The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: a compendium prepared by officers of the Sudan government, Vol. 1 (of 2)

by Sudan. Wizarat al-Naql wa-al-Muwasalat

Section 2.—Country South of Sennar-Goz Abu Guma Line to the Sobat.

(a) General Description.

Topography.The country between the Niles south of north lat. 13° 30′ (approximately) forms the southern portion of that known as “the Gezira” or “El Hoi,” and is, save for the riverain population of the Blue Nile and the few villages on the White Nile between Goz Abu Guma and Jebelein, practically uninhabited as far south as north parallel 12°, which is the northern limit of Dar Fung.

With the exception of the water in natural tanks at Jebels Mazmum[77] and Gerebin (which are however apt to run dry) this level plain is waterless in the driest season, though the soil is of the richest description, and beyond here and there a few isolated granite hills, the highest of which is Abu Gurud, its surface is devoid of all inequalities and undulations. Not a single khor or wadi is discernible, and except for fairly wide belts of kittr bush, especially near the two rivers and round the bases of the hills, the country is on the whole fairly open until nearing Dar Fung.Dar Fung, when dense forest commences and stretches, apparently continuously, east and west from Nile to Nile.

Owing to the scanty water supply during the dry season and the spongy nature of the soil, it is almost impossible for caravans to travel otherwise than on the few existing tracks.

South of Gule this forest of talh, hashab, soffar, etc., extends uninterruptedly to the hills of Tabi on the south-east, and to Surkum and Keili to the south. About 30 miles south of Gule khors draining the Tabi hills become frequent, and the surface of the ground becomes stony, making the going along the already narrow and much overgrown paths exceedingly bad.

Fazogli and Keili.The districts of Fazogli, Keili, and the greater part of Dul and Kirin are undulating and much cut up by watercourses, and boast far more hills than the country further west towards the White Nile. The hills in these districts are scattered promiscuously, and rise steeply from the surrounding country. They are generally covered with detached boulders and stunted trees. The plain itself is for the most part gravelly or stony, and is intersected with dry rocky khors. It is covered near the foot of the hills with a thick low growing forest, but away from the hills the bush is generally thinner. Before it has dried up, the grass among the bush would make it very difficult to leave the paths, but in the dry season there is generally no difficulty in getting through the bush, excepting at the khors. The whole of this country suffers greatly from want of water, and even where there is water in the streams near their sources, it soon disappears into the ground. Water can, however, often be found in many of the stream beds by digging.

South and south-west of Gule.South and south-west of Gule stretches an almost uninterrupted plain to the Baro and Sobat, bounded on the west by the White Nile and on the east by the hills on the Abyssinian frontier. In the central and eastern portions of this district there are a few scattered hills, such as Abuldugu, Melkan, Ulu, etc., belonging to the Burun, at each of which there is water, but in the Dinka country from Jebelein southwards along the Nile, these are conspicuous by their absence. Between north parallels 12° 30′ and 10° 30′ forest is almost continuous, however, south of 10° 30′ the country becomes gradually more open and grassy and continues so, as far as is known, up to the fringe of forest bordering the Baro and Sobat. Water, south of 10° 30′, seems comparatively plentiful, both in hafirs made by the Burun or standing in pools in khors.

The width of marsh bordering the Baro and Sobat is often much exaggerated; it seems generally not to exceed 4 to 5 miles in width along the former, and is more often much less along the latter. Fringing the marsh is a narrow belt of forest, and behind that steppe-like country, which becomes practically treeless in the region of the lower Sobat (vide [Chap. VI]).

Drainage.Khor Tomat, draining Beni Shangul and Fazogli is the principal khor emptying into the Blue Nile.

The more important ones emptying into the White Nile are:—

Khor Deleib, source in Jebel Tabi and mouth at Renk; Khors Rau and Balantega, mouths at Jebel Ahmed Agha, but source conjectural, and Khor Adar or Yal, which empties into the White Nile about 30 miles north of Fashoda, and possibly forms the mouth of both the Yabus and Sonka. Another theory is that the Sonka and Yabus drain into a marsh, from which a certain amount of water is believed to find its way into the Sobat near Nasser. Khor Garre drains into the Baro.

Rainfall.The rainfall over the whole of this area is heavy, especially in the more southern districts, where the rainy season may be said to extend from the end of April till the beginning of November.

Transport animals.Camels, mules, or donkeys do well throughout the whole of this district, except during the rains, when mules are probably the best. At this season the serut fly is present everywhere, and in the dry season along the Nile there is a small black fly, similar in general appearance to the common house-fly, which is excessively annoying and somewhat injurious to camels. Abyssinian horses are useful, and the ordinary Arab does well, though more delicate.

Roads.The only roads[78] known to exist, with the exception of those from Senga to Moya, and Senga to Jebelein, viâ Teigo and Jebel Dali, are described in the route reports in Vol. 2, [Chap. V.]

Currency.In the more northern parts of this region the ordinary Sudan currency is de rigueur, but in dealings with natives along the Abyssinian frontier Maria Theresa dollars or gold rings, obtainable at Abu Shaneina (36 Maria Theresa dollars = 1 oz. gold, approximately), are generally required, though in Fazogli, Keili, or in fact in any Arabic-speaking district, Egyptian money is as a rule readily accepted.[79] Menelek’s dollar is only very rarely seen, and his smaller coins never. The Maria Theresa dollar is not, as a rule, accepted unless the brooch on the shoulder is pretty clearly distinguishable. Amongst the Gallas salt bars form the small change (3½ bars = 1 Maria Theresa dollar).

In the Dinka country on the White Nile, giraffe or buffalo hides are the best trade goods; “gianotta”[80] and other large beads, as well as Egyptian money are also acceptable. Along the Sobat, beads (large amber, opaque white, small white, “gianotta,”[80] etc.), spear heads, axes, and fasses are all much in request. Money is becoming daily more readily taken.

Mosquitos.Mosquitos, or “Ba-uda” as they are called by the Dinkas and by many Sudanese Arabs, are very numerous in places even in the dry season along the White Nile, though here and there there are none even quite close to the water. The natives themselves, though not professing belief in the Anopheles theory, say that if one is bitten much by them they cause fever. The fact of there being a village at any spot may be accepted as sufficient guarantee that there are no, or at any rate, very few, mosquitos there. Most of the villages even in the dry season are a mile or more from the river.

Game.The following species are represented:—Elephant, buffalo, giraffe, hippopotamus, hartebeeste (Jacksonii and tora), tiang, roan-antelope, kudu, waterbuck, reedbuck, bushbuck, cobus leucotis, gazelle, oribi, lion, leopard, cheetah, etc. Specimens of Neumann’s hartebeeste are also believed to have been shot near Ahmed Agha.

IN THE DAR EL FUNG.

VILLAGE SCENE—BURUN COUNTRY.

(b) Dar Fung (South of North Lat. 12°).

Boundaries.Dar Fung is now, compared to its palmy days, an unimportant district. Its boundaries are: on the north, Jebels Gereiwa and Rera; on the east, Jebel Agadi and the Fazogli district. Southwards, it extends to the Abyssinian frontier, and, including the district of Keili and the northern Burun country, extends westwards towards the Dinkas of the White Nile.

In the days when the Fung were at their best, it included Dul and Assosa etc., which now belong to Abyssinia.

J. Tabi and Ingassana.Jebel Tabi and district is included in Dar Fung. The Ingassana, now under Mek Agoda, who inhabit it, remained independent and refused to pay tribute to Idris Wad Regab or the Government until February, 1903, when the Mudir visited this district and established the headquarters of the Dar Fung District at Soda instead of Gule, without opposition. The Ingassana are seldom met without their peculiar sickle-shaped swords. They also possess curious boomerang-like throwing-sticks. They keep apparently a good deal to themselves, as complaints against them are rare. They expressed delight at coming under the ægis of the Government, and at the assurance of their future immunity from slave raids. The district of Tabi is hilly and well watered, and appears to be much more healthy than the surrounding plains. It is said to much resemble Erkowit in the Suakin district. Pigs are not uncommon in this district, and the menu of the chiefs is a varied one, dogs, horses, camels, leopards, etc., are all eaten, especially the former, with great relish. The skulls of all animals consumed are arranged in order round the enclosures of the houses.

Idris Wad Regab.Idris Wad Regab, a direct descendant of the old Fung dynasty, is now Mek or head Sheikh of Dar Fung. He is a loyal man, and is now very badly off, having suffered greatly at the hands of the Dervishes, by whom he was not recognised. Sheikh Abd El Kader is his Wakil. Adlan Wad Surur was Mek during the Mahdia; he now lives near Karkoj.

Gule used to be the chief town of Dar Fung, it is now only second in importance to Keili. It consists of three small villages situated at the foot of Jebel Idris or Gule, a granite mass about 1,000 feet high, and contains but a few hundred inhabitants, mostly Hameg, or a mixture of Hameg and the aboriginal Fung. There are generally some encampments of Dar Ageil or Selim Arabs in the vicinity.

Trade.There is a little trade with Abyssinia, but practically nothing in the shape of supplies, animals etc., are procurable here. Most of the merchants trading with Abyssinia pass through Keili.

Cultivation.There is the usual dura and simsim cultivation, but little more is grown than is required for the wants of the inhabitants.

Raids.As, prior to the demarcation of the Abyssinian frontier, the Burun were so decimated by raiding parties from Abyssinian territory, Idris Wad Regab was, in March, 1902, given rifles by the Government to protect his people. In addition to these he had a good many of his own, with which he inflicted some loss on Ahmed Fedil’s force when it marched from Dakhila to the White Nile after the battle of Roseires, December, 1898. These raids have ceased for the present owing to the capture of the principal raider, Ibrahim Wad Mahmud, in February, 1904. Vide Chap. VII, Part II, [page 278.]

Water supply.Water, which is obtained from several holes at the foot of the Jebel, is fairly plentiful but bad. It is said to be impregnated with lime.

Burun.

Boundaries, etc.The Burun inhabit the country between the Dinkas of the White Nile and the Abyssinian frontier from about 11° 30′ north latitude southwards to the Dinkas and Nuers of the Sobat and Baro. Those among the hills north of K. Yabus are under Mek Idris Wad Regab, of Gule, and appear to have acknowledged the suzerainty of his predecessors for probably a century before the advent of the Turks. On the K. Yabus and south of it nothing can be definitely stated as to their organisation, but they appear to be divided into a number of independent communities.

The Burun are said to be related to the Berta, but they are lighter in colour than the Berta generally are and speak a different language.

Burun near K. Yabus.Major Gwynn gives the following description of the Burun near Khor Yabus: The men, who are physically very finely built, are stark naked, and smear their heads with wet and clammy red mud.[81] They all carry long bows, wooden pointed featherless arrows, and in addition, generally a spear. Arrows are poisoned by being stuck into a certain species of tree,[82] and are pointed with notched charred wood or ebony. They have a range of 150 yards. The women are also naked, save for a small loin cloth of skin. They are good looking and attractive. The Burun dialect spoken by Idris Wad Regab’s men, but no Arabic, is understood by the Burun of the Yabus. Their word of greeting is “Moka.”

The Burun north of K. Yabus live as a rule on the scattered hills during the rains, and drink from the rainwater which collects in natural rock tanks. During the dry season, when this water is exhausted, they either descend to the plain and live on the khors, in many of which water stands in pools, or else have to carry their water for a considerable distance. Some of the hills inhabited by them are Abuldugu, Surkum, Melkan, Gum Gum, and Wadaga. K. Gemmeiza, flowing from near J. Abuldugu towards Melut, furnishes their principal water supply. They also obtain water from “Hafirs,” or ponds, which are roofed with thatch to lessen evaporation. Wells seem to be very rarely sunk. These northern Burun are now very poor, and women and children are very scarce.

The Burun, in the Garre Valley, seem more prosperous, having plenty of water and grain in their country, but both sections, especially the northern, have been most deplorably reduced by slave raids from the east. The principal raider, however, Ibrahim Wad Mahmud, as before stated, was captured by Lieutenant-Colonel Gorringe in February, 1904. The southern Burun country is still almost entirely unexplored.

Communications.The Burun seem to have little intercourse with the tribes living on the White Nile, and no regular roads to it, except perhaps from J. Gerawid to J. Ahmed Agha, seem to exist. It is intended, however, to open up roads between the western frontier of Abyssinia and the Nile, and to improve the present primitive system of water supply in this district. For report on routes, vide [Chapter V.] and [ Appendix,] Vol. II.

Keili.

Boundaries.Keili, which is part of Dar Fung, is bounded on the east and south-east by the Abyssinian frontier, which divides it from Beni Shangul, Gomasha, and Dul, and on the north-east by Fazogli. Keili claims to share with Fazogli the mountains of Agaru, Kashangaru, and Ragreig, though practically the whole of Agaru belongs to the latter, and the whole of Ragreig to the former, as also does Jebel Gainshur. Jebels Kurmuk and Maiak are within the southern limits of this district, and Jebels Surkum and Abuldugu to the west also belong to it. On the north the boundary is Jebel Tabi.

Inhabitants.The Jebelawin inhabit the eastern portions of the district, and the Burun the western. For administrative purposes, this district is in the Dar Fung District.

The acting Mek of Keili is a youth of about 15 years of age. His father, Beshir Hamdan, who was much addicted to slave dealing, was arrested and deposed by Government, February, 1903.

The valley between Ragreig and Jebel Keili forms as it were an oasis, and must have a population of several thousand. It is a very pleasant spot in the dry season, but in the rains becomes more or less swampy.

Sheikh Bilburka, of the Fung inhabitants of Dul, now lives at Keili in order to avoid the exactions of the Watawit, under Abyssinian rule, similarly Sheikh Jela Abdalla, a Jaali refugee, fled from Beshir and Shanji villages in 1897, and now lives in the Arab settlement at Keili.

Language.The Jebelawin language is used at Jebel Keili. The Burun use a dialect of the Burun language similar to that of Jebel Maiak.

Cultivation, etc.In the valley between Jebels Kurmuk and Keili a great deal of dura is grown, both for local consumption and for the supply of the mountaineers in the hills near Dul. There are plenty of cattle, sheep and pigs.

Gold.Some alluvial gold is found in the khor east of Jebel Ragreig.

Water supply.Water is obtained from wells and from pools in khors, whilst on the face of Jebel Keili itself there are several springs. At Jebel Surkum there is a perennial supply of muddy water from four holes on the south side of the Jebel.

At Jebel Abuldugu there is water in the pass through which the road from Gule leads. This, however, does not last all the year round. Natives then water in the Khor Ganna, about 2 miles to the east.

Keili is the chief town of Dar Fung and is rapidly growing. It is situated at the foot and to the south of J. Keili, and is the residence of the Mek. There is also a small garrison of Sudanese regulars here from Wad Medani, as well as some mounted irregulars.

(c) Fazogli.

Boundaries.Fazogli is not included in Dar Fung, but belongs to the Roseires District; it is bounded for administrative purposes as follows:—On the north-west and west by the Hameg (Abu Gemai to Jebel El Geri), on the north by the Jebel Geri-Abu Ramla line, and from Abu Ramla its boundary runs southwards along the Abyssinian frontier to Jebel Kashangaru, thence northwards towards Jebel Agadi, Dar Fung being to the west of this line.

INGASSANA VILLAGE.

HILL SCENERY IN DAR EL FUNG.

Mek.The Mek’s name is Regab Hassan, who is surnamed Abadaro, and is a middle-aged man who appears to have a good deal of influence, but is said to be addicted to drink. He claims descent from Jaber, the first Fung conqueror of Fazogli.

Inhabitants. Jebelawin.The principal inhabitants are Jebelawin, an aboriginal race merged into the ruling Fung living at Fazogli, Kuturu, Kiri, Abu Shaneina on both banks, and Adarsi. Their villages on the Tumat and at Abu Shaneina are under Mek Khamis, a Jebelawi, but the Arabs at the latter place are under an Arab named Ali Wad Rowaa.

Elias Khamis, the former Fung ruler of the Jebelawin of Beni Shangul lives on the Tomat with a following of Sudanese refugees from Beni Shangul. Sheikh Fakir is similarly in charge of Arab refugees from the south.

Language.Arabic is understood by the Sheikhs of the district, but the rotana in use on the left bank of the Nile is that used by the Hameg of the Blue Nile, and by the Jebelawin and Berta. On the right bank, in the Fazogli district, the Gumz language is totally different.

Religion.The Sheikhs alone profess Mohammedanism; the majority of the Jebelawin are heathen.

Berta.In the hills the inhabitants are nearly all Berta; very few can talk Arabic. They are as a rule finely developed and healthy looking, but are dull and lazy to a degree. Their villages are built in the most inaccessible places; the tukls being wedged amongst great boulders. They only grow small patches of dura, and depend entirely on the rains to irrigate it. During the dry season, even for drinking, water has to be carried immense distances. A great many fowls are kept in the villages. The men in some places wash for gold in the khors.

The Berta of Jebel Falabut are under Mek Abadalla, those of Jebel Faronge are under Mek Amaka. On the latter mountain are separate villages for the Faronge sub-tribe, part of the Fadoko sub-tribe, and the Goamili, who were driven from Jebel Abdanab of late years by the rulers of Beni Shangul. The head-quarters of the Fadoko sub-tribe remain at Sarankchau, near Abdanab on the Yabus river, subject to the Sultan of Beni Shangul. Falabut and Faronge are in charge of Mek Abu Ras of Kiri.

The Berta extend westwards from the Blue Nile through Gezan to Mudeli village (Sheikh El Nur) to Jebel Sude sub-district (Sheikh Hambalha), and Khor Gasa (Mek Jibara), south and west of which the Berta have lost their independence.

Religion.The Berta, though heathen, are not averse to Mohammedanism.

Gezan.Bakurig Bugul, the successor of Gormaz, the last aboriginal Mek of Gezan sub-district, lives at Fazogli. Hassan Wad El Gharbi is the Sheikh of the Watawit at Gezan and Amora, Mek Abulang being resident chief of the Berta.

Gumz.The word “Gumz” signifies “people” in the aboriginal language, of which the various sub-tribes use distinct dialects. The Gumz, of which the Bazaroda and Kadalo are sub-tribes, are heathen, God and sun being synonymous.

Bazaroda.The Bazaroda sub-tribe is under Mek Ya Karda, grandson of Ab Zaroda. The boundaries are the Blue Nile on the south and Khor Bombode on the east. Headquarters, Hoburra. Other villages are Kambal, Yagor, Agabar, and Yarada. Though subject to Abadaro, the Mek of Gubba demanded as tribute, in 1900 and 1901, 50 ardebs of dura and 30l. worth of gold dust. Products include cotton, dura, simsim, “zaf” or dom fibre, and Adansonia bark rope, honey, gungeleis or Adansonia fruit, and gold dust from the Nile, near the mouth of the Khor Zuar.

Kadalo.El Kadalo sub-tribe, formerly peopled Jebel Dimr and Jebel Mulki, but Mek Adam, owing to a blood feud with the Fung ruler of Gubba, is now living on the Nile with his following from those hills. The rest of the Kadalo are under him, and subject to Abadaro of Fazogli. In the Samina Hills there are Kadalo at Beletamaru and Masambaga, under Mek Ahmed Wad Mohammed, surnamed El Wishari, also at Jabranza under his son Beshir Ahmed.

At Jebel Metongwe the local Mek is Mansur, and at Jebel Menze, Mek Idris.

Principal villages. Fazogli.Fazogli the residence of the Mek, is a straggling village of tukls, extending about 2 miles along a ridge of high ground running parallel to the river. This ridge is about 800 yards from the river, and the low intervening ground is given over entirely to cultivation. The ground behind Fazogli rises to the height of 1,750 feet at a distance of 2 miles, and is covered with trees.

The water supply is from the river.

Famaka.The old mudiria of Famaka is an enclosure about 120 yards square, surrounded by a stone wall, which is still in good condition. It is situated on the river bank on a solid rock, which stands in a bend of the river facing E.S.E., and about 60 feet above it, and holds a commanding view of the country to the south for miles.

It is itself, however, commanded at a distance of 800 yards by the very high ground rising behind Fazogli.

Abu Shaneina.Abu Shaneina is the most important village or town in Fazogli. It is here that the trade route from Beni Shangul strikes the Blue Nile, and it is chiefly from that quarter that any considerable increase of trade with Abyssinia can be expected. It is the headquarters of a small frontier force furnishing outlying detachments north and south of the Blue Nile. Mek Khamis is Sheikh of the Jebelawin here and Ali Wad Rowaa of the Arabs.

Kiri.Kiri is the most prosperous (1900) looking village in Fazogli, and is built on what should be a very healthy site near the river. The Sheikh’s name is Abu Ras Wad Sogheir.

Masurkum.Masurkum is on the Beni Shangul Abu Shaneina road. The Sheikh, named Bikori, is an old and infirm man, but has evidently been a strong man in his time. He suffered considerably from Dervish raids, and has lost all his cattle.

Cultivation.Dura, simsim, lubia, and tobacco are the principal crops cultivated, the former is of good quality, both Naggad and Kurgi being sown. In Gezan there is a considerable area under cultivation, but with this exception there is practically none south of a line drawn from Kiri through Jebel Kukura to Masurkum and thence up Khor Masurkum.

In the Tomat villages, west of Jebel Fazogli, the dura crop is very fine, but simsim is chiefly grown between Kiri and Fazogli.

Ground close to Tomat would undoubtedly repay cultivation, but at present the more easily cleared areas near the Nile are amply sufficient for the population.

Cattle, etc.There are comparatively few cattle and sheep in the district, the people having suffered so much from raids.

Trade.A good deal of trade is carried on with Beni Shangul and this is bound to develop.

Fazogli produces a little gold, which is found in all the khors coming from Jebel Faronge: Khor El Dahab, near Gezan, being the richest.

A good deal of coffee is imported from Abyssinia, as well as horses, mules, cattle, donkeys, and sheep.

The idea of ever tapping the trade of the Abyssinian province of Gojjam is said to be out of the question owing to the apparent impossibility of finding a trade route free from physical difficulties of an insuperable kind.

Transport.Donkeys or mules are the best transport animals all round, though camels do very well as long as their feet do not get sore. All the transport animals available for purchase, or otherwise, are those that come in from Abyssinia, and the supply is a very fluctuating one.

(d) Dinkas on the White Nile.

The Dinka country on the White Nile, extends from Jebelein southwards to about 10 miles south of Kodok, along the right bank; it is uninhabited, however, except by Nomad Selim, north of Karshawal.

The Dinkas, or Jange, as they are called by the Arabs, have no Mek like the Shilluks, but each section is separate and independent under its own sheikh, consequently, they were never able to unite to defend themselves against the depredations of slave traders and the Dervishes, who found them an easy prey. Many of their sheikhs at the present time are men who have been slaves in Cairo, and who have been repatriated either by Gordon or the present Sudan Government. Thus it is that, whilst the majority of the men are stark naked, one here and there meets a respectably dressed old man carrying a sunshade.

The women ordinarily wear a goatskin apron in front and another behind, but the unmarried girls are usually content with a string of beads.

The men mould their hair, mixed with red mud, into fantastic shapes, and sleep on a bed of cow-dung ash, with which their bodies are covered. The women do not usually thus disfigure themselves, and sleep on hide mats.

The Dinkas are remarkable for their height and slender limbs and figures. They are not, however, of such fine physique as their neighbours the Shilluks.

They are unenterprising and ignorant to a degree, and so unprogressive and rigidly conservative that any such up-to-date innovation as the introduction of donkeys[83] for transport purposes, an innovation admitted by themselves to be most desirable, is not adopted simply on the pretext that it was not the custom of their fathers and forefathers.

They consequently always walk, the men carrying long narrow bladed spears and a knob-kerry, and the women a large basket on their heads containing their food, etc.

During the dry season the Dinkas desert the hinterland of the river, and descend with their flocks and herds to live near its banks, where the now dry marshes afford excellent grazing.

The localities which they frequent mostly are Renk, El Wat, Jebel Ahmed Agha, Meshra Zeraf, Kaka (right bank), Khor Adar. There are police posts at Renk and Melut; Renk being the headquarters of the District and residence of a British Inspector.

Cultivation.On the arrival of the rains they, for the most part, retire inland, sometimes 20 or 30 miles, to their cultivation, which however, is little more than sufficient for their own requirements. The grain is stored in these cultivation villages, and is only brought to the river in the dry season in small quantities from time to time on the women’s heads.

Donkeys, and indeed any means of transport but their women’s heads are unknown. If, therefore, it is desired to purchase any dura from the Dinkas in the dry season, the would-be purchaser must be prepared to provide transport and to send it a day or so inland.

DINKA.

DINKA GIRL.

Herds, etc.The Dinkas of the White Nile, who number about 8,000, own a good many cattle and sheep, and pay tribute on them to the Government partly in kind and partly in money (1904). According to a census made in 1903, the following were the estimated numbers of their herds and flocks: cattle, 8,000; sheep, 16,000; goats, 13,000.

Though living in a grand game country they have no sporting instincts whatever, and rely on the Baggara Arabs to provide them with skins in exchange for dura. They fish to a certain extent, but are not nearly so expert as their neighbours the Shilluks, unlike whom they have no aquatic proclivities.

Religion.A certain number, owing to their having travelled to Khartoum and even Cairo as slaves, profess the Mohammedan faith, but their number is few. The remainder believe in the existence of a being who rules their destiny, and whom they call Deng. He has many forms and shapes, from the spirit of a great departed Sheikh to the more familiar personality of a favourite cow. They also believe in the possibility of transferring their spirits to a particular animal for a particular purpose and for a stated time; for instance, if an unwelcome individual is present, they annoy him in the guise of hyænas at night until he departs. (Vide also Chap. VI, [Section 2 (d),] and [Chap. VII.])

Marriage customs.(a) Arranging Marriage.—The intending bridegroom must obtain the consent of the girl’s father or guardian, as the case may be, and settle the “maal” (purchase price). He does not necessarily pay the whole at the time, but later, if he finds the girl suits him, and does not have any dealings with other men, he pays the difference; also sometimes after paying the full “maal” he may be ordered by a village council to pay an additional “maal” if he is a rich man.

As a rule the “maal” is paid to the girl’s father or guardians a year or so before the man marries her; she remaining meanwhile in her father’s house. If during this period of “engagement” the man comes to the conclusion that the girl is not suited to him, he can terminate the engagement, and receives back his cattle. No inter-marriage of blood relations is allowed under any circumstances, on the other hand, a man may marry all or any of his late father’s widows (except of course his own mother). In this connection it is interesting to note that, if a girl is tampered with and subsequently becomes ill, it is held to be conclusive proof that she was tampered with by a blood relation, and the blood relations who could possibly have been responsible for the offence are ordered to pay a heavy fine to the girl’s father.

(b) Misconduct of a Fiancée.—If a fiancée misconducts herself, the bridegroom elect receives back all the cattle that he may have paid to the girl’s relations, but, if, on the other hand, he still chooses to marry her, he will not receive his cattle back, but will exact a “fine maal” from the man with whom the girl misconducted herself. If he does not choose to marry the girl he receives back his cattle, and the father of the girl receives the “fine maal” from the delinquent. If the man still marries the girl under these circumstances, he slaughters one of the cattle paid as “fine maal” and invites the whole village to dinner; but if he does not marry her, the girl’s father does not follow this custom of slaying the bull.

The father or guardian who receives the marriage portion of the girl does not retain the whole to himself, but it is divided according to certain rules among the relations. A man having received a marriage portion on behalf of his daughter or ward, and the girl being still only “engaged,” may not dispose of any of it, until the girl is actually married, and has entered her husband’s house.

(c) Misconduct after Marriage.—If a man has dealings with a married woman, her husband shall take a “fine maal” from the adulterer, two or three head of cattle according to the adulterer’s wealth. If the wife go wrong, the husband may cast her off, and send her back to her people, and receive back from them the “maal” he originally paid, plus the issue of the said cattle since they left his hands. If the husband go wrong, the father or guardian of the girl he has wronged will take a fine “maal” from him; his wife cannot divorce him.

(d) Divorce.—If a man maltreats his wife she may complain to her father, who may free her by paying the husband back the original “maal,” plus its issue. If the father has no cattle, he will receive his daughter into his house, and when she marries, recompense the late husband.

If a man wishes to divorce his wife, and has good grounds for wishing to do so, he will return her to her father or guardian and receive back his original “maal,” plus the issue or not, according to the circumstances of the case.

If a man divorce his wife for misconduct, and there are children of the marriage, they will remain with him.

Misconduct.(a) If a man misconduct himself with a girl he will pay to her father or relations a “maal” such as he would have paid had he wished to marry the girl in the usual way, and he must marry her. If, however, the father of the girl is not willing to marry his daughter to the man, he will not exact a full “maal” from him, but only a “fine maal” according to the man’s wealth. If a girl misconduct herself, and dies from the effects, the man responsible will pay her father eight head of cattle.

If a man misconduct himself with an engaged girl, and marries her in the place of the original fiancée he shall pay to her father the same “maal” as was paid in the first instance by the other man, and if the girl die in his house, he shall have no claim to receive back all or any of his “maal” from her father or whoever received his “maal,” but in most cases the father will pay him a proportion as a favour.

(b) Misconduct with a Blood Relation.—The man who is convicted of misconducting himself with a blood relation will pay to the girl’s father one bull and one cow-calf. The bull will be cut into two halves, and afterwards devoured at a village feast; the couple will not, of course, be allowed to marry.

Blood maal.If a man has an adopted daughter, who has been paid to him as “blood maal,” she is not allowed to marry out of her adopted father’s family, except in rare cases in which she happens to be a blood relation of her adopted family. A man thus possessing an adopted daughter, paid originally as a “blood maal,” can terminate the blood feud by paying to her father or relations a small “maal” of cattle.

Violating a “blood maal girl.”—If a man has dealings with a girl who has been paid as a “blood maal,” he shall be ordered to pay one head of cattle, which, however, can never be returned. If a man has connection with a girl who does not come under this category, he pays, as stated before, a certain “maal,” which, however, is returned to him when the girl eventually marries, together with the issue of the “maal.”

Death of a wife.If a wife die before she has been received into her husband’s house, he receives back the “maal” he has paid in advance for her. If she die after being received into her husband’s house, he does not, as a matter of course, receive his “maal” back, but the father will almost invariably pay him back half as a favour. If there are children of the marriage, the widower will not receive any cattle back.

Death of a husband.If a husband die his widow will remain with her late husband’s relations unless her own relations choose to pay back the “maal” originally received for her, in which latter case the custody of the children is generally given to her late husband’s people.

Disposal of property.If a man die and leave property, it goes to his sons, failing a son, if he leave a married daughter who has a son it goes to him. Failing any issue, his property goes to his male relations. The widow of a man will never receive his property.

History of the Dinkas of the White Nile.

This section of the Dinkas migrated from the Bahr-el-Ghazal about 130 or 150 years ago, as nearly as can be judged from various sources of information, and most of their customs, their character, and habits of daily life, are identical with the corresponding traits of the Bahr-el-Ghazal Dinkas as recorded by Schweinfurth. Some of the older Dinkas of the “Ibrahim” section, especially those whose wits have been sharpened by a visit to Cairo or Khartoum, appear to take a considerable interest in tracing back their history.

At the time of the migration, the head of the Bahr-el-Ghazal Dinkas was one Akwai Chakab. He descended into the country on the right bank of the White Nile north of the Sobat, and drove out the Arab inhabitants; these were chiefly Fung, Abu Rof, and Jaalin, the latter being also partly on the left (west) bank. No mention is made of the presence of any Baggara Arabs on the west bank. Akwai Chakab was accompanied by one Kur Deng Achuk wad Agweir, and by his own son, Deng Karuma wad Akwai. Having seized the country and installed his own people, Akwai Chakab returned to his own country in the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and left the Government of his new country in the hands of his son, Deng Karuma and Kur Deng Achuk wad Agweir. Another son of Akwai Chakab accompanied his father in the seizure of the new territories; this was Kolong wad Akwai, and to him was entrusted the command of the advance guard of the army. His orders were to push on ahead, spy out the country, and eventually attack Sennar and the El Ahamda, etc., and reinforcements would be supplied from the rear if necessary.

On the conquest of the Sudan by Mohammed Ali Pasha, the invading “Turks” did not penetrate the east bank beyond Jebel Ahmed Agha; how far south they went on the west bank is not stated. On the east bank, however, they had to fight the powerful Dinka forces from Muli (now called Renk) and did not always come off victors (Muli was at that time called by the Arabs “Hasoia”). The Dinkas, however, being forced to fall back, retreated up Khor Rau, east of Ahmed Agha, followed by the “Turks,” who came up with them, and fell on them at the Debba Mabiu. The “Turks” completely routed them, and seized and carried off their cattle, but none of their women or children. Mention is made of the “Turks” fighting with the Shilluks near Kaka. The invading army then appears to have retired from the country, leaving the Dinkas to their own devices; and they do not seem to have been troubled again for a considerable time. They were, however making mischief, and they admit that the evil days that befel them at a later date was the inevitable consequence of their own misdeeds. Strong enough to hold their own against other neighbouring tribes, they appear to have turned their attention to annoying the Government, and amongst other exploits, penetrated to Karkoj, killed Sheikh Abdallahi and some of his people, and robbed the remainder. The Governor-General of the Sudan at, or about the time of these occurrences, 1863, was Musa Pasha Hamdi, and he detailed an army under the command of Mohammed Kheir, to go into the Dinka country and wipe out the Dinkas. This was the commencement of their troubles which did not end till 1898. The first descent upon the Dinkas was in the Abialang district, otherwise known as the Dinka Ibrahim. The inhabitants fled to Jebel Gule and threw themselves under the protection of Sheikh Regab wad Idris, and paid him heavy tribute on the understanding that he would arrange matters between themselves and the Government. Regab wad Idris appears to have accepted the tribute, and then to have sent word to Sennar that the fugitive Dinkas were in his power. Thereupon a force of Egyptian soldiery was despatched from Sennar, and captured the fugitive Dinkas, whom they led off as slaves. The men were enrolled in the Nubian regiments, and the women and children sold. Orders subsequently came to release them, but a considerable number of the men were, nevertheless, kidnapped, and many remained in the regiments; of the latter, there are now several still serving in the army as more or less senior officers. On those occasions when the Dinka forces defeated the Government troops, the locality of the battle has generally been called by the Dinkas by the name of the commander of the Government troops, such as the Island of Wad Ab Kona, of which the original Dinka name, also still used, was Gasa-el-Abiad. Other instances are Wad Ab Sheiba and (Jebel) Ahmed Agha.

The result of these depredations was that the Dinkas were practically driven to exist as outlaws, living in the woods or in the inaccessible Nuer country. They never, however, lost their hold over their own country, and whenever the Government forces withdrew, they would return to the vicinity of their villages, ready to fly at a moment’s notice.

In later days, in the time of the Dervish regime, those Dinka districts which, on demand, paid up the whole of their cattle, were not further molested; on the other hand, the people south of Jebel Ahmed Agha declined to fall in with this proposal, and were consequently perpetually harried and raided, and had many of their women and children carried off, the Dinka’s first care being always to drive his cattle off to a place of safety. Since the establishment of a settled Government, the Dinkas have been returning in increasing numbers to their country, but the general complaint now is, that at the present time, hundreds, and even thousands of Dinkas are still in the service of those who seized them, or bought them in the old days, and who would, if they had an opportunity, return to their country.

(e) Selim Baggara.

The Selim Baggara, though really belonging to the left bank from opposite to Jebelein southwards nearly to Kaka, cross over to the right bank in considerable numbers during the dry season. They prefer to live amongst the Dinkas, as they rely on them principally for their grain supply, not being cultivators to any extent themselves. A good many of them are mounted on Abyssinian ponies (price 30 to 40 sheep, i.e., 3l. to 4l.) on which they hunt elephant, buffalo, and giraffe in the most fearless manner, armed only with their long broad-headed Baggara spears. The skins of these animals are readily accepted by the Dinkas in exchange for dura. The Selim are divided into two sections, Um Tarif and Walad Mahbub; the Sheikh of the former is Amin Musa,[84] and of the latter El Hag Suleiman, both live on the left bank opposite Jebelein. The tribe owns a considerable number of sheep, but little or no cattle. They cultivate to a small extent on the borders of the Gimma country, about 20 miles north-west from Jebelein.

The Arab names for places are, as a rule, quite unknown to the Dinkas, and vice versâ.

(f) Shilluks.

From Kodok south, on the right bank, to the Sobat the inhabitants are mostly Shilluks (for description of whom vide [Chap. VIII.])

[74]Vide list, [Appendix F.]

[75]1 ardeb = 300 lbs. = 24 ruba.

[76]Wad Medani is to become the headquarters of Gezira (Blue Nile) Province in 1905.

[77]There is now a well at J. Soga, a few hundred yards west of the village at the northern end of J. Mazmum; there is also a well at J. Dali, which cannot, however, be relied on.

[78]A new road is being cut (1904) from Senga to Goz Abu Guma, and from Roseires direct to Gule and Renk.

[79]Egyptian money is accepted in Beni Shangul except by the Abyssinians.

[80]Black bead with white spots.

[81]Their appearance is said to be rendered still more grotesque by the wearing of a cow-hide belt about 3 inches wide to which is affixed, at the back, the tail of some animal; this gives the wearer the strange appearance of possessing a tail.

[82]Euphorbia candelabrum.

[83]Since writing this, Bakhit Niok, a more progressive sheikh than his fellows, has provided himself with both a horse and donkey, other sheikhs are following his lead, and donkeys are becoming comparatively common in Northern Dinkaland.

[84]El Hag Suleiman is now (1904) Head-Sheikh of all Selim.

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CHAPTER VI.

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SOUTH-EASTERN SUDAN.

(The Sobat and tributaries, and country south of the Sobat and north of N. Lat. 5° between the Bahr El Jebel and Abyssinian frontier.)

Section 1.—Description of the Sobat and its Tributaries.

River Sobat.The Sobat rises on the Abyssinian plateau somewhere about east long. 36° and north lat. 7° 15′, though its source has probably never been accurately determined, and flows generally from east to west.

For the first 260 miles (approximately), as far west as the junction of the Pibor[85], it is known by the Abyssinians as the Baro, by the Nuers as the Kir, and by the Anuaks as the Upeno; from this point to its junction with the White Nile, at a point some 55 miles by river south of Kodok and 460 miles (approximately) from its source, it is called the Sobat.

In its descent from the plateau to Gambela, for the first 150 miles, it flows in a series of rapids through wooded, mountainous, and hilly country, in a rocky bed often not more than 40 yards wide. From Gambela to Finkio (15 miles) it increases in width to about 200 yards, but in the dry season is full of rocks, especially at the bends. Throughout the remainder of its journey to the Nile it meanders across an immense dead-flat alluvial grassy plain, varied here and there by extensive woods reaching down to the water’s edge, but often nothing is visible for miles save swamp and grass with numerous termite hills, and but an occasional tree. During this part of its course its width varies as a rule from 150 to 300 yards, though occasionally it narrows to 30 or 40 yards in the marshy region between Balamkun and the Pibor.

Banks.[86]Working up stream,[87] the banks are, as a rule, firm and dry for the first 150 miles from Sobat mouth, and numerous villages are seen built actually on them. The left bank is usually higher than the right, and both banks are higher than the country in their immediate vicinity, and thus narrow swamps running parallel to the river exist well on into the dry season. These marshes are often drained by the natives through cuts in the banks in order to capture the fish in them. Above the village of Shwai the banks are alternately marshy and firm.

Navigability.Both the Sobat and Baro, probably as far up-stream as Finkio, are navigable for steamers drawing 4½ feet of water, from the middle of May till the end of December. About the middle of the latter month the appearance of sandbanks makes navigation difficult, though it is probable a channel for small boats exists throughout the year.

Fords.Both the Sobat and Baro are fordable at fairly frequent intervals in the dry season eastwards of the Dinka country.

Current.The current is generally estimated at from 2½ to 3 miles per hour in flood; in the dry season (February to May) it is not more than 1 mile per hour.

The current of the Baro in flood combined with the sharp bends and occasional narrowness of the river render navigation difficult in places.

Water.The water of the Sobat in flood is of a reddish-yellow colour, whilst that of the Baro is similar to the colour of the Blue Nile or Atbara, being like them derived from the Abyssinian hills.

The sources of supply of the Sobat are:—

(i) The southern Abyssinian hills and the rains which drain westward from them.

(ii) The vast marshes which lie between the White Nile and the Abyssinian hills, which keep the Pibor bank-full till the middle or end of January.

Rise.The Sobat reaches its lowest level about the end of January and commences to rise about the end of April or beginning of May.

Discharge.Petherick in April (low water), 1862, estimated the discharge of the Sobat at 120 cubic metres per second. The same authority on 5th June (after the rise had begun), 1863, reckoned the discharge at 233 cubic metres per second. For later calculations, vide footnote [p. 111.]

Adura (loop of the Baro).A large loop of the Baro takes off from the main stream near the village of Gadjak[88] on the south bank, and enters the Baro again some 14 miles to the east of the Sobat-Pibor junction. This river is known by the natives as the Adura. Although seemingly a large and important loop, it was found to be quite unnavigable in July, when the river was nearly full, owing to the existence of a large number of sand-banks and islands. Another loop south of the Adura is said to be formed by a stream known as the Mokwai. This has a very insignificant exit from the Baro, only some 5 or 6 miles to the east of the Adura exit, but is reported in its lower reaches to be an important stream in flood time, possibly after it is joined (as it is said to be) by the Bela river. The combined stream enters the Pibor, by native report, and, in that case, the river, followed by Major Capper for some 20 miles of its course, is probably this one.

Tribes — Shilluks.From the junction of the river Sobat with the White Nile, for the first 30 or 40 miles up-stream, both banks of the Sobat are occupied by the Shilluks. For full description of this tribe, see [Chap. VIII.]

Dinkas.The Dinka tribe thence occupy both banks of the river Sobat to about 32° 16′ east, villages of first Shilluks and then Dinkas being very numerous from the Sobat mouth up to this point, which is near the village of Lajak. They are shy and suspicious, but amenable to kindness and trade.

The Dinkas of the Sobat have been worsted in the frequent forays of the more powerful Nuers into their district. They complain bitterly of the spoliation of their herds by the Nuers, and state that many of their children, now growing into manhood as Nuers, were torn from them in the constant raids of the Nuer tribe. The Dinkas, in spite of this alleged oppression, own large numbers of sheep, goats, and cattle (vide details Appendix F, [p. 330]). The Dinkas on the Sobat are far more intelligent and energetic than their kinsmen on the White Nile, and cultivate sufficient grain and tobacco for their own needs.

For the most part the Dinka territory along the Sobat consists of open, treeless, grass plains. Fifteen to 20 miles east of Lajak the river banks are uninhabited until the small village of Ashel is reached, which is the commencement of a small tract of Anuak country, sandwiched in between the Dinkas in the west and the large and powerful Nuer tribe to the east.

Anuaks (west of Nasser).The small section of Anuaks referred to here only occupy some 25 to 30 miles of the river bank as far as the village of Wegin, which is the boundary between them and the Nuer tribe. The different tribes hereabouts are considerably intermingled, as they appear to intermarry[89] to a large extent, and Anuaks may be found living amongst the Nuers even as far east as Nasser. Their position would not, however, appear to be a very enviable one, as the men are more or less slaves of the Nuers, and are called upon to perform many household and menial duties for their more powerful neighbours; at the same time the Anuaks appear to have no fear of entering Nuer territory.

The chief villages of the Anuaks, between Ashel and Wegin on the left bank of the river, are Yakwoik, Fatiwanyang and Shwai. A friendly Sheikh, Aiwel Wad Agwot, lives at Fatiwanyang. He is constantly to be seen at Nasser Post, and also occasionally even at Kodok.

This section of the Anuaks is a small and unimportant one; in general appearance they closely resemble the Nuers. They appear to grow very little food, barely more than sufficient for their own requirements, but at the same time have flocks of sheep and goats and a few herds of cattle.

Their country is well wooded for the most part, and, from native accounts, numerous herds of elephants constitute a very real source of danger to travelling, more especially at night time. Game is plentiful on both banks of the river in December, 1899. Very little trade has been carried on with these natives, but a few goats and sheep can be purchased for brass wire; the price being about a 6-foot length of wire for a sheep. Latterly, however, since more intimate communication with Nasser Post has been established, the demand for cloth has increased.

Nuers (Sobat and baro).The Nuers are by far the most powerful and numerous tribe living along the Sobat river. Originally they appear, from native accounts, to have occupied tracts of country south of the Sobat in the neighbourhood of Bor and the Bahr El Ghazal, but these sections trekked north, and ousted the more weakly tribes living on the Sobat, and occupied their country. The Falangs and Bonjaks no longer exist, their territory being occupied by the Nuers. There appear to be three separate factions of Nuers at the present day occupying the Sobat valley, who, if native accounts are to be believed, are more or less at enmity with each other, owing to family disagreements. It is often difficult in consequence to get guides from one part of the country to enter that occupied by a rival section. For instance, Sheikh Jok’s people will not readily enter the territory of the Nuers in the neighbourhood of Nasser Post; whilst these again will refuse to proceed further east along the Baro than the village of Barrakwik.

The Nuer territory along the Sobat and Baro rivers extends from about east 32° 33′ to about 34° 10′. Their territory on the right bank of the Baro as far east as the Khor Garre[90] (33° 48′ approximately) belongs to the Sudan, whilst east of this khor and the whole of the left bank of the Baro belongs to Abyssinia. From Wegin village to Nasser Post the country is probably the finest occupied by the Nuers, as it is for the most part well wooded, and in places one passes through really beautiful park-like country. Villages are numerous, and several of the districts, such as Fauwel and Jurwel, are well cultivated. East of the Pibor their country bordering the Baro is a desolate marsh.

Although the huts and villages of the Nuers hereabouts are well and substantially built, the natives themselves are shy, suspicious, indolent and altogether a very low type of humanity. They appear to cultivate only such small plots of ground in the immediate vicinity of their villages as will suffice for their own requirements for perhaps six months in the year, whilst during the remainder of the year they live chiefly on fish, which, existing in great quantities, are easily speared during the dry season of the year. They do not appear to hunt at all.

TATUG OR DELEIB—AMERICAN PROTESTANT MISSION STATION ON THE SOBAT.

Physically, the men are tall and well-built, but show little signs of muscular development, being generally long-limbed and wiry. They are all stark naked, and cover themselves from head to foot with cow dung ash, which gives them a particularly filthy appearance and renders their skin extremely rough and coarse. They make no attempt to adorn themselves, but are extremely anxious to procure brass wire with which to make for themselves bracelets extending from the wrist to near the elbow. This seems to be about their only vanity. They are all armed with spears, of which every man carries two or three. Their weapon of defence consists of an oval-shaped buffalo-hide shield. Bows and arrows they do not appear to possess.

The elder married women are as filthy as the men in appearance. They all, however, wear a leather apron or skin fastened round their waists. The younger girls and unmarried women wear no such covering, and, like the men, are quite naked.

The right bank of the Sobat near Nasser Post is densely populated as far as the junction of the Sobat and Pibor rivers, there being several large and important villages such as Kwoinlualtong, Taufot, and Ajungmir in addition to smaller ones. The left bank of the Sobat is not inhabited, as from Nasser to the Pibor a considerable portion of the country is inundated when the rivers are full.

East of the Sobat-Pibor junction, the country through which the Baro flows may be described, until Anuak territory is reached, as worthless. For the most part it consists of open treeless grass plains, which, in the vicinity of the river, are inundated for months at a time. The population is small, and confined to villages some distance apart, and absolutely no signs of cultivation are seen, except on a large island near the border of Anuak territory.

This perhaps may be explained by the fact that the Nuers in the dry season of the year occupy villages near the river banks, which are merely used as large fishing villages during the time the rivers are low; they subsist almost entirely then on the fish speared in the many pools which are formed by the receding waters of the rivers. When the rivers become full again, and the country is inundated, they withdraw to their permanent quarters further inland, where they probably merely cultivate during the rainy season of the year, between the months of May and November.

Several of the large villages to the east of the Pibor-Sobat junction, such as Taiyau, Gunjang, Gadjak and others which were teeming with life in the month of January, were deserted in July when a visit was paid by steamer to Itang.

With the Nuers of the Sobat and Baro rivers very little trade can be done, as they possess little or no grain, living chiefly on fish. They possess, however, numerous flocks of goats and sheep in the vicinity of Nasser Post, and also some magnificent herds of cattle at Ajungmir. Thirty-five goats and sheep were obtained in exchange for a cow. Large opaque white beads, about the size of a pea, are in request as articles of barter, but brass wire “No. 8” is most in demand, and a desire for cloth is beginning to rise.

Anuaks or Yambos (E. of Nasser).The eastern Anuaks of the Baro (or Ufeno, as they call it) inhabit that portion of the river bank extending east of 34° 10′ to the mouth of the Baro river gorge at the foot of the Abyssinian hills, and the whole of their territory, with the exception of a small enclave round Itang,[91] which is leased to the Sudan Government, belongs to Abyssinia.

This tract of country is probably the most fertile anywhere along the river after it enters the plains. It is well wooded, and to a great extent free of those large expanses of swamp found lower down the river in Nuer territory. The numerous huts and hamlets, with which the river banks are dotted, are generally built close to the edge of the bank overlooking the river, usually on mounds slightly raised above the normal level of the bank. These huts are neatly built of mud and wattle with grass roofs, and are scrupulously clean and well kept. They are, as a rule, surrounded by a fence of tall reeds and grass, giving absolute privacy to the occupants. Within the enclosure so formed, in addition to several huts for the family, are the granaries, and also other enclosures for the herding of goats and sheep at night time. The interior is most carefully plastered over with mud and free of dust and dirt. The natives of this region are more advanced in ideas of civilisation than any others living along the Sobat and Baro in the plains. This is possibly due to their being in closer touch with the Gallas, with whom they trade considerably, than any of the more western tribes are.

They are a most peaceful, friendly and industrious race, and are great agriculturists. Miles and miles along the river banks are diligently cultivated by them twice a year, and splendid crops spring up from the generous soil.

Physically the Anuaks are not such a tall race as the Nuers, but their muscular development is perhaps finer. This is probably due to their more nourishing grain food all the year round, but they also supplement their grain largely with fish during the dry seasons of the year. Although they rarely seem to kill their goats and sheep for food, like the Nuers, they are extremely fond of meat, and will constantly beg a white man to come and shoot a hippopotamus for them, so that they may indulge in a real gorge.

As a rule the men are more decently clad than the Nuers, as many of them wear beautifully cured skins, as soft as chamois leather, round the loins. They are far cleaner, better groomed, and smarter looking in every way than the Nuers. A large number of the Anuaks, especially in the neighbourhood of Pokum and Finkio, wear splendid ivory bracelets on the arms. Some of these are as much as 4 to 5 inches in depth, and it is by no means uncommon to see a man with one such bracelet on the upper arm, and two somewhat smaller ones on the fore-arm.

One very curious weapon, to be seen nowhere else, is found among the Anuaks. This consists of a spear, the head of which is manufactured from a legbone of a giraffe, polished down to about 1 inch or ¾ inch in diameter, and sharpened to a fine point. These curios are obtainable for about five ½-piastre pieces.

The Anuaks would not appear to be either a courageous or warlike race like the Nuers, and seem content to merely cultivate their fields and remain at peace with their neighbours. Their spears are generally small headed, with long handles, and it is by no means unusual to see some men armed with nothing but sharp-pointed sticks hardened at the ends. Knobkerries are carried by most men. The older married women all wear skins, cured or otherwise, round the loins. Some of these are daintily picked out with a border of vari-coloured small beads. A large quantity of beads are also very commonly worn both round the waist and neck. The attire of the younger women and girls is really most attractive. In addition to a numerous accumulation of beads round the neck, they wear a large number of strings of beads round the waist of many different colours, whilst a small fringe, as it were, of generally white opaque or light blue and white beads depends in front and behind, some 2 to 3 inches in length round the body. As the girls are often very beautifully formed, and possess pleasant, laughing and occasionally really pretty faces, a group of them together forms a most charming picture of modest maidenhood.

The upper reaches of the Baro are not well cultivated, and beyond the point where the Faidherb was abandoned, the population is very scanty, and little or no food is obtainable from the natives; the river banks become very stony and thickly wooded, and what little cultivation there is to be seen hereabouts is generally on the islands.

Principal villages. Nasser.Nasser, situated on the left bank of the Sobat, 160 miles above its junction with the White Nile, is the residence of a police officer and detachment of police. It is also garrisoned by half a company of a Sudanese battalion under a British officer (January, 1904). Little trade is as yet carried on as the Nuers who live in the vicinity have not yet got over their aversion to dealings with a civilized Government.

Itang (Finkio).By the treaty of May, 1902, the Emperor Menelek agreed to lease to the Anglo-Egyptian Government an area of about 1,000 acres in the neighbourhood of Itang, for the purpose of forming a trading station there. Itang is on the right bank of the Baro, roughly 100 miles above Nasser, and is in the Anuak country; a station was established here in January, 1904. As, however, the site is not a very suitable one a more convenient one at Finkio further east has been adopted. The Sheikh of Finkio is named Ojilo.

Although it is not practicable for probably five or six months in the year to maintain direct steamer communication with Nasser, the post should be absolutely self supporting. Shallow draught steamers drawing say 15 inches could, however, probably reach Finkio during 10 months of the year.

In addition to grain of various kinds, cotton is also grown by the natives in small quantities, and tobacco is very commonly to be obtained. Flocks of goats and sheep are numerous; but the natives will not readily part with their live stock. Cattle are only to be seen very rarely, as the natives fear to possess these lest they should attract the cupidity of the Abyssinians.

The Anuaks are very ready to sell flour and grain in exchange for beads, more especially in the Finkio district, which is very largely populated. They also hire themselves readily as carriers.

The most popular bead is a small light blue opaque one, the only opaque species of small bead obtainable in Cairo. A string of this bead, sufficiently large to pass over the head on to the neck, will purchase from 1 to 1½ pounds of flour, and perhaps 2 pounds of grain. A fowl can also be obtained for about the same quantity of beads. Possibly white or small green opaque beads would be equally sought after, but a blue and white bead, known in East Africa as the “punda malia” (zebra), would, everywhere in these regions, be eagerly sought after by the natives. Many of the Anuaks wear these beads, though how this species has got into the country, except, perhaps, gradually from the north of Lake Rudolf, where they may have been bartered in 1898, is difficult to understand.

The best trade goods would be white, green, pale blue (all must be opaque and not glass) and “punda malia.” Beads would be the main purchasing medium for grain, and perhaps brass wire and cloth for goats and sheep.

In a short time money may be introduced—as at Kodok amongst the Shilluks—as the Gallas, being neighbours of the Anuaks, and familiar with the Maria Theresa dollar, would readily bring down goats and sheep for sale, and the Anuaks would probably soon follow suit.

Besides tapping the fertile food-producing districts of the Anuaks, trade in ivory, coffee, live stock, donkeys, and mules, and in addition, perhaps gold and iron, in smaller quantities, will spring up with the Gallas when they find a ready market for their goods.

Tributaries of Sobat and Baro.Several more or less important streams and khors join the Baro in its upper stony region on both banks. Chief of these are the Sako on the right bank and the Bonga on left bank.

Lower down on the right bank, Khor Jokau or Garre joins the Baro by, some say, two mouths, one at Jokau about 40 miles west of Itang, the other at Machar[92] 15 miles further west, where the post to mark the Sudan-Abyssinia frontier has been erected.

The Khor Garre, which forms the boundary between the Sudan and Abyssinia in these regions, brings down a large quantity of water in flood time from the Galla hills. In the dry season water stands in pools in its bed.

For the first 20 miles from its mouth this khor is inhabited by or belongs to the Nuers, then for a few miles by the Anuaks or Yambos, whose district is called Chai, and higher up by Burun.

Khor Makeir.About 8 miles east of the Pibor junction, Khor Makeir comes in on the right bank. This, near its mouth, is deep, with a sandy bed 30 yards wide. It has not been explored, but is believed by some to be the mouth of the Sonka, in which case it has its origin near Jebel Sonka in the Galla hills south of Kirin. Others say it is only a spill from the Baro.

Tributaries on left bank. Nigol or Aluro.The River Nigol (Nuer) or Aluro (Anuak) enters the Baro about 17 miles below Itang. It appears to have its origin on the Abyssinian plateau, and for some 25 miles before its junction with the Baro it flows parallel to that river, at a distance often of little more than a mile. In flood time it is a most formidable obstacle, as it forms large areas of swamp. Its entry into the Baro, near the border between Anuak and Nuer territory, is a very insignificant one, and barely discernible, as it spills out into a large swamp, near the village of Methok, before it reaches the actual river, and apparently the water gradually finds its way into the river through a thick forest-growth of trees by two small channels only a few feet wide. From the point where the Adura takes off from the Baro, the banks of the latter river are thickly wooded with sycamore and other trees as far as the eastern boundary of Nuer territory.

Pibor.The Pibor flows generally from south to north, and enters the Sobat river at a point about 25 miles above Nasser and about 200 miles from its (Sobat) mouth. It is by far the most important tributary of the Sobat. The Pibor was found (June, 1903) to be blocked by sudd immediately above the Akobo junction, and so its upper waters remained unexplored until September, 1904.[93] The greenish colour of its water would lead one to suppose that it receives its supply from vast marshes in the plain between the Akobo and the Nile, rather than from the Abyssinian plateau.[94]

The banks of the lower Pibor are, as a rule, swampy, especially at the season when the river is fullest. The adjoining country is flat and covered with grass, with but few trees, though, south of Koratong, the banks are firm and dry, and trees become general, especially on the right bank.

Width.The waterway of the Pibor in its lower reaches is exceedingly narrow, a steamer frequently touches the reeds of either bank simultaneously. About 40 miles from its mouth, however, it widens to from 40 to 100 yards.

Navigability.The Pibor river has not (1903) been navigated by steamer in the months of February, March, and April, during which period it appears probable navigation would be difficult, if not impossible. During the rest of the year the average depth of water is at least 10 feet.

Discharge.The discharge at the mouth of the Pibor, calculated by Captain H. H. Wilson in October, 1901, worked out at roughly 13,500 gallons per second. The width of the river here being about 80 yards, of which about 30 yards was blocked by sudd. The maximum depth was nearly 30 feet, and the current rather more than 1 mile an hour.

Route.There is a route over comparatively dry country from Nasser to Waratong (45 miles approximately).

Inhabitants.The inhabitants of the lower Pibor are Nuers, whose principal villages are a group at Koratong and another at Kur, both situated on the left bank. These appear to be the permanent homes of this section (Sheikh Jok’s) of Nuers, but in the dry season they occupy other villages both north and south along the Pibor, the most important of which is Bil (right bank) near the junction of the Gelo River; during this season Nuers from other districts visit the Pibor for fishing.

The Nuers of the Pibor do not differ in any essential degree from those of the Sobat and Baro, and are just as disinclined as their kinsmen to recognise the advantages of civilisation.

Trade goods.Dura was purchased from the late Sheikh Yowe’s (now Jok’s) people for small white and dark blue beads, not much larger than a pin’s head. A string sufficiently large to pass over the head on to the neck purchased from 1 pound to 1½ pounds of unground grain. A spear length of brass wire, about 9 feet in length, purchased a goat of average size. Coloured fancy cloth will soon be in much request.

Anuaks.A few Anuaks are found on the right bank, these are more or less subject to the Nuers. Their Sheikh is Okwai.

Tributaries of Pibor. The Agwei (Gwynn), or Neubari (Austin), or Ruzi II (Wellby), or Adjouaro (Faivre).The “Agwei” River joins the Pibor about 17 miles south of the Akobo junction. It was found by the Faivre Expedition (1898), by whom it was named the Adjouaro, to rise in the Southern Boma hills and to flow northwards to within a few miles of the left bank of the Akobo, and then bending westwards to flow parallel with that river to the Pibor, or, as they called it, the Adjouba (Agibba?). The Agwei was also heard of by Major Austin when marching through Boma; it was described as a big river and was named by him the Neubari. It is also probably the same as Wellby’s Ruzi II.

In September, 1904, Major Gwynn explored this branch of the Pibor in a steam-launch for 55 miles from its mouth, when further progress was arrested by heavy sudd. He describes it as a fine stream flowing between well-defined banks, averaging 3 feet above the level of the river in flood and 60 to 80 yards apart. In places, however, it had overflown its banks and flooded the adjoining country to a considerable depth. The average width of waterway, which was frequently obstructed by light sudd blocks, was 30 yards, depth 20 feet, and current 2 to 2½ miles per hour. The banks of the Agwei were stated by Anuaks to be inhabited partly by people of their own tribe and partly by Agibbas. Their description of its upper course appears to agree with the theory that it is the Neubari, and that it is connected with the Akobo, as Major Austin surmised, by the Oboth.

The Akobo or Juba.The River Akobo or Juba, which rises in the Domme Hills (Abyssinia) forming part of the watershed between the River Omo and the Nile, about north lat. 6° 30′ east, long. 35° 45′, flows generally in a north-easterly direction, and for the first 100 miles through more or less hilly country; it then enters the plains and eventually joins the Pibor about 70 miles from its mouth.

The ill-fated Bóttego struck this river (January, 1897) about 40 miles from its source, and found it to be about 25 yards wide and about 18 inches deep, its banks being much overgrown with very high grass which impeded travelling considerably. It was found to be uninhabited for about 45 miles further west, when the first Anuak village was reached. This was the most eastern point on this river reached by Major Austin’s Expedition (1901).

The Akobo river forms the boundary between the Sudan and Abyssinia in these regions. The following interesting account of the Akobo and its inhabitants is taken from Major Austin’s Report:—

“On our journey south from Nasser, we retraced our footsteps of the previous year along the River Pibor through Nuer territory until we reached the junction of that river with the Akobo. Here we found a small colony of Anuaks settled down for the coming dry season with a view to carrying out fishing operations, and without difficulty obtained the services of two guides. For our first two marches we proceeded east along the river, the banks of which are somewhat thickly wooded with thorn bush, amidst which, here and there, we came upon small families of Anuaks enjoying a precarious kind of existence on fish and the frugal products of the woods. These natives were all without exception very timid, and generally had cleared out of their cosy little arbours before the head of the caravan had reached them. They are very poor and wretched in appearance, the men being quite naked and possessing very few adornments.

“The elderly women merely content themselves with a small goatskin worn round the waist, whilst the younger women, like the men, are devoid of covering. They lack the prosperous and smart bearing of the Ufeno (or Baro River Anuaks), and in general characteristics closely resemble those of the Gelo.

“Some 30 miles to the east of its junction with the Pibor the banks of the Akobo become generally very swampy, and the river was unapproachable at the time we were travelling along it (February). No villages were seen until we reached long. 33° 40′, where there was a small one, Bor by name, situated at the base of a single tree, surrounded on all sides by swamp. From near here a track runs in a southerly direction to Bonjak, reported to be 30 to 40 miles distant, and no water on the road.

“Settled villages become somewhat more frequent from that point until the Tedo district is reached. This is fairly thickly populated on both banks of the river, and for the first time we came across a considerable amount of cultivation. A large khor enters the Akobo from the east hereabouts, which probably has its origin in the Abyssinian highlands, whilst, from the village of Neum, a broad loop takes off from the Akobo and re-enters that river again some 5 or 6 miles further north. Up to this point the country had been chiefly open grass land, very sparsely wooded with trees, and occasional small groves of lalob, but it now became well wooded, and the swampy areas less frequent. Small villages were established at closer intervals, but the natives remained very timid and suspicious, and it was difficult in consequence to obtain the services of guides, as the larger number of the inhabitants concealed themselves on the approach of the caravan.

“The Anuak territory terminates at the junction of the Akobo and Ajibur streams, after which comes a long stretch of uninhabited country extending to the foot of the Boma hills. The district of Bula, some distance to the east, is reported by the Anuaks to be inhabited by men of a fair complexion—possibly Gallas. The Anuaks of the Akobo possess but few flocks of goats and sheep, and apparently no cattle. In addition to grain, they probably subsist to a large extent in the dry season on fish, as fish weirs and traps are occasionally met with in the river.

Width, depth, and current.“The average width of the Akobo in its lower reaches is 20 yards, and depth 7 feet, current 3 miles an hour (February); higher up above Neum its width increases to 40 to 60 yards, and its depth diminishes to 18 inches. Its banks are generally high and steep. In its upper portions it flows over a lava bed.

Navigability.“Small dug-out canoes are also used by the natives for travelling along the river. Navigation in a small launch would probably be quite possible as far as Neum for several months in the year. The larger Nile steamers would most likely be unable to navigate this stream owing to the extraordinary sharp curves and bends of the river, the stream when in flood being very swift. It is quite possible, however, that a powerful launch, drawing, say, 18 inches of water, might, at full flood time, be able to proceed, perhaps, as far as Melile, although extreme caution would have to be observed, for in parts the river flows over a lava bed, whilst in others, fallen trees in the river might prove dangerous.”

Discharge.The discharge of the Akobo near its mouth was calculated by Captain H. Wilson to be 2,185 gallons per second in October, 1901. There was then a clear waterway 15 yards wide and 14 feet deep, on each side of which were belts of sudd from 20 to 30 yards wide.

Ajibur, or Ruzi I.The Ajibur (Austin) or Ruzi I (Wellby), a small stream rising on the Boma hills, flows northwards to the Akobo and joins it on the left bank about 80 miles from its (Akobo) source. Water was standing in pools in its bed in February, 1901.

Gelo River.The Gelo River rises in the Mocha hills (Abyssinian), situate about east long. 36°, north lat. 7° 30′, and flows generally in a westerly direction to the Pibor, which it enters on the right bank 26 miles above its junction with the Baro.

Mr. Oscar Neumann, who explored this river in 1901, considers it a very important source of supply of the Sobat, and far more so than the Akobo river, which he thinks comparatively insignificant. Mr. Neumann is strongly of opinion that after traversing Lake Tata the river divides, one branch flowing into the Pibor, as above stated, the other or others flowing northwards towards the Baro. Though Bottégo seems to have had the same opinion, Major Austin does not lend much credence to this theory.

Neumann gives the following description of the upper regions adjoining this river:—

“In Shekho I found a large river running westwards. I believed this river to be the Gelo, discovered near its junction with the Ajuba by the Italian Bóttego, an opinion which was confirmed afterwards. Travelling became very difficult here. The western slopes of the south Ethiopian plateau are cut by many deep ravines; the roads, therefore, were narrow and bad, and many of my mules became wounded and useless. As it flows westwards, the River Gelo is lined on both sides by the densest forest. I could march only about 2 or 3 miles each day, and to cover that distance the men had mostly to cut the way with axes and bush knives from morning to noon, after which the caravan was able to proceed. The inhabitants of this forest are the Mashango, who are very seldom seen, but we often found large traps made for hippopotami and waterbucks, and loops made of creepers for monkeys and other small animals going to the water. Already in Gimirra I had seen, far away to the west, a long mountain chain running from north to south, called by the Galla ‘Gurafarda’ that is to say, ‘horse’s ear,’ from a sharp double peak in the middle. It took more than three weeks from Gimirra to reach the point where the Gelo pierces the mountains, forming magnificent cascades. Some days after passing this gap, I saw from a bamboo-covered hill in the west a boundless bush and grass-covered dead flat plain, the plain of the Sobat and the beginning of the Sudan. Only a few granite hills are scattered over it. Ascending one of these I saw, far away, a large lake—Lake Tata—through which the River Gelo runs. Here we found the first villages of the Yambo or Anuak, who were the first true Nilotic people I met. They are a division of the great Shilluk tribe, which is spread over the whole Eastern Sudan, and extends southwards to the east short of Lake Victoria. The few samples I obtained of their language show that it is scarcely distinguishable from that of the Kavirondo people on the east shores of Lake Victoria, whose country I passed on my first African journey in 1894.

“The land now became more and more swampy. The Anuaks, poverty-stricken through many Abyssinian ‘razzias,’ live hidden away on small islands in these swamps. A large part of the people have migrated westward, and live in a state of semi-slavery under the protection of the more powerful Nuer, near the Egyptian fort of Nasser on the Sobat.

“Approaching Lake Tata the swamps became so numerous and deep that I turned south and marched to the village Neum, where I struck Bottégo’s route. The attempt to march along the northern bank of the Akobo failed, because we stuck fast in the swamps, where I lost many of my mules; so, after two days, I marched back to Neum and crossed the Akobo. The country on the left shore of the river, which had here a north-westerly direction, was drier.”

Major Austin, gives an interesting description of the river and country west of Lake Tata:—

“The Anuaks of the Gelo river district need very little description, and, as practically little was seen of them except when passing their villages, not much information was obtained regarding them. As compared with their compatriots on the Ufeno river, they appear to be a far less prosperous race, and, physically, might be described as an anæmic-looking tribe, probably due to the fact that the tract of country they inhabit is for months at a time one vast swamp, and unhealthy in consequence. They are more suspicious and shy than the northern section, but not really unfriendly in any way, as we had no difficulty in obtaining guides from them. They do not take the same pride in their personal appearance as those of the Upeno, and few of the men wear skins. The women are less particular also, and unhesitatingly entered the river at Patok devoid of all clothing, and washed themselves on the bank before our men. The unmarried women, like those of the Nuers, deem it unnecessary to provide themselves with any covering. Beads are worn, but not in the same quantities nor with the same taste as further north.

“The right bank of the Gelo, as far west as about east 33° 50′, is generally well-wooded some little distance from the river, but the left bank west of about east 33° 50′ is absolutely devoid of a tree or even almost of a shrub. An open treeless grass plain appears to extend south until the Akobo river is reached.

“Patok, the first village on the Gelo reached by the survey party, is one of very considerable size, skilfully concealed in a thick belt of wood, the interior of which has been cleared to a large extent. The village is enclosed by a stockade of tree trunks and branches for defensive purposes.

“Most of the large villages along the Gelo, such as the Otwol, Chiro, Oran group, Goin, and Ungela are similarly concealed inside belts of tall trees, and surrounded by stockades.

“These villages are situated some distance from the river, as the expanse of swamp bordering the Gelo prevents villages being built nearer to its banks. At the height of the rainy season it appears probable that the whole country north of the Gelo and between that river and the Baro is one vast swamp, quite impracticable for transport animals.

Width and current.“The width of the Gelo west of Lake Tata varies as a rule from 60 to 100 yards. At its junction with the Pibor its width is not more than 30 to 40 yards, whilst its current is very swift.

“As the Gelo is followed along its banks, no other stream appears to flow into it, although several swampy khors issuing from the river are crossed, flowing in a northerly direction. These are reported to join the Bela river and to flow into the Mokwai.

Cultivation.“Along the Gelo, beyond a small patch of cultivation on the river bank near the village of Patok, no other signs of civilization are evident, except in a few diminutive cleared spaces in the woods; no food is obtainable from these natives. That they must subsist on grain to a large extent appears to stand to reason, so it is possible their fields, like their villages, are concealed in the midst of woods, with which the country abounds. Like the Nuers and Anuaks of the Baro these natives possess small dug-out canoes for crossing the Gelo, and employ them also in their fishing operations.

“To the west of Perbong two other villages, Ametha and Otwol, are reported to exist in Anuak territory hereabouts, and these two probably depend on wells for their water supply, as they must be quite 3 to 4 miles distant from the river, and no signs of tracks leading from or to the Gelo are visible. Goats and sheep are only seen in very small numbers.

Swampy nature of country.“In normal years it is doubtful if this tract of country can be traversed much later than the middle of April with transport animals,[95] as once the rains set in the whole country is rapidly converted into bog, through which laden animals, especially donkeys, are quite unable to travel. During the dry seasons of the year large herds of elephants roam over these grassy plains and find both food and shade in the forest growth on the north bank of the Gelo. It is to these regions the Abyssinians descend in large numbers yearly from the western edge of the plateau, on ivory hunting expeditions, and traces of recent Abyssinian encampments were on several occasions met with. Before the rains break, however, these parties return to their homes, and we were warned at Gore by Fitorari Hili that we would find the country impracticable for animals once the rains set in, and this we certainly found to be the case.”

River Mokwai.The River Mokwai or Bela appears to flow westwards to the Pibor from the Gurafarda range of hills (Abyssinia) traversing en route the marshy region between the Baro and Gelo; from the latter river it probably receives a considerable overflow. Its mouth is supposed to be about 8 miles south of the Pibor-Sobat junction, but owing to swamp it has not been accurately determined. It is said to be an important river in flood time.

Khor Filus.The Khor Filus enters the Sobat on the left bank about 10 miles from its junction with the White Nile, the following description of this khor, the adjoining country and its inhabitants, is taken from a report by Captain H. H. Wilson, Inspector, Upper Nile Province:—

“. . . Starting on April 15, 1902, the expedition marched from the village of Gokjak (some 20 miles from the mouth of the Sobat), and met the Khor Filus at Shol Ajik, some 8 miles inland, thus saving an unnecessary long march along the khor from its mouth, which is 10 miles from the Sobat mouth. The country here is flat and uninteresting, nothing but a vast grass plain, with hardly a tree to be seen. At Shol Ajik trees were met with, the banks of the khor being thinly wooded with a small growth of red ‘talh,’ with a sprinkling of the unwelcome ‘kittr’ thorn bush. The khor at this point is some 50 to 80 yards in width, mostly, however, filled up with weeds, the real water channel being clearly marked (though practically dry) by a deep narrow bed, some 15 feet lower than the adjacent banks. On to the village of M’Yolga the same country extends—grass, with a few trees; in one place there were traces of elephants which had been there in the rainy season. Other game seen was the bastard tiang hartebeeste, which was really all the game seen in any quantity in the country. M’Yolga is a long scattered village on the right bank of the khor, and marks the limit of the Dinka tribe inland. From here onwards for many miles is uninhabited country, from Bia to Nerol being thickly wooded, in places densely, but only occasionally with any undergrowth that makes travelling difficult. Tiang hartebeeste were seen in considerable numbers along the whole route, and also quantities of waterfowl, pelicans, duck, geese, teal, and many and various kinds of crane and heron. In the vicinity of Fanyanglwel, 46 miles south of Sobat, the first signs of Nuer habitation were met with in the shape of their cattle ‘feriks,’ which are the summer residences (i.e., dry season, from January to May), built close to water, and constructed lightly of grass only. No regular huts or tukls were met with until reaching Riul, 7 miles further south, where the banks became low and flat, and trees only at some distance on either side. The khor is here in the rains evidently broad and shallow, and, owing to mud, probably an impassable obstacle under such conditions.

“A noticeable feature in the Nuer tukls is the superiority of their construction compared with the tukls of the Dinkas, Anuaks, and other tribes of the Sobat, their cattle tukls being in many cases marvels of constructive art, given only boughs of trees, grass, and native tools for their building. The regular solidly-built villages are placed at varying distances from the khor, probably dependent on high ground and on the nature of the soil, if suitable for the dura crops or otherwise, which are always grown in the vicinity of the rainy season tukls. Another noticeable feature, differing from the Shilluk and Dinka customs, was that the villages are not compactly built. The Shilluks and Dinkas generally build their tukls in close proximity, each village being a thick cluster of huts, the dura being sown anywhere close by. In the Nuer case, the tukls are built in twos and threes, at great intervals, probably each family being separate; the land around each homestead being sown and tilled by the dwellers therein. In the case of many Nuer villages, owing to the village being built in the woods, and the groups of tukls at intervals of 200 to 600 yards, it was impossible to estimate the size of the village without covering many square miles of country. Around the various large pools of water near Meinom, Fading, and Shit, were thick fringes of ‘Ambach’; these pools, being the chief source of supply for men and cattle in the dry season, it is only natural to have found the water so churned up and fouled by the cattle as to be nearly undrinkable. In places near these pools, where the adjacent soil was sandy, wells had been dug to obtain a cleaner supply of water. From Shit the khor continues in a southerly direction, being broad and shallow, and it is said, runs on to Bor. The expedition left the khor at Shit, and, relying on native assurances that water would be found in wells, pushed inland to the east, and marched through the main Nuer villages, which were in places very thickly dotted about, and well built. The country from Shit to the limit of the march was well wooded, chiefly with the heglig tree. The ground rose slightly, and as one got inland it became sandy and covered with fine grass, standing 2 to 4 feet high. The country also, here, struck one as being presumably fairly healthy in the rainy season, there being a complete absence of any rank vegetation. The dura crops in April were just appearing, the young shoots being about 6 inches high, and a very considerable extent of ground around each village was under cultivation.

“At Amwot-el-Sogheir, another fairly large khor was crossed; it was, however, quite dry, and the expedition camped on the further side, alongside some wells, which it was learned were the only ones to be found in this part of the district. These wells were worth noticing: dug on the sandy banks of the khor, their depth varied from 20 to 30 feet, with a diameter of about 2 feet 6 inches. Owing to the solidity of the ground, the walls of the well stood without need of revetting, and great labour must have been expended in their construction. Steps were cut in the wells on opposite sides, to enable a man to descend and ascend. In one of the wells a calf was seen, standing in the water at the bottom, having evidently fallen in. It was rescued by one of the Dinka guides, who descended the well without difficulty, and brought up the animal unhurt.

Denkur.“From the camp an expedition was made on the 22nd to the Nuer villages in this vicinity, which were stated to be the headquarters of the chief sheikh of the Nuers of the whole country under notice, by name of Denkur. Marching through a fairly thick forest of ‘Abu Homera’ trees for an hour, and afterwards over an open grass plain for another hour-and-a-half, brought us up to the village, Keik. Standing in the centre of the village, and seen for about 3 miles off, was a conical mound of earth, well and solidly constructed by Denkur’s people as a token that Denkur was a very big man in that part of the world. It was stated that the bones of innumerable oxen were buried in the body of the mound; the cattle being slaughtered for the occasion. This act was to give greater value to the cone in the eyes of the surrounding tribes, as cattle are the most valued possessions of the tribes of the White Nile, and are practically all they live for; in fact, what religion they possess is centred in the cow. The height of this conical mound was about 50 to 60 feet, many large elephant tusks being firmly planted round the base and on the summit. The largest tusk measured 7 feet 10 inches, but of poor quality, as long exposure to rain and sun had ruined the ivory.

“Having thus traversed as much of this country as was possible on account of water, the party returned to the Sobat by the same route, and arrived on the river bank on May 2. Owing to the extreme shyness of the Nuers, it was difficult to collect much information of their customs. Dress, hair, &c.Like all tribes of the Sobat, they are stark naked, and owing to their living in their own country, unmolested and out of all possibility of being in touch with civilization, it is only natural that they are sunk in barbarism and retain to the full all the inherited customs of their savage ancestors. Their hair is left to grow to a length of about 10 inches, and is stained red with the ammonia contained in the dung and water of their cattle. Their bodies (of the men) are covered with the white ash of burnt cow-dung, like the Dinka tribe. This results from the men always sleeping in separate tukls, the floor of which is several inches deep with this white ash, resulting from the perpetually burning or smouldering fire of cow-dung inside the tukl; the men actually make their bed in the ashes. The women do not thus cover themselves, but sleep on mats made of dressed cow-hide, and keep their own skins oiled and clean. The young unmarried girls, like the men, wear no covering, but the married women wear a loin cloth of whatever material is available, a leopard, gazelle, or sheep skin. Weapons.The arms of the men consist entirely of spears (throwing) and shields, with the universal knob-kerry; bows and arrows are possessed by a very few—rifles they have none. It was reported that one of the big sheikhs possessed himself of a few at one time, but broke them up and made bracelets for his ladies. As I have mentioned above, the main wealth of the Nuers lies in their cattle and flocks of sheep. As the importance or otherwise of a man is gauged entirely by the number of his cattle, it follows that the quickest way to become powerful is for an individual or a village to appropriate the cattle of another individual or a village, or better still, of another tribe, and thus little raids of this kind are not infrequent.

“At Nerol another khor joins Khor Filus, by name Khor Nerol, or Chirol, which is said to connect with the village of Nyandeng, on the Sobat. Owing to lack of water, it was found impracticable to explore any distance up this khor.”