II. Evolution in the Early Middle Ages
That the Latin processional hymn appeared first in Gaul should surprise no one. It has already been suggested that the hymns among the Carmina of Fortunatus were created in the atmosphere of freedom enjoyed by Gallic hymn writers in accordance with contemporary canons. Always a poet of the occasion, Fortunatus wrote three hymns for the reception of a relic believed to be of the true Cross, which was presented to Rhadegunda, his patron, by the Byzantine Emperor, Justin II and his wife Sophia, for the convent at Poitiers. As a final stage in the journey from Constantinople, the relic was borne in procession from Migné to Poitiers, accompanied by Euphronius, Bishop of Tours. On this day the hymn, Vexilla regis prodeunt, was first heard.[14] Two others, Pange lingua and Crux benedicta (see [Chapter One]) were devoted by Fortunatus to the same theme of the Holy Cross, although it cannot be proved that they were sung in the same procession.
The Resurrection hymn, Tempora florigero rutilant distincta sereno, “Season of luminous days, marked bright with the birth of flowers,” (Carm. 3. 9), was originally written for the Easter baptismal rites celebrated by Felix, Bishop of Nantes (d. 582). It was a poem of 110 lines or 55 elegiac couplets, from which the cento of 28 lines beginning Salve festa dies, “Hail thee, festival day,” was later selected for an Easter processional.[15]
The metrical models provided by Pange lingua of the trochaic pattern and Salve festa dies, the elegiac, continued to be employed throughout the Middle Ages for processional hymnody, the elegiac excelling in popularity. First in the original hymn, then in centos and finally in imitative verse adapted to a multitude of feasts, Salve festa dies was never superseded but maintained the influence of Fortunatus for centuries.
Spain must have known the processional hymn soon after its appearance in Gaul, perhaps in the seventh century. Here, the Palm Sunday festival seems to have been the source of inspiration for the procession and blessing of palms is mentioned by Isidore of Seville as an observance of his day.[16] Contemporary evidence indicates a similar procession in Italy.[17] The use of a processional hymn, however, is not as clearly indicated.
It seems probable that the seventh century hymn, Magnum salutis gaudium (A. H. 51. 73), “O great joy of salvation,” is one of the earliest to be assigned for Palm Sunday. It is a simple rendering in the Ambrosian style, of the events recounted in the biblical narrative.[18] In the early centuries when the concept of a specific processional hymn for a particular festival was almost unheard of, a familiar hymn from the old hymnals might be used in the new ceremonies. It has been suggested that Magnum salutis gaudium was known to Theodulphus, who in the ninth century wrote the Palm Sunday processional hymn, Gloria laus et honor, for all the ages.
Processions, thus far, have been thought of chiefly, as wholly or in part outside the church edifice. Processions within the edifice were also frequently observed. A procession of the clergy, in connection with which psalms and antiphons were sung, preceded the Sunday high mass; another took place as the Gospel codex was carried to its place for reading. Other ceremonies within the church, aside from the liturgy proper, were sometimes accompanied by hymns.[19]
Perhaps the earliest hymn in use at a special ceremony, once more a selection from the hymnal, was Audi, iudex mortuorum (A. H. 51. 80), “Hear Thou Judge of the dead,” sung on Holy Thursday at the consecration of the chrism.[20] The words O redemptor, sume carmen temet concinentium, “O Redeemer, accept the hymn of Thy people magnifying Thee,”[21] formed a refrain, a metrical feature which came to be the unmistakable mark of the processional hymn.
In this early period from the sixth to the tenth century, a new idea and a new practice came into being, the use of hymns apart from those of the canonical hours and the sequences of the mass. The ninth century revival of hymnody in all its branches was taking place in western Europe just as this period came to a close, in connection with which the processional hymn was inevitably affected as the office hymn and the sequence had been by a fresh inspiration to poetry and worship. The movement came to fruition at St. Gall where the musical and ceremonial aspects of that great monastic center were so highly developed, a center which had contributed so heavily to the Carolingian revival of literature and the arts.
The French liturgical scholar, Leon Gautier, whose contributions to the study of medieval hymnology have already been mentioned, was the first to identify the processional hymn as a trope or liturgical interpolation. In a study of the St. Gall processional hymns he observed that they were classified by the name versus which in itself points to a separate hymnic category. Other earlier hymns used in processions were there called versus. Gautier discovered that musical notation always appeared with the versus, an indication that these hymns were invariably chanted and he noted that the versus, in the manner of the hymn O redemptor, sume carmen, cited above, was without exception, accompanied by a refrain.[22]
The processional hymns of St. Gall, like the sequences, bore the characteristic marks of the hymnic group to which they belonged. From this stage in their evolution they were set apart by their music, classification and refrain.
The wider circle of Carolingian liturgical interest included hymn writers other than those of St. Gall: Theodulphus of Orleans, Walafrid Strabo of Reichenau, Rabanus Maurus of Fulda, Radbert of Corbie, who with Waldram and Hartmann of St. Gall wrote processional hymns. The hymns of Theodulphus and of Rabanus Maurus have been considered above.
Other great festivals of the ecclesiastical year and of the saints were now observed with processional honors for which new hymns were written; special ceremonies also, were thus recognized. Hartmann wrote the elegiac hymn Salve, lacteolo decoratum sanguine festum (A. H. 50. 251), “Hail festival, graced with the blood of the Innocents,” for the Feast of the Holy Innocents. The processional hymns of Rabanus Maurus were heard at Nativity, Easter and possibly the Feast of the Purification. The dramatic spirit, always present in the true processional is felt in all these hymns while the refrain reiterates the message of the feast:
for Easter,
R. Surrexit quia Christus a sepulcro,
Collaetetur homo choro angelorum. (A. H. 50. 190)
Since Christ has risen from the tomb,
Let man rejoice with the choir of angels.
for the Nativity,
R. Christo nato, rege magno
totus orbis gaudeat. (A. H. 50. 186)
Since Christ is born, the mighty king,
let the whole earth rejoice.
Processional hymns for saints are represented by Radbert’s hymn honoring St. Gall,
R. Annua, sancte Dei, celebramus festa diei,
Qua, pater, e terris sidera, Galle, petis. (A. H. 50. 241)
We celebrate, O Saint of God, our yearly feast on this day
When thou, father Gallus, dost leave the earth for heaven.
To celebrate the life and miracles of a patron saint was frequently the inspiration of a medieval procession, which, in the case of St. Gall, passed beyond the precincts of the monastery into the streets of the town.[23] It is no wonder that the tradition of these processions, furnished with all the splendor of festival vestments, of robed choirs, of monastic treasures and sacred banners should have made St. Gall unique.
The Sunday processions were sometimes accompanied by imposing hymns in the form of litanies. It should not be forgotten that the ancient Christian processions were, in great part, of this nature. Waldram, Hartmann and Radbert wrote such hymns but Hartmann’s was evidently a favorite, Summus et omnipotens genitor, qui cuncta creasti, “Mighty and omnipotent father, who hast created all things,” with the refrain,
R. Humili prece et sincera devotione
Ad te clamantes semper exaudi nos. (A. H. 50. 253)
With humble prayer and pure devotion,
Ever hear us as we cry to Thee.
It seems probable that the custom of singing a hymn in the procession before the reading of the Gospel originated at St. Gall. Hartmann provided a beautiful versus for this purpose,
Sacrata libri dogmata
Portantur evangelici. (A. H. 50. 250)
The sacred words of the
Gospel are borne.
A versus for the reception of the Eucharist was written by Radbert, Laudes omnipotens, ferimus tibi dona colentes (A. H. 50. 239), “In reverence, Almighty, we bring our praises as gifts to Thee.” The Blessing of the Font on Holy Saturday inspired his Versus ad Descensum fontis (A. H. 50. 242-3). Among the ceremonies most characteristic of medieval piety was that of Mandatum or foot-washing, commemorating the act of Jesus in washing his disciples’ feet, (John 13; 1-15). The name “Maundy Thursday” is a modern survival of the ancient terminology.[24] The hymn associated with this rite appears first in Gaul in the eighth or ninth century and may have been current in Italy in monastic centers. The antiphon, Ubi caritas et amor, Deus ibi est, “Where charity is and love, God is there,” is at once the motive and refrain of this hymn, Congregavit nos in unum Christi amor (A. H. 12. 24), “The love of Christ has united us,” which follows the scriptural account.[25]
The student must turn once more to the great monastic centers of the Germanic world for processional hymns honoring royalty. Visits of kings and emperors to St. Gall and other noted monasteries were by no means uncommon; that colorful processions and demonstrations of loyalty were a part of their reception cannot be doubted. Walafrid Strabo celebrates the visit of Lothair to Reichenau with the hymn,
R. Imperator magne, vivas
semper et feliciter. (A. H. 50. 176)
Live, O mighty emperor
ever in felicity.
Walafrid Strabo praised Charles, son of Louis the Pious, and Radbert, the Empress Richgard. Other processionals could be used on the occasion of the coming of any royal visitor.
Vatican manuscripts offer evidence of contemporary processions in Italy and Rome, the city of their origin. From this source is derived the processional hymn Sancta Maria, quid est? (A. H. 23. 74), “Sancta Maria, what meaneth this?” written for the procession which marked the eve of the Feast of the Assumption, about the year 1000. Specific directions for the route, the order of precedence and every detail of the ceremonial are available, while the hymn itself depicts the devotion and human appeal attending this night time scene in Rome.[26]