APPENDIX.
VERSIFICATION.
POETRY is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination.
VERSIFICATION, in English, is the harmonious arrangement of a particular number and variety of accented and unaccented syllables, according to particular laws.
RHYME is the correspondence of the sound of the last syllable in one line, to the sound of the last syllable in another; as,
"O'er the glad waters of the dark-blue sea,
"Our thoughts as boundless and our souls as free."
BLANK VERSE consists in poetical thoughts expressed in regular numbers, but without the correspondence of sound at the end of the lines which constitutes rhyme.
POETICAL FEET consist in a particular arrangement and connexion of a number of accented and unaccented syllables.
They are called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace.
All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables; and are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows:
| DISSYLLABLE. | TRISYLLABLE. |
| A Trochee - ̆ | A Dactyle - ̆ ̆ |
| An Iambus ̆ - | An Amphibrach ̆ - ̆ |
| A Spondee - - | An Anapaest ̆ ̆ - |
| A Pyrrhic ̆ ̆ | A Tribrach ̆ ̆ ̆ |
A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented; as, Hātefŭl, péttish:
Rēstlĕss mōrtăls tōil fŏr nāught.
An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented; as, Bĕtrāy, consíst:
Thĕ sēas shăll wāste, thĕ skīes ĭn smōke dĕcāy.
A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented; as, Lābŏrĕr, póssible:
Frōm thĕ lŏw plēasŭres ŏf thīs făllĕn nātŭre.
An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last accented; as, Cŏntrăvēne, acquiésce:
ăt thĕ clōse ŏf thĕ dāy whĕn thĕ hāmlĕt ĭs stīll.
A Spondee; as, The pāle mōōn: a Pyrrhic; as, ŏn thĕ tall tree: an Amphibrach; as, Dēlightfūl: a Tribrach; as, Numērăblĕ.
RHETORIC.
GRAMMAR instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly.
RHETORIC teaches us to express them with force and elegance.
The former is generally confined to the correct application of words in constructing single sentences. The latter treats of the proper choice of words, of the happiest method of constructing sentences, of their most advantageous arrangement in forming a discourse, and of the various kinds and qualities of composition. The principles of rhetoric are principally based on those unfolded and illustrated in the science of grammar. Hence, an acquaintance with the latter, and, indeed, with the liberal arts, is a prerequisite to the study of rhetoric and belles-lettres.
COMPOSITION.
It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that good sense is the foundation of all good writing. One who understands a subject well, will scarcely write ill upon it.
Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer, the union of good sense, and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, then, her province to teach him to embellish his thoughts with elegant and appropriate language, vivid imagery, and an agreeable variety of expression. It ought to be his aim,
STYLE.—PERSPICUITY AND PRECISION.
STYLE is the peculiar manner in which we express our conceptions by means of language. It is a picture of the ideas which rise in our minds, and of the order in which they are produced.
The qualities of a good style, may be ranked under two heads. perspicuity and ornament.
PERSPICUITY, which is considered the fundamental quality of a good style, claims attention, first, to single words and phrases; and, secondly, to the construction of sentences. When considered with respect to words and phrases, it requires these three qualities, purity, propriety, and precision.
Purity of language consists in the use of such words and such constructions as belong to the language which we speak, in opposition to words and phrases belonging to other languages, or which are obsolete or new-coined, or employed without proper authority.
Propriety is the choice of those words which the best usage has appropriated to the ideas which we intend to express by them. It implies their correct and judicious application, in opposition to low expressions, and to words and phrases which would be less significant of the ideas which we wish to convey. It is the union of purity and propriety, which renders style graceful and perspicuous.
Precision, from præcidere, to cut off, signifies retrenching all superfluities, and pruning the expression in such a manner as to exhibit neither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas intended to be conveyed.
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.
A proper construction of sentences is of so great importance in every species of composition, that we cannot be too strict or minute in our attention to it.
Elegance of style requires us generally to avoid, many short or long sentences in succession; a monotonous correspondence of one member to another; and the commencing of a piece, section, or paragraph, with a long sentence.
The qualities most essential to a perfect sentence, are Unity, Clearness, Strength, and Harmony.
UNITY is an indispensable property of a correct sentence. A sentence implies an arrangement of words in which only one proposition is expressed. It may, indeed, consist of parts; but these parts ought to be so closely bound together, as to make on the mind the impression, not of many objects, but of only one. In order to preserve this unity, the following rules may be useful.
1. In the course of the sentence, the scene should be changed as little as possible. In every sentence there is some leading or governing word, which, if possible, ought to be continued so from the beginning to the end of it. The following sentence is not constructed according to this rule: "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." In this sentence, though the objects are sufficiently connected, yet, by shifting so frequently the place and the person, the vessel, the shore, we, they, I and who, they appear in so disunited a view, that the mind is led to wander for the sense. The sentence is restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus: "Having come to anchor, I was put on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness."
2. Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connexion, that they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences. The violation of this rule produces so unfavorable an effect, that it is safer to err rather by too many short sentences, than by one that is overloaded and confused.
3. Avoid all unnecessary parentheses.
CLEARNESS. Ambiguity, which is opposed to clearness, may arise from a bad choice, or a bad arrangement of words.
A leading rule in the arrangement of sentences, is, that those words or members most nearly related, should be placed in the sentence as near to each other as possible, so as thereby to make their mutual relation clearly appear. This rule ought to be observed,
1. In the position of adverbs. "By greatness," says Mr. Addison, "I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view." The improper situation of the adverb only, in this sentence, renders it a limitation of the verb mean, whereas the author intended to have it qualify the phrase, a single object; thus, "By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object only, but the largeness of a whole view."
2. In the position of phrases and members. "Are these designs which any man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow?" Corrected: "Are these designs which any man who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, in any circumstances, in any situation, to avow?"
3. In the position of pronouns. The reference of a pronoun to its noun, should always be so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it: otherwise the noun ought to be repeated. "It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against but the good providence of our Heavenly Father." Which, in this sentence, grammatically refers to treasures; and this would convert the whole period into nonsense. The sentence should have been thus constructed, "It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, against which nothing can protect us but the good providence of our Heavenly Father."
STRENGTH. By the strength of a sentence is meant such an arrangement of its several words and members, as exhibits the sense to the best advantage, and gives every word and member its due weight and force.
1. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to take from it all redundant words and members. Whatever can be easily supplied in the mind, should generally be omitted; thus, "Content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it," is better than to say, "Being content with deserving a triumph." &c. "They returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth." If we expunge from this snort sentence five which are were expletives, it will be much more neat and forcible thus, "They returned to the city whence they came." But we should be cautious of pruning so closely as to give a hardness and dryness to the style. Some leaves must be left to shelter and adorn the fruit.
2. Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all the particles employed for transition and connexion, is required. In compositions of an elevated character, the relative should generally be inserted. An injudicious repetition of and enfeebles style; but when enumerating objects which we wish to have appear as distinct from each other as possible, it may be repeated with peculiar advantage; thus, "Such a man may fall a victim to power; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him."
3. Dispose of the capital word or words in that part of the sentence in which they will make the most striking impression.
4. Cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their importance one above another. In a sentence of two members, the longer should generally be the concluding one.
5. Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word, unless it be emphatical.
6. Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other, a resemblance in the language and construction should be observed.
FIGURES OF SPEECH.
Figures of Speech may be described as that language which is prompted either by the imagination, or by the passions. They generally imply some departure from simplicity of expression; and exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language. Figures have been commonly divided into two great classes; Figures of Words, and Figures of Thought.
Figures of Words are called Tropes, and consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original meaning; so that by altering the word, we destroy the figure.
When we say of a person, that he has a fine taste in wines, the word taste is used in its common, literal sense; but when we say, he has a fine taste for painting, poetry, or music, we use the word figuratively. "A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity," is simple language; but when it is said, "To the upright there ariseth light in darkness," the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative style, light is put in the place of comfort, and darkness is used to suggest the idea of adversity.
The following are the most important figures:
1. A METAPHOR is founded on the resemblance which one object bears to another; or, it is a comparison in an abridged form.
When I say of some great minister, "That he upholds the state like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a comparison; but when I say of such a minister, "That he is the pillar of the state," the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latter construction, the comparison between the minister and a pillar, is made in the mind; but it is expressed without any of the words that denote comparison.
Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be found in vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion, &c.; and men, according to their different dispositions, are styled wolves, sheep, dogs, serpents, vipers, &c.
Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American Aborigines who linger on the borders of the "white settlements," employs the following beautiful metaphor: "The proud pillar of their independence has been shaken down, and the whole moral fabric lies in ruins."
2. AN ALLEGORY may be regarded as a metaphor continued; or it is several metaphors so connected together in sense, as frequently to form a kind of parable or fable. It differs from a single metaphor, in the same manner that a cluster on the vine differs from a single grape.
The following is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60th psalm; wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine. "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river."
3. A SIMILE or COMPARISON is when the resemblance between two objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form.
Thus, we use a simile, when we say, "The actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few." "As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people." "The music of Caryl was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." "Our Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the shade, but which wither when exposed to the influence of the sun."
4. A METONYMY is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effect for the cause; the container for the thing contained; or the sign for the thing signified.
When we say, "They read Milton," the cause is put for the effect, meaning "Milton's works." "Gray hairs should be respected;" here the effect is put for the cause; meaning by "gray hairs," old age, which produces gray hairs. In the phrase, "The kettle boils," the container is substituted for the thing contained. "He addressed the chair;" that is, the person in the chair.
5. A SYNECDOCHE OR COMPREHENSION. When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object meant, the figure is called a Synecdoche.
Thus, "A fleet of twenty sail, instead of, ships." "The horse is a noble animal;" "The dog is a faithful creature:" here an individual is put for the species. We sometimes use the "head" for the person, and the "waves" for the sea. In like manner, an attribute may be pat for a subject; as "Youth" for the young, the "deep" for the sea.
6. PERSONIFICATION or PROSOPOPOEIA is that figure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. When we say, "The ground thirsts for rain," or, "the earth smiles with plenty;" when we speak of "ambition's being restless," or, "a disease's being deceitful;" such expressions show the facility, with which the mind can accommodate the properties of living creatures to things that are inanimate.
The following are fine examples of this figure:
7. AN APOSTROPHE is an address to some person, either absent or dead, as if he were present and listening to us. The address is frequently made to a personified object; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where is thy victory?"
"Weep on the rock of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore; bend thy fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morveu."
8. ANTITHESIS. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, antithesis, on the contrast or opposition, of two objects.
Example. "If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish his desires."
9. HYPERBOLE or EXAGGERATION consists in magnifying an object beyond its natural bounds. "As swift as the wind; as white as the snow; as slow as a snail;" and the like, are extravagant hyperboles.
"I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted fir; his shield, the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the bills."
10. VISION is produced, when, in relating something that is past, we use the present tense, and describe it as actually, passing before our eyes.
11. INTERROGATION. The literal use of an interrogation, is to ask a question; but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would affirm or deny with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a question.
Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak: "The Lord is not man, that he should lie, nor the son of man, that he should repeat. Hath he said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?" "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him?"
12. EXCLAMATIONS are the effect of strong emotions, such a surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like.
"O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men!" "O that I had wings like a dove! for then would I fly away, and be at rest!"
13. IRONY is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts; not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our remarks. We can reprove one for his negligence, by saying, "You have taken great care, indeed."
The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priests of Baal to prove the truth of their deity. "He mocked them, and said. Cry aloud for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked."
14. AMPLIFICATION or CLIMAX consists in heightening all the circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in a strong light.
Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says, "It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds: it is the height of guilt to scourge him; little less than parricide to put him to death: what name, then, shall I give to the act of crucifying him?"
KEY.
Corrections of the False Syntax arranged under the Rules and Notes.
RULE 4. Frequent commission of sin hardens men in it. Great pains have been taken, &c.—is seldom found. The sincere are, &c.—is happy. What avail, &c.—Disappointments sink—the renewal of hope gives, &c.—is without limit, has been conferred upon us.—Thou canst not heal—but thou mayst do, &c.—consists the happiness, &c.—Who touchedst, or didst touch Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.
Note 1. And wilt thou never be to Heaven resigned?—And who had great abilities, &c.
Note 2. Are peace and honor.—was controversy.
RULE 7. Them that you visited.—him that was mentioned.—he who preached repentance, &c.—they who died.—he who succeeded.
RULE 8. Time and tide wait, &c.—remove mountains.—are both uncertain.—dwell with, &c.—affect the mind, &c.—What signify the counsel and care, &c.—are now perished.—Why are whiteness and coldness, &c.—bind them continually, &c.—render their possessor, &c.—There are error and discrepance—which show, &c.
RULE 9. Is the same in idea.—is in the porphyry.—is remarkable, &c.—which moves merely as it is moved.—affects us, &c.—Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, &c.—for it may be, &c.—was blameworthy.
RULE 10. The nation is powerful.—The fleet was seen, &c.—The church has, &c.—is, or ought to be, the object, &c.—it is feeble.
RULE 11. My people do, &c.—The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their, &c.—were divided in their sentiments, and they have referred, &c.—The people rejoice—give them sorrow.
RULE 12. Homer's works are, &c.—Asa's heart. James Hart's book.
Note 1. It was the men, women, and children's lot, &c. or, It was the lot of the men, women, and children.—Peter, John, and Andrew's, &c.
Note 2. This is Campbell the poet's production; or, The production of Campbell, &c.—The silk was purchased at Brown's the mercer and haberdasher.
Note 4. The pupil's composing, &c.—rule's being observed.—of the president's neglecting to lay it before the council.
RULE 13. Of his audience.—put it on Jacob.—sprinkle them—and they shall, &c.—of his reputation.
Note. You were blamed; you were worthy.—where were you?—how fat were you?
RULE 14. Who hast been, &c.—who is the sixth that has lost his life by this means.
Who all my sense confinedst; or, didst confine.
Note. And who broughtest him forth out of Ur.
RULE 15, Who shall be sent, &c.—This is the man who, &c.
RULE 16. They to whom much is given, &c.—with whom you associate &c.—whom I greatly respect, &c.—whom we ought to love, and to whom, &c—They whom conscience, &c.—With whom did you walk?—Whom did you see?—To whom did you give the book?
RULE 17. Who gave John those books? We.—him who lives in Pearl street—My brother and he.—She and I.
RULE 18: Note 2. Thirty tuns.—twenty feet—one hundred fathoms.
Note 6. He bought a pair of new shoes—piece of elegant furniture.—pair of fine horses—tract of poor land.
Note 7. Are still more difficult to be comprehended.—most doubtful, or precarious way, &c.—This model comes nearer perfection than any I, &c.
RULE 19: Note. That sort.—these two hours.—This kind, &c.—He saw one person, or more than one, enter the garden.
Note 2. Better than himself.—is so small.—his station may be, is bound by the laws.
Note 3. On each side, &c.—took each his censer.
RULE 20. Whom did they, &c.—They whom opulence,—whom luxury, &c.—Him and them we know, &c.—Her that is negligent, &c.—my brother and me &c.—Whom did they send, &c.—Them whom he, &c.
RULE 21. It is I.—If I were he.—it is he, indeed.—Whom do you, &c.—Who do men say, &c.—and who say ye, &c.—whom do you imagine it to have been?—it was I; but you knew that it was he.
RULE 25. Bid him come—durst not do it.—Hear him read, &c.—makes us approve and reject, &c.—better to live—than to outlive, &c.—to wrestle.
RULE 26: Note. The taking of pains: or, without taking pains, &c.—The changing of times,—the removing and setting up of kings.
RULE 28: Note 3. He did me—I had written—he came home.—befallen my cousin—he would have gone.—already risen.—is begun.—is spoken.—would have written—had they written, &c.
RULE 29: Note 1. It cannot, therefore, be, &c.—he was not often pleasing.—should never be separated.—We may live happily, &c.
RULE 30: Note. I don't know any thing; or, I know nothing, &c.—I did not see anybody; or, I saw nobody, &c.—Nothing ever affects her.—and take no shape or semblance, &c.—There can be nothing, &c.—Neither precept nor discipline is so forcible as example.
RULE 31. For himself.—among themselves.—with whom he is, &c.—With whom did, &c.—From whom did you receive instruction?
RULE 33. My brother and he, &c.—You and I, &c. He and I—John and he, &c.—Between you and me, &c.
RULE 34. And entreat me, &c.—and acting differently, &c.
Note 1. But he may return—but he will write no more.
Note 2. Unless it rain.—If he acquire riches, &c.
RULE 35. Than I—as well as he, than they.—but he.—but he and I.—but them who had gone astray.
Promiscuous Examples.—Him who is from eternity, &c.—depends all the happiness,—which exists, &c.—the enemies whom, &c.—Is it I or he whom you requested?—Though great have been,—sincerely acknowledge.—There was, in the metropolis.—exercising our memories.—was consumed.—Affluence may give—but it will not.—of this world often choke.—Them that honor,—and they that despise.—I intended to call last week.—the fields look fresh and gay.—very neatly, finely woven paper.—where I saw Gen. Andrew Jackson, him who.—Take the first two,—last three.—thirty feet high.—a union,—a hypothesis.—I have seen him to whom you wrote, he would have come back, or returned.—understands the nature,—he rejects.—If thou study,—thou wilt become.—is not properly attended to.—He knew.—therefore, to have done it,—than the title.—very independently.—duty to do.—my friend's entering.—is the best specimen, or it comes nearer perfection than any, &c.—blow them, will go, &c.—Each of those two authors has his merit.—Reason's whole,—lie in.—strikes the mind,—than if the parts had been adjusted,—with perfect symmetry.
Satire does not carry in it.—composes the triangle.—persons' opportunities were ever.—It has been reported.—should never be.—situation in which.—is thoroughly versed in his.—are the soul,—follows little.—An army presents.—are the duties of a christian.—happier than he.—always have inclined, and which always will incline him to offend.—which require great.—Them that honor me, will I.—has opinions peculiar to itself.—that it may be said he attained monarchical.—hast permitted,—wilt deliver.—was formerly propagated.—the measure is,—unworthy your.—were faithless.—After I had visited.—nor shall I, consent.—Yesterday I intended to walk out, but was.—make or are thirteen,—leave three.—If he go,—make the eighth time that he will have visited.—is nobler.—was possessed, or that ever can be.—one great edifice,—smaller ones.—honesty is.—it to be.—will follow me,—I shall dwell.—is gone astray.—he could, not have done.—feeling a propensity.