Section 2.—The Country South of the Sobat and North of N. Lat. 5° between Bahr El Jebel and Abyssinian Frontier.

(a) General Description.

The country included in the above limits comprises an area 300 miles by 200, which, except along its eastern, northern, and western margins, still remains practically virgin soil untrodden by a white man.

Our only direct information regarding the interior of this region is furnished by the Faivre Expedition (1898) which followed the course of the Pibor for about 60 miles above the Akobo junction, by the expedition (1902) led by Major A. Blewitt, which marched nearly due south up the banks of the Khor Filus for about 70 miles, and by Lieutenant Comyn[96] who explored the so-called Pibor for 170 miles beyond the Akobo junction in September, 1904.

THE BAHR EL ZERAF.

Except perhaps in the extreme south the whole of this area seems to be a flat alluvial grassy plain, during the rains, marshy and liable to be inundated by the various canal-like watercourses traversing it generally from south to north, but during the dry season probably arid and waterless for considerable stretches. In the south the forest is perhaps finer and more generally distributed than further north, where thin belts of the ubiquitous heglig, kittr, and talh occasionally vary the monotony of this vast grass-covered plain.

Though a flat and somewhat unattractive country to the explorer, there is more than one interesting problem awaiting solution, chief of which is the Pibor question.[96]

The course of the mysterious Oquelokur which drains the northern slopes of the Latuka hills and the Kos, its supposed affluent after entering the Sudan, also awaits investigation. When Captain Borton visited the Beri at J. Lafol at the foot of which, according to existing maps, the Kos should flow, he could see or hear nothing of this stream. At Bor, too, nothing has been seen or heard of any large khor for at least 15 miles inland, though the natives there say the Beir tribe live on a large khor three or four days to the east. It seems therefore probable that the so-called Oquelokur flows further east than is shown on maps, and that it and possibly the Kos drain into the Pibor and thence into the Sobat.

With regard to the source of the Khor Filus, the only information that has been obtained emanates from natives living near its mouth, who vaguely say it “comes from Bor,” the reputed starting point of the other large khors Nifar, Diar, and Gaweir (perhaps different names for the same khor), which are said to flow northwards between the Filus and Bahr El Zeraf. Mr. E. Grogan certainly crossed several wide lagoons or spills just north of Bor, so possibly what the natives say regarding the origin of these khors is correct. For description of the Khor Filus, vide [p. 139.]

As regards the inhabitants of the interior, all we know is that the Nuers live on the Khor Filus as far south as 8° north latitude, that the Beri or Beir tribe live some 50 to 80 miles east of the Nile between Bor and Uganda, and that the Agibba tribe live on the so-called Upper Pibor, apparently only some 60 miles east of Bor.

(b) Bahr El Zeraf.[97]

General.Bahr El Zeraf is the name given to the eastern branch of the Bahr El Jebel, which leaves that river somewhere in the neighbourhood of Shambe, and flows into the Bahr El Abiad or White Nile near Tonga, about 100 miles up-stream of Kodok. It has not been navigated in recent years above a point about 180 miles from its junction with the White Nile. Here it opens out into several channels and lagoons, which are for the most part blocked with sudd, and it is difficult to determine which is the main channel. According to native report a through channel to the Bahr El Jebel, navigable for steamers at high Nile, does exist. Whether such is the case has not yet been ascertained.

The general direction of the river is from S.S.W. to N.N.E. The current is much stronger at the head waters of the river than in its lower reaches, except where it flows into the White Nile, which it does through a narrow channel.

Width. Depth.The river averages about 60 yards in width, and nowhere does navigation present any difficulty until nearing the sudd region. Its depth is generally 5 to 10 feet or more, even at low Nile.

Banks.The rise and fall of the Bahr El Zeraf is considerable. In May the banks, which are then hard and steep, are from 5 to 10 feet above the level of the river, which at high Nile, in spite of the opening of the Bahr El Jebel channel, appears still to overflow its banks almost everywhere. This has, no doubt, killed the trees close to the old channel, masses of dead stumps being a feature of the river.

Roads.The country inland in May is dry and level, affording good going, but the only path near the river and parallel to it passable at all seasons of the year is said to be on the left bank. This runs from opposite Tonga on the White Nile up the left bank and crosses to the right bank near Ajiung thence up the right bank to the neighbourhood of Bor. During the dry season water along this route is said to be scarce. The right bank is said to be impassable owing to swamps and elephants. Mr. Grogan, however, followed the right bank from Ajiung to the White Nile, and in April, 1904, Captain J. S. Liddell marched without difficulty with camels from Khor Attar to Twi, leaving the Zeraf about 20 to 30 miles to the west. Much of the country traversed, but at this season dry, had been flooded to a depth of 18 inches by the overflow of a large khor to the east named Gaweir. The road followed is chiefly used by the Dinkas in the rains, as in the dry season water, which is stored in fulas, is scarce.

The banks of the Zeraf are almost invariably fringed with Um Suf, a few yards wide.

Sudd.Most of the sudd in the lakes at the head of the river appears to be growing, though on the edges it is floating and liable to become detached at any time; this is specially noticeable on the western lake or head of the river. The water is strongly discoloured after the 100th mile, and gets more so as the end of the navigable water is reached. Hippopotami, though scarce on the lower reaches, are very numerous on the higher ones, and in the many lagoons through which the channel flows.

The sudd is of three kinds:—

(1) Sudd growing up from bottom and immovable.

(2) Small low floating sudd in large patches, but loosely hanging together, and easily broken up or pushed away.

(3) Patches of high sudd floating and connected by very fibrous roots, and very difficult to separate or clear; very liable to entangle in the stern wheel of steamer.

The first and second can be steamed through with difficulty. The latter has to be cut to pieces by hand and disintegrated.

Wood.Between 30th and 148th miles there is no place where wood can be cut, except by cutting it in water (October, 1898). Beyond that, there is no wood at all.

Inhabitants.The inhabitants of the island formed by the Zeraf, Jebel, and White Nile are Nuers, who also occupy the right bank of the Zeraf from its mouth to about opposite Shambe. The right bank appears to have been originally inhabited by Dinkas, of whom a few are still to be found living among the Nuers, whilst the hinterland of the right bank of the Zeraf is still occupied by them. They, however, live in dread of the Nuers, and many of them have left their villages and have sought safety on the river Sobat.

The Nuers are very shy, but having got over their first timidity on meeting strangers they are cheery and open-hearted, evincing none of that suspicion and churlishness which is such an ever-present characteristic of the Dinkas, even in the more northern districts, nor that inexpressible laziness, a trait of both Dinkas and Shilluks.

The men, boys, and unmarried women are, of course, naked. The married women wear loin cloths of skin, and a few of the men leopard skins. They all affect the long red-dyed hair, the universal custom of the Nuer tribes.

The following is a detailed description of the various Nuer districts on both banks of the Bahr El Zeraf as far as is at present known (taken from a report by Captain H. H. Wilson, 1903):—

Lak.The first district on entering the Zeraf is Lak, of which the head Sheikh is Fador Wad Koing (1903). His country is of great extent, and split up into various sub-districts. This district extends between the Zeraf, Bahr El Jebel, and White Nile, near Tonga, the majority of the villages and people being nearer the Bahr El Jebel than the Zeraf. Only a very small proportion of them winter on the latter river, the majority do so on the White Nile, up-stream of the mouth of the Zeraf. The chief village of Lak, and in which Fador himself resides, is called Fulwal, and is close to the Bahr El Jebel.

The only sub-district of Lak which is on or near the Zeraf, is Warao, of which the Sheikh is one Warao Wad Koing. This sub-district is entirely on the right bank of the Zeraf, at about 50 miles from its mouth, the winter hunting village being situated about 1 mile inland, on the right bank of a big khor known as Bahn, which runs into the Zeraf at this point. The inland village where the people reside during the rains and grow their crops, is about two hours’ march inland, and is called Fulfam; the sheikh himself resides in this village.

Thiang.The district of Thiang is also a large one, being situated on both the right and left banks of the Zeraf, at or about 80 miles from the mouth. The head Sheikh is Toi Wad Thief[98], who has two big villages, both on the left bank, called respectively, Fakoi and Fai-at. The people living on the right bank spread themselves between the Zeraf and Jebel rivers, and in the winter descend to the banks of either or both of these rivers to graze their cattle. The people on the right bank have their “rain” village at a place called Khandak, about three hours inland on the right bank at 80 miles. The Sheikh of this section is called Deng. These people are great hunters of the elephant.

Gaweir.The villages of this district are seen from the river at about 120 miles, standing about 1 to 2 miles back, with a thick belt of trees behind them; just north of these trees are seen several clumps of deleib palms, and a few solitary dom palms. This district is on the left bank entirely, as far as could be ascertained. The Sheikh of the district is one Nyal Wad Jek[98], a young man well disposed to the Government, and who has only recently succeeded his father as sheikh. He is very well supported by his uncle, Niar Wad Koing, an elderly man. These people remain in the same place all the year round; the ground being sufficiently high to admit of their building their rain villages in proximity to the river. This was the furthest point visited by Captain Wilson (1903). The information regarding the remaining district is from hearsay.

Fasheikh.This is the district ruled over by Sheikh Diu, who, being an influential man in these parts, is known by this name only. He rules his own district only, and has nothing to do with the other Nuer districts above mentioned, each of which is independent, under its own sheikh. This district lies in the upper region of the Zeraf on the east bank, and the name Fasheikh applies to the inland district, where Diu and his people reside in the rains, as opposed to the village of Ajiung, which is the winter village.

The history of Diu’s occupation of this district is interesting, and was supplied by several men, who may be quoted as local authorities. In the days of the old Government it was a large Dinka district, the chief sheikhs of which were two men well known to the present Government, i.e., Aiung Yor and Agweir Owae, who are, at the present time, settled on the left bank of the Sobat, at M’Yolga, vide [p. 139.] At that time, Diu was somewhere on the Bahr El Jebel, and the Nuer sheikh on the Zeraf was one Bil Wad Teng, who lived at the spot that is pointed out as the zeriba of Kuchuk Ali, the Khartoum trader. The two lived together, the trader probably working the country under the guidance of the sheikh. On the retirement of the Government from these parts and the disappearance of Kuchuk Ali, Diu came down and seized the Dinka country to the south of this spot, turning out the Dinkas under the above-mentioned sheikhs, and establishing himself as the paramount power in the district. He is stated to consider himself a “fakir” in the same way as Denkur; but that he is not hostile to the Government is clear from the fact that he sent his representatives to Kodok last year.

Fasheikh is stated to be about three hours’ march inland from Ajiung, but inaccessible owing to the intervening swampy ground.

(c) R. Awai or Atem.

River Atem.An important branch of the Bahr El Jebel appears to leave the main stream through the swamp and sudd to the north of Bor, and to flow north-west parallel to it and at a distance of perhaps 5 or 6 miles to the east. For about 30 miles below Bor, this branch, known by the Dinkas of Pabek as the river Atem, and by those at Tau as the Awai—the “Gertrude Nile” of Grogan—is said to be blocked by sudd. The Dinkas, however, say that Arabi Dafaalla sent a steamer down it from Bor to the junction of the Mading. In May, 1904, Sir William Garstin, G.C.M.G., and Captain J. S. Liddell explored this river by steamer as far up-stream as the village of Tau within 40 miles of Bor. At Tau the natives said it was blocked by sudd 10 miles further south. Up to this point the river was never less than 4 feet deep, though its breadth varied considerably, and to enable a steamer with barges to pass through it would require a certain amount of clearing.

River Mading.About 55 miles below Bor the Atem or Awai bifurcates. One branch known as the R. Mading, flowing north, is at first a fine river 80 yards wide and 5 or 6 feet deep but quickly narrows and looses its water in the marshes, and after 7 miles becomes an insignificant stream. It is said to be completely blocked by sudd a little lower down.

River Awai.The main branch known only as the Awai bends westwards and flows as an easily navigable stream, though difficult for a steamer with two barges, through the usual reedy swamp to the lakes a little north of Shambe. Between the Mading and Shambe the Awai has two main outlets into the Bahr El Jebel. One from Fajak, navigable only for dugouts, spills into the main river near Abu Kuka, but the principal channel, only a few hundred yards long connecting with the Jebel, is about 8 miles up-stream of Shambe. This is easily navigable by steamers.

Banks.The banks of the Awai and Mading are generally swamp, papyrus or grass, but from the former, about 7 miles from the Mading junction, ant hills on more or less dry ground are visible. On the eastern bank of the Atem forest approaches the river and for 10 miles north of Tau the right bank is high and firm, though liable to be flooded. The western bank is everywhere swampy.

Inhabitants.The Nuers do not appear to extend south of the latitude of Shambe. Here the banks of the rivers are thinly populated by Dinkas. From a few miles north of the Mading junction to Tau is the Dinka district of Twi—it was with the people of this district that Mr. Grogan had some trouble in 1900. Sheikh Gurung of Pabek in the north of Twi seems, however, very friendly. South of Tau, Bor district commences, the Dinkas of which are said to be not on friendly terms with Twi.

(d) Bor and South.[99]

Bor.There are three sites on the right bank of the Bahr El Jebel known as Bor—the most northern is the site of the Old Government Mudiria, 4 miles further south is Arabi Dafaalla’s deim, and about the same distance still further south is the site of the present Military Post and the proposed site of the Headquarters of the new administrative district of Bor, vide pp. [76,] [77.]

The bank at all three places is high and firm, but the most roomy landing place is at the most southern site. Wood is everywhere plentiful, as the forest comes down to the water’s edge.

Inhabitants.The inhabitants in the neighbourhood of Bor are Dinkas who live mostly 10 to 15 miles inland. The principal sheikh (Being-Dit) is named Bor, whose village is about 10 miles east of the Dervish deim. Sheikh Kur living about 7 miles north-north-east of Bor is also an important man.

Being Dit.The office of head sheikh (Being Dit) is said to have been from time immemorial in the family of sheikh Bor. It is customary for the Being Dit to nominate his successor from among his near relatives, his selection depending on their individual ability. In the present case, though the eldest son of the Being Dit usually succeeds, sheikh Bor has disregarded the claim of his own two sons, and has nominated Majam, son of his deceased brother, Matj.

If the Being Dit dies suddenly without nominating his successor, an assembly is held to appoint one, a curious fact being that the women, especially the wives of the late Being Dit, have a good deal to say in the selection.

Justice.Owing perhaps to the weakness of the central authority, sheikh Bor, there seem to be practically no penalties for offences. The fine of one cow appears to be considered sufficient for any crime from murder downwards. Capital punishment is never awarded. In the case of theft, the misdemeanant, if traced, is merely ordered to restore the stolen property. This he sometimes does and sometimes does not.

Villages.The houses of the villages are much scattered, which renders the occupants very defenceless in case of raids by the dreaded Beir or Beri tribe under sheikh Lom, who lives several days further inland in a south-easterly or easterly direction.

The tukls are well and neatly built, the walls being made of mud or dura stalks covered with daub. The doorway usually leads into a sort of hall or porch about 3 to 4 feet high; this again has an inner door. This is said to be for protection against hyenas.

The usual buildings of a family consist of one tukl (Ud) per wife, one extra large tukl (Luak as cow stable, and the “Gu” or granary, a kind of miniature tukl raised off the ground on wooden legs.

Water supply.In the rains water is stored in fulas, as the water in these gets low, a series of circular holes, 2 or 3 feet deeper than the fula, are dug round its circumference, and the remainder of the water is drained into them. These holes are then thatched with dura stalks, and water is economised by thus diminishing the loss by evaporation, as well as by draining the wet mud at the bottom of the fula.

When these holes run dry water has to be carried by the women often 10 miles or more from the river.

Communications.From Bor a dry road, though not yet explored, undoubtedly leads north to Twi or Twich. A good path with rest-houses at frequent intervals leads south up the right bank to Mongalla and Gondokoro.

Communication with the Aliab, a tribe rich in cattle and grain, living on the west bank opposite to and south of Bor, is maintained by dugouts to Uternau, thence by road to Sheikh Anok, Mek of the Aliab, who lives about 25 miles west of Bor Military Post.

Cultivation.A good deal of dura is grown by sheikhs Bor and Kur. It is of the white variety and of excellent quality. The Dinkas are great smokers, and cultivate sufficient tobacco for their requirements.

Cattle and sheep.Large numbers of cattle (Wong) and a good many sheep (Amal) and goats (Biu) are owned by these Dinkas. The grazing stables or cattle zeribas are called “Mura.” The price (Tiek) of a wife used to be five cows or forty goats. Cattle being now scarce, owing to Arabi Dafaalla’s prolonged residence at Bor, the price of a wife has been reduced to one cow.

Arms.Bows (Danga) and arrows (Juet) are in general use, and are looked upon as the principal weapon for fighting, as their lances are indifferently manufactured.

Some of the wood from which the bows are made is said to come from Dar Fertit; the arrows are made of cane with iron or hard-wood points, and are poisoned by soaking them in the milky juice (Byol) of the Euphorbia candelabrum, which grows hereabouts.

The Dinkas are very inexpert smiths, and so generally have their lances made by the Jurs and Aliab of the west bank in exchange for sheep or goats.

In addition to their bows and spears they usually carry an ebony club.

Ornaments.Iron bracelets (Lung Kok) are made locally. These are about the only things a Dinka smith can make. A Dinka receives his bracelets on coming of age and is then not allowed to part with them.

Ivory bracelets (Gong) are only occasionally seen, as these people are not great hunters, though elephants are very numerous in their country.

The Jenotor[100] (Guainakwach) are the favourite beads, but they are very particular as to the kind. The most popular are black with red and white spots. Forty of these beads make a necklace and will purchase a sheep or goat; five is the price of a hen and three will buy five eggs.

Brass wire is not nearly so much appreciated as iron or the right sort of beads. It is hammered into bracelets by the smiths, but they prefer to buy these ready made.

Goat skin bracelets are also worn by the men as well as by the women who wear, in addition, brass bracelets round the wrists and ankles, and strings of small blue or white beads round the waist. The men as a rule are naked, whilst the women wear the usual skin apron in front and occasionally behind. At present cotton cloth is considered a prohibitive luxury and is not of much use as barter, though acceptable as a present.

Word of greeting and language. Habits.The word of greeting is “Akingedo” and the reply to this is the same word repeated.

The dialect of these southern Dinkas varies considerably from that spoken in the northern districts.

The Dinka is so abnormally lazy that he has no desire whatever to hire himself for work of any description. Carriers are most difficult to obtain from them even when applied for through the medium of their most influential sheikhs.

At certain seasons they are busily occupied with their cultivation, but for the remainder of the year, with the exception of the few engaged in superintending the grazing of the cattle, they live in absolute idleness, varied only by an occasional and generally futile hunting or fishing expedition.

The women on the other hand are very industrious. On them falls the heavy work of pounding the dura into flour and preparing food and other household duties, as well as carrying water which has often to be brought from a great distance. Salt is not eaten by the Dinkas, nor is it sought after like sugar, and they do not appear to have any substitute for it. The women usually drink milk flavoured with cow’s urine, but the men as a rule drink it unadulterated.

Religion.As is stated on [p. 128,] the Dinka believes in a Creator of the world and mankind known as Deng-Dit. It was only after man had learnt to sacrifice cattle and sheep to Deng-Dit that woman became fruitful and man was able to propagate his species.

The Dinkas have regular priests (Tieit) who are not, however, professional men, but live and work like the ordinary individual. These priests are believed to have supernatural powers of conversing with those who are dead and have become the children of Deng-Dit.

This communion with the dead is held on the occasion of a ceremony to commemorate the deceased or sometimes in cases of serious illness.

Mr. R. Türstig gives the following interesting description of these ceremonies:—

“It was the memorial day for a deceased wife of sheikh Bor. At about 7 a.m. he and some of his people went to the tukl, which had belonged to her, and sat down in front of the doorway; on the other side near the ‘Gu’ or granary sat the deceased wife’s ‘locum tenens’ as well as other wives. In the open space between them the Tieit or priest sat on his cow-hide mat. Close by was a tree from which the branches had been shorn, and to which a large number of cow-horns had been affixed—said by sheikh Bor to be a very old erection—and to the bottom of the tree a live goat was fastened.

“Sheikh Bor and his people then commenced to question the priest on many points with regard to which they desired the opinion of the deceased wife; the priest meanwhile sat with legs crossed supporting his head with one hand, whilst with the other he continued to rattle a bottle-shaped-gourd half-full of lubia beans. After much shaking and rattling he proceeded, having first directly addressed the deceased and having made a suitable pause to enable her to reply, to give a detailed answer on each question in a deep guttural tone, his eyes meanwhile being rigidly fixed on the ground, his voice (similar to a ventriloquist) sounding as though it were not his own.

“Though I was unable to understand much that was being said, one, at least, of the questions and answers referred to the approaching visit of the Mudir.

“Having obtained all the information required, sheikh Bor rose, the priest remaining seated, seized the sheep, threw it down, and then slowly and solemnly cut the throat of the animal with a lance, remaining himself the while in an upright position. The blood having spurted out, the ceremony was over, and the old sheikh said ‘Now let us go to your house.’

“On another occasion a somewhat similar ceremony took place in connection with a sick man. The same priest officiated, but there were more people, and it lasted from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m. A good deal of dancing was performed by women who were decked in fantastic fashion with ostrich feathers, etc. One woman carried a gourd full of liquid butter, with which she anointed in most liberal fashion the necks of those present as well as the entire body of the bull which was subsequently sacrificed. The priest invariably receives the ribs of the animal as his portion, but in this case no one partook of any of the flesh until 5 a.m. the following morning. On the whole, the Dinkas did not strike me as a particularly superstitious race.”

Vide also Chap. VII, [p. 162,] and compare with Shilluk religion, [Chap. VIII.]

Baris.On the right bank, 20 miles south of Bor, the Baris begin and extend to Gondokoro and south. The Sudan Baris appear to be a poor race both materially and mentally. At present they are neither willing to work to increase their cultivation, nor to act as porters. In the days of Baker they were a warlike race, rich in cattle—this spirit and property seem to have vanished under Dervish rule. They appear physically stronger and better built than the Dinkas. Like them they do not appear to inhabit the country more than 20 miles inland. Their inland villages have no wells, but each house has usually five pits dug round it for collecting rainwater. The Baris cultivate dura, simsim, telabun and tobacco. During the last few years their crops have suffered much from drought and floods alternately.

Beads are of little use as trade goods. Brass wire, hoes, iron, and tarbushes, as well as native cotton-cloth (damur) are all acceptable.

The men as a rule carry a long narrow-bladed spear, and go about stark naked. The women wear a leather fringe round the loins, with a tanned skin hanging down behind. The unmarried girls are content with the fringe only.

The women carry their babies on their backs, in skin bags, which can be detached and hung on a cross stick to form a cradle.

The principal Sheikhs of the Bari living on the right bank and working south are Kula, Wungo, Lefo Abu Kuka, Legi Lefo, Lado, and Lowala, and on the left bank Mudi, Wani, and Lado Kanga. They have apparently no tribal organization, and the Sheikhs have very little authority.

Mongalla.Mongalla is the southernmost post of the Sudan Government on the White Nile. It was moved here from Kiro, on the left bank, in April, 1901. It is the residence of a British Inspector and Police Officer; there is also a detachment of two companies under a British officer furnished from the Sudanese battalion at Taufikia. There are here Government offices, barracks, hospital, and residences of officials built of brick. A gunboat is always stationed here. Mongalla is on the right bank, 23 miles north of Gondokoro, and 13 and 12 miles from the Belgian stations, Lado and Kiro respectively.

Rains.The rainy season in this district is spread over the period from the end of February to November, but during this season rain is by no means constant. At first there are intervals of a week or even a fortnight between the rainstorms, but after the middle of June, when the heavy rains commence, there is, as a rule, one storm during every 24 hours.

Temperature.The temperature in these regions is comparatively cool, and the thermometer very seldom rises to 100° Fahr.

Health.The natives appear healthy, and there seems no reason why, with ordinary precautions, white races should not enjoy equally good health, though the more southern portions, at any rate, of this district are certainly within the “Blackwater” fever zone.

(e) The Beri Tribe.

Description.The following information is taken from a report by Captain N. T. Borton, who visited these people in April, 1904.

The Beri tribe appear to be a mixture of the Bari and Latuka. They live on a hill about 2,000 feet high called Jebel Lafol which is composed of granite with several fair sized trees growing on it. It lies about 50 miles south-east by east from Mongalla.

Houses.The hill is artificially terraced with granite slabs throughout and on these terraces, practically right up to the top of the hill, are built the tukls of the people, exactly similar to Bari Tukls except that the sides are made of strips of wood instead of reeds. The fighting men live round the foot of the hill and the older people higher up.

Water.There is no water on the hill itself—all has to be carried from rain pools of which there are at this time of year about a dozen round and fairly close to the hill.

Cattle.All cattle were driven off during our visit and were only beginning to return when I left—there did not appear to be many really large cattle zeribas, though these too may have been removed at our approach which had been watched for by day and night for the last three days.

Chief.Alikori[101] is the chief of the tribe and holds absolute sway. He is an oldish man of about 65 years of age, about 5 feet 8 inches in height, and like nearly all his tribe, wears a feather quill piercing his lower lip to allow the saliva to run off, when smoking, with a minimum of trouble to the smoker.

Succession.The rule of succession is that brothers succeed each other according to seniority; after the youngest brother’s death, the succession passes to the eldest son of the eldest brother and so on through the family.

Alikori succeeded his father Aseri who had no brothers, the present heir apparent is named Waller Mari.

Beris.All Beris stated they have no connection whatever with the Beir tribe opposite Bor[102] and say they have no other district but Jebel Lafol. From the top of it one can see 50 miles or more in the Bor direction; there did not seem to be any roads and no hills were visible. All tribes in these parts live on hills.

Cultivation.The cultivation on the vast plain lying round the hill consists of dura, tobacco, and a few ground nuts only. The dura was about a foot high and appeared to be well looked after and the ground cleaned.

Trade.The only trade is the purchase of dura for sheep, carried on principally with the Lokova on Mount Illyria and a little with our Bari Sheikhs Lado, Lowala, etc., on the Nile.

Enemies.The present fashionable enemy is the Latuka tribe belonging to Queen Topein—relations with other powers are reported as satisfactory.

Population.The population probably amounts to about 3,000 men all told.

Health.People seem very healthy, quite the opposite of the Baris; no disgusting sights like one sees in their villages; malformed children are destroyed at birth. Sleeping sickness is unknown.

Legal.All disciplinary powers are vested in the chief. For premeditated murder punishment is death. For killing in quarrel, etc., the offender must pay a boy to the family of the deceased. Thefts of cattle must be repaid or the offender is exiled. Thefts of food are not looked upon as offences but as occasional necessities. For adultery the co-respondent must pay 1 cow, 5 sheep and 5 iron malotes (hoes); the wife is dealt with by her husband in the seclusion of the home, but must not be killed.

Customs.The birth of a child does not give an excuse for a festival of any sort.

Marriages are arranged when the girls are very young. The bridegroom interviews his proposed father-in-law, as in other countries, and arranges to pay so many sheep a year until the lady reaches a marriageable age. The ceremony is then celebrated amid much merissa drinking. Divorce is allowed to husbands only; if granted they receive back their marriage settlement. A widow marries her deceased husband’s brother; if she has no brother-in-law she may marry someone else, but she usually becomes the property of the head chief.

Death is believed to be the end of all things. No after state is believed in. A sheep is always killed over a dead man’s grave.

Language.The language is peculiar to the tribe.

Clothing.The men go naked or wear a short mantle of skin over the shoulders. Women wear a broad skin covering from the waist in front and behind.

Arms.The same practically as the Baris.

Visitors.Alikori states no white man has ever been to him before (April, 1904). Emin Pasha once passed with a concourse of people going towards Bor but did not stop.

Siege.Arabi Dafaalla besieged the hill for 13 days in 1897; he then drew off having suffered considerable loss. The natives used to rush the water holes every night at a different point and thus bring in enough to last for the next day.

Supplies.Flour and sheep could only be obtained on payment by repeatedly demanding them and were then only forthcoming in very small quantities. It is probable that when the Beri are again visited supplies of grain and meat will be more readily produced.

Transport.Mules, donkeys, and in the dry season camels could all be advantageously employed for transport.

Game.Giraffe, hartebeest, topé and oribi practically comprised all the game seen, but there were many fresh tracks of elephant and rhino. One herd of giraffe numbered over eighty animals.

Road.The best route from Mongalla to J. Lafol is up the right bank of the branch of the Bahr El Jebel, south of Mongalla to Sheikh Lado’s or Lowala’s (9 miles, thence south-east up the Felluru river viâ Nierchuk to junction (18 miles) of track from Ali Bey and Gondokoro, water in dry season all along this river. Thence general direction east, passing two pools, liable to be nearly dry in dry season, to Khor Wandida (15 miles), dry in April. Thence still east to Wallada lake, 12 miles, thence 11 miles north-east to J. Lafol, passing a marsh half-way where water should be always obtainable. Total distance about 65 miles. Between the Felluru River and J. Lafol there is no track.

(f) Country South of the Akobo.[103]

Boma.South of the junction of the Ajibur and Akobo rivers, an undulating tract of country is traversed before the foot of the Boma hills is reached. The soil is generally of a gravelly nature, but the district is often most charmingly wooded, whilst striking cocked-hat shaped peaks to the west enclose the valley of the Ajibur and add variety to the scene. Until the Boma hills are entered the country appears to be quite uninhabited, for it was not until we reached the lower slopes that we observed natives for the first time gathering the fruit of the many palms that grow, as well as bamboo, hereabouts. The hilly district of Boma[104] is then entered, and many streams, valleys, and ridges have to be crossed. The soil is seemingly very fertile and capable of producing all kinds of cereals. Proceeding as we did in a south-westerly direction through these hills, we, of course, only traversed quite a small corner, so to speak, of the country, but were much impressed by the possibilities of the place as the site of a future post along the frontier. The natives appeared quite friendly; the scenery at times was really grand; and plenty of food and water could doubtless be always procurable once the natives saw that they would be protected from outside raiding parties. The average altitude of this region is generally from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the sea level, but other ridges and heights attain an altitude of close on 6,000 feet. The natives were exceedingly shy, but eventually we persuaded them to approach us, though unfortunately we were unable to converse with them except by that most unsatisfactory of means—signs. Physically, the men—we saw no women at all at close quarters—are finely built and appear a higher type than the Nuers or Anuaks. Many of them wore ostrich feathers in their head-dress, and several had large circular knives—like those of the Turkana, but much broader—round their wrists. Beads were very generally worn, and many of the young bloods had broad bands of red beads, picked out with patches of blue and white ones, fastened across the forehead. Small skin aprons, not unlike those of the Turkana, were also worn by some of the men. Most of the men’s spears were sheathed and not carried like those of the Nuers and Anuaks uncovered. The huts we saw were wretched little grass erections with no appearance of stability, and gave one the impression of being little more than mere rough shelters. We gathered from these natives that they had recently been raided by the Magois, whom they hate and fear, and had in consequence no goats or sheep left. We certainly did not see any, but at the same time the men looked so sturdy and well-filled that they probably had plenty of grain food. Moreover, the wild fig grows fairly abundantly along the banks of some of the streams. The loftier heights of the country are well wooded, and though, perhaps, they were somewhat distant to judge accurately, I think probably these trees would provide excellent timber for building purposes. The climate appeared most bracing, and, judging by the few days experience we had, the rainfall must be very heavy.

Grand solid rock peaks in places spring out from the ridges in a curious manner, and by their precipitous appearance would probably tax the resource of the most skilled Alpine climbers to reach their summits. We were able to learn nothing regarding the customs or habits of these natives, and, in fact, from the time we left Anuak country until we reached the Uganda Protectorate had to carry out all conversation by signs. Judging by the great display of beads made, for trading purposes I have little doubt but that red, blue and white beads would be readily taken in exchange for food. The small bead known as “pound” beads would, I think, be far less popular than a slightly larger variety about the size of a pea. The beads should be opaque, and the ordinary glass beads procurable in Cairo, I fancy, would be little sought after.

Karuno.To the south of Boma and some short distance away from the foot of the hills, a pleasantly wooded tract of country is traversed, consisting of alternate plains of open bush and grass land, whilst water is obtained from khors running in a westerly direction across this plain, before turning north. Further south, again, however, a most uninviting dried up plain, which, after rains, would probably be converted into heavy bog, is met with, and water now becomes a most-serious consideration as far as about lat. 5° 30′ north, where a broad sandy-bedded khor winds its way across the plain in a westerly direction. Along this river bed we found the Karuno tribe settled in considerable numbers. They appeared to be a somewhat powerful tribe, and were certainly the most elaborately bedecked and prosperous looking set of men we saw during our journey. They possessed large numbers of cattle, goats and sheep, and donkeys, and also grow grain along the banks of the Karuno. Like all the natives of these regions, they are extremely suspicious of strangers, and though not unfriendly, are by no means anxious, it seemed to us, to have anything to do with Europeans. I do not remember these people having ever before been mentioned by any traveller; but on comparing my map with Mr. Donaldson Smith’s we seemed most obviously to be at the place shown by him as inhabited by the Magois tribe. On enquiring of these natives where the Magois were, they pointed away across the plain to the west, and gave us to understand they had been driven away in that direction by the Turkana, who had come up in force from the south. Although we tried to induce the Karuno people to bring grain or goats and sheep into camp for sale, they would not do so, nor would they even provide us with guides. This is probably more due to the fear these natives entertain of travelling into their neighbour’s country than from any unfriendly motives. Here, where raids and counter-raids are frequently being indulged in, considerable hostility naturally exists between the several tribes living next each other. The Karuno in some respects are not unlike the Turkana, except that their head-dress is not a long pendant bag-shaped one, but more like a squat chignon, which is stuck full of fine vari-coloured ostrich feathers. Beads are worn by them in great quantities, chiefly red, white, and a variegated one known in East Africa as “Punda malia” (zebra). Many of the young warriors in addition to numerous strings round the neck, had solid bands of beads—similar to those we saw in Boma—fastened across the forehead. The elders have most handsome head-dresses made of cowrie shells, whilst others again wore skull caps made of small white and red beads worked into a neat design of many circles. Physically, the men are well set up and sturdy, though they do not run to height much and are probably little above the average stature.

The women are not unlike the Turkana, and weave their hair into straight ringlets which fall round the head. They also wear beads in great numbers round the neck, whilst the lower part of the body is covered with a skin apron, cut away at the side with a flap in front and a long trailing tail arrangement behind.

In addition to long handled spears, the men carry short stabbing spears, and oblong-shaped hide shields.

Exactly what extent of country the Karuno occupy I can hardly say, but I should imagine they do not exist further east than the foot of the escarpment, where the country becomes thickly wooded with thorn bush. In a westerly direction they probably do not extend more than 2 or 3 miles beyond where we first struck the Karuno river bed, leaving an uninhabited area of country between themselves and the Magois. After leaving the Karuno, and striking at first in a south-easterly, and later in an easterly direction, we reached and travelled along the foot of a rocky escarpment through an irregular bay, as it were, in the hills. The valley, between our line of march and broken hills to the south, was thickly wooded with thorn bush, and water was difficult to find. We saw a few old grass huts of natives, which had been deserted for some months previously, but saw no signs of human life. It is probable that this tract of country can only be occupied during the rainy season of the year, owing to the extreme scarcity of water.

Musha.After we had worked our way through these hills, finally crossing the eastern ridge by an easy pass, we found ourselves in a broad plain, thickly covered with thorn bush. Some 30 miles east more hills seemed to bar progress in that direction, whilst to the south the thorny plain appeared to extend for some 40 miles to the foot of the high mountain masses to the west of Lake Rudolf. We were now in the tract of country called by Dr. Donaldson Smith, Musha. The thorn-bush plain terminated to the north at the foot of two lofty mountains, the more westerly one of which attains a height of close on 6,000 feet, whilst the loftier mass to the south-east of it (previously known to me as Mount Naita.Mount Naita, and called by Dr. Donaldson Smith, Etua; whilst in Bottégo’s map it is named Aguzzo) reaches a height of about 7,300 feet. We passed numerous kraals whilst journeying in an easterly direction across this plain, which had all been temporarily abandoned by the natives, with whom we could get no intercourse, as they refused to approach us. On several occasions, when we saw two or three natives watching us from a distance, men were sent out to try and induce them to come into camp, but they fled before our men could get within even shouting distance of them. We were most anxious to obtain the service of guides, as the country before us was unknown, and the anxieties regarding water had become very great. It would appear, judging by the tracks we saw, that the Musha possess much livestock, consisting of camels, cattle, donkeys, goats, and sheep. In the thick bush, however, these people had little difficulty in driving them away and concealing their animals until we had passed, when presumably they returned again to their kraals. On one occasion, however, our advent was unexpected, as near our camping ground some of our party surprised two or three Musha, who were tending a flock of over 200 goats and sheep, and perhaps a dozen donkeys. The natives fled, leaving everything behind in their little enclosures. Strict orders were issued that these animals were not to be touched, as we hoped by so doing we might induce the natives to understand that we were not a marauding expedition, and were desirous of opening friendly intercourse with them. The animals were left alone all that day and night, but the Musha evidently feared to return, and when we marched off next morning the donkeys gave us a parting bray, which was the nearest approach to friendly intercourse we experienced in this neighbourhood, as we never saw another Musha man during the rest of our journey. In due course we crossed another low range of hills to the south of that grand mountain, Naita, and entered another wooded valley, which ultimately joined that of the River Sacchi, where we arrived on the 1st April, and our difficulties regarding water for the present were at an end. I would here remark that perhaps for nine months in the year, for a large party to cross this bit of country from Boma to the Sacchi, by the route followed by us, would be a most risky undertaking owing to the extreme scarcity of water. The many watercourses shown on the map were found to be almost without exception merely dry stony beds in which no water was procurable by digging. Fortunately, about the 20th March, rain had fallen to the east of where we then were, and by extraordinary good luck we subsequently found pools at intervals, after long continued search. One point worthy of note is that, in spite of previous rain, we seldom found water in the actual nullah beds, as, owing to their stony nature, the water runs off at once. What water was found was nearly always in depressions some distance away from the banks of these nullahs, where the clayey soil prevented percolation, and retained water in pools until it became evaporated in due course by the hot sun.

ANUAK WOMEN.

On our previous visit to Lake Rudolf from the south, our old Suk guide, Nyanga by name, had on several occasions pointed out to me the striking Naita peak away to the north-west, and told me that the country thereabouts was the most dreadful one he knew for scarcity of water. I believed him, as he was about the most knowledgable and intelligent native of his class regarding the geography of the country that I have ever met. His information had now been verified by us, and it was with a sigh of relief we found the Sacchi river.Sacchi a running stream. To the Swahilis the tract of country we had traversed was always known as Donyiro, which name appears on the map prepared by the Macdonald expedition.

From very imperfect data I am inclined to think that between our southerly route from Boma and the valley of the Sacchi the escarpment we skirted is the edge of a fine hilly plateau,[105] varying in height probably from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level. I imagine all that tract of country to be a fertile and probably well-watered region, very much like Boma itself. Whether it is thickly populated it is difficult to say, as the country is absolutely unknown to Europeans, but to traverse it from north to south and east to west with mule transport would probably be most interesting. It would probably be almost too difficult for any pack animals except mules and perhaps donkeys. The much talked of gold, which is discussed by our Swahilis as existing in those parts, might also be found, although I must admit we never saw any gold ornaments worn by natives in the plains bordering that country.

Game.In Sudan territory south of the Sobat the following species are known to exist: Elephant, buffalo, giraffe, rhinoceros, zebra roan-antelope, waterbuck, Mrs. Grey’s waterbuck (cobus maria), white-eared cob (cobus leucotis), Uganda cob, bushbuck, reedbuck, Jackson’s hartebeeste, tiang, lion, leopard, etc.

(g) The Upper Pibor.

General.In August, 1904, the head waters of the so-called Pibor were explored by Lieutenant D. C. Comyn, Black Watch. It was found that 17 miles above the Akobo junction the river bifurcated, one branch known as the Agwei[106] apparently coming from the E. and S.E., the other, known by the Anuaks as Nyanabek, by the Nuers as Kang, and by the Agibbas as Natila, from the S. and S.W.

Following the latter branch, without encountering any serious sudd obstructions, Lieutenant Comyn succeeded, with the aid of a steam launch, in reaching a point which appeared to him to be very near the source of this important feeder of the Pibor.

Source.The flooded plain in which the river seemingly has its origin, is according to Lieutenant Comyn’s sketch, about 60 miles due E. of Bor, and 170 miles by river above the Akobo junction.

Banks.The banks of the Natila are as a rule ill-defined, swampy and sudd-fringed; in places they appear to be as much as 200 to 250 yards apart.

Almost throughout its course the banks were more or less inundated, the left bank being usually the higher, and in its upper reaches the plain was flooded to a depth of a foot or more for many miles round.

Water-way.The water-way varied from 20 to 70 yards in width, and about 20 miles above the Akobo junction, what appeared to be a sudd-covered lake, some 800 yards broad and 6 miles in length, was traversed by a deep and tortuous channel 20 to 30 yards wide.

Depth.The average depth for the first 130 miles was found to be about 20 feet, but in the next 40 miles the river gradually shoaled to about 15 inches, and the direction of its course was then only faintly distinguishable by the band of light-green grass which blocked its bed and precluded further progress.

Current.The current varied from ¾ to 2 miles per hour, the rise and fall of the river apparently depending largely on the local rainfall. In the dry season the plain, and, according to the Agibbas, the river itself dries up.

Fuel.Fuel is plentiful everywhere, the river being fringed with a belt of talh and heglig trees for the greater part of its course.

J. Atin.J. Atin, standing on the left bank, about 1½ miles from the river and about 100 miles from the Akobo junction, forms a conspicuous landmark. It is a solid rocky mass about 2 miles in circumference, and has twin peaks some 400 feet above the plain.

Gordon is said to have marched up the right bank in 1878 (?) and to have crossed to J. Atin, and to have marched thence westwards to the Nile through the Beir or Beri country.

Inhabitants.As is stated on [p. 136] the inhabitants of the Lower Pibor are Nuers and a few of the less powerful Anuaks. On the Upper Pibor or Natila a tribe known as the Agibba were found, their first village being Nyanabek, about 70 miles S. of the Akobo. For the next 60 miles villages were frequently seen.

Agibba tribe.Lieutenant Comyn gives the following account of the Agibba tribe, who appear to strongly resemble the Nuers, and also in some respects the Turkana:—

“The Agibbas are a warlike tribe, feared by and fearing the Nuers. Their other neighbours, the Anuaks and Dinkas, they look on with contempt, and buy their suksuk from them. The Abyssinians do not harry this part of the tribe. A few men know the Nuer, Dinka and Anuak dialect. Their physique is good, but their stature is not uniform. Many seem to suffer from hydrocele, and I saw one man with elephantiasis in the leg. They are armed with roughly-made spears of various shapes, wrist knives, and an oblong shield of giraffe hide, and invariably carry their head-rest to sit upon. Their huts are rudely built, of a bee-hive shape, and about the same size as an ordinary tukl.”

“They appear to have no canoes, and I saw no fishing-spears, though plenty of fish baskets. Their ivory ornaments are old and small. The principal men wear over the right elbow a bunch of giraffe tails, the band ornamented with cowrie shells. Their clothing consists of a belt round the waist, and, in front and behind (if a man is well off), a skin often embroidered and edged with beads—most wear a 3½-inch band of red beads with a 1-inch line down the centre across their foreheads. Some of the older men had a bead-covered bowl on their heads instead. The hair of the younger men was dressed very neatly, like an inverted soup plate with the part over the forehead cut oft. They have all sorts of suksuk. What they asked for were (in order of preference) cowrie shells, beads (janitor), brass wire, red, white and other beads. The head sheikh, whose name I think is Nadgweir (they were very averse to telling it) seems a man of character. All seem afraid of him, and said if they took up spears without his permission he would cut their throats. I saw but half-a-dozen of women and no children.”

Table of Distances along the Sobat.

Place.Intermediate.From Sobat Mouth.From Khartoum.
Miles.Kilometres.Miles.Kilometres.Miles.Kilometres.
American Mission (Tatug or Deleib)5½95½9524843
Khor Filus46½9½15½528849½
Gokjak101619½32538865½
Abwong6310182½133601966
Nasser107172189½3067081138
Pibor Mouth27½44217349735½1182
Machar36½58½253½406½7721240½
Jokau1626269½4347881267
Balankun914½278½448½7971282
Itang3658314½5078331340
Fenkio2337337½5448561377
Gambela1829355½572½8741406
Baro Ford2642381½6149001448

[85]Abyssinian boundary.

[86]During the driest season of the year there is no difficulty in marching along either bank. Between Itang and Nasser the best road is along the right bank.

[87]For distances along the Sobat, vide [p. 152.]

[88]Between the Pibor and this point is a dreary, treeless, uninhabitated region of marsh. Above Gadjak the banks are finely timbered, and the river scenery is quite beautiful.

[89]Many Anuaks are to be seen marked with the Nuer tribal mark, i.e., 6 parallel horizontal lines across the forehead.

[90]Vide footnote to [p. 135.]

[91]Now moved to Finkio.

[92]Though the supposed mouth at Machar is deep and 30 yards wide, whilst that at Jokau is only 5 yards wide, there seems good reason to doubt if the former is in any way connected with the Khor Garre. Capt. Wilson was informed by the natives in February, 1904, when the Machar was entirely dried up, whilst the Jokau was a strong flowing stream 3 feet deep, that the former is not a mouth of the Garre. In June, 1904, the discharge of the Jokau was very marked, being of a muddy-white colour similar to the Pibor. At Machar, on the other hand, though the khor did contain water, perhaps an overflow from the Baro, no discharge was noticeable.

[93]For description of Upper Pibor, vide [p. 151.]

[94]In June, 1904, the discharge at its mouth was observed to be a dirty-white colour.

[95]This country was traversed from March to June, 1904, by Mr. McMillan and his expedition. Out of 150 mules and the same number of donkeys only 16 animals survived. Anuak carriers were, however, readily obtainable, from 150 to 380 being constantly employed.

[96]For précis of Lieut. Comyn’s report on his exploration of this river south of the Akobo junction, vide [p. 151.]

[97]Vide also [p. 18,] and the [ itinerary of this river] in Vol. II.

[98]Visited Khartoum, 1904.

[99]Most of this information was supplied by Mr. R. Türstig.

[100]Or “Gianotta;” vide [p. 120, footnote.]

[101]There is another branch of this tribe living further north under a chief named Lom (vide [p. 144]).

[102]This statement appears to be untrue.

[103]Extract from a report by Major Austin, R.E., 1901.

[104]Boma was visited by Messrs. Bulpett and Jessen in June, 1904. The inhabitants were found to be very friendly, and a certain amount of grain was obtainable from them. Iron wire—not brass—was what they asked for in payment. Crops in Boma are harvested in June. The maximum temperature registered on the Boma-Musha plateau was 85° F.

[105]Messrs. Bulpett and Jessen reached a point about 30 miles N.N.E. of Mount Naita in June, 1904, and report that this plateau appeared very rocky and cut up by water courses, which contained water in pools in June. The land seemed uninhabitable and unsuited to cultivation.

[106]For description, vide [p. 136.]

CHAPTER VII.

SOUTH-WESTERN SUDAN.

THE BAHR EL GHAZAL.

1. Introductory.

Introduction.The Bahr El Ghazal was re-occupied by the troops of the Sudan Government during the winter of 1900-1901. Before their advent the most recent detailed descriptions of the country (not counting the necessarily superficial writings of the Marchand Expedition in 1898) date from pre-Dervish days (e.g., Junker, Schweinfurth, etc.). Although there has not been time or opportunity for the whole of the country to be subjected to a searching examination since 1901, still, sufficient is known to prove that great changes have taken place in the province since 1881. Roads and places have disappeared, the face of the country has in many parts completely changed, and tribes have disappeared, have been thinned out, or have emigrated to other territories.

Thus it will be found that in many particulars the detail given in the following pages will not at all bear out the descriptions by Schweinfurth and Junker of 20 years or more ago.

(For an abstract of the descriptions by these celebrated travellers, vide H.B.S. pp. 110-138.)

2. General Description.

Boundaries.The Bahr El Ghazal province is bounded on the south and west by the Congo-Nile watershed, on the north by the Bahr El Arab and Bahr El Ghazal, and on the east by the Bahr El Jebel. Its previous history and that of the occupation of this province in 1900-01 by the Sudan Government is narrated elsewhere (vide Part II, Chaps. [V] and [VII]).

The various areas.The northern boundary of the ferruginous tableland through which the western tributaries of the Nile pass from the watershed through the Bahr El Ghazal country may roughly be said to coincide with a line drawn through Rumbek and Chamamui (Chak Chak). North of this and until the sudd is reached, the country is flat, and the soil is clay, with great plains of long grass and many swamps intervening—“The Steppes” of Schweinfurth. North-west of this the country is dry and covered with bush, cut up by small khors, which are full in the rainy season. The sudd extends from Lake No to Meshra El Rek (where a base post has been established), and stretches westwards towards Chamamui, to receive the contents of the Wau, Bongo, and Bahr El Arab rivers.

The table-land.The tableland rises gradually towards the south and west to the watershed, the undulations of the surface becoming more pronounced in this direction, and the khors more defined and frequent. Granitic outcrops, rising to 400 feet in some cases, are numerous along the higher slopes of the watershed. Everywhere ironstone and crystalline rock appear above the thin layer of soil that covers them. Nevertheless, on the lower slopes and in the basins of the various khors the soil is profitable and fertile, generally of a rich copper colour with a certain amount of sandstone soil. In Telgona district and the country round, especially to the north and west, are several granitic outcrops, the seven-peaked Telgona and the conical hill of Lutu being the most remarkable. Great forests cover the country almost throughout from east to west. In the steppes of the lower level there are many grass plains, which become vast swamps in the rains. In the table-land the open plains are of no great area.

Soil and geological formation.The soil, both in the swamps and in the land liable to annual inundation, is a rich black clayey loam. In the portions further away from the rivers there is often a large mixture of sand washed down from the higher lands. Most of it is, however, very suitable for cultivation. Alluvial plains border one or both banks of all the more important rivers for a considerable distance up their courses. It is only in the upper reaches that the alluvial deposits almost disappear and that the rocky tree-clad slopes descend abruptly to the river. The soil on the higher lands is usually sandy, and clayey in depressions or near streams. It overlies a pitted, ferruginous stone or laterite, which, in its turn, rests on granite, which in places degenerates into gneiss, schists, or quartzite. These granitic rocks are, as a rule, not visible in the lower portion of the highlands, which only show abundance of ironstone, but further inland outcrops of granite become more frequent, and the country becomes more undulating, forming long, low hill ranges, or throwing up solitary granitic hills, usually rounded in outline, but occasionally more rugged in appearance.

3. Rivers and Water Supply.

Rivers.The surface of the Bahr El Ghazal country is intersected by many rivers threading their way from the watershed towards the Nile. Passing through the lower plateaux of the tableland, they are mostly fine broad rivers, with high banks and sandy bottoms, and are generally similar in formation. The Boro, Sopo, Chel, Sueh or Jur, and Rodi vary from 80 to 130 yards in breadth, and should be navigable for small craft, when in flood, for considerable distances. The current in flood is not more than 2 knots per hour. The Jur River is navigable for steamers from its mouth as far as the “Poste des Rapides” at Rafili, and probably above this point by light draught steamers to Khojali, from August till November. In the tableland and higher plateaux of the watershed, these rivers are fed by many streams running down from the slopes and hills. On the other hand, in the lower steppes to the north, the water runs up into many khors and swamps, which break away from the banks. Lower down, the banks disappear altogether, and the waters are discharged into the sudd.

Drainage of the country.The western portion of the Bahr El Ghazal is drained, at least in its more elevated portions, by several rivers running in a more or less northerly direction. These are, beginning from the east: The Rohl (Naam) River, the Jau, the Tonj River, the Jur River, with its more important branch the Wau River, the Bongo River, and the Chel River, which, not far from Deim Zubeir, unites two branches, the Kuru and the Biri Rivers. There are also less important rivers, such as the Mulmul and the Getti, which do not flow during the dry weather. The most important of all, on account of its volume of water, is the River Jur or Sueh, which, flowing from Tembura’s country past Wau, joins the Bahr El Ghazal some 20 miles below Meshra el Rek. The courses of the other rivers, whether ultimately falling into the Bahr El Ghazal itself, or first joining the Bahr Telgona or Bahr El Arab, have not yet been properly explored, and the exploration is rendered difficult by the fact that, owing to the flatness of the country in their lower courses, the water spreads all over the land and forms enormous swamps which stretch to those which join the Bahr El Ghazal itself. The Jur itself, powerful a stream as it is, does not break the rule, and the parties occupied in cutting its sudd had great difficulty in tracing the channel when crossing the swamps. According to its drainage, then, the country can be divided into three zones, viz., (a) the perennial swamps near the mouths of the rivers, (b) the somewhat raised alluvial flats further up, which are liable to inundation during the rains, and (c) the undulating plateaux or hilly country in the upper reaches.

Water supply.In the dry season water is scarce in the plains and plateaux. It is generally obtained from shallow pits and wells, seldom more than 20 feet below the surface, though it cannot always be found at that level.

4. Administration.

The Bahr El Ghazal now forms a Province under a Mudir or Governor (and Commandant) assisted by three or four British officers and inspectors. The headquarters are at Wau.

At present a line of Government posts has been established from east to west as follows:—Shambe on the Nile, Rumbek, Tonj, Wau (the headquarters), Chamamui (Chak Chak), Deim Zubeir and Telgona. A post has also recently been established at Kossinga and another at Kafi Kingi to the north-west of the province. Each of these posts consists of a small garrison, a few huts, and store-houses.

For administrative purposes the Province is divided into three Districts—“Eastern,” Headquarters at Rumbek; “Central,” Headquarters at Wau; and “Western,” Headquarters at Deim Zubeir.

5. Resources.

Ivory.The resources of the country are yet to be developed.

There is a good deal of ivory, and elephants are still very numerous in many parts, especially towards the north, where they feed on the gum tree. The natives hunt them, but do not apparently reduce the numbers to any extent.

Ivory now forms one of the chief products of the Province.

The following information regarding the forests of the Bahr El Ghazal is taken from a report by Mr. A. F. Broun, Director of Forests to the Sudan Government.

India-rubber.As regards the india-rubber, the rubber-yielding species is found to be a fairly large apocynaceous creeper, a landolphia, called “Odilo” by the Jurs, and “Ndala” by the Golos and Dinkas. Of three other similar plants, one is an apocynaceous climber (also a landolphia) called “Apwamah” by the Jurs and Dinkas and “Bi” by the Golos, nearly allied to the first; another is a large (originally epiphytic) ficus, known as “Kwel”; while the third, known generally by its Arabic name “Lulu,” is a bassia (Parkii), and the only one which belongs to the natural order, the sapotaceæ, which yields the best gutta-percha.

“Odilo” or “Ndala.”“Odilo” or “Ndala” (landolphia owariensis) is found almost entirely on the ironstone, and only in very rocky situations, such as the edges of the ironstone plateau. In such places, although by no means rare, it is by no means so well represented as its cousin the “Apwama” (or “Bi”), from which it can be recognised by its young and slightly hairy shoots, and by its fruit, which is smaller and with a sweet pulp, while that of the “Apwama” is acidulated. It is also a smaller climber than the latter. There is, apparently, no “Odilo” on the route from Wau to Deim Zubeir viâ Chak Chak, nor between the Bongo and the Chel near Deim Zubeir, but in the old days it used to be obtained in abundance from places far or near, and was purchased by Government. It is, in fact, fairly well distributed all over the Province.

The usual native method of collecting is as follows:—

A tangential slice is taken out of the bark, no special care being taken not to reach the wood, and, as the milk oozes out of the various milk vessels which have been cut through, it is taken up by the finger and spread out on the collector’s bare skin, either on the arm or over the stomach. It dries very quickly and is collected into a ball by being rolled with the hand, or into a spindle-shaped mass round a piece of twig. The rapidity with which the milk coagulates is very striking, for, five minutes after the cut is made, all that has been collected is made up into a ball and is ready for the market. This peculiarity, although in many ways it shows the excellence of the rubber, renders the clean collection a matter of great difficulty, for the wounds get covered by a film very quickly, and collection in vessels seems to be almost impossible. During the rainy season the outflow of milk is more copious.

“Apwama” or “Bi.”The other landolphia (florida), “Apwama” or “Bi,” grows under similar conditions as “Odilo.” It is however, more abundant, and grows to a larger size. It is a gigantic climber which reaches the crowns of the tallest trees. Its milky juice is much more copious than that of its cousin, but, on the other hand, it coagulates with much more difficulty. The difficulty with the collection of this latex is to obtain it pure. The bark of the creeper is coarse, and as the stems are not upright but bent in all directions, it is difficult to hang collecting bottles in such a way as to make a clean collection. The indiarubber obtained from the “Apwama” is far inferior to that which the “Odilo” produces, and has but little elasticity.

“Kwel.”The “Kwel” (Ficus platyphylla) is a large fig-tree which is found all over the province, but is most abundant in the lowlands, especially between Wau and Meshra El Rek. In appearance it is a good deal like the “Banyan” (Ficus bengalensis). Like the “Banyan,” it usually germinates on another tree, generally in a place where moisture is retained for some time, such as the fork of the stem, the axil of a palm leaf, etc. After some time it begins sending down roots, which, following the stem, ultimately reach the ground. Once this is effected the young tree grows apace, sends down fresh roots, which ultimately surround the stem of the host and finally kill it. Many such figs germinate in the axils of dead leaves on the “Deleib” which they finally fold in their embrace. The palms, being endogenous, are hard to kill, hence the not uncommon spectacle of a “Deleib” growing out of a tree. Many “Kwel” trees in the Dinka districts have become mutilated by badly done tapping. This latex, when dry, forms a resinous brittle gum, apparently of little value, as it is used by the natives to clean brass ornaments. When the tree is tapped the latex flows in abundance, pulsating somewhat like blood from a cut artery.

“Lulu.”The “Lulu” (Butyrospermum Parkii) belongs to the family of Sapotaceæ. It is common all over the ironstone country, and grows abundantly on the borders of the alluvial flats and the plateaux, especially between the Tonj and Naam rivers. The fruit of the “Lulu,” called the “Sudan date,” forms a staple food. Edible oil, greatly used in cooking, is extracted from the kernel, which resembles the horse chestnut.

Tanning products.The forests of the Bahr El Ghazal will probably some day be of great value on account of the number of trees which yield tannin. The two great families from which tannin is obtained, viz., Combretaceæ and Mimosæ, are abundantly represented, and some trees have already a reputation for their richness in tannin, viz., “Abu Surug” (Prosopis oblonga) and “Mudus” (Parkia filicoidea), the bark of which fetches a good price at Omdurman.

Timber.With some notable exceptions, the forests have suffered from fire; the trees are stunted, crooked, hollow, or generally misshapen, and fire-protection will be required to obtain better grown timber. There are, however, a few gigantic trees which have risen above the fires and would yield timber of large dimensions. The most common is perhaps Khaya Senegalensis (“Homra” Arabic name), a tree of the family of the Meliaceæ, to which mahogany and satin wood belong, and which generally gives handsome or useful timber. The bark is, not unlikely, a febrifuge, and the seed yields an oil which keeps away flies, etc., from wounds; it is used against the “serut” flies. There are also two enormous trees of the family of the Leguminosæ, viz., the “Mudus” (mentioned above), which is found abundantly near Tonj and sporadically to Wau, and the “Shande” (Jur name) (Daniellia Thurifera) which grows on the banks of the Wau River, not far from old Wau. There are several others of varying dimensions and also Bamboos, but these are not in sufficient quantities to be considered as an article of export. “Rattan” is also found near Tembura.

For further timber, etc., resources, see under Forestry, [p. 157.]

Wax and honey.Bees are abundant in the Bahr El Ghazal, and large quantities of honey are collected every year.

Salt.Salt is found only in the west, in the Faroge district, but is in demand everywhere.

Crops.Generally speaking, the ground is cleared in April. Crops are sown in May, and reaped in November-December. One crop a year.

Indian corn is grown extensively in the plateaux. Sown in April, it ripens in August. Sorghum dura is grown universally. The Dinkas, living near the marshes, sow this at the end of March, it ripens in October, and has a short stalk 4 feet high. Everywhere else it grows 12 feet high and ripens in December. Ground nuts and pumpkins are also universally grown, especially by the Dinkas. Simsim, telabun, dukhn, and various vegetables are met with in the habitations of other tribes. Locusts play great havoc with the crops, and the natives, especially the Dinkas, are too lazy to combat them. The crops are increasing in extent, especially in the western portion; each military post cultivates a certain amount, but it is expected that the natives will soon produce enough (bar accidents and drought) to supply the troops and any demand that may be made on them.

Minerals.Iron is very plentiful almost throughout the province, and is extensively worked (vide [p. 160]). A recent analysis of the iron ore gives a percentage of 47 per cent. of pure iron.

Copper is only found at the rich mines of Hofrat El Nahas, near the southern borders of Darfur. It lies in the midst of a deserted country, and has not been worked for a long time. It had not been visited by Europeans (until Colonel Sparkes’s recent journey, February, 1903), since 1876 (Purdy).[107] According to recent analysis of a specimen the ore is a silicate and carbonate, not a sulphate, of copper, containing 14 per cent. of pure metal. Although there is an immense quantity of this ore, its distance from civilisation and the obstacles to transport will render its development a matter of considerable difficulty for some time to come. In places, it sticks up in ridges above the surface.

Currency.Different tribes and districts have a fancy for various articles of barter. “Genotor” (Gianotta) beads (round, black beads with white and coloured spots) are useful anywhere. With the Dinkas, small white and red beads (“Suk-suk”) and brass wire, especially in the form of bracelets, are acceptable; but cloth only holds a steady demand on the direct routes to Government posts, where the inhabitants are thrown into contact with civilisation; it is, however, rapidly becoming more popular, and in some parts of the country is preferred to beads. Jurs like beads, brass and cloth. Golos and Bongos prefer cloth, which also obtains the best value from the Nyam Nyams. The Dinkas in the north have been in the habit of exchanging ivory for cattle with the Baggara Arabs.

6. Climate and Hygiene.

The rainy season[108] begins in April and ends in November; December, January, February, and March are the dry months, when the humidity is slight, though there is always a certain amount of dew. From the end of April till the middle of November rain falls, on the average, one day out of three, generally in very heavy showers lasting for two or three hours at a time. In the early months terrific thunderstorms accompany the showers. The shade temperature in the dry season shows an average maximum of 98° and a minimum of 59°. In the rainy season the maximum in April, May, and June averages 89°, and from July to December 85°. The minimum average during these months is 70°. During the rains the humidity is excessive, and the dews exceedingly heavy.

Sickness. Malaria.About 80 per cent. of the sickness in the Bahr El Ghazal is due to malaria. It attacks Europeans and Egyptians more severely than blacks.

The frequency and severity of this disease varies with the season and also with the locality. June and July have proved the most unhealthy months; the rainy season being then at its height. From December to March there is very little sickness. The natives state that some years are far more unhealthy than others, but this does not seem to depend upon the amount of rainfall. The most unhealthy stations are Wau, Meshra El Rek, and Tonj, all of which are built close to the river banks, whilst Rumbek and Deim Zubeir, which are some miles from a river, and watered from wells, are comparatively healthy. It is a noticeable fact that the natives never build villages near the river bank, but generally at least a mile inland; they also usually drink from wells. This is probably done to avoid mosquitoes, and therefore is a possible reason for the small amount of fever amongst them. Mosquitos cannot breed in shallow wells from which all the water is drawn several times daily. By selecting these positions for their villages they are also removed from the marsh, which is usually found on one or other bank of the river. Egyptians are more susceptible than Europeans, and the Sudanese from Khartoum more so than natives.

Varieties of fever.Although the ordinary periodic types of fever are met with, and easily combated by quinine, a malignant type is far from uncommon, and is a very serious trouble. The patient may have two or three distinct attacks of fever in one day, and often on two or three consecutive days, leaving him weak and unfit for duty. Vomiting is a common accompaniment, and sometimes continues for two days. The stomach refuses food or medicine, and quinine has to be injected subcutaneously. Drugs, however, seem to have little effect on the course of the fever. The after effects met with are anæmia, rheumatism, neuralgia, and dyspepsia. The most serious complication, however, is “blackwater fever,” which is a hæmoglobinuria, occurring in a patient saturated with malaria. The red-blood corpuscles are destroyed by the action of the malarial parasite, and the hæmoglobin thus set free is passed in the urine, giving it its characteristic port wine colour. The patient becomes terribly weak, has acute pain over the stomach, vomits frequently, and cannot retain any nourishment, the heart becomes very feeble, and death only too often follows. At present there have been as far as is known, since 1900, about eight cases, with only two recoveries; it does not appear to attack natives at all.

Guinea worm.Guinea worm is common amongst the natives and Sudanese. It has been met with all over the country, from Meshra El Rek to the Nyam Nyam country. It appears in June and July, and is often the cause of ankylosis of the joints. From observations made in 1901-02 the period of incubation would appear to be a long one—probably 10 or 12 months. At least one European has developed it.

Boils.Boils are common and appear in epidemic form, chiefly attacking the hands.

Dysentery.Dysentery in its true form has not been met with. The water supply at all stations is good.

Small-pox.Small-pox occurs occasionally amongst the natives and carries off hundreds. An outbreak occurred amongst Tembura’s Nyam Nyams in the winter of 1903-04.

Phthisis.Phthisis in all its forms is common, and is believed to be responsible for a large percentage of the mortality amongst natives. September, October and November are the months in which it is most prevalent.

Night blindness is common.

Beyond mention of the great frequency of hydrocele and hernia amongst the natives, there is nothing else that calls for special remark.

Mosquitos.Mosquitos are not very numerous on the dry plateaux of the table-land and the lower steppes during the dry season, but abound during the rainy season near the rivers. Near the sudd, and on it, they are always to be met with, but not in any quantities away from the rivers. At least two out of six specimens sent home were found to belong to malaria-bearing species.

Tsetse fly. Sleeping sickness.A species of the tsetse fly, identified as Glossina morsitans, was discovered in 1903 (April) by Major G. R. Griffith, D.S.O. Beyond its often fatal attacks on animals, it seems otherwise harmless. Sleeping sickness is unknown in the Bahr El Ghazal, though fatal cases have occurred in the Lado enclave, which adjoins it.

7. Forestry.[109]

Fires.The Bahr El Ghazal province is, unfortunately, no exception to the general rule which prevails in the Sudan. Traces of fires are clear everywhere, from the grass lands near the rivers to the innermost portions of the uninhabited forest tracts to the north-east and east of Deim Zubeir. The largest fires are started in the grass lands near the rivers in order to provide tender herbage for the cattle. These, as they sweep inland, are fed by others, which are made to clear the country near the villages, and they are then carried on until they rush on and penetrate into the forest themselves. In the forests, where the paths get overgrown with grass, travellers fire the grass, not only to clear the way, but to provide against coming unexpectedly on wild animals. Further, fires are lighted for hunting purposes. The reed rat, which lives in long grass near water, and which is generally relished for its meat, is hunted by setting fire to the grass, and the hunting of other animals, including the elephant, is accomplished in a similar manner. It is evident that before such fierce fires seedling growth is killed out; that saplings and young trees are killed or mutilated, and that larger trees themselves must suffer, especially on the outskirts of the forests. So heavy is the toll taken that more wood is destroyed each year than is produced by the increase in girth and by the birth of new trees in places respected by the fires once in a way. In other words, the capital is being eaten into, the forests are deteriorating, and, unless protected, will ultimately disappear. Apart from purely economic reasons this is a prospect which is not good to contemplate if the effect of such a denudation is considered.

Forest zones.As before mentioned, the country can be divided into three divisions, according to the amount of drainage. Each of these divisions has its own characteristic vegetation:—

Swamp vegetation.The ambach (Herminiera elaphroxylon), which in places forms dense covers, and on the upper Bahr El Ghazal almost supplants papyrus, is the only plant which may claim to form forest vegetation. It may in future be of use, owing to its lightness, in floating timber down the river.

Lands not always submerged.On the land, which is under water annually at flood time, forest vegetation is scanty, and such trees as there are are usually perched on the top of termite hills. Such are the Sarcocephalus esculentus and Mitragyne Africana (Rubiaceae), the ardeib, dabka, gughan, the small-leaved inderab, and, where the soil is poor, Euphorbia candelabrum. Large expanses of country are treeless, owing to fires and heavy felling.

Highland forests.On the higher ground the chief ones are tamarind and gughan, with sidr bushes, talh (acacia), and talh-beida forests, um shutur, zeitun (edible fruit), abu khamera and heglig, and occasionally habil.

The above trees are also found on the higher land, but generally near water or in clay soil and in smaller quantities. The highland forests, however, differ largely from those on the lower lands, there being little acacia or thorny growth. Among the largest trees are the nwana (tanning bark “mudus”) and abu surug (tanning bark), kuru, riang or bei, shanda and koba (in best parts of forest), digdig (sweet yellow flowers), homra (large tree, allied to mahogany, also called homraya or murraya), and lulu (blackish scaly bark and tufted leaves, gutta-percha tree, above described).

The quality of the forests is at present not high. The best forests are those found in the broad, uninhabited stretch between Deim Zubeir and the Bongo, but even here the frequency of fires has prevented the stock from being at all uniform. In other places, where fires are still more frequent, and where there are traces of former cultivation, the stock is of a much more patchy character, and degenerates into curtains of forest surrounding blanks, or into mere scrub composed of contorted shoots of habil, dorut, kalto, akan, grewia, etc. It is, however, satisfactory to note that, even in such fireworn areas, there are still to be seen scattered here and there enormous trees such as shande, homra, bei, nwana, etc. But at the same time it is also a fact that, except in the case of koba, which reproduces itself fairly freely, the other large trees are not at all largely represented among those of younger generations, notwithstanding the fact that most of them seed abundantly. The most that can be said of these forests is that the larger trees are very fairly represented and that with proper treatment and protection some magnificent reserves could be evolved.

Principal timber trees.Homra: enormous size, would make a fine cabinet wood. Pinkish inside, but soon turns mahogany brown; found on ironstone.

Heglig: not very tall, but 6 to 8 feet in girth. Timber durable and not liable to attack by white ants; lowlands, clayey soil.

Koba: graceful, rounded crown, flat pods, abundant, good brown building timber, much used by Jurs; highland.

Digdig: large tree, straight bole, sweet yellow flowers, leafless during the cold season, strong yellowish timber; highland.

Ardeib: grows large, timber of very old trees is beautiful, mottled black and white, much valued in cabinet trade and also for its fruit; clayey soil.

Abu surug: large, fine dark red wood, capable of good polish, used chiefly by iron smelters for charcoal, bark rich in tannin; common in highlands.

Nwana: very large and abundant, white timber, not strong, but useful for planking, seed pulp sweet and edible, bark (“mudus”) good for tanning; ironstone.

Silag: common, tall, graceful, birchlike, white timber fairly durable, much used for building, leaves probably rich in tannin; highland tree.

Gughan: ebony family, sometimes very large, fine dark brown timber which turns black on exposure, much used for gun stocks; clay soil.

Abnus: Sudan ebony (not true ebony), crooked and thinnish; scattered on rocky soil in highlands.

Zeitun: teak family, large size, white wood, not strong; lowlands or clayey soil in highlands.

Bamboo: apparently strong and good, used for rafts and roofing; line banks of khors in highlands.

Fibres.The mottled-leaved Sanseviera guineensis is found all over the portion of the province visited. It yields a strong and durable fibre. Strong jungle ropes for building are made with a species of vitis growing in the highland forests, while grewias and sterculias yield strong best fibre. In the Nyam Nyam country the bark of a fig is used as cloth.

Edible fruits.Many trees in these forests yield edible fruits, but most of them are poor and insipid, with the exception of lulu, which has a fruit, the pulp of which is not only eaten, but the kernel yields an edible oil which is said to be a good substitute for “ghee.” Klato has a not unpleasant acidulated fruit, and the fruits of both apwama and odilo are also eaten. The pods of the nwana contain a sweet farinaceous pulp; and a gardenia has a large ovoid fruit, which is not unlike a very inferior apple. The fruit of zeitun is also eaten, and when roasted and ground it makes an excellent substitute for tea.

Iron smelting.It is impossible to omit mention of a very important industry which is connected with, but would be impossible in this province without an adequate supply of fuel. Iron smelting is carried on with a certain activity by Jurs and Bongos. The ironstone and laterite, which form the upper layer of rocks over a great portion of the province, are very rich in iron[110]; and, with proper working, all the needs of the Sudan, and possibly also of Upper Egypt, could be supplied from this province. For this, however, it will be necessary to work the forest in a systematic manner in order to make sure of a continuous supply.

8. Communications and Transport.

Transport.The chief difficulty to contend with in the Bahr El Ghazal is that of transport. During the rainy season (May or June to November) since a large portion of the country is flooded, it is almost impossible to get about. Stores have, therefore, to be laid in beforehand during the dry season.

Between Meshra El Rek and Wau the direct road is practically closed from the middle of June to the middle of November, though communication by single individuals is possible by a roundabout route during this period.

Between Wau and Rumbek the road is difficult, though never entirely closed, from August to November. The same applies to the Wau-Deim Zubeir road.

Between Rumbek and Shambe (on the Nile) the road is impassable for animals from the end of April or May till early December. In October, 1903, nearly the whole of this route was actually under water.

On all the above-mentioned roads, however, carriers with light loads can get about, though with difficulty, all the year round.

As thick bush and forest prevail almost throughout, the routes everywhere are merely narrow tracks with tortuous windings, which can only be traversed in single file. When the grass grows long, high overhead in the autumn, the tracks are not easy to find. The main Government routes, however, have been much improved.

Carrier transport is the most suitable, but carriers in great numbers are not easily procurable and are never obtained from the Dinkas. The Golos, Bongos, Ndoggos and Nyam Nyams are willing to carry. The ordinary load for a man is 40 to 50 lbs. besides his own food.

Mules. Donkeys. Camels.Mules and donkeys can be used along most of the routes. Mules, especially the Abyssinian breed, answer best. Donkeys are useful but die in great numbers. Camels have been successfully employed from Shambe to Rumbek and from Meshra El Rek to Wau and Tonj river post during the dry season; but the rainy season does not agree with them, and nearly all have died. In the rainy season camels cannot move, and mules and donkeys only with difficulty. The chief causes of mortality amongst all transport animals are overwork, fly, bad roads and poisonous grasses. It is doubtful how far the climate shares in causing these losses. Practically all transport animals have to be brought into the country. Generally speaking, mules and donkeys thrive better than camels.

Oxen.Rough carts drawn by oxen are being tried, and have given good results so far. Each cart carries a load of 600 lbs. Pack oxen are slow, and require much time for grazing.

Fly.In the rainy season a fly, resembling the common horse-fly, attacks horses, donkeys, and mules, and cattle in certain rocky districts. At Wau this pest is particularly prevalent. The animals generally sicken and die in a fortnight. This fly is well known to the natives. As before stated a species of Tsetse fly has been identified on the Bongo River, vide [p. 157.]

River transport.Below Meshra El Rek steamers ply on the Bahr El Ghazal, but from the end of April till the end of August they are stopped at the mouth of the Jur, or even to the north of it. Light craft can generally get through to Meshra El Rek during that period, but with much difficulty.

The Jur river is now open to navigation for small steamers and light craft from August till the end of November, as far as Wau, and even to Rafili, the sudd having been cleared to a great extent from its mouth to Wau. During the rest of the year it is only navigable for about half this latter distance from the mouth. In June, in spite of rains, it is almost dry (see [p. 154]).

9. The Tribes of the Bahr El Ghazal.

General.The Dinkas occupy the lowlands in the north of the province, their southern limit being the edge of the table-land, where the good grazing and pasture land terminates.

On the lower slopes of the ironstone plateaux, between Rumbek and the Bongo river, there are many Jur settlements. Between the Tonj and Bongo rivers are a few villages of the Bongo tribe, which have survived the raids of the Nyam Nyams from the south. Golos, Ndoggos, and Kreich, who formerly held the country west of Wau to Deim Zubeir, have been driven further north by the same powerful tribe, and have taken refuge in the district between Wau and Chamamui, where they are now more or less under the protection of the Dinkas. South of these tribes, and separated from them by a broad belt of uninhabited forest about 100 miles wide, are the Nyam Nyams.

In the west the Mandalla tribe live in Telgona district, but the ruling classes in that district, including Sultan Nasser Andel, have Arab blood in them, introduced through their relations with the tribes of Darfur. The same may be said of the Faroge tribe, ruled by Sultan Musa, who reads and writes Arabic. To the east, on the lower slopes of the plateaux, are the Mittu, Wira, and Madi tribes.

Dinkas.The Dinkas.—There is no ruling chief, but every little district has its own head man or sheikh, and fighting frequently occurs between neighbouring districts. A man is powerful in proportion to the number of cattle he owns and the size of his family. Head men may own up to 30 or even 40 wives, but six is a fair average. The great object of the Dinka is to acquire cattle, to which they pay a kind of reverence. Owing to in-breeding the produce of cattle is not numerous. The yield of milk is insignificant. The price of a wife[111] varies from 25 to 40 head of cattle. A head man is generally succeeded by his eldest son; and in this respect the Dinkas are generally loyal. In character they are savage, deceitful, and treacherous, but their domestic ties are strong. Tending flocks and herds is the occupation of the Dinka. They are very lazy, and cultivate only small crops; but they levy taxes of corn and produce on the neighbouring Jurs and Golos.

The Dinkas are poor sportsmen. They do some fishing, chiefly with spears in the pools of rivers during the dry season, but are bad trackers and hunters of big game. Spears, long in shaft and blade, made by the Jurs, and wooden clubs of hard wood or ebony are their weapons. Tobacco is grown, chiefly for chewing, and occasionally for smoking. Most of the men carry a plug of tobacco behind the ear.

Dura crops ripen in September in the low-lying areas, being sown in May. Lubia (beans), pumpkins, and monkey nuts are also cultivated. Cow dung is used for fires. The ashes of charcoal and cow dung are rubbed in the hair, and all over the body by the cattle owners and young warriors.

The Dinkas are a tall, slim race of men, 5 feet 9 inches being a fair average height, and the women about 5 feet 7 inches. The men wear no clothing, but fantastic head-dresses decked with ostrich feathers; they are fond of beads as ornaments. The women wear numerous earrings of brass and a leather apron fore and aft. Brass bracelets are worn by both men and women; ivory bracelets by the men only. Compare also [pp. 126] to 130 and pp. [132] and [144.]

Jurs.The Jurs.—The Jurs are very like the Dinkas in appearance, the skin being perhaps a shade lighter, but in habits they are more civilised and peaceful. They are said to have originally been a branch of the Shilluk tribe. Their language is quite different from the Dinkas, but most of them speak and understand the language of the latter, to whom they are subservient.

Living on the northern slope of the ferruginous table-land, where ore is easily obtained from the surface, the Jurs practise iron-smelting, with small furnaces about 4 feet high from the ground. “Malots” (small hand-trowels used for turning the soil), spears, cowbells, and axes are made in this way.

Dura is cultivated extensively, but is later than the Dinka crops, ripening in November. This may be said of all the dura grown in the plateaux and higher ground away from the marshes.

The Jurs understand tracking, and are accustomed to setting rough traps for lion, leopard, and hyena.

The women, like the Dinkas, wear leather aprons, bracelets and anklets of brass or iron. A wife costs from 40 to 50 malots, or 20 or 30 sheep and goats. The men are fond of clothing.

Golos.The Golos.—The Golos are an intelligent, active race, willing to learn and to work.

The cultivation of crops is their chief occupation. Besides dura and Indian corn they grow telabun, dukhn, lubia, simsim, onions, sweet potatoes, water melons, pumpkins and “bedingan.” They keep a few sheep and many fowls, but no cattle.

The huts are well built, with ventilation between the wall and roof, and are clean both inside and outside.

“Malots” (iron hoes) are bought from the Jurs for honey, skins, labour, etc. A wife costs 40 malots.

The men are fond of clothes, and are generally clad like the Sudanese over the rest of the Sudan. They are fairly skilful weavers, using the cotton of the country, which, however, is not extensively cultivated. The women, on the contrary, are content with a bunch of leaves fore and aft, but are fond of beads.

The Golos are good sportsmen and trackers. They possess a fair number of guns, chiefly old traders and Remington rifles, but have very little ammunition. Bows and arrows and elbow knives are other weapons used.

Bongos.The Bongos.—The Bongos have the same occupations and appearance as the Golos, but are rather shorter and more thick-set.

The women wear a large circular stone on the upper lip or a wooden plug pierced through the lower.

Decimated by the Nyam Nyams and slave-traders, very few of them practise the crafts that they were formerly skilled in. Like the Jurs, they are accustomed to smelting ore and working in iron. Their dexterity in wood carving is shown in the various utensils, stools, spoons, etc., which they still make. Great attention and trouble is devoted to basket work and weaving grass mats.

The Bongos are fond of music, and play with string and wind instruments.

Ndoggos and Kreich.The Ndoggos and Kreich.—The Ndoggos and Kreich are similar to the Golos and Bongos in appearance, but not so comely as the former and not so short as the Bongos. They are slightly fairer in skin. Having formerly lived prosperously in the districts where the old Government posts were established (Deim Zubeir, Deim Bekir, Deim Idris, Wau, and Jur Ghattas), these tribes, Dinkas excepted, clearly realise the protection and other benefits accorded by a civilised Government.

Nyam Nyams.The Nyam Nyams.—The Nyam Nyams or Azande are the most intelligent, keen and well-ordered tribe in the Bahr El Ghazal province.

The tribe—covering, roughly, the south-west third of the province and a portion of the Congo Free State and Haut Ubangi to the south and west of the Nile-Congo watershed—is split up into five districts, each governed by a chief, holding absolute power, and these chiefs form two factions, which constantly quarrel.

Tembura, Zemio and Sasa make the western faction; Ndoruma and Yambio the eastern.

Colonel Sparkes, says in the account of his patrol to Tembura’s country:—

“Tembura is a shrewd, intelligent man, anxious for progress and development, and the Nyam Nyams generally are far superior to any other people I have met up here.

“Tembura’s standing army, which is quartered round him, consists of about 4,000 men, of whom 1,000 have rifles or guns of sorts, and the rest spears, bows and arrows. They look after and handle their guns exceedingly well, and have been taught a certain amount of drill by the French.

“Besides quantities of dura, the Nyam Nyams grow bananas, limes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, sugar cane, manioc, onions, and many other sorts of vegetables. Excepting a few of the head men, they have no cattle, sheep or goats, though quantities of fowls are kept everywhere.

“Yambio has the largest number of people under him, but is the least civilised, never having been brought into direct contact with Europeans, as have the others.”

The Nyam Nyams are great hunters, and all the chiefs possess a considerable quantity of ivory. The men wear well-woven straw hats, with cock’s feathers, and loose breeches made of “Roko” bark.

The women are clad like the Golos and Bongos, but are more reserved and retiring than the latter. Both men and women dress their hair, grown long, in various styles. Beards are cultivated and are greatly admired if long.

Of cannibalism amongst the Nyam Nyams there is not much heard, but it is a fact that they eat their enemies who have fallen in battle and those who die. They eat dogs when they can get them. Schweinfurth considers this custom as allied to cannibalism.

Lighter coloured than the other tribes, they consider themselves “white men.”

Country, etc.Both Tembura and Yambio have a fine country, perhaps the cream of the Bahr El Ghazal, well watered by flowing streams, undulating, and growing many lulu, banana, and other fine trees. The country teems with many kinds of game: elephant, eland, rhinoceros, and buffalo all being numerous, the former especially so. The Nyam Nyams manufacture a white cotton cloth, similar to fine sacking. They are practically all clothed, and would probably readily purchase cloth.

Their arms are bows, arrows and spears, but both these sultans now possess a considerable number of rifles.

They were formerly, in the old Government days, converts to Islam, but they (Tembura at any rate) both now merely believe in the existence of a God, without participating in any form of religion.

Mittu, Madi and Wira.The Mittu, Madi, and Wira Tribes.—These tribes, living on the eastern border of the Nyam Nyams, resemble the Bongos, but are physically inferior to the latter. They have suffered too, in the same way as the Bongos, from the raids of the Nyam Nyams.

The Madi and Wira tribes are really sub-tribes of the Mittu, and they all speak the same Mittu dialect.

Teeth.Regarding the teeth of the different tribes:—

Jurs and Dinkas extract the lower incisors; the Nyam Nyams file the upper incisors to a point; Golos, Ndoggos, Bongos, and Belandas file the upper incisor only on the inner aspect. But many of the latter, who have been brought up in the Nyam Nyam country, have the tooth-marks of that tribe. In fact, the tooth distinction is becoming less characteristic, owing to interchanging of tribes.

10. Game.

The following is a list of the game which is to be found in the Bahr El Ghazal province:—

11. Religious Beliefs among the Natives of the Bahr El Ghazal.[113]

In making enquiries as to religious beliefs among the people here, one is met at the outset by two difficulties. The first and greater is the reticence displayed on such subjects by the natives, and the second is that the interpreter, being invariably an Arabic-speaking native who has with his Arabic acquired the Moslem faith, is liable to colour his translations with ideas of his own; partly out of shame for the beliefs he has discarded, and partly from his anxiety to tell you what he thinks you expect. Perseverance in this line of enquiry is, however, well repaid, as the primitive religions of the tribes in the Bahr El Ghazal are most interesting and suggestive.

The Dinkas, though the most difficult of all to approach on such subjects, appear to have a most elaborate list of gods and demi-gods. At the head of the Divine community are Deng-dit (Rain Giver) and Abok, his wife. They have two sons, Kûr Konga, the elder, and Gurung-dit, the younger, and a daughter called Ai-Yak.

Their devil is called L’wâl Burrajôk, and is the father of Abôk, the wife of Deng-dit. There are also other relatives.

Their story of the origin of mankind (or it may be of the Dinka tribe) is curious and poetical. Deng-dit gave to his wife, Abôk, a bowl of fat, and she and her children, softening the fat over the fire, proceeded to mould from it men and women, in the image of gods. Deng-dit warned her against L’wâl (the Shaitan), who was suspected to have ill-intentions towards Deng-dit. But Abôk forgot, and with her children went to gather wood in the forest. There L’wâl found the bowl, drank the greater part of the fat, and from the remainder proceeded to mould caricatures of men and women, with distorted limbs, mouths, and eyes. Then, fearing the vengeance of Deng-dit, he descended to earth by the path that then connected it with heaven. On discovering the result of her neglect, Abôk hastened to her husband, who, greatly incensed, started in pursuit of L’wâl. The latter, however, had persuaded the bird Atoitoish to bite asunder with its bill the path from heaven to earth, and thus escaped from the Divine wrath.

In spite of this complicated mythology, the Dinkas appear to be very indifferent to religion as an active principle in life. They are without any plan of prayer, and though they assert that their forefathers made great sacrifices to God, the present generation thinks twice about parting with a goat—to say nothing of a cow—for sacrificial purposes. Sacrifices constitute, however, their only attempts at intercourse with God. In fact, they seem to regard him not as a being likely to confer benefits, but as a destructive power to be propitiated, if possible.

The Golos also believe in male and female deities, called Umvili and Barachi, respectively. This couple is said to have originated the human race, and to be the parents of mankind. This belief is, I think, common to the Golo, N’Doggo, Shere, and Belanda tribes, and possibly also to the A-Zande or Nyam Nyams.

They have vague ideas as to future bliss for worthy, and punishment for evil, doers; the execution of the latter is entrusted to a spirit called Ma-ah, who corresponds to Shaitan, but is the servant rather than the enemy of God; some of the Golo songs in common use are of the nature of moral exhortations, directing the people to hear the voice of God.

Like the Dinkas, they do not pray to God, but attempt to appease him with sacrifices of chickens. These sacrifices are rather one-sided, as the procedure is to kill 20 chickens, cook and eat 19, and throw out the twentieth for Umvili.

Golos and Dinkas both associate the ideas of reverence and divinity with the sky, and of malignity and punishment with the bowels of the earth; pointing upwards to their gods and downwards to their devils. This association is, I believe, universal, and has probably its origin in Sun worship. The natural human instinct for religion is probably as deeply rooted in the Bahr El Ghazal as elsewhere, and manifests itself perhaps in the readiness with which these tribes embrace Islam, when they learn about it in Sudanese regiments or as servants to Moslem masters.

They would seem to offer a hopeful and legitimate field for judicious missionary work,[114] as they are far from being the savages, destitute of ideas and beliefs, that they appear on a superficial view.

12. A Short Dinka and Bongo Vocabulary.[115]

English.Dinka.Bongo.
BadAragj.
BeadsGwetKira.
BoatAryanKobbu.
BraceletsMelangTilu.
BreadRâbMun.
BringBeiGimma.
BrotherWakmatGuma.
BuffaloAnyarKobi.
BullTono Wong.
ButterMiuk-chakDibusha.
ClothAladMabiu.
Clothes⎧
⎨
⎩		Bwam.
Bium.
Bum.
ComeBaaAiba.
CowWong.
CrocodileAnyangHyango.
DayAkol.
DonkeyAkajaa.
Dura (bread)RâbMun.
ElephantAkônKiddi.
EveningAten.
EggTong.
FarAmet.
FatherWadetBukàbbada.
FireMachFudda.
GiraffeMir.
GirlNia.
Give meBidèginWadi gimma.
GoatKaiou.
Go, go onLokIndeba.
GrassUal Totj.
GunAkolKuddah.
HippoRau.
HorseDunkur.
IronLung.
Is there?Ata-ta.
LittleAkur.
ManMutj.
ManyAdjokje.
Meat (flesh)RînkMihi.
MilkKyap or Tia.
MorningMiak.
MoonPaï.
MuchAjwid.
NearAtiok.
NightAkān.
NileWarr.
OilMiuk yum.Yabumulla.
PathKwĕrr.
PoolAuŏl.
PorterMunkinashiel (a).Budu tukba.
RaidKito tora.
RiverKjir.
SaltAwai.Taddu.
SheepTup or Amāl.Minya.
Sheikh (headman)Baindit.
StarKwel.
SpearTong.
StartGerùd.Tubba terch.
StoneKur.Landa.
StopKâja.
Station (post)Lobai.Indebba kor.
TakeMuk.Tobba.
TobaccoTâb.Tâb.
To-dayAkoli.
To-morrowMiăk.
TrackDulik.Kunga.
TreeAmat.
VillagePâuda.
I wantBei.Gimma.
WaterPiu.Muni.
WindJur.
WildernessRor.
WellJīt.
WomanTīk.
WoodTim.Kagga.
Where?Aiyu.Nabba.
YesterdayKoluai.

Dar Fertit.

For brief description of Dar Fertit, now partly in the Bahr El Ghazal and partly in French territory, vide [p. 256.] Very little is known about it definitely.

WOMAN OF DAR FERTIT.

13. Itinerary of the Bahr El Ghazal River.

Lake No—Meshra El Rek.

Place.Miles.Description.
Inter-mediate.From W. end Lake No.
Lake No——Proceeding up-stream westwards from thejunction of the Bahr El Jebel and the White Nile, Lake No isimmediately entered. Lake No is known to the Arabs as the“Moghren-el-Buhur,” or the “Meeting of the Rivers.” It is situatedin north latitude 9° 29′. It is a shallow expanse of water coveringa good many square miles of area, and surrounded on all sides byreedy marsh. It is probably a portion of the great lake which oncecovered this country. Through its eastern end the Bahr El Jebelpasses, and the Bahr El Ghazal enters it at its western extremity.Lake No acts as a reservoir for the waters of the sluggish streamswhich drain the extensive plateaux forming the watershed betweenthe Congo and the Nile. These streams find their rise in an arealying between latitude 5° and 8° north, and longitude 24° and 30°east. The channel by which their united waters are delivered to theNile is the Bahr El Ghazal, and from it the province through whichit passes receives its name. Its chief affluents are the Rohl, theJau, and the Tonj on the right, and the Bahr El Arab, the Bahr ElHomr, and the Jur on the left. The water thus brought down fills upthe depression known as Lake No, over which area the water of theBahr El Jebel spreads. The consequence is that this lake is anexpanse of water through which little or no current passes, butwhose levels rise and fall with that of the Nile. The flooded areachanges according to the season of the year. It forms an importantreservoir for the White Nile. The actual extent of Lake No isdifficult to ascertain. It has been variously estimated at from 20to 40 square miles. These differences are probably due to the factthat the area was estimated at different periods of the year.During maximum flood the extent cannot be much less than the largerestimate, but at the period of low supply the area is much reduced,and in 1900 and 1901 could hardly have exceeded 8 square miles. Inthe early months of these years the surface had shrunk to verysmall dimensions, and more resembled a large river than a lake. Thewidth, during the period of low Nile, is extremely variable. Thusin April, 1901, in the first mile from the White Nile, the openwater surface was at times under 200 yards, and then suddenlywidened out to, perhaps, 2 miles; a little further on it againcontracted, and for 4 or 5 miles more varied from 300 to 600 yards.The depth, at that time, was nowhere more than 7 feet, and, inplaces, only 4 feet. No current at all was visible through anyportion of the lake. Beyond the open water stretched a broad beltof flooded reeds. This belt was chiefly composed of “Um Suf,” withclumps of ambach. The open water itself was full of reedy islands.Lake No abounds with hippopotami and waterfowl. The former cause agood deal of trouble to the Nuer population, as they are unusuallysavage in this locality, and are said to make a practice ofattacking any canoe or raft crossing the lake. The bank to thenorth of the eastern end swarms with lion and antelope of everydescription (January, 1903).
After passing the entrance to the Bahr ElJebel, keep to the northern channel. Open water right and a few lowbushes; ant-heaps (termites), and dry ground left. Some wood.Landing possible. At 6 miles from the White Nile a continuous lineof Nuer villages runs parallel to the left bank of the channel forseveral miles, and marks the ridge beyond which the swamping doesnot extend. Their average distance is some 2 miles from the river.The villages appear to be thickly populated, and the inhabitantspossess large herds of cattle, sheep, and goats; they now bartertheir fowls, &c., with readiness.
From 7 miles above the White Nile—Bahr ElJebel junction (whilst still within Lake No) and westwards thechannel is, in dry weather, reduced to 80 or 90 yards wide. Inflood-time the line of the channel is not visible. This channel isby some termed the Khor El Deleb, in continuation of a khor of thatname which flows into it at the western end of Lake No; but as theBahr El Ghazal is obviously the main stream, the latter name hasbeen applied to it here from the Bahr El Jebel junction westwards.About 10 miles west of the Bahr El Jebel mouth take southernchannel, which comes in west-south-west, leave northern channel, asit closes up and comes to a dead end 5 miles on. Large village,Nuer tribe, 2 miles away left. Scrub on horizon left. Reeds, sudd,&c., both sides, and all part of Lake No.
Bahr El Ghazal00The true Bahr ElGhazal comes in close here left. Narrow mouth, 40 yards; 8 feetdeep in March. Sudd seen floating down stream, 1½ miles an hour.Leave broad open channel, which bifurcates 2 miles farther on, andbecomes the Deleb and Signorina backwaters, ending 18 miles up.Take northern channel, which is now the Bahr El Ghazal. The KhorDeleb, which enters the river from the south at the western pointof the lake, is a wide expanse of channel 150 to 200 yards in breadth. Itforms the outlet for the waters of the River Rohl, coming from thesouth. In summer no current at all is apparent. The Ghazal River atthis point, with a width of some 40 yards, is in appearance a moreinsignificant stream than the other. Its depth, however, isgreater, averaging 13 feet, as against 6 or 7 feet in the Deleb.The Khor Deleb was explored by Major Peake for some 18 miles abovethis junction. At this point it was blocked by sudd and reeds, withtrees on both banks, so that further progress was impossible. Ithad, however, a decided stream coming through the reeds, which leftthe Ghazal 33 miles higher up. The transparency of the watersdiffers in the two channels; that of the Khor Deleb being opaqueand of a whitey-grey colour, while that of the Bahr El Ghazal isclear and limpid, like that of the White Nile itself. Between thetwo rivers, which run parallel for some distance, is an expanse oflow marsh, a foot above low- water level. This whole area mustresemble a large lake when the rivers are in flood, and the aspectof the country is desolate and monotonous to an extreme degree. Itis absolutely treeless; the atmosphere is damp and warm even in thewinter months, and the mosquitoes are of a peculiarly venomousvariety.
River Rohl or Khor Deleb22
Mayyet Eléri1618Proceeding up theBahr El Ghazal, for a long way there is little change in thelandscape. The low banks continue, and the stream winds aboutthrough the marshes with a very feeble velocity. At 18 miles alarge khor joins the Bahr El Ghazal on the left bank. This is knownas the Mayyet Eléri, and appears to come from a north-westerlydirection. It is this khor which has been supposed to be thejunction between the Bahr El Ghazal and the Lollé. From the slopeof the country, however, it would seem that water flows from thehigher land into the Bahr El Ghazal. It is possible that in floodthere may be a spill in the opposite direction. This khor, although200 yards in width, is very shallow. At 21 miles the Khor Delebapproaches to within 1,200 yards of the Bahr El Ghazal. A solitarydeleb palm (mentioned by Junker) forms a fine landmark on the rightbank. The Khor Deleb derives its name from this palm. The left bankof the river beyond the fringe of swamp is an extensive grass plaincovered with ant-hills. These are so close together that theysomewhat resemble a gigantic grave-yard. The Nuer villages are nowa long way from the bank. As the river is ascended the countrybecomes more and more hopeless-looking. Flat grass plains extend tothe horizon, and a wide band of swamp borders either side of thewaterway. The channel narrows, and in places is not more than 25yards. The depth is from 12 to 16 feet, and the turns and bends,though not as sharp as on the Bahr El Zeraf, are endless. Thedifference between the Bahr El Zeraf and the Bahr El Ghazal is verystriking. The water of the former during the period of low supplyis considerably below its banks; in the latter it is almost levelwith them. The rise of the former, even in ordinary flood, is notless than 6 to 6½ feet. That of the Bahr El Ghazal, on thecontrary, must be very small. It is difficult to imagine that evenin flood the water can rise more than 3, or at most, 4 feet overits lowest level. Even with such a rise, the area of the countryunder water would be enormous, and the flooding would extend for avery long distance. A few miles further up the depth of waterincreases to 19 feet, and in places to 25 feet. For the first timeforest appears in the distance on the left, but several thousandyards away from the river. The right bank is now covered with lowbush and scrub beyond the flooded line. The country bordering theBahr El Ghazal does not have the appearance of being under waterfor any length of time, even in flood. In this respect, again, itdiffers from that traversed by the Bahr El Zeraf. It must, however,be saturated and resemble a sponge in the rainy season. Therecannot be more than a very shallow film of water over these plains,or the bush and scrub would not flourish as it does; neither wouldant-hills be found in such quantities. The general slope of thecountry is so low that the water must drain off extremelyslowly.
Deleb palm321
Mayyeh Nur1031At mile 31 the widthis 60 yards, and the reed-belt gets narrower; a very large“mayyeh,” or khor, comes in on the left bank here. This is known asthe Mayyeh Nur, or the Mayyeh Mahmud Effendi. Its width near thejunction is from 150 to 200 yards, and its general directionappears to be west. It is very shallow. This mayyeh is said toreceive the waters of the Keilak River (Mayyeh b’ta Komandari (?)),a stream about which little is known, but which is supposed to risein the hills of Dar Nuba. There is a wooding-station on right bankopposite the Nur. Up-stream of this junction the Bahr El Ghazaltakes a more southerly direction. The two streams run for somemiles parallel to one another, from 600 to 700 yards apart. Thecountry between the two is, perhaps, 2 feet over the water. At mile35, the first papyrus seen since leaving the White Nile is metwith. From this point on, for many miles, a band of this reedfringes both edges of the water. It is never so high as on the BahrEl Jebel, nor does it grow here in such dense luxuriance as on thatstream. The water surface is very narrow, often not more than 20yards, but the depth is considerable, averaging from 15 to 19 feet.The reed-birds here are an extraordinary sight. They areto be seen inmyriads and resemble a flight of locusts. The Serût fly is very badon the Bahr El Ghazal. The ant-hills certainly form a distinctivefeature of the Ghazal scenery. Nowhere else are they so large or sonumerous. They are generally from 20 to 50 yards apart. At mile 49good halting or camping ground, fairly dry; bushes and trees right.Large clump of big trees ½ mile away south. This clump is close tothe stream running into Mayyeh Deleb. From here on, channel verynarrow; papyrus both sides; liable to be blocked with sudd at anytime; large islands of sudd are met, often taking up whole width ofstream up to the junction with the Bahr El Arab, where river ismuch wider again. Mayyeh right: river bends sharply, channel onlywidth of steamer, 17 feet; current very fast; numbers of owls andBalæniceps Rex seen about, also hippopotami; some wood left, 500yards away. Large trees left, close to water, good for fuel;village on horizon right, and two Dom palms; channel opens up. Atmile 53 wooding-station left. The papyrus belt gets wider as theriver is ascended, and at 57 miles the forest on the left bankcomes down close to the water’s edge and the river skirts it forsome 2 miles. The trees are large, but the belt is only a fewhundred yards wide.
Papyrus435
Camping ground1449
Wood-station453
Large tree861The scenery here isbeautiful, as the ground is high and glades of fine trees arescattered about the grassy plain. Many elephants are to be seen. Onthe right bank is a wide marsh through which the river channel hasevidently wandered at times. This is the beginning of the reach inwhich the Bahr El Ghazal is occasionally closed by sudd. At 61miles, in 1880, Marno found his first block here, and in November,1898, and April, 1899, it was blocked. Large solitary tree rightbank. The channel is very narrow, deep, and winding. At present itruns under the high bank, but it is clear that it could easily beblocked at one of the many bends, and in such a case it woulddoubtless form a series of lagoons and mayyehs in the adjacentpapyrus marsh. After leaving the left bank forest for a time theriver at mile 62 again returns to it. The depth of the channelsuddenly decreases to 5 feet, but soon deepens again to 10 and 13feet. This shoal is doubtless caused by decomposed sudd which hassunk to the bottom. Such a bar is one of the frequent causes of ablock. The sudd raises the bed level, and other masses floatingdown ground upon the obstruction and the channel is speedilyclosed. The Bahr El Ghazal has evidently changed its course herevery recently. It is now much closer to the left bank than it wasin 1899. The change has probably been caused by a block of sudd. Itwas near here, i.e., at mile 63, that Gessi Pasha had sucha disastrous experience in January, 1880. His steamers, ondescending this river, were imprisoned in the sudd for some 6weeks, and he lost over 100 men. Had it not been for the opportunearrival of Marno in the “Bordein” none of the party could haveescaped. They were on the verge of starvation and it was impossibleto obtain fuel for the steamers, being cut off from the shore by animpassable swamp. These 6 or 7 miles of the Bahr El Ghazal mustalways be more or less dangerous, as regards possible closure bysudd, at certain seasons of the year. In 1900 and 1901 the channelwas open, but in the spring of 1899 it was closed not far up-streamof this point. The channel is extremely contracted, having a widthof only 12 yards and a depth of 13 feet. The course is so tortuousthat it is difficult to follow all the turns. The whole of thisarea must, in the rainy seasons, be a reedy lake. At mile 64 theriver emerges from this dreadful marsh and the width increases to30 yards. The banks average 2½ feet above water level. The countryon either side is generally higher. On the right, bush is dottedabout, and the ant-hills reappear to the left in a large grassyplain. At mile 65 the river widens into a lagoon, some 400 yardsbroad, and a mile in length. At the up-stream end of this lagoon alarge mayyeh is said by the Arabs to form the outlet of the JauRiver, which is another of the tributary streams that feed the BahrEl Ghazal from the south. This channel, which is known as theMayyeh Ahmed Arabi, runs more or less parallel to the Bahr ElGhazal for some 40 miles, taking off it at Lake Ambadi, or 88 milesfrom the point where the Ghazal and the Deleb join. It is often ata considerable distance from the main stream, but glimpses are tobe seen of it at times. A fine tamarind-tree close to the edge ofthe mayyeh assists recognition of this spot. In 1899 the Bahr ElGhazal was blocked by sudd near this junction. The right bankcontinues to be fairly high, but the left is low and must beflooded for a long distance. The stream is now more rapid. The airin the mornings here is cool and damp, but a strong marshy smellprevails. At mile 74 wood-station left bank. Elephants, and theEuphorbia first, appear. This shrub is fairly plentiful from thispoint up-stream. For several miles there is little change in theconditions, but at mile 79 trees are visible on the right bank,about 1,500 yards from the river. The intermediate country isflooded. A few Dinka are occasionally met with, but no villages.The absence of human habitations on this river is very striking.Since the Nuer villages were left behind at mile 43, not a sign oflife has been visible. A small but deep khor joins the river on theleft bank here.
Gessi’s place263
Jau River or Mayyeh Ahmed Arabi366
Wood-station874
882
False Bahr El Arab890From here for the next 20 miles good woodleft. At mile 90 a large and important khor comes in, also on theleft bank. This channel, which was asserted by the boatmen to bethe Bahr El Arab, and which was ascended under this supposition,flows from a north-westerly direction and evidently brings waterfrom a long distance. Later experience has proved that the Bahr ElArab is several miles further up-stream, but this khor must,nevertheless, bring down a large volume of water during the flood.It is quite possible that it forms a second mouth of the Bahr ElArab. It joins the Bahr El Ghazal through two small lakes orlagoons, the largest being about 1,000 yards long by 800 yardswide, with an island in the centre. These lakes are swarming withhippopotami. The width of this khor is much greater that than thatof the Ghazal, being from 100 to 120 yards. It has a perceptiblethough feeble current even in April, but its depth is shallow,averaging from 4 to 5 feet. It was ascended for some 8 miles abovethe junction, when shoal-water prevented further progress. Itsgeneral direction is north-west, but at the furthest point reachedit turns sharply to the north, and its course can be traced for along distance, winding through the country. Even here its width is100 yards, with wide-stretching mud-flats on either side. It runsbetween flat plains covered with low grass and averaging 2½ feetover the water at the river’s edge. It differs remarkably from theGhazal in its characteristics, particularly in the absence of thereed fringe which distinguishes the main river. Its rise must besmall, as the banks show no trace of flooding.
Lau696From 5 miles above the junction asuccession of Dinka villages line both banks. Some of these arelarge and appear to be thickly peopled. The principal village iscalled Lau. This consists of a large collection of scattered huts,grouped together, and covering a large area. It would beinteresting to explore this khor during high water and ascertainwhether it really is one of the outlets of the Arab River.
To return to the Bahr El Ghazal. From thepoint where this khor joins it, the general course is due west andfairly straight with occasional long curves. It is bordered by anarrow strip of papyrus on either bank, and traverses a country offlat grassy plains. This river is placid and sluggish throughoutits entire length, and can never approach anything like a torrent,even when in flood. It meanders along, slowly and gradually suckingaway the moisture of the vast, water-logged flats through which itpasses. Its width averages from 60 to 70 yards, and its mean depthis 10 feet.
Forest4100At mile 100 trees andbush are found on both sides and the banks are clear of reeds andcontinue until mile 103, where the Bahr El Arab joins the Ghazal.This forest is known as the “Ghaba b’ta el Arab,” and is one of thefew wooding-stations to be found on the river. The trees upon bothbanks are different from those found elsewhere. There are a fewmimosas, but the bulk are very thorny trees with bright greenleaves. The belt of wood is about half a mile in width, back fromthe river. Behind it are open spaces of grass, through which broadand shallow lagoons wind. In this plain are many large clumps oftrees. Except in the depressions, the country here is certainly notflooded, even in the rainy season. The marks on the banks show thatthe maximum rise of the river is not more than 3 feet. The Bahr ElArab is a broad well-defined channel, from 40 to 100 yards inwidth, and confined between well-marked, but swampy, banks. Itsdirection, at the junction, is due north, but about 3 miles furtherup it turns more to the west and runs apparently through forest.Next to nothing is known of this river. Felkin crossed it inDecember, 1879, and found it, 300 miles from its mouth, 120 yardswide, with banks 15 feet above low water. He noted that in therainy season it flooded the surrounding country. It is impossibleto investigate this river, as, at some 1,300 yards above thejunction, it is closed by sudd and reeds. It has no current at themouth, and its depth is from 10 to 11 feet at low water. The waterof the Bahr El Arab is singularly clear and free from sediment.Reports received in the spring of 1901 show that this river isstill blocked by sudd. Immediately up-stream of the Bahr El Arabjunction the Lake Kit, or Ambadi, begins. The Bahr El Ghazaltraverses this lake, but from this point its nomenclature changes,and the river is known as the “Kit,” or “Keit,” by the natives, andas such is entered on many maps. At mile 105, Lake Ambadi isdivided into two parts by a large grassy island, about a mile inlength, the right channel being 400 yards, and the left 150 yardswide. Half-way up the right channel, the large Mayyeh Ahmed Arabi,previously alluded to, rejoins the Bahr El Ghazal. It has a widthof 500 to 600 yards here. The swamps surrounding this lake are ofconsiderable breadth, especially on the left side. They are verylow and reedy, and a very small rise in the water levels mustincrease the flooded area enormously. It is impossible to calculatethe width of the swamps on the left bank. They appear to extend formany miles from the water’s edge. Lake Ambadi has an average depthof 10 feet, in the deepest parts of the channel, but shoals rapidlyon either side. It is evidently the great reservoir of theBahr El Ghazal,receiving the waters of the swamps and the southern rivers, andslowly discharging them by means of the narrow but deep channel ofthe Ghazal itself. At low water it has a length of about 10 milesby an average breadth of 1 mile; in flood-time the area must bevery much greater. It is a great nursery for certain of the suddgrasses, but chiefly those of the “swimming” variety. TheAzolla, Utricularia, Aldrovandia,Otellia, and many other kinds are found upon its waters. ThePistia is conspicuous by its absence. Among the reeds in theswamps a certain amount of Vossia procera and Saccharumspontaneum is met with, but not in such proportion as on theBahr El Jebel. The papyrus does not exist on this lake, nor doesthe ambach. Except between miles 35 and 82, the former is not foundat all on the Bahr El Ghazal, and it only grows in real luxuriancebetween miles 65 and 77. After Lake No is passed, ambach is notfound in the Bahr El Ghazal. The absence of papyrus and “um sûf” isprobably the reason why the sudd in this river is so much lesstenacious and is so much lighter in consistency than than that ofthe Bahr El Jebel. [Col. Peake, however, speaks of the sudd here asbeing of a “very tough and felt-like consistency.”] Lake Ambadi isthe home of large numbers of the rare Balæniceps Rex. Theevaporation upon the lake must be very great during the hottestmonths. With two large and shallow sheets of water like LakesAmbadi and No, the amount of water discharged by the Bahr El Ghazalmust be largely reduced before it reaches the White Nile.
Bahr El Arab3103
Lake Ambadi1104
Kit River10114At mile 114 the lakestops and the river recommences. This is the Kit, properly socalled. Its width here is from 100 to 120 yards and its depth 10 to11 feet. The current is so feeble as to be almost imperceptible.The Bahr El Homr comes in near this point. On the 1st October,1900, Captain Sanders found the Bahr El Homr navigable for 5 miles;after which it was blocked by sudd. Its width is 80 yards anddepth, 9 feet; direction N.N.W. Col. Peake places its junction 9miles further down-stream. It appears to have no discharge in Marchand April, and the water shoals so that it is impossible to exploreit. For the next 3 miles the Kit has a mean width of 180 yards. Thewater surface suddenly narrows to a width of 20 yards, theremainder of the channel being filled by sudd. In this block areseveral reedy islands. The country is now a dead flat in everydirection. Even on these African rivers it is rare to see anexpanse giving a greater impression of flatness than does this. Onall sides marshes extend, apparently to the horizon. It is quiteimpossible to arrive at an idea of their area. In these marshes aremany large lagoons. A little further up-stream, the channel widensagain from 35 to 40 yards, with a depth varying from 12 to 15 feet.Occasionally it shoals to 6 feet, or less, probably owing to sunkensudd upon the bed. Navigation at all seasons must be verydifficult, as the river winds and twists through the marshes. Thereare no tall reeds here; nothing but floating plants, and the wateris choked with masses of decayed weed. It is a hopeless morass.During stormy weather, this place is one of those where blocks areoften formed. There are no signs of life anywhere, with theexception of the Balæniceps Rex, which are numerous. These horriblemarshes continue for another 6 or 8 miles. Sudd islands separatethe channel, in places, and the width varies greatly. At one pointof this reach, viz., at mile 120, the main channel of the Kit wasquite closed in March, 1900. The entire river was forced through asmall opening, 10 or 12 yards wide, through which a strong streamwas rushing, and in one place it was actually barred for 50 yards.The total length of the block was about 500 yards. A moreloathsome-looking swamp it is difficult to imagine. The sudd inthis river is very different from that of the Bahr El Jebel. It isimpossible to walk on its surface, which resembles slime ratherthan sudd, but which is bound into a mass by vegetable matter. Thechief ingredients appear to be the long trailing, swimming plants,described as found on Lake Ambadi. It is not difficult to force away through it, but the stuff, when removed, does not float as doesthat on the Jebel, but sinks and decays. Three miles on, the twogroups of trees called Matruk-el-Wabur (“the landing-place ofsteamers,” vide Junker) are passed on the left, about 2miles from the main stream. A channel, at present blocked by sudd,leads to the landing-place. Matruk-el-Wabur is an island of dryland in a sea of swamp. When Col. Peake visited it in 1898 theremains of the former French occupation were visible. The Egyptianflag was hoisted here on the 28th September, 1898. Up-stream ofthis point, for another 5 miles, the Kit winds about; the width ofthe channel increases, averaging from 180 to 200 yards; its surfaceis covered by myriads of water fowl, the whistling duck beingespecially numerous; a few Dinka are to be seen, who have come downto the river for the purpose of fishing and hunting thehippopotamus. At mile 128 the channel bifurcates. The Kit itselfruns due south, in the direction of Meshra-el-Rek. The other branchhas a westerly direction, and receives the water of the Jur River,which, again, forms the outlet for the Sueh and Wau Rivers. Thelatitude of this junction, as observed in April, 1900,was 8° 44′ 50″north. The water at the time was so shallow that it was impossiblefor the steamer to ascend the channel, the width of which was from600 to 700 yards, with a depth of 3 feet. The water coming downthis stream was of a dark amber colour, and was evidently thedrainage of the marshes. A slight current was visible. The generaldirection of the Kit is south or south-west. Captain Sanders, whovisited this place in September, 1900, found the Kit completelyblocked by sudd: but Lieutenant Fell, R.N., ascended it in Novemberof the same year, and reports that the water near the Meshra was“foul, stagnant, and very shallow.” In March, 1900, the sudd wasvery light, mostly floating, and easily removed. Above thisjunction, the expanse of water into which the Jur discharges itselfhas a width of 400 yards, a depth of 10 feet, and a fair velocity,even in the month of March. The marshes here are bewildering intheir extent.
Matruk-el-Wabur9123
Mouth of Jur River5128
Navigability——After 3 years’ experience, it is found tobe impossible for a steamer to reach the mouth of the Jur River,and, therefore, of course, Meshra-el-Rek, from the middle of Apriltill the middle of July. In May a steamer cannot get within 15, andin June within 35, miles of the Jur mouth. Even when free of sudd,the Jur is unnavigable, owing to its shallowness, from the firstweek of December to the end of July. After strenuous exertionsduring 2 years on the part of Lieutenant Fell and others, the Jurhas has now been cleared of sudd and a channel made for steamers upto Wau, a distance of 160 miles. This enables stores, &c., toreach headquarters by water during 4 months of the year (August toNovember, inclusive). The sudd is, however, quick-growing and growsfrom the bottom. Sudd-cutting parties have, therefore, to beannually employed during the low river time to clear a channel forthe flood-time. The average difference between high and low Jur isas much as 15 feet; in flood-time the current is swift and theriver deep, whilst the reed beds on either side make towingimpossible. Luckily a north wind helps boats along up-stream.
Meshra El Rek25153(Junker made the total distance by riverfrom Lake No to here, after 1,781 angular measurements, to be about135 miles; but it is difficult to make out his exact point ofstarting.)
Meshra-el-Rek lies on a small island in abackwater—the river itself apparently starting in marsh land, andnot yet having been defined. Island about a mile long and variesfrom 200 to 400 yards in breadth. On either side of the rivermarshes extend for 2 or 3 miles. Mosquitoes swarm, and, owing tothe stagnant condition of the river, the water supply is veryindifferent during the dry season. No natives live within about 7or 8 miles. The station consists of straw tukls—the hospitalstanding on the one bit of high ground. Great difficulty inbuilding huts, as there is no wood suitable within several miles;on the whole a most unhealthy place. High ground lies quite 5 milesbeyond the marsh. The French had a fort near our present post in aneven worse position.

THE BAHR EL GHAZAL.

THE BAHR EL GHAZAL—MOUTH OF RIVER ROHL.

[107]Natives of the district deny that it was ever visited by Belgians from the Congo Free State between these years, or in 1894, as has been stated.

[108]Rainfall at Wau (1904) 25 to 30 inches.

[109]Taken from a report by Mr. A. F. Broun, Director of Forests to the Sudan Government.

[110]Analysis of ore—47 per cent. of pure iron.

[111]Compare pp. [128] and [145,] price of wives amongst Dinkas at Bor, and amongst the Shilluks, [p. 193.]

[112]Very plentiful in east, and along banks of Jur and Bahr El Ghazal Rivers.

[113]Vide also [pp. 197,] &c.

[114]The Roman Catholic Missionaries who visited the Golos and Bongos in the spring of 1904, and who now have stations in their country, west of Wau, express themselves as well satisfied with the outlook from their point of view.

[115]Compiled from information furnished by Captain S. L. Cummins (R.A.M.C.) and Mr. R. Türstig.

CHAPTER VIII.

WESTERN SUDAN.

KORDOFAN AND DARFUR.