person who thru his intimacy with the occupant of a house, enters in at any time;
from sacá (to go up) and lúsad (to go down), sacálúsad, applied to the person who is very busy or who suffers a great misfortune and goes up and down the house repeatedly. It is also applied to boys or girls who go out the house frequently, especially without permission of their parents;
from dosô (to push) and bótong (to pull), dosô-bótong,[24] applied to a person who takes determinations that are contradictory;
from cábcab (to scratch) and tocâ (what a bird does when it picks up or bites something with its beak), cábcabtocâ, applied to persons who have to expend for their subsistence all that they gain by their work;
from di, contraction of dirì (not), abotón, from abót (to reach), and calóton, from cálot (to scratch), [[23]]diabotóncalóton, applied to that part of the human back, which our hands cannot reach to scratch when it itches;
from tábag (help), ha, a preposition for the objective case, among̃ámong̃ (to malign); tabaghaamong̃-ámong̃, applied to those who maliciously pretend to help a person in trouble, but injure him. Etc.

DERIVATIVE

We consider under this heading the nouns derived from other nouns. Those originated from a verb are already treated as verbals. Most of the derivatives are adjectives.

The derivatives, like the verbal, are formed with particles, prefixes, interfixes, and affixes.

The usual particles are ca, ma, maca, mag, maqui, hi, pala, tag, as prefixes; r, in as interfixes; and an, on as affixes. As,

from pauà (light), capanà (clearness)
from,, áram (wisdom), maáram (wise)
from,, bayáu (brother in law), mabaráyau (brother-in-law-to-be)
from,, bidò (sorrow), macabibidò (sorrowful)
from,, isdà (fish), maquiisdà (fond of fish)
from,, púsod (navel), himósod (payment for attending to the navel of a new-born child)
from,, bugtò (brother or sister), magbugtò (referring to two persons who are brothers or sisters)[25]
from,, bisaya (bisayan), binisaya (bisayan tongue)
from,, salâ (fault or guilt), saláan (guilty)
from,, búuà[26] (lie), buuáon (liar).

[[24]]

Ca bears the idea of quality, and is used alone or in combination with the affix an. As

from hatáas (high), cahatáas (height),
from,, dáot (bad), caraótan, carát’an (badness).
from,, pauà (light), capauà (clearness).

It is sometimes combined with the interfix in and the joined affix anon, as

from masúgot (obedient), camasinug’tánon (obedience).

Ma conveys the idea of abundance and future condition. In the first case, it is added at the beginning of the primitive, which is the form of great many adjectives, as,

from ísog (courage, rage), maísog (courageous);

and when it means future condition, it is used with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive, as,

from asáua (wife), maarasauá (woman betrothed)

The particle ma is frequently combined with the interfix in and the affix on or ánon. In plural, the ma is appended with g. As

from túman (performance), matinumánon (faultless) plural, magtinumánon
from,, sugót (obedience), masinug’tánon (obedient)

It is also used without any affix, and then the primitive is doubled as from tubâ (a wine) matubatubâ (person or thing that smells as tubâ).

Maca has the idea of potentiality, and is added to the beginning of the primitive, by doubling the first syllable of the primitive or by using the intermix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive. As,

from álo (shame), macaaálo (shameful),
from,, lípay (joy), macalilípay (rejoicer),
from,, budlay (grievance), macaburúdlay (grievous).

Mag conveys the idea of mutual relationship, and also [[25]]of continuity in a few cases. It is simply added at the beginning of the primitive.

Relationship. Examples:

from patód (cousin), magpatód (cousins each other).

It is sometimes appended with tala, as from amáy (father), magtalaamáy (father and son, or father and daughter).

The derivatives formed with mag conveying the idea of mutual relationship, are always in plural.

Continuity. Examples:

from ága (morning), Mag-ága (the whole night until the morning);
from,, colóp (evening); magcólop (the whole day until the evening.)

Maqui signifies the idea of fondness, and is employed without any other transformative particle, as,

from Dyos[27] (God), maquidyos (pious).

It is used in very few cases to form verbals, as

from hámpang̃ (to be present during a conversation), maquihahampang̃on (person fond of being present or taking part in a conversation).

Hi, as transformative particle of derivatives, conveys the idea of boldness, and also of consideration, or of payment. We have seen that it means boldness when joined to verbs to form verbal nouns[28]. As to its use, it follows here the same rules as when employed with verbs. Examples:

from quinatsilâ (Spanish language), hing̃inatsilà (one who ventures to talk Spanish, knowing but little of it). [[26]]
from,, apóy (grandfather), hing̃apóy
from,, púsod (navel), himósod[29]

Pala means resemblance. It is combined with the affix an. As,

from buyo (betel nut), palabuyóan (applied to the wine of cocoanut, that resembles the taste of the betel nut)
from,, biráu (a plant), palabirauán (applied to the fruit of cocoanut that resembles the color of biráu)
from,, camote (sweet potato), palacamotián (applied to the fruit of “nang̃ca” (a tree) that resembles the color of camote)
from,, gátas (milk) palagatásan (applied to the young rice or corn whose grain is yet liquid resembling the milk)

Tag conveys the idea of ownership or authorship. It is simply added to the primitive. As

from baláy (house), tagbaláy (owner of a house)
from,, sugò (order), tagsugò (author of an order).

It is sometimes used to indicate distribution, and then it is frequently combined with the prefix ma preceding it. As

from túig (year), tagtuig (year by year)
from,, ádlao (day), matag-ádlao (every day).

These last particles are sometimes replaced by iquina which expresses the same idea. As

from túig, adlao, búlan (month), pagcáon (meal)
iquinatúig (every year)
iquinaadlao (every day)
iquinabulan (every month)
iquinapagcáon, (every meal)

[[27]]

The interfix r, which bears no particular meaning, is here employed under the same rules as those established for its use in the figurative and verbal nouns.

The interfix in expresses imitation. It is added at the beginning of the primitive if the latter commences with a vowel. Otherwise, it is placed before the first vowel of the primitive. As,

from Súlug[30] (the archipelago of Súlu),
sinulúg (a fight or dance after the Suluan fashion)
from tuyáo (crazy),
tinuyáo (foolishness)
from ínsic (chinaman),
ininsic (chinese language; ways; or habit).

An and on among the derivatives, signify the idea of abundance or participation, an frequently conveying the idea of place. Both are appended to the primitive without any other particle, and complemented with an h, in the same way as in the formation of verbals.[31] Examples:

from pálad (fate), paláran[32] (fortunate),
from,, asáua (wife), asauáhan (married man),
from,, salapi (silver, money), salapian (wealthy)
from,, curi (difficulty), curián (stubborn person)
from,, sumat (information), sumatán (credulous)
from,, burabud (fountain), buraburon[33] (place where there are many fountains)
from,, taro (wax), taróhon (an object that has wax on)
from,, tubac (ant), tubacón (a thing that has ants on.)

[[28]]

These particles are sometimes employed jointly, the an preceding the on. This compound affix, anon, bears the idea of great abundance, or birth or residence place, and is preceeded by an h according to the same rules established for an and on. Examples:

from mang̃gad (wealth), mang̃gáran (wealthy), manggaránon (rich).
from,, abacá (hemp), abacáhan (person that has hemp), abacahànon (person that owns much hemp),
from,, Tan-auan (a town so called), tan-auananon (native or resident of Tanauan).
from,, Palo (a town so called), paloánon contracted palon’on (native or resident of Palo),
from,, Tolosa (a town), tolosahanon, contracted tolosán’hon (native or resident of Tolosa),
from,, Dagami (a town), dagamiánon, contracted dagamin’on (native or resident of Dagami),
from,, Maasin (a town), maasinánon, contracted maasinhon[34] (native or resident of Maasin),
from,, Sugbu (Cebú), sugbuánon, (native or resident of Cebú),
from,, Samar (province so called), samaránon, contracted samárnon (native or resident of Sámar),
from,, Manila (Manila), manilaanon, contracted manilan’on (native or resident of Manila).
from,, America (America), americahanon, contracted americanhon[35] (American).

OBSERVATIONS. There are other forms of derivatives, viz: ca cat iquina or quina, taga, tagum or tagun, hi.

Ca means also company, as from tupad (to be side by side) catúpad (the person side by side). [[29]]

Cat means season, as from “áni” (harvest), “cat-aní” (harvest time).

Iquina or quina expresses nature, as from “táuo” (man), “buhi” (alive), “iquinatáuo” (property peculiar to men), “quinabuhi” (life).

Taga, means origin or residence, posession, or measure, as from “Leyte” (Island so called), “súndang̃” (bolo), “íroc” (armpits), we have: “taga Leyte” (from Leyte), “tagasúndang” (one who bears a bolo), “tagairoc” (up to the armpits). When this particle taga means measure, it is sometimes replaced by pa, as from “háuac” (belly), “paháuác” (up to the belly).

Tagum expresses the idea of power, virtue, or peculiarity. When the primitive commences with n, the m of tagum is suppressed. When the primitive begins with a consonant not labial, the said m is replaced by n. It is sometimes combined with the affix an, As: from “matá” (eye) “baba” (mouth), “lipong” (confusion), we have “tagumatá” (peculiar disease of the eye), “tagumbabáan” (person whose words have a peculiar power or virtue), “tagunlipóng̃an” (one who has the power to make himself invisible).

Hi is also combined with the interfix r and the affix an, as from “polós” (profit), “himorólsan” (profitable). Among verbs ha is used instead of hi, as from “cáon” (to eat), “hacaraón” (eatable).

NOTE.—The past participles take sometimes the affix an, as

from cauil (fish-hook), quinauilán (fish caught with “cauil”)
bitánà (a kind of fishing net), binitanáan (fish caught with “bitanà”).

from cauil (fish-hook), quinauilán (fish caught with “cauil”)
bitánà (a kind of fishing net), binitanáan (fish caught with “bitanà”).

There are other transformative particles not so important as those already mentioned, and which the use will show to the student.

PROPER AND COMMON

Like in other tongues there is in Bisayan a distinction between proper and common nouns. Tacloban, Catbalaógan, [[30]]Ilong̃-ílong̃ (Iloilo), Espanya (Spain), Pedro (Peter), Guillermo (William), etc., are proper nouns; bucad (flower), bató (stone), áyam (dog), etc., are common.

The Bisayan language has also familiar names for persons. As

of Pedro, Péndong̃, Endong̃, Edóng̃, Edós, Pedó, etc;
of,, Juan, Uáuang̃, Uauay, Uáuà, Uuán, Uuâ, etc;
of,, Vicente, Tenteng̃, Titíng̃, Sente, Setée, etc;
of,, Rafael, Pápeng̃, Paéng̃, Paél, Pápè, etc;
of,, Margarito, Titong̃, Itong̃, Titoy, Itoy, etc.;
of,, Francisco, Quicoy, Incoy, Quicò, etc;
of,, Juana, Uánday, Uáday, etc.;
of,, Antonio, Tónyo, Todóc, etc.;
of,, Alejandro, Andong̃, Andoy, etc.;
of,, Isabel, Sabel, etc.;
of,, Gregorío, Goyóng̃, etc.;
of,, Saturnino, Satúr, etc.;
of,, Claudia, Calán, etc.

Among the names of places, there are a few formed by the preposition can (which means possession or property), and the particles ca (which denotes abundance), and guin (which conveys the idea of past passive action), as

Cansámqui (a place, which probably belonged formerly to one named Samqui)
Can-orquin (place probably owned formerly by one called Orquin)
Canramos,[36] transformed Carrámos (place probably owned or possessed in former times by one named Ramos) [[31]]
Cabuyúan (place where formerly there was much “buyu” (betelnut))
Cabalían (place where the strong current of the sea breaks the oars (balì))
Guintiguían (place in the “San Juanico strait,” where the strong current of the sea tests the rowers (tigui))
Guintúlyan (a place in Basáy, Samar, where probably many fishes were caught (tulúy) with nets.)
Etc.

NOTE.—The names of persons among the Bisayan people are all Christian at the present time. Many of the surnames are Spanish, many others being of Bisayan origin as Lágbas, Pócpoc, Macasáit, Cabaobao, Balasbas, Yagomyom, etc.

To indicate relationship, as the English papa, mamma, and respect, confidence, or tenderness, there are a number of Bisayan nouns, which show by themselves the relation between the speaker or writer and the person to whom the noun is applied. Examples:

There are others applied to grandfathers and grandmothers, and also to those persons who act or are considered as fathers or mothers. Examples:

NOTE.—The word cuán (so and so), not meaning anything by itself, is applied to persons or things whose names the speaker or writer does not know, or venture, or wish to express. As the phrase “so and so”, it helps a great deal in a conversation, and is used also instead of the verbs and other parts of speech.

The words inín (contracted of iní nga) and adâ (I guess, perhaps) are also used in the conversation, as auxiliary particles, they being then equivalent to the English why.

Examples:

POSITIVE, COMPARATIVE, AND SUPERLATIVE.

As in other languages, there are three degrees for adjectives, also used for substantives in Bisayan. These degrees are positive, comparative and superlative.

Nothing particular needs be observed about the positive degree, except what is mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs: [[33]]

The comparatives are formed exactly in the same way as the figuratives[38], the number of syllables being disregarded, as if all has more than two syllables.

from hatáas (high), harohataás (higher),
from,, hobóg (intoxicated), horohobóg (more intoxicated),
from,, táuo (man), tarotauó (more of a man).

In the formation of adjectives prefixed with ma, this particle is preferably disregarded, as if such particle did not exist, as

from maópay (good), maoroopáy (better)
from,, magbuság (white), maboroboság (whiter), etc.

There is another form of comparative consisting in the use of the combined particles labi (more) and ca, as

labí ca maopay (better),
labí ca mabusag (whiter).

This last form is sometimes used for superlatives.

The superlatives are of three classes:

Those which do not admit any comparison, and which we call absolute or supreme superlatives, as

guimaopáyi (the best of all);

those which are not so absolute, and which we call ordinary superlative, as,

capín ca maópay (very good);
maopay nga capín
maopay hin sogóng̃[39]

and those which convey the idea of excess, and which we call excessive superlatives, as [[34]]

uraúra[40] ca maópay (to good).
maópay ng̃a uraúra

As is seen from the preceding examples, the supreme supertive is formed by adding to the beginning of the primitive the prefix gui and by appending to said primitive the affíx i. The first syllable of the primitive may be doubled as use permits. As,

from hatáas (high, tall), guihataási, or guihahataasi (the highest)
táuo (man), guitáu’i (a true and perfect man).

The first form is also adopted for the substantives to show the highest degree of identity as in this phrase:

The ordinary superlative is formed with the particles capin ca or labí ca placed before the primitive, or with the particles caópay, ng̃a capin, or hin sogong̃ put after the primitive. As,

from mabido (sorry)
capín ca mabidò (very sorry)
labí ca mabidò
mabidò caopay
mabidò ng̃a capín
mabidò hin sogóng̃

Some of the adjectives formed with particle ma, have another form for ordinary superlative, in doubling their root and disregarding the prefix ma, as from “masiróm” (dark), “masiromsiróm”[41] (very dark).

The excessive superlative is formed with the particle [[35]]uraúra ca placed before the primitive, or the particle ng̃a uraúra located after the root. As,

from maasín (salty)
uraúra ca maasín (excessively salty)
maasín ng̃a uraúra

The idea of the excessive superlative is also expressed sometimes with the particles “lapás ca” (excessively), or with the phrase “dirí sonô hin ca” or “dirì socól hin ca” (out of measure), placed before the primitive, as

NOTE.—The particles “labi” and “capin” take sometimes the affix an, as

from mahúsay (orderly, beautiful),
labínan ca mahúsay (very beautiful);
from masáquit (painful),
masáquit ng̃a capínan (very painful).

CARDINAL, ORDINAL, PARTITIVE, AND DISTRIBUTIVE.

The cardinal adjectives are the following:

usá, contracted us, (one)
duhá (two)
tuló (three)
upát (four)
limá (five)
unóm (six)
pitó (seven)
ualó (eight)
siyám (nine)
napulò[42] (ten) [[36]]
napulo cag[43] usá (eleven).
caruhaán[44] (twenty)
catloán (thirty)
cap’atán (forty)
calim’an (fifty)
caúnman (sixty)
capitoán (seventy)
caualoán (eighty)
casiyamán (ninety)
usá ca gatós (one hundred)
duhá ca gatós (two hundred)
usá ca yocót (one thousand)
usá ca ríbo[45] (ten thousand)
usá cagatós ca ribo (one million), etc.

As it is noticed above, the cardinals are formed by the preposition “cag” (and), the prefix “ca” (which means collection) and the affix “an”, added to the primitives “usá, duhá, tuló, upáo, lima, unóm, pitó, ualó, siyám, napulo, gatós, yocót, ribo”, the phonetical reasons being taken in consideration. Thus we say:

The word “usa” is frequently contracted, especially in familiar language, by the supression of the last vowel. Thus:

us ca gatos instead of “usá” ca etc.
us ca yocót
us ca ribo

[[37]]

In reading the numbers, the English way is followed, the particles “uga may” being sometimes employed especially in cases of large amounts. Thus, to read this number

987654321,

we would say:

“Casiyamán cag ualó cayocót, pitó cagatós caúnman cag limá caribo, ng̃a may upát ca yocót, tuló ca gatós caruhaán cag usá.”

NOTE—In Bisayan, there is no word corresponding to the English zero (0). However, its figure is used in Bisayan. It is suggested that the word “lung̃ág” (empty), or “uaráy” (nothing) be adopted as corresponding to the word “zero” which is derived from modern Latin zephiram from Arabic cafrun, cifrun or sefer (empty).

The ordinals are formed by employing the particles “ica” (which bears the idea of order), placed before the cardinal. As

The ordinal of usa has also simple forms, as siyahan, siyapá, and frequently admits the particle icag instead of ica, as icag usá.

The partitives have exactly the same form, as the ordinals, except in that the ordinals cag usa, siyahan and siyapá are never used as partitives; and that there is the form tung̃â and its variants catung̃â, tung̃â or catung̃â hin or ng̃a (half), employed instead of icaduhà.

The phrase ca bahín (part) is frequently used in the partitives to avoid confusion. Thus [[38]]

an icaupát ca bahín (the fourth part)

The particle ica is sometimes contracted into caas “catung̃a” (half), “cauróg” (most).

The distributives are formed by adding to the cardinals the particle tag (which conveys the idea of distribution). As

tag dúha (two, each)
tag caualóan (eighty, each)
tag yúcot (thousand, each)

When the distributive bears the meaning of portion, the particle iquina is combined with tag. As

iquina tag duha (each two), etc.

COLLECTIVE

The collective nouns are formed by adding at the beginning of the primitive the prefix ca (which bears the idea of collection or reunion) and the affix an. As,

from bata (boy or girl), cabatáan (reunion of boys or girls)
táuo (person), catauóhan (reunion of persons).
duhá (two), caruhaán (twenty).

These forms are very frequently used to make the plural of the nouns, as of the singular batá we make the plural.

mga batà or cabataan.

NOTE—The particle ca is also employed to express abstract ideas, as

from buság (white color), mabuság (white), camabuság (whiteness)

The particle pag is sometimes added at the beginning of the particle, as

pagcamabuság (whiteness).

The collectives take also the form of the figuratives with or without the particles ca and an, as the use may permit, as [[39]]

caborobong̃tóhan,
borobóng̃to.

NOTE.—There is another class of nouns which may be called depreciative. They are limited in number. The following belong to such class:

for batà (child),

for anác (son or daughter)

for baba (mouth)

for camót (hand)

for tiil (foot)

There are despectives derived from their primitives, as,

The variations to which the Bisayan names are subject, are: gender, number, and cases. [[40]]

Gender.

The gender is scarcely regarded. We have however for few nouns the natural and grammatical genders.

Examples of natural gender:

MASCULINE FEMININE
laláqui (male person) babaye (woman)
lalaquí (male not person) babayé (female not person)
amay (father) iróy (mother)
bána (husband) asáua (wife)
bata (uncle) dadâ (aunt)
baylo (brother in law) hipág (sister in law), etc.

Examples of gramatical gender:

MASCULINE FEMININE
dudoy[50] duday
tutoy tutay
idoy iday
intoy inday
mano mana
manoy manáy
manong manang[51]
tío tía[52], etc.

Number

The plural is determined by the particle mga or by those for collectives as formerly seen[53], or by the interfix g among the adjectives. Examples:

When the noun is preceded by numeral adjectives, the singular keeps its form, as

Some adjectives do not admit the interfix g, for euphonical reason, as

Case.

There is no inflection for Bisayan nouns to distinguish their different cases, as in Greek and Latin. The cases are determined by the prepositions and by variable parts of speech preceding the noun.

IMPORTANT OBSERVATION.

There are great many Bisayan nouns composed of the same letters, but which have different meanings according to the accent they bear. Of these are the following:

anáy (she-hog), ánay (before)
apó (grandson or grand-daughter), ápò (a thing fully introduced)
áyao (distributive possession), ayáo (no, imperative)
bábà (mouth), babá (to carry a thing on the back)
babáye (woman), babayé (female not person)
baga (red-hot coal or wood), bága (lung), bagá (like)
bálay (turn), baláy (house)
bálod (a kind of dove), balód (wave)
bálos (return), balós (revenge)
bánus (abundant, thick), banús (to scrub)
bárang̃ (an amulet), baráng (knot) [[42]]
bayáo (brother-in-law), báyao (to lift up)
bucád (flower), búcad (to dig up)
búhat (work), buhát (to raise)
buhi (alive), buhi (losse)
buláo (yellow), búlao (to provoke a stranger)
búrong[54] (fog), buróng (to throw)
busà (reprimand), búsà (therefore)
cóbal (thread), cobál (corn, callosity)
comót (sinked), cómot (quick)
dósol (pain of the stomack), dosól (despective form of “cáon”, to eat)
hóron (to pass the night), horón (farm)
igo, (just), igô (to be hit)
lága (flame), lagà (cooked)
láya (a net for fishing), layà (to wither), layâ (withered)
laláqui (man), lalaquí (male, not person)
látos (reaching, overtaking), latós (to whip)
lúya (weakness), luyà (lime), luyâ (restlessness), luy-a (ginger)
muláy (play), múlay (to teach)
obós (low), óbos (to exhaust)
usá or usâ (one), úsa (to marvel)
úpa (reward), upá (rice chaff)
pátag (plane), patág (a kind of basket)
píli (a tree so called), pilì (to select)
pálad (palm), palád (a fish)
pusò (flower of banana), pusô (rice especially cooked)
pusâ (pounded), pusà (to wash the feet)
púto (a dainty so called), pútò (partition), putó (last son or daughter)
sábot (agreement), sabót (filement or to understand)
sácay, (passenger or companion on a boat), sacáy (to embark)
sócot (frequent), socót (to collect) [[43]]
súso (teat), susò (thickset), susô (a mollusk so called)
tíao (joke), tiáo (maniac)
tíma (finished), timá (uneven)
túba (a plant so called), tubâ (wine from cocoanut or nipa)
tubó (sugar-cane), túbò (to grow), etc.

Transposition of accents.

The accent of a word frequently changes its place upon its transformation.

In the diminutives formed by repetition of the root or by the affix ay, the acute accent is always placed upon the penult. As

from baláy, balaybálay
from,, saróual, sarouálay
from,, balóto, balotóhay.

The grave accent of the root is preserved; and its angular accent becomes grave, which is preserved in its repetition. As

from dacò, dacòdácò
from,, bohô (hole), bohòbóhò (little hole).

When the primitive has the acute accent on its penult, said accent is transferred to the last syllable of the original primitive, the repeated primitive following the preceding rules. As.

from dáhon, dahóndáhon
from,, cáhoy, cahoycáhoy
from,, halípot, halipótay
from,, maópáy, maopay-ópay
from,, hatáas, hataastáas

In the figuratives, the same rules are followed; and when the interfix ro is employed, the primitive generally loses its acute accent which is placed upon the penult of the figurative. As

from sacayán, sarosacáyan.

[[44]]

In the verbal nouns, it is a general rule that when the verb root has its acute accent on its penult, its verbals have said accent trasplaced to their last syllables, and viceversa, as

from sarát, (to write), from bása (to read)
parasúrat parabasá
tigsúrat tigbasá
magsusúrat magbarasá
susurátan barasahán
susuráton barasahón
masúrat mabasá
isusúrat, ibarasá;

except when the transformative particle is ma meaning desirableness, in which case the acute accent is always on the last syllable; and also in case of the particle hi, where the accent is always put on the penult. As

In case where the penult, of the verb root is necessarily long, as when its vowel is followed by more than one consonant, and when the last syllable of the root is pronounced independently from the consonant or consonants preceding it, then the original acute accent of the root is preserved on the penult of the verbal. As

from cánhi (to come), dól-ong (to bear, to accompany)
paracánhi paradól-ong
tigcánhi tigdól-ong
cumaránhi domoról-ong
caranhían dorol-óngan
caranhíon dorol-óngon
macanhíon madol-óngon
icaránhi idoról-ong
hang̃aránhi hinonól-ong

In the derivatives, when the accent is on the penult of the primitive, it is also placed on the penult of the [[45]]derivative; and when the accent is on the last syllable of the primitive, it is also put on the last syllable of the derivative, as

from áram, maáram
bayáu, mabaráyau
púsod, himósod
búua, buuáon
tubác, tubacón.

It must be noted that we refer to the acute accent. It sometimes happens that the last syllable of the primitive has angular accent, in which case such accent is discomposed, the grave being kept and the acute being transposed to the penult of the derivative, as

from salâ, saláan,

where the a of the penult really bears two accents, angular and grave, the angular not being employed for the reason that is it not necessary, as the last two aa are pronounced separately[55], and because it is not proper, as the angular accent is only used at the endings of the words.[56]

In the derivatives formed with taga, or tag, or maqui the accent of the root is not changed. As

from bódo, (salted fish), tagabódo
baláy (house), tagbaláy
calámay (dark sugar) maquicalámay

The comparatives formed with, the interfix ro, have always the accent on the last syllable no matter where it was in the primitive. As

from halábà (long), harohalabâ
uguis (white), urouguís.

The superlatives formed with the prefix gui and the affix i always have the accent on the penult, without regarding where it was in the primitive. As [[46]]

from halárum (deep), guihahalarúmi
matahúm (beautiful), guimamatahúmi

The collectives follow the way in which their primitives are accented, so, if their, primitives have the accent on the penult, they have it on the penult, and when the primitives have the accent on the last syllable they also have it on their last syllables. As

from bátà (child), cabatáan
baláy (house), cabalayán.

It must be observed also that there are nouns which, thru phonetical variations, have more than one forms. Of such words are the following:

báchò, bíchò (groaning)
bándoc, búndac (kick)
guipic, guipác (broken)
guisî, gusî, quisî, cusî (sagged)
Panalaron, Palanaron, Planaron (one of the suburbs of the town of Tacloban),[57]
piló, lopí (fold)
quíróg, coróg (trembling)
quirógpos, corógpos (surtout)
sitsit, sutsut (whistle)
taclap, taplac (blanket), etc.

There are also words composed of the same letters but sounding differently and having different meanings thereby, on account of the separation with which some of their syllables are pronounced. As

bágo (a tree), bag-o (new)
lauay (saliva), lau-ay (repugnance)
tagóc (resin), tág-oc (inarticulate voice). [[47]]
bágang (an insect), bág-ang (grinder)
bútol (bulky), bút-ol (throat)
bulánon (moony), bul’ánon (from Bohol), etc.

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