PROSODY.
PROSODY treats of the modulations of the voice according to the usages of the language we speak, and the sentiments we wish to express: hence, in its most extensive sense, it comprises all the laws of elocution.
Prosody is commonly divided into two parts: the first teaches the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone; and the second, the laws of versification.
Accent. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word presúme, the stress of the voice must be on the letter u and the second syllable, sume, which syllable takes the accent.
Every word of more syllables than one, has one accented syllable. For the sake of euphony or distinctness in a long word, we frequently give a secondary accent to another syllable besides the one which takes the principal accent; as, 'tes ti mo' ni'al, a ban'don 'ing.
Quantity. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short.
A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel; which causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letters; as, "Fāll, bāle, mōōd, hōūse, fēature."
A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant; which causes the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; "as, ănt, bŏnnĕt, hŭngĕr."
A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pronouncing it; thus, "māte" and "nōte" should be pronounced as slowly again as "măt" and "nŏt."
Emphasis. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of the voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress.
Emphasis will be more fully explained under the head of Elocution.
Pauses. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time.
Tones. Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; consisting in the modulation of the voice, or the notes or variations of sound which we employ in the expression of our sentiments.
Emphasis affects particular words and phrases; but tones affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse.
PUNCTUATION.
PUNCTUATION is the art of dividing written composition into sentences or parts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to mark the different pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require.
The Comma represents the shortest pause; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the Colon, double that of the semicolon; and the Period, double that of the colon.
Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were entirely unacquainted with the use of points; and wrote, not only without any distinction of members and periods, but also without any distinction of words. This custom continued till the year 360 before Christ. How the ancients read their works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. After the practice of joining words together had ceased, notes of distinction were placed at the end of every word. This practice continued a considerable time.
As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place while manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods of conveying knowledge, we must conclude, that it was introduced with the art of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual: all the points did not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admiration, were produced some time after the others. The whole set, as they are now used, became established, when learning and refinement had made considerable progress.
As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the grammatical construction of sentences, their application pre-supposes, on the part of the student, a knowledge of Syntax. Although they admit of exceptions, and require a continual exercise of judgment and literary taste in applying them properly, they are of great utility, and justly merit our particular attention.
The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of punctuation, and of attending strictly to the application of its rules, is established by the single fact, that the meaning of a sentence is often totally perverted by the omission or misapplication of points. To illustrate the correctness of this remark, numerous example might be selected. The following border on the ridiculous: "Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to sea his wife, desires the prayers of this church:" "Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age, has sandy hair, light eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned up about six feet high, &c." Corrected; "Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to sea, his wife desires the prayers of this church;" "thin visage, with a short nose turned up, about six feet high, &c."
Before one enters upon the study of punctuation, it is necessary for him to understand what is meant by an adjunct, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence.
An adjunct or imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence; as, "Therefore;" "studious of praise;" "in the pursuit of commerce."—For the definition of a sentence, and a compound sentence, turn to page 119.
When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in the same manner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, the sentence is compound, and may be resolved into as many simple ones as there are adjuncts; as, "They have sacrificed their health and fortune, at the shrine of vanity, pride, and extravagance." But when the adjuncts are connected with the verb in a different manner, the sentence is simple; as, "Grass of an excellent quality, is produced in great abundance in the northern regions of our country."
COMMA.
RULE 1. The members of a simple sentence should not, in general, be separated by a comma; as, "Every part of matter swarms with living creatures."
Exercises in Punctuation.—Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness.
RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nominative is accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of importance, it may admit a comma immediately before the verb; as, "The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language;" "Too many of the pretended friendships of youth, are mere combinations in pleasure."
Exercises.—The indulgence of a harsh disposition is the introduction to future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good.
RULE 3. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence, is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the adjunct must be distinguished by a comma before and after it; as, "His work is, in many respects, very imperfect. It is, therefore, not much approved." But when these interruptions are slight and unimportant, it is better to omit the comma; as, "Flattery is certainly pernicious;" "There is surely a pleasure in beneficence."
Exercises.—Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have your failings. Humility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and ignorance under costly attire. The best men often experience disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed behavior can always hide the real character.
RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nouns in apposition when accompanied with adjuncts, must be distinguished by commas; as, "My son, give me thy heart;" "Dear Sir, I write to express my gratitude for your many kindnesses;" "I am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favors;" "Paul, the apostle, of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge;" "The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun."
But if two nouns in apposition are unattended with adjuncts, or if they form only a proper name, they should not be separated; as, "Paul the apostle, suffered martyrdom;" "The statesman Jefferson, wrote the declaration of Independence."
Exercises.—Lord thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of vengeance? Death the king of terrors chose a prime minister. Hope the balm of life sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius the great Chinese philosopher was eminently good as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph is an illustrious example of true piety.
RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood absolute with their adjuncts, a participle with words depending on it, and, generally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simple sentence, must be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, "His father dying, he succeeded to the estate;" "To confess the truth, I was in fault;" "The king, approving the plan, put it in execution;" "He, having finished his academical course, has returned home, to prosecute his professional studies."
Exercises.—Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. To enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. His talents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendering him conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and constant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose one family assembled under the eye of one common Father.
RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones by placing commas between its members; as, "The decay, the waste, and the dissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, and suggest a train of serious reflections."
Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, must be separated by commas; as, "The husband, wife,[11] and children,[12] suffered extremely;" "In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss;" "David was a brave, wise, and pious man;" "A man, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator, lives for a noble purpose;" "Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we undertake."
Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, occurring in the same construction, with their conjunctions understood, must be separated by commas; as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim;" "Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity;" "Plain, honest truth, needs no artificial covering;" "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed."
Exercises.—We have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of the mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body depresses the understanding deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades man from his rank in creation.
Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a youth. He is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his elder brother. The man of virtue and honor will be trusted relied upon and esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited timorous and base. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true lovely honest and of good report. Habits of reading writing and thinking are the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The great business of life is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy and talking humbly with our Creator. To live soberly righteously and piously comprehends the whole of our duty.
In our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes of decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. An idle trifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy person had been seriously affectionately admonished but in vain.
RULE 7. Comparative sentences whose members are short, and sentences connected with relative pronouns the meaning of whose antecedents is restricted or limited to a particular sense, should not be separated by a comma; as, "Wisdom is better than riches;" "No preacher is so successful as thee;" "He accepted what I had rejected;" "Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make;" "Subtract from many modern poets all that may be found in Shakspeare, and trash will remain;" "Give it to the man whom you most esteem." In this last example, the assertion is not of "man in general," but of "the man whom you most esteem."
But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properly inserted before the relative; as, "Man, who is born of a woman, is of few days and full of trouble;" "There is no charm in the female sex, which can supply the place of virtue."
This rule is equally applicable to constructions in which the relative is understood; as, "Value duly the privileges you enjoy;" that is, "privileges which you enjoy."
Exercises.—How much better it is to get wisdom than gold! The friendships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. Eat what is set before you. They who excite envy will easily incur censure. A man who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion our complaints of the world are wholly imaginary.
The gentle mind is like the smooth stream which reflects every object in its just proportion and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected civility which springs from a gentle mind there is an incomparable charm. The Lord whom I serve is eternal. This is the man we saw yesterday.
RULE 8. When two words of the same sort, are connected by a conjunction expressed, they must not be separated; as, "Libertines call religion, bigotry or superstition;" "True worth is modest and retired;" "The study of natural history, expands and elevates the mind;" "Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously." When words are connected in pairs, the pairs only should be separated; as, "There is a natural difference between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly;" "Whether we eat or drink, labor or sleep, we should be temperate."
But if the parts connected by a conjunction are not short, they may be separated by a comma; as, "Romances may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives to evil."
Exercises.—Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. True friendship will at all times avoid a rough or careless behavior. Health and peace a moderate fortune and a few friends sum up all the undoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless simple and sincere uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds.
RULE 9. Where the verb of a simple member is understood, a comma may, in some instances, be inserted; as, "From law arises security; from security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge." But in others, it is better to omit the comma; "No station is so high, no power so great, no character so unblemished, as to exempt men from the attacks of rashness, malice, and envy."
Exercises.—As a companion he was severe and satirical; as a friend captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms in summer there will be no beauty and in autumn no fruit. So if youth be trifled away without improvement manhood will be contemptible and old age miserable.
RULE 10. When a simple member stands as the object of a preceding verb, and its verb may be changed into the infinitive mood, the comma is generally omitted; as, "I suppose he is at rest;" changed, "I suppose him to be at rest."
But when the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative case to it, the verb to be is generally separated from the infinitive by a comma; as, "The most obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men;" "The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men."
Exercises.—They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is to be condemned by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure is to be condemned by our own hearts.
NOTES.
1. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member from the member to which it belongs, such intervening phrase appears to require a comma at each extremity; as, "They set out early, and, before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place." This rule, however, is not generally followed by our best writers; as, "If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; but if thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever;" "But if the parts connected are not short, a comma may be inserted."
2. Several verbs succeeding each other in the infinitive mood, and having a common dependance, may be divided by commas; as, "To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble employments."
3. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in the form of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma; as, "It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know;" "Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves."
4. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some marked variety, they must be distinguished by a comma; as,
"Tho' deep, yet clear; tho' gentle, yet not dull; Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full."
"Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only in union with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of each other."
Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single, the comma may be omitted; as, "Many states were in alliance with, and under the protection of Rome."
The same rule and restrictions apply, when two or more nouns refer to the same preposition; as, "He was composed both under the threatening, and at the approach, of a cruel and lingering death;" "He was not only the king, but the father of his people."
5. The words, "as, thus, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short," and all other words and phrases of a similar kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma; as, "Remember thy best friend; formerly, the supporter of thy infancy; now, the guardian of thy youth;" "He feared want; hence, he overvalued riches;" "So, if youth be trifled away," &c. "Again, we must, have food and clothing;" "Finally, let us conclude."
The foregoing rules and examples are sufficient, it is presumed, to suggest to the learner, in all ordinary instances, the proper place for inserting the comma; but in applying these rules, great regard must be paid to the length and meaning of the clauses, and the proportion which they bear to one another.
SEMICOLON.
The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so little dependant on each other, as those which are distinguished by a colon.
RULE 1. When the preceding member of the sentence does not of itself give complete sense, but depends on the following clause, and sometimes when the sense of that member would be complete without the concluding one, the semicolon is used; as in the following examples: "As the desire of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part of our species; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when it is governed by vanity and folly;" "The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approbation; the fool, when he gains the applause of those around him;" "Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom."
Exercises.—The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of falsehood a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship hell of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery as there are worldly honors which in his estimation are reproach so there is a worldly wisdom which in his sight is foolishness.
RULE 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a rule or proposition, the semicolon may be used before the conjunction as; as in the following instance: Prepositions govern the objective case; as, "She gave the book to him."
NOTE. In instances like the foregoing, many respectable punctuists employ the colon, instead of the semicolon.
COLON.
The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon; but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences.
RULE 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by some supplemental remark, or farther illustration of the subject, the colon may be properly employed; as, "Nature felt her inability to extricate herself from the consequences of guilt: the gospel revealed the plan of divine interposition and aid." "Great works are performed, not by strength, but by perseverance: yonder palace was raised by single stones; yet you see its height and spaciousness."
Exercises.—The three great enemies to tranquillity are vice superstition and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions superstition which fills it with imaginary terrors idleness which loads it with tediousness and disgust.
When we look forward into the year which is beginning what do we behold there? All my brethren is a blank to our view a dark unknown presents itself.
RULE 2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than one, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied; as, "A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual rest prepared for the righteous hereafter, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the world, which support integrity, and check guilt."
PERIOD.
When a sentence is complete, and so independent as not to be connected with the one which follows it, a period should be inserted at its close; as, "Fear God." "Honor the patriot." "Respect virtue."
In the use of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of practice among our best writers and grammarians. Compound sentences connected by conjunctions, are sometimes divided by the period; as, "Recreations, though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady government to keep them within a due and limited province. But such as are of an irregular and vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished from every well-regulated mind."
The period should follow every abbreviated word; as, "A.D. N.B. U.S. Va. Md. Viz. Col. Mr."
DASH.
The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the sentence breaks off abruptly; where a significant pause is required; or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment; as, "If thou art he, so much respected once—but, oh! how fallen! how degraded!" "If acting conformably to the will of our Creator;—if promoting the welfare of mankind around us;—if securing our own happiness;—are objects of the highest moment: then we are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue."
A dash following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater than if the stop were alone; and when used by itself, requires a pause of such length as the sense only can determine.
"Here lies the great—False marble, where?
"Nothing but sordid dust lies here."
INTERROGATORY POINT.
The note of interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative sentence; as, "Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty?"
NOTE. The interrogative point should not be employed in cases where it is only said, that a question has been asked; as, "The Cyprians asked me, why I wept."
EXCLAMATORY POINT.
The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. and sometimes to invocations and addresses; as, "How much vanity in the pursuits of men!" "What is more amiable than virtue!" "My friend! this conduct amazes me!" "Hear me, O Lord! for thy loving kindness is great!"
PARENTHESIS.
A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark, which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction; as, "To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save a few letters (for what is a name besides?) from oblivion."
"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,)
"Virtue alone is happiness below."
NOTE. The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression of the voice; and, as the parenthetical marks do not supply the place of a point, the clause should be accompanied with every stop which the sense would require, if the parenthetical characters were not used. It ought to terminate with the same kind of point which the member has that precedes it; as "He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,) who is not jealous when, he has partners of love."
Parentheses, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, form an exception to this rule; as, "If I grant his request, (and who could refuse it?) I shall secure his esteem and attachment."
APOSTROPHE AND QUOTATION.
The Apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word, and also to mark the possessive case of a noun; as, "'tis, for it is; tho,' for though; o'er, for over;" "A man's poverty."
A Quotation marks a sentence taken in the author's own language; as, "The proper study of mankind is man."
When an author represents a person as speaking, the language of that person should be designated by a quotation; as, At my coming in, he said, "You and the physician are come too late." A quotation contained within another, should be distinguished by two single commas; as, "Always remember this ancient maxim 'Know thyself.'"
DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITAL LETTERS.
It is proper to begin with a capital,
1. The first word of every sentence.
2. Proper names, the appellations of the Deity, &c.; as, "James, Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron;" "God, Jehovah, the Almighty the Supreme Being, Providence, the Holy Spirit."
3. Adjectives derived from proper names, the titles of books, nouns which are used as the subject of discourse, the pronoun I and the interjection O, and every line in poetry; as, "American, Grecian, English, French; Irving's Sketch Book, Percival's Poems; I write; Hear, O earth!"