I. ELEMENTS OF FORM
+1. Importance of Form.+—The suggestions which have been made for the correction of the Themes have laid emphasis upon the thought. Though the thought side is the more important, yet careful attention must also be given to the form in which it is stated. If we wish to express our thoughts so that they will be understood by others, we shall be surer to succeed if we use the forms to which our hearers are accustomed. The great purpose of composition is the clear expression of thought, and this is aided by the use of the forms which are conventional and customary.
Wrong habits of speech indicate looseness and carelessness of thought, and if not corrected show a lack of training. In speaking, our language goes directly to the listener without revision. It is, therefore, essential that we pay much attention to the form of the expression so that it may be correct when we use it. Our aim should be to avoid an error rather than to correct it.
Similarly in writing, your effort should be given to avoiding errors rather than to correcting those already made. A misspelled word or an incorrect grammatical form in the letter that you send to a business man may show you to be so careless and inaccurate that he will not wish to have you in his employ. In such a case it is only the avoidance of the error that is of value. You must determine for yourself that the letter is correct before you send it. This same condition should prevail with reference to your school themes. The teacher may return these for correction, but you must not forget that the purpose of this correction is merely to emphasize the correct form so that you will use it in your next theme. It will be helpful to have some one point out your individual mistakes, but it is only by attention to them on your own part and by a definite and long-continued effort to avoid them that you will really accomplish much toward the establishing of correct language habits. In this, as in other things, the most rapid progress will be made by doing but one thing at a time.
Many matters of form are already familiar to you. A brief statement of these is made in order to serve as a review and to secure uniformity in class work.
1. Neatness.—All papers should be free from blots and finger marks. Corrections should be neatly done. Care in correcting or interlining will often render copying unnecessary.
2. Legibility.—Excellence of thought is not dependent upon penmanship, and the best composition may be the most difficult to read. A poorly written composition is, however, more likely to be considered bad than one that is well written. A plain, legible, and rapid handwriting is so valuable an accomplishment that it is well worth acquiring.
3. Paper.—White, unruled paper, about 8-1/2 by 11 inches, is best for composition purposes. The ability to write straight across the page without the aid of lines can be acquired by practice. It is customary to write on only one side of the paper.
4. Margins.—Leave a margin of about one inch at the left of the sheet. Except in formal notes and special forms there will be no margin at the right. Care should be taken to begin the lines at the left exactly under each other, but the varying length of words makes it impossible to end the lines at the right at exactly the same place. A word should not be crowded into a space too small for it, nor should part of it be put on the next line, as is customary in printing, unless it is a compound one, such as steam-boat. Spaces of too great length at the end of a line may be avoided by slightly lengthening the preceding words or the spaces between them.
5. Spacing.—Each theme should have a title. It should be placed in the center of the line above the composition, and should have all important words capitalized. Titles too long for a single line may be written as follows:—
MY TRIP TO CHICAGO ON A BICYCLE
With unruled paper some care must be taken to keep the lines the same distance apart. The spaces between sentences should be somewhat greater than those between words. Paragraphs are indicated by indentations.
6. Corrections.—These are best made by using a sharp knife or an ink eraser. Sometimes, if neatly done, a line may be drawn through an incorrect word and the correct one written above it. Omitted words may be written between the lines and the place where they belong indicated by a caret. If a page contains many corrections, it should be copied.
7. Inscription and Folding.—The teacher will give directions as to inscription and folding. He will indicate what information he wishes, such as name, class, date, etc., and where it is to be written. Each page should be numbered. If the paper is folded, it should be done with neatness and precision.
+2. Capitals.+—The use of capitals will serve to illustrate the value of using conventional forms. We are so accustomed to seeing a proper name, such as Mr. Brown, written with capitals that we should be puzzled if we should find it written without capitals. The sentence, Ben-Hur was written by Lew Wallace, would look unfamiliar if written without capitals. We are so used to our present forms that beginning sentences with small letters would hinder the ready comprehension of the thought. Everybody agrees that capitals should be used to begin sentences, direct questions, names of deity, days of the week, the months, each line of poetry, the pronoun I, the interjection O, etc., and no good writer will fail to use them. Usage varies somewhat in regard to capitals in some other places. Such expressions as Ohio river, Lincoln school, Jackson county, state of Illinois, once had both names capitalized. The present tendency is to write them as above. Even titles of honor are not capitalized unless they are used with a proper name; for example, He introduced General Grant The general then spoke.
+3. Rules of Capitalization.+—1. Every sentence and every line of poetry begin with capitals.
2. Every direct quotation, except brief phrases and subordinate parts of sentences, begins with a capital.
3. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capitals. Some adjectives, though derived from proper nouns, are no longer capitalized; e.g. voltaic.
4. Titles of honor when used with the name of a person begin with capitals.
5. The first word and every important word in the titles of books, etc., begin with capitals.
6. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitalized.
7. Names applied to the Deity are capitalized and pronouns referring thereto, especially if personal, are usually capitalized.
8. Important words are often capitalized for emphasis, especially words in text-books indicating topics.
+4. Punctuation.+—The meaning of a sentence depends largely on the grouping of words that are related in sense to each other. When we are reading aloud we make the sense clear by bringing out to the hearer this grouping. This is accomplished by the use of pauses and by emphasis and inflection. In writing we must do for the eye what inflection and pauses do for the ear. We therefore use punctuation marks to indicate inflection and emphasis, and especially to show word grouping. Punctuation marks are important because their purpose is to assist in making the sense clear. There are many special rules more or less familiar to you, but they may all be included under the one general statement: Use such marks and only such marks as will assist the reader in getting the sense.
What marks we shall use and how we shall use them will be determined by custom. In order to benefit a reader, marks must be used in ways with which he is familiar. Punctuation changes from time to time. The present tendency is to omit all marks not absolutely necessary to the clear understanding of the sentence.
There are some very definite rules, but there are others that cannot be made so definite, and the application of them requires care and judgment on the part of the writer. Improvement will come only by practice. Sentences should not be written for the purpose of illustrating punctuation. The meaning of what you are writing ought to be clear to you, and the punctuation marks should be put in as you write, not inserted afterward.
+5. Rules for the Use of the Comma.+—1. The comma is used to separate words or phrases having the same construction, used in a series.
Judges, senators, and representatives were imprisoned.
The country is a good place to be born in, a good place to die in, a
good place to live in at least part of the year.
If any conjunctions are used to connect the last two members, the comma may or may not be used in connection with the conjunction.
The cabbage palmetto affords shade, kindling, bed, and food.
2. Words or expressions in apposition should be separated by a comma.
The native Indian dress is an evolution, a survival from long years of
wild life.
3. Commas are used to separate words in direct address from the rest of the sentence.
Bow down, dear Land, for thou hast found release.
O, Sohrab, an unquiet heart is thine!
4. Introductory and parenthetical words or expressions are set off by commas.
However, the current is narrow and very shallow here.
This, in a general way, describes the scope of the small parks or playgrounds.
If the parenthetical expression is long and not very closely related to the rest of the sentence, dashes or marks of parenthesis are frequently used. Some writers use them even when the connection is somewhat close.
5. The comma is frequently used to separate the parts of a long compound predicate.
Pine torches have no glass to break, and are within the reach of any man
who can wield an ax.
6. A comma is often used to separate a subject with several modifiers, or with a long modifier, from the predicate verb.
One of the mistakes often made in beginning the study of birds with small children, is in placing stress upon learning by sight and name as many species of birds as possible.
7. Participial and adjective phrases and adverb phrases out of their natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
A knight, clad in armor, was the most conspicuous figure of all.
To the mind of the writer, this explanation has much to commend it.
8. When negative expressions are used in order to show a contrast, they are set off by commas.
They believed in men, not in mere workers in the great human workshop.
9. Commas are used in complex sentences to separate the dependent clause from the rest of the sentence.
The great majority of people would be better off, if they had more money
and spent it.
While the flour is being made, samples are sent every hour to the
testing department.
If the connection is close, the comma is usually omitted, especially when the dependent clause comes last.
I will be there when the train arrives.
10. When a relative clause furnishes an additional thought, it should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
Hiram Watts, who has been living in New York for six years, has just
returned to England.
If the relative clause is restrictive, that is, if it restricts or limits the meaning of the antecedent, the comma is unnecessary.
This is the best article that he ever wrote.
11. Commas are used to separate the members of a compound sentence when they are short or closely connected.
Ireland is rich in minerals, yet there is but little mining done there.
Breathe it, exult in it,
All the day long,
Glide in it, leap in it,
Thrill it with song.
12. Short quotations should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
"There must be a beaver dam here," he called.
13. The omissions of important words in a sentence should be indicated by commas.
If you can, come to-morrow; if not, come next week.
+6. Rules for the Use of the Semicolon.+—1. When the members of a compound sentence are long or are not closely connected, semicolons should be used to separate them.
Webster could address a bench of judges; Everett could charm a college; Choate could delude a jury; Clay could magnetize a senate, and Tom Corwin could hold the mob in his right hand; but no one of these men could do more than this one thing.
—Wendell Phillips.
We might as well decide the question now; for we shall surely be
obliged to soon.
2. When the members of a compound sentence themselves contain commas, they should be separated from one another by semicolons.
As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him.
—Shakespeare.
3. The semicolon should be used to precede as, namely, i.e., e.g., viz.
Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, bad, and little.
4. When a series of distinct statements all have a common dependence on what precedes or follows them, they may be separated from each other by semicolons.
When subject to the influence of cold we eat more; we choose more heat-producing foods, as fatty foodstuffs; we take more vigorous exercise; we put on more clothing, especially of the non-conducting kinds—woolens.
+7. Rules for the Use of the Colon.+—1. The colon is used before long or formal quotations, before enumerations, and before the conclusion of a previous statement.
Old Sir Thomas Browne shrewdly observes: "Every man is not only himself. There have been many Diogeneses and many Timons though but few of the name. Men are lived over again. The world is now as it was in ages past. There were none then, but there has been one since, that parallels him, and is, as it were, revived self."
—George Dana Boardman.
Adjectives are divided into two general classes: descriptive and
definitive adjectives.
The following members sent in their resignations: Mrs. William M.
Murphy, Mrs. Ralph B. Wiltsie, and Mrs. John C. Clark.
2. The colon is used to separate the different members of a compound sentence, when they themselves are divided by semicolons.
It is too warm to-day; the sunshine is too bright; the shade, too pleasant: we will wait until to-morrow or we will have some one else do it when the busy time is over.
+8. Rules for the Use of the Period.+—1. The period is used at the close of imperative and declarative sentences.
2. All abbreviations should be followed by a period.
+9. Rule for the Use of the Interrogation Mark.+—The interrogation mark should be used after all direct questions.
+10. Rule for the Use of the Exclamation Mark.+—Interjections and exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation mark. Sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole exclamation. In this case, the exclamatory word should be followed by a comma, and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark.
See, how the lightning flashes!
+11. Rules for the Use of the Dash.+—1. The dash is used to show sudden changes in thought or breaks in speech.
I can speak of this better when temptation comes my way—if it ever does.
2. The dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis to set off parenthetical expressions.
In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree—the spruce— abounds.
3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed.
I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in the rain—all evidences of wasted time.
4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations, before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced statement.
+12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.+—1. Quotation marks are used to inclose direct quotations.
"In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked.
2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation marks.
"Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady of a clerk in Brooklyn.
3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.
"Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold."
4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last one.
+13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.+—The apostrophe is used to denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to form the plural of signs, figures, and letters.
In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which can't be distinguished from engravings.