No. II.
INSTRUCTIONS
FOR THE
CULTIVATION OF FLAX,
AND THE
PREPARATION OF LINEN,
Circulated amongst the Peasantry of Flanders, by the Société Linière of Brussels.
(TRANSLATED FROM THE FLEMISH ORIGINAL).
From the information collected in France, in Lille and in Paris, one important fact can be deduced, that Belgium may preserve her incontestible superiority in the linen manufacture; but that to do so, she must, more than ever, make it a point to manufacture goods of that sterling and solid quality, to which she owes her reputation. We have, in consequence, to request all the committees of the different districts of the Association to unite with us in awakening the attention of the growers, the spinners, the manufacturers, the bleachers, and those who finish the linen and make it up, each in his own department, and to bring under their notice every point in which it may be possible to improve the old systems.
It is particularly necessary that every means should be adopted to bring it specially before the manufacturers, that it is impossible they can preserve our interesting manufacture in its ancient splendour, unless they give the most constant care to make a better and more solid article than the manufacturers of other countries, and that they cannot continue to attract foreign merchants to our markets, unless they rigorously abstain from any fraud or deception.
Sometimes the teeth of the reeds are at unequal distances; again, acids of a corroding nature are used in the process of bleaching the yarn, to the detriment of the quality. It is necessary to convince those who may co-operate in frauds of this nature, or in any deception whatever, that in doing an injury to the nation, in the national manufacture, they are injuring themselves; and that, on the other hand, those who may assist in re-establishing the ancient renown of Belgium in the manufacture of linen, will be the first to reap its fruits.
With this end, and to lay the foundation for the accomplishment of this object, we now submit the following observations, which have been suggested by a voyage in Germany, in which minute attention was paid to the different processes of manufacture, as practised in that country. We recommend them to the serious attention of all the spinners, manufacturers and merchants, and will eagerly receive from them any ideas or information, which experience may enable them to transmit to us, to aid in the compilation of definitive instructions.
CULTURE OF THE FLAX.
In the districts of Courtrai, St. Nicholas, and Tournai, flax is cultivated in perfection, but nowhere else is the cultivation what could be wished. Thus, the culture of flax has increased, without the art of cultivation making any progress. The quality of the flax, even the abundance of the crop, depends much upon the selection of the seed. In general, the seed which we import from the North, succeeds, but for a few years past, the merchants engaged in the business have taken advantage of the confidence reposed in them by the farmers. What they sold as genuine Riga seed, was, really a mixture. Thus, in several districts where it was sown, the crop sprang up but partially and imperfectly. The committee will take measures to give the farmer more security in his purchases, and adopt means to import direct genuine Riga seed.
It has been observed, that when the seed is sown early, as soon as the season permits germination, the crop is always better, both in quantity and quality. Experience, also, teaches that good tillage and abundance of manure, have a great influence on the quality of the crop. The spade should be used in preference to the plough, as it pulverizes the ground better. This it is which makes it so difficult to cultivate flax in large quantities, and in a number of acres together.
On the fineness of the stalk, depends the fineness of the fibre. To obtain, therefore, fine flax, the seed must be sown very thickly, which can only be done where the soil is well manured and properly tilled.
It has been proved that when the flax is pulled between the falling of the flower and the formation of the seed, the fibre is finer and more solid than at any other time, so that unless it is wished to sacrifice the quality of the flax to obtain seed, the former must not await the full maturity of the latter.
Above all things the rotation of crops must be scrupulously observed; if seven or eight years be allowed to elapse before again sowing flax in the same field, it is certain that there will be a good crop; but the less the interval between the two crops, the less is the second to be calculated on either for quality or weight.
We need not observe how necessary it is to the production of good flax, that the weeding of the fields should be attended to with great care.
WATERING.
In Belgium this process is conducted under two different systems. At Courtrai, when pulled, it is allowed to dry on the field, and is kept over all winter before steeping. In this district, as is well known, the flax is steeped in the clear and running waters of the Lys, where it is perfectly pure from any slime or mud.
In the Flanders district (Pays de Waes), the flax is steeped immediately after pulling, being put in the water whilst still green, the water used being stagnant. We think that in general the preference must be given to the system employed in Flanders; firstly, because it is difficult to find such a river as the Lys, where the waters are so free from any filth; and secondly, because the flax when steeped before it dries is softer and more mellow, and the fibre is whiter, not having that yellow tint which is always found in flax that has been dried. The linens which we saw in Germany were of a pure and silvery white, and the system pursued there in steeping is that of Flanders. It was pointed out to us that the fibre of flax which had been dried is equally strong, but that it is harder and more yellow. Steeping in the manner followed in Flanders demands great care and attention, and a particular knowledge of the process. As it is not possible for us to explain all the details, we will confine ourselves to requesting the district committees to send us from Flanders some persons competent to give all the instructions necessary for performing it with success.
After the steeping, it is found to improve the quality to keep the flax for a long time in the straw. The older the flax is the better it is. If before it had any faults; if, for example, it had been spotted, and a bad colour from being badly exposed, it becomes equalized and uniform by remaining for a long time in the straw heaped together.
It is good to keep over the flax before spinning it, not only in the straw, but after scutching, and even after hackling. The Germans attach great importance to having a soft and silky fibre. To this end they beat the flax after it is scutched, they rub it with an iron comb without teeth, and they are especially careful to let it grow old, either in straw or after it has been scutched.
SPINNING.
As a general and incontestible rule, it is necessary in order to make good yarn, to proportion the quality of the flax to the description of yarn to be spun. If fine yarn be produced from flax of an inferior quality, the quality of the yarn, and necessarily the cloth, will be bad. It is then a very prejudicious idea, that with any kind of flax, fine yarn can be produced. It is equally necessary to hackle the flax, according to the fineness and quality of the yarn to be spun. The finer and better the yarn to be produced, the more should the tow be separated from the solid fibres. Great care should be given to the process of spinning—it is the fingers that spin, the wheel only twists. The length of the fibre contributes much to the solidity of the yarn, it is, therefore, important to place the flax upon the distaff so that the spinner can always take the fibre by the end, and not by the middle. This observation has been made in France, in the neighbourhood of Valenciennes and Cambrai, where the good yarn for lace is produced. The spinning wheel should be adapted to the description of the yarn to be produced, the smaller the wheel, the more open and flat will be the yarn. The larger it is, the more the yarn is round and twisted. There is this distinction to make between warp and weft, that the former requires to be more twisted than the latter. To make good cloth, the thread of the warp should be round, that of the weft flat and open. Yarn for thread should be more twisted than the other descriptions. This is the reason that at Lempleuve wheels of great diameter, and turned by three cords, are used.
At a moment in which mill-spun yarn, the rival production to hand-spun yarn, lays claim to a superiority, which it bases upon the uniform equality of its thread, the hand-spinners must strain every nerve to attain this equality. It is essential that they avoid, as much as possible, any knots or lumps in the yarn, that they extract any particles of tow their fingers may meet. We could also recommend that the operation may be conducted with extreme cleanliness, that any stains of oil, coal, &c., be avoided, or anything which may be difficult to remove in the bleaching. The Germans beat their yarn a good deal before weaving it, to render it more soft and supple, they affirm that they thereby improve the quality of the cloth. According to them, the softer and more yielding the yarn, the firmer and more solid will be the cloth when bleached, it has not the disadvantage of being too hard and stiff, and, therefore, fraying at the folds. The system may be the object of experiment. It is, also, useful to prepare the yarn by boiling it in a solution of alkali, and by soaking it in milk. Ashes from beech wood are to be preferred to those from ash. This is at least the result of their experience in Germany. We submit the observation to our merchants and manufacturers, to induce them to make a trial, and to communicate to us afterwards the result. The use of any chemical agent in bleaching must be rigorously abstained from, their use has been constantly prohibited by our ancient laws, and even by royal edicts.
WEAVING.
The piece of cloth should be throughout uniform in fabric, and in colour. It is then indispensable, as well for the weft as for the warp, to use yarn from the same description of flax. There must be none of those dry and dead fibres, so that they do not disappear in the bleaching.
The warp and the weft should be as much as possible each spun from the same specimen.
Numerous complaints are raised against the manufacturers of reeds and against the weavers; the latter do not give sufficient attention to the weaving, and some of them use fraudulent means. Thus the reeds have sometimes not the sufficient number of teeth; again, sometimes one part of the web is well, and another badly woven, with, as regards the number of threads and the workmanship. Frauds of this kind are pointed out at nearly every market; they were formerly punished by regulations of police, but these preventive measures exist but in a few of the markets, and there incompletely. It would be well that the municipal administrations, who have public markets of linen, would revive them vigorously to give again confidence to the trade. We will, hereafter, give the details of these old laws. The measure to be taken relative to the regulations for the weaving are under the consideration of the direction of the committee and the consul general; they are seeking means to put a stop to the fraudulent manufactures which unfortunately have been numerous of late years, and which would end, after having ruined the commerce, by entirely destroying the manufacture, and taking away from the country an important source of occupation and existence.
It is still complained of some weavers that they neglect the care of cleanliness: they should bear in mind that cloth stained with oil, or of which the warp has been dressed with any greasy substance, as is commonly the case, cannot be perfectly bleached.
Another complaint against many weavers is, that they use pumice stone to give a gloss to the cloth, not remarking that it injures it considerably.
In Germany they do not employ mill spun yarn, it is there considered that it can only produce bad cloth.
It is quite necessary to improve the construction of the looms; when a loom is straight and well placed, a woman can manage it as easily as a man. With a good loom more work can be done per day. The most essential part to observe is, that the part which drives the weft should be always horizontal. Soon each of the District Committee will have a loom on a new model, so that they may show it to all the weavers. The director of the committee has caused some looms to be brought from Bielefield, he is, at the same time, engaged in improving the one in general use, which he thinks is defective in many parts. On this subject the District Committee are requested to assist the director by sending from their respective districts a dexterous mechanic to give his opinion on the proposed improvements.
For the sizing of the warp, the Germans use a paste made of flour, the same as we do. In general they employ rye flour for plain linen, but very carefully sifted. For fancy or damask cloth they use wheat flour. We may again remark that they pay great attention to the sifting, so that no seed may be in the paste. The work-rooms should be suitable to the quality of the work, better lit and consequently more airy. The workmen have every thing to gain in preserving a precious health for their family; a robust man can do more work than an invalid. In Germany the work-rooms contain four looms with ease, and are lit by glass windows the same as the shops in our towns. We remind all that when a work-room is well arranged, and when everything is in its place, the work is done with more perfection, more regularity, and, finally, with more economy.
BLEACHING.
The Germans pay great attention to the first washing of the linen, in which they use a fluted beetle, fixed so as to rub the cloth, without striking it or bruising it too rudely. They shun all chemical agents, they use water from the purest sources, and constantly renew it. The sizing is effected with a starch, made at Cologne. We brought a sample of it, which we keep for the inspection of all; it is thought to be of a better quality than ours; and I am inclined to believe, that it is to the superior starch that the German linens owe their silky gloss. The drying is effected in lofts, well constructed and spacious, where the cloth is protected as well from the sun as from the rain. They employ rollers for stretching and turning the linen, which make every movement easy. We desire to see our bleachers imitate the Germans in the care which they bestow on the details of the operations which we have just examined.
CALENDERING.
No one is ignorant that, with us, this process is far from perfect. We must, then, call the attention of those who practice it, to the improvements that their machines call for. On this subject, the Director is ready to communicate all the ideas he has gathered. The calender or mangle which the Germans use, is sixty feet long, eight or nine broad, and fifteen high. A box, filled with stones, supported by two wooden cylinders, of six or seven inches in diameter, is moved backward and forward, alternately, upon a wooden plank, perfectly level; the linen is rolled round the wooden cylinders, and remains there for a quarter of an hour. This system gives a flat finish, the cloth being dry, and passing without heat.
At Bielefield there exists another machine, called “the English Beetling Machine,” by which a rounder finish is obtained than by the calender, and which increases, momentarily, at least, the width of the cloth. In this operation, the linen, when dried and folded, is placed on a table of polished stone, and beetled by heavy mallets.
ATTENTION PAID TO THE SALE.
To facilitate the sale of their linens, the Germans think themselves obliged to resort to the seduction of the fold, the envelope, and even the colour of the paper. We can affirm, that attention to all these little points, produces excellent results.