Composition-Rhetoric

by Stratton D. Brooks; Marietta Hubbard

II. REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

THE SENTENCE

+14. English grammar+ is the study of the forms of English words and their relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.

+15. Elements of a Sentence.+—The elements of a sentence, as regards the office that they perform, are the subject and the predicate. The subject is that about which something is asserted, and the predicate is that which asserts something about the subject.

Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself to complete a sentence: [The thrush sings. The thrush has been singing]. Some require a following word or words: [William struck John (object complement, or object). Edward became king (attribute complement). The people made Edward king (objective complement)].

The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought (to which the general term substantive may be given); some word or group of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term, assertive); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement, objective complement).

In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more exact. Such additions are known as modifiers. The word-groups which are used as modifiers are the phrase and the clause.

[The thrush, sings in the pine woods (phrase). The wayfarer who hears the thrush is indeed fortunate (clause).]

Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified:

[Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover]; one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover].

The unmodified subject may be called the simple subject, or, merely, the subject. If modified, it becomes the complete subject.

The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is present, may be called the simple predicate. If modified, it becomes the complete predicate.

Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, the simple predicate; modified or completed, the complete predicate.

+16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.+—Sentences are classified according to purpose into three classes: declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.

A declarative sentence is one that makes a statement or declares something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic].

An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question: [Who wrote Mother Goose?].

An imperative sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty:
["Fling away ambition">[.

Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the sentence is said to be an exclamatory sentence: [How happy all the children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?" (exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!" (exclamatory imperative)].

Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark.

WORDS AND THEIR OFFICES

+17. The Individual Elements+ of which every sentence is composed are words. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the words horse, he, blue, speaks, merrily, at, and because, has a certain naming value, more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these, horse, blue, he, merrily, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case of at and because, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation between other ideas: ["I am at my post">[, ["I go because I must">[. The word speaks is less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following sentences: He speaks in public. He is a public speaker. It is evident that speaks contains in itself the naming value represented in the word speaker, but also has the connecting office fulfilled in the second sentence by is.

All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a connecting or relational office.

PARTS OF SPEECH

+18. Parts of Speech.+—When we examine the different words in sentences we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either a phrase or a clause.

A phrase is a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate, that is used as a single part of speech.

A clause is a group of words, containing both subject and predicate, that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it is called a subordinate, or dependent, clause. Some grammarians use the word clause for a subordinate statement only.

+19. Classification.+—The eight parts of speech may be classified as follows:—

I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns.
II. Assertives: verbs.
III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs.
IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions.
V. Interjections.

+20. Definitions.+—The parts of speech may be defined as follows:—

(1) A noun is a word used as a name.

(2) A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun, designating a person, place, or thing without naming it.

(3) An adjective is a word that modifies a substantive.

(4) A verb is a word that asserts something—action, state, or being—- concerning a substantive.

(5) An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

(6) A preposition is a word that shows the relation of the substantive that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence.

(7) A conjunction is a word that connects words or groups of words used in the same way.

(8) An interjection is a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of the sentence.

NOUNS

+21. Classes of Nouns.+—Nouns are divided into two general classes: proper nouns [Esther] and common nouns [girl].

Common nouns include abstract nouns [happiness] and collective nouns [army].

Any word mentioned merely as a word is a noun: [And is a conjunction].

+22. Inflection.+—A change in the form of a word to denote a change in its meaning is termed inflection.

+23. Number.+—The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to denote one or more than one is termed number. A noun that denotes but one object is singular in number. A noun that denotes more than one object is plural in number.

The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s and es to the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes].

Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:—

1. The irregular plural in en [child, children].

2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese].

3. Fourteen nouns ending in f or fe change the f or fe into yes [leaf, leaves].

4. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change the y to i and add es [enemy, enemies].

5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding 's:[You have used too many i's].

6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena].

7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number.
(a) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the
plural [sheep, deer].
(b) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks].
(c) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh].
(d) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles,
news, politics].

8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls].

9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters. The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs. Harrisons.]

10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth, cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence].

+24. Case.+—Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun bears to some other word in the sentence.

Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting case is termed declension. There are three cases in the English language: the nominative, the possessive, and the objective; but nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and objective cases have the same form.

+25. Formation of the Possessive.+—Nouns in the singular, and those in the plural not already ending in s, form the possessive regularly by adding 's to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's].

In case the plural already ends in s, the possessive case adds only the apostrophe [girls'].

A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the 's would make an unpleasant sound [Moses'].

Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding 's to the last word.
This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used:
[Bradbury and Emery's Algebra].

Notice that in the following expression the 's is affixed to the second noun only: [My sister Martha's book].

Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to denote possession: [The hardness of the rock, not The rock's hardness].

+26. Gender.+—Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex. Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the masculine gender; those denoting females are of the feminine gender; and those denoting things without animal life are of the neuter gender.

+27. Person.+—Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to be in the first, second, or third person. Nouns and many pronouns are not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what persons they represent.

+28. Constructions of Nouns.+—The following are the usual constructions of nouns:—

(a) The possessive case of the noun denotes possession.

(b) Nouns in the nominative case are used as follows:—

1. As the subject of a verb: [The western sky is all aflame]

2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous season of the year].

3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor soul, it could not be!].

4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my baby!].

5. Absolutely: [The rain being over, the grass twinkled in the sunshine].

6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a native of Genoa, discovered America].

(c) Nouns in the objective case are used as follows:—

1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the object complement: [I saw a host of golden daffodils].

2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him king].

3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave Ethel a ring].

4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of New
England].

5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded the man (him)to go
without delay].

6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive to be: [I
thought it to be John (him)].

7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last week].

8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone, the great explorer].

+29. Equivalents for Nouns.+

1. Pronoun: [John gave his father a book for Christmas].

2. Adjective: [The good alone are truly great].

3. Adverb: [I do not understand the whys and wherefores of the process].

4. A gerund, or infinitive in ing: [Seeing is believing].

5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, to think is to act].

6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe that she took the money]. Noun clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and appositive.

7. A prepositional phrase: [Over the fence is out].

PRONOUNS

+30. Antecedent.+—The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun. The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the antecedent, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in person, number, and gender, but not necessarily in case.

+31. Classes of Pronouns.+—Pronouns are commonly divided into five classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2) relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns, (5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added).

+32. Personal Pronouns.+—Personal pronouns are so called because they show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use: I, you, he, she, and it.

+33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.+—The personal pronouns are used in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be understood.

1. The word it is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is used impersonally.

2. The pronoun it is often used as the grammatical subject of a sentence in which the logical subject is found after the predicate verb: [It is impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronoun it is called an expletive. There is used in the same way.

+34. Cautions and Suggestions.+

1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms its, yours, ours, and theirs.

2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute complement: [It is I; it is they].

3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of the most common violations of this rule is in using their in such sentences as the following:—Every boy and girl must arrange his desk. Who has lost his book? The use of every and the form has obliges us to make the possessive pronouns singular.

His may be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is convenient not to use the expression his or her.

4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case: [I asked him to go].

5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective case: [I knew it (obj.) to be him]; but the attribute complement of the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) was he].

6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun.

7. Do not use the personal pronoun form them for the adjective those: [Those books are mine].

+35. Compound Personal Pronouns.+—To the personal pronouns my, our, your, him, her, it, and them, the syllables self (singular) and selves (plural) may be added, thus forming what are termed compound personal pronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:—

1. They are used for emphasis: [He himself is an authority on the subject].

2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injured himself].

+36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.+—The pronouns who, which, what (= that which), that, and as (after such) are more than equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are often named relative pronouns because they relate to some antecedent either expressed or implied; they are equally well named conjunctive pronouns because they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate clauses only; these clauses are called relative clauses, and since they modify substantives, are also called adjective clauses.

+37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.+—Who is used to represent persons, and objects or ideas personified; which is used to represent things; that and as are used to represent both persons and things.

When a clause is used for the purpose of pointing out some particular person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced by that; but when the clause supplies an additional thought, who or which is more frequently used. The former is called a restrictive clause, and the latter, a non-restrictive clause.

[The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the omission of the comma before that. [My eldest brother, who is now in England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10.

In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to separate, in thought, the boy that broke his leg from all other boys. Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does so for the purpose of limiting or restricting thought to one especial boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is indicated by the word eldest. The clause, who is now in England, is put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information.

+38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.+—Relative pronouns may be used as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and possessive modifier.

The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [I, who am your friend, will assist you].

The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause in which it is found: [He whom the president appointed was fitted for the position].

+39. Compound Relative Pronouns.+—The compound relative pronouns are formed by adding ever and soever to the relative pronouns who, which, and what. These have the constructions of the simple relatives, and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it to whoever wishes it. Give it to whomever you see].

+40. Interrogative Pronouns.+—The pronouns who, which, and what are used to ask questions, and when so used, are called interrogative pronouns. Who refers to persons; what, to things; and which, to persons or things. Like the relatives who has three case forms; which and what are uninflected.

The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did you see? The introductory whom is an interrogative pronoun, and the clause itself is called an indirect question.

The words which, what, and whose may also be used as modifiers of substantives, and when so used they are called interrogative adjectives: ["What manner of man is this?" Whose child is this? Which book did you choose?].

+41. Demonstrative Pronouns.+—This and that, with their plurals these and those, are called demonstrative pronouns, because they point out individual persons or things.

+42. Indefinite Pronouns.+—Some pronouns, as each, either, some, any, many, such, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two, one and other, are inflected.

SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL

NOM. AND OBJ. one ones other others

POSS. one's ones' other's others'

+43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.+—Many words, as has been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question is called a pronominal adjective; but if the noun is omitted so that the word in question takes its place, it is called an adjective pronoun. [That house is white (adjective). That is the same house (pronoun).]

ADJECTIVES

+44. Classes of Adjectives.+—There are two general classes of adjectives: the descriptive [blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and the limiting or definitive adjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,—descriptive adjectives. Proper adjectives and participial adjectives form a small part of this large class: [European countries. A running brook].

+45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.+—The limiting adjectives include the various classes of pronominal adjectives (all of which have been mentioned under pronouns), the articles (a, an, and the), and adjectives denoting place and number.

+46. Comparison of Adjectives.+—With the exception of the words this and that, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a difference in degree. This change of form is called comparison. There are three degrees of comparison: the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the syllables er and est to the positive to form the comparative and superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives of more than one syllable, the adverbs more and most are placed before the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer, longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful].

+47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.+—A few adjectives are compared irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar with the correct forms.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

bad } evil } worse worst ill }

far farther farthest

good } better best well }

fore former { foremost
{ first

late { later { latest { latter { last

little less least

many } more most much }

near nearer { nearest
{ next

old { older { oldest
{ elder { eldest

The following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive degree, and as adjectives in the other two degrees:—

(forth) further furthest

(in) inner { innermost { inmost

(out) { outer { outermost
{ utter { utmost
{ uttermost

(up) upper { upmost { uppermost

+48. Cautions concerning the Use of Adjectives.+

1. When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is placed only before the first, unless emphasis is desired: [He is an industrious, faithful pupil].

2. If the adjectives refer to different things, the article should be repeated before each adjective: [She has a white and a blue dress].

3. When two or more nouns are in apposition, the article is placed only before the first: [I received a telegram from Mr. Richards, the broker and real estate agent].

4. This, these, that, and those must agree in number with the noun they modify: [This kind of flowers; those sorts of seeds].

5. When but two things are compared, the comparative degree is used: [This is the more complete of the two].

6. When than is used after a comparative, whatever is compared should be excluded from the class with which it is compared: [I like this house better than any other house; not, I like this house better than any house].

7. Do not use a after kind of, sort of, etc.: [What kind of man is he? (not, What kind of a man)]. One man does not constitute a class consisting of many kinds.

+49. Constructions of Adjectives.+—Adjectives that merely describe or limit are said to be attributive in construction. When the adjective limits or describes, and, at the same time, adds to the predicate, it is called a predicate adjective.Predicate adjectives may be used either as attribute or objective complements: [The sea is rough to-day (attribute complement), He painted the boat green (objective complement)].

+50. Equivalents for Adjectives.+—The following are used as equivalents for the typical adjective:—

1. A noun used in apposition: [Barrie's story of his mother, "Margaret Ogilvy," is very beautiful].

2. A noun used as an adjective: [A campaign song].

3. A prepositional phrase: [His little, nameless, unremember'd acts of kindness and of love].

4. Participles or participial phrases: [We saw a brook running between the alders. Soldiers hired to serve a foreign country are called mercenaries].

5. Relative clauses: [This is the house that Jack built].

6. An adverb (sometimes called the locative adjective): [The book here is the one I want].