Early Quaker education in Pennsylvania

by Thomas Woody

SUMMARY

Slavery in Pennsylvania

Though slavery had fixed itself, very early, as an institution in Pennsylvania, it was not destined to continue its growth unmolested. Some of the chief factors working against it were: (1) The scruples of Friends, and other sects, (2) the Germans and (3) the opposition of White labor. Restrictive legislation was passed in 1700, 1705 and 1712, placing an ever increasing duty upon those imported. Gradual abolition was provided for by statutes of 1780 and 1788. Socially and economically the condition of the Negro in Pennsylvania was more desirable than in states of her latitude and further south.

Quaker Antagonists of Slavery

To three Quakers, opposed to Negro slavery, some brief attention is given. Their expressions also indicate a solicitous interest in the education of the Indian. Their influence was extended by missionary journeys, speaking in public, and numerous pamphlets published on that subject. This work was by no means limited to the Quakers. Slavery was denounced as impracticable, unjust and inconsistent with the ideals of a free nation.

The Quaker organization against slavery

(1) Not only individual leaders, but also the organized meetings arrayed themselves to fight against slavery. The first memorial to that effect was on the part of Germantown Meeting in 1688. This was sent to the Quarterly Meeting of Philadelphia, but at that date they took no action in regard to it. In 1727 the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting’s advisers censured the practice of trading in slaves. A more extensive warning and reproof was administered in 1758. Throughout the early half of the century efforts were made to secure favor for the slaves’ freedom; it was necessary that in some measure that should come first.

Schools for Negroes

(2) After the active campaign for freedom, the interest in education increased, and, in the last half of the century, there are frequent statements of that nature in records of meetings. Separate schools were established for them where possible. One in Philadelphia was set up by the meeting, though in large measure due to the active personal influence of Benezet, who, after 1782, taught in the school till his death. Moses Patterson was the first teacher; after 1786 two schools are always mentioned in reports. In the five years preceding 1782 it is estimated that two hundred and fifty Negroes attended the school.

In country and small towns

Some attention is given to the Negroes and their education, or lack of it, in each of the meetings. The care of this subject in those meetings was in the charge of a committee, the general character of whose duties was indicated on page [247]. The support of the Negro schools and the education of the poor children was similar to that of other schools.[1338] Reports on the progress in freeing, supporting, and educating the Negro, were required by their superior meetings.

Education of Indians

The relations between Friends and Indians were most cordial from the beginning. Though their education was preached early by missionaries and practised in a smaller way, little organized effort was made until 1795. In that year the yearly assembly took the necessary steps to establish schools among neighboring tribes, the first mentioned being for the Oneidas. The desire of the Indian for aid in these matters is indicated by the quoted letter of Cornplanter, the Seneca chief.

CHAPTER XII
CONCLUSION

Society established

Influence extended by three means

Fox’s aims in education

Organization devised by Fox

Weakness in the organization

The society, established by George Fox, near the middle of the seventeenth century, increased rapidly in numbers, due very largely to the efforts of its founder and the services of the men whom he associated with him in his work. This influence was extended by means of (1) journeys made to foreign parts; (2) letters; and (3) preaching out of doors to all who would listen. Fox, from the first, was interested in education, particularly moral and practical, and recommended the establishment of several schools. He was primarily interested in (1) moral training; (2) religious instruction; and (3) in education of a practical sort which would fit every individual to earn a livelihood. These ends which he strove for were likewise accepted as worthy to be achieved, and consciously striven for by the society in its organized meetings. This organization of meetings itself was devised by Fox and regularly constituted in various parts before the time of his death. It consisted of yearly, quarterly, monthly, and particular meetings, whose relations were well defined. The functions of the first were general and directive; those of the last were particular and effective. The chief weakness, already pointed out in previous chapters, was the lack of compulsory power in the yearly meeting. Its recommendations gained results, but might be neglected in communities desiring to do so.

Leaders who were interested in education

Quaker antipathy to education appears unfounded

Education of Negroes and Indians urged and effected

An organization, of itself, performs nothing. Its accomplishments depend on men who have purposes, and the determination and ability to execute them. A considerable number of such men were members of Friends, and expressed themselves definitely on education. Such leaders as Penn, Fothergill, Fox, Banks, Chalkley, Crisp, Crouch, Pastorius, Benezet and others as important, were responsible for its educational guidance and in the end, accomplishments. From a study of their expressions it appears that the criticisms, concerning the Quakers’ antipathy to education, are without foundation, and arose, for the most part, from their statement that a classical education was not essential for a minister. The life and the education of most of them attest the fact that they sought a higher education for themselves and promoted it for others. Not only for their own society, but for the rich and poor of others, were efforts made to establish schools. The education of Indians and Negroes was similarly urged both on the part of individuals and the organization. The tangible results of their efforts in this regard were seen in the various local meetings.

Schools established

School affairs in care of committees

Number of schools in Pennsylvania

In the establishment of schools, the direction lay in the hands of the yearly meeting. Philadelphia Yearly Meeting’s advices on that subject, for the first half century, were very general in nature and seemingly of little import to the various lower meetings. A development is noticed, however, toward a definite plan for schools to be established. The advices of 1746 and continuing thereafter, 1750, 1751, 1753, 1755, 1778, and following, are definite in their ideas as to what should be done, and the persistency with which they were urged in the meetings, where all school affairs came to be attended to by committees, seems to have effected tangible results. Committee reports on educational conditions increased greatly in definiteness after 1777, which allows a better estimate to be made of what was done. From such reports it is estimated that by the end of the century there were sixty or seventy schools established “according to direction” given by the yearly meeting. Many others are reported in various meetings, which did not measure up in any great degree to the standards set.

The Master

These standards[1339] (stated elsewhere in this work) demanded a high moral quality in masters and mistresses, as well as training in the subjects to be taught. From a study of the manuscript records and newspapers it appears that the moral standards, met by Quaker masters, were as high, and, in Philadelphia, perhaps higher than those of the other private school masters. The cases of open lawlessness are at least more numerous in the latter case. The degree of preparation for teaching ranged from the highest, the best college trained men of the day, to the lowest, those who possessed a most elementary education.

Curriculum similar to that in private schools

The opportunities offered for study, both in the lower and in the Classical School, were at all times equal at least to those of the other schools of the day.

No free public schools

The Quakers established no system of public schools, though they were called such quite frequently. As public school sentiment grew, and the Quaker schools correspondingly declined in many places, they often were taken over as public schools. In that sense they were, truly enough, the foundation of public schools. Education was free to the poor; in a few cases the funds might be applied to lower the rates paid by the regular pay scholars, but such were exceptional.

Number of schools about 1750

In 1750 there were about fifty particular meetings in the territory covered by this study; those were under the direction of seventeen monthly meetings.[1340] With the exception of nine of them we know from their reports that they had schools then, or established them in the period following 1750, in which the increased activity and interest of the yearly meeting brought the subject more fully to their notice. From the nature of the reports, it is often impossible to determine the date of establishing such a school, and because of the irregularity of reports it is not known how long a school may have been in operation before reported. For these reasons any estimate such as made above is very unsatisfactory.

It is not to be understood that at the time above mentioned the schools were in all cases “according to the plan” of the yearly meeting. Many reports have been quoted wherein schools were mentioned which did not measure up to the standards.[1341] Some lacked buildings, grounds, Friends as masters, masters’ accommodations, and so forth.

Quaker population one-third of total

Proportionate number of Quakers decreases

Assuming the nine meetings, for which no schools were reported in the minutes, did not have them, there were about forty schools under control of the Quakers, who at that date constituted one-third of the entire population.[1342] The population estimated by Oldmixon was about 100,000 in 1741.[1343] Though the colony increased rapidly by immigration,[1344] the Quaker increase was not proportionate to their numbers stated above.[1345] In 1795 it is stated that the Episcopalians and Quakers together constituted but one-third of the whole population, which then numbered about 434,373.[1346] The number of regularly established Quaker schools at that date was between sixty and seventy.

Number of regularly established schools inadequate for their population

If in 1741 we estimate the number of school age children of Quaker parentage between six and seven thousand, which is probably a less number than there actually were, it is apparent that the schools regularly established were in no way adequate to the school population. The remainder were doubtless cared for in the frequently mentioned mixed schools and neighborhood schools, which are known to have been common. These were sometimes under partial control of the Quaker meetings. What proportion the number of Quaker schools bears to those established by other agencies is not known. No studies made up to the present time have attempted to estimate the number of schools established by all or particular agencies. Any comparison is impossible until such a study is made.