APPENDIX.

Csoma’s writings may be divided into two categories. To the first belong his Tibetan Grammar and Dictionary, and the essays which were published in various periodicals of Calcutta. To the second belong his manuscripts.

The first class consists of the following:—

In the second category are—

A brief notice will be given of each in the form of appendices.

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I.

Analysis of the BKahgyur and the BStangyur.

This is contained in the twentieth volume of the “Asiatic Researches,” which volume consists of two parts.

The analysis of the Kahgyur is divided by Csoma into three articles—

The analysis of the Stangyur. Its abstract contents, divided into two classes, RGyud and MDo. As. Res., Part II., pp. 553–585.

A. The Kahgyur.

a. The analysis of the Dulva.

The Dulva is the first division of the Kahgyur. The whole [[171]]of the Kahgyur consists of one hundred volumes, of which thirteen are allotted to the Dulva, in Sanskrit, called Vinaya or Discipline, being the introduction to the whole Buddhist Encyclopædia, containing descriptions of observances to be practised by the votaries of Buddhism, but more especially by those persons, whether male or female, who adopt a religious life. These observances are of a very comprehensive description, extending not only to moral and ceremonial duties, but to modes of personal deportment, and to the different articles of food and attire. The precepts are interspersed with legendary accounts, recording the occasions on which Shakya thought it necessary to communicate his particular instructions to his disciples.

The Dulva comprises seven portions; some authorities divide it into four.

The first of the seven portions, the Vinaya vastu in Sanskrit, Dul-va-zhi in Tibetan, treats of the circumstances under which the religious profession may be adopted. It opens with an account of the hostilities that prevailed between the kings of Anga and Magadha, until the latter was overpowered and made tributary to the former.

The particulars of Shakya’s birth are not enumerated at this place, but we find here an account of his two first disciples, viz., Sariputra and Magalyana, two young philosophical Brahmans, who, being attracted by his teaching, attached themselves to his person.

The doctrine of Shakya was patronised by the King Vimbasara; at Rajagriha he enjoyed great fame and made numerous converts. The mode in which his converts were received into the order of monks, either by himself or by his disciples, is described. Two presidents are appointed, and five classes of teachers ordained. Questions to be discussed are given, and a description is given of persons who are from bodily imperfections or disease inadmissible. A variety of rules on the subject of admission is laid down.

The conduct of the person after admission is regulated, various moral obligations are prescribed; resignation and forbearance under maltreatment or when reviled are particularly inculcated.

Stories are related of improprieties committed by some of [[172]]the juvenile members of the community, and, in consequence, Shakya rules that none shall be admitted who are under fifteen, and that no priest be ordained under twenty years of age. He prohibits the admission of slaves, debtors, runaways, hermaphrodites, diseased or maimed persons, of young men without consent of their parents, and of individuals who have families dependent on them. No person is to be admitted except in a full conclave, and no one is allowed to reside among the monks without ordination; no thieves, parricides, matricides, or murderers are to be admitted.

The next subject is the performance of the great Buddhist rite, the “Confession and Expiation,” which should be observed every new and full moon in a public place, and before the whole congregation of monks. The ceremony is fully detailed.

The rest of the volume contains a number of precepts and prohibitions; some of them are of a whimsical character.

The second volume treats on matters of dress, fitness of leather or hides for shoes to be worn by the priests. There is a treatise on such drugs as the disciples are permitted to use and to carry about them. There is also an account of how the King of Magadha entertained Shakya for three months. Various legends are told, and in the course of them the six chief cities of India are mentioned, namely, Sravasti and Saketana in Oude, Varanasi (the Benares of to-day), Vaisali (now Allahabad), Champa (Bhagulpore), and Rajagriha (Behar, Gaya).

From Magadha Shakya went to Vaisali upon invitation of the Lichchavi inhabitants of that city, who appear to have been republicans and very wealthy. The peregrinations of Shakya are continued, in which he made many converts, relating the events of their present and previous lives, as well as those of his own, and how he became a Bodhisatvan or a sage. The conclusion of the second volume leaves him, with thirty-six of his principal disciples, at the lake Mansarowar, or Manassarovara, in the northern Himalayas, near the source of the Ganges and the Indus.

The third volume continues in the same strain. At a place in Kosala, Shakya and his followers were entertained by [[173]]certain people with the view of ascertaining the habits of the Buddhist monks; they were found moderate in their enjoyments and easily satisfied. Their opponents, the Brahmans, on the contrary, showed greediness and insatiability.

Special lessons are given to the priests, as in the preceding volumes. They are permitted to eat treacle, to cook for themselves in time of famine, to eat meat under certain restrictions, and to accept gifts from the laity. These lessons are interspersed with notices on medicines and on the mode of administering them; the employment of charms and incantations is inculcated.

Next are laid down rules for the proper attire to be worn by the disciples of Shakya. They are directed to wear not more than three pieces of cloth of a red colour, to use cotton garments when bathing, to be clean in their dress and in their bedding, and never to go about naked as the Brahmin fakirs do. The subject of dress is followed up by directions as to the use of mats or sheets to lie upon.

Important injunctions are given regarding the conduct to be observed towards refractory and quarrelsome brethren. They are first to be admonished in the congregation, and if still impenitent, to be expelled from the community. The mode in which confession, repentance, and absolution are to be practised is explained and illustrated by examples.

The residences and furniture of the monks are next described, and the dissensions of religious communities considered; other miscellaneous matters are discussed, and a historical account is given of the origin of the Shakya race, and of the master’s birth and education.

The fourth volume continues the story of Shakya’s life, and mentions the circumstances which led to his becoming an ascetic. In this book the Shakyas are called inhabitants of Kosala (a country bordering on the Kailas mountains), and are said to be descendants of the Hindú king Ikshwaku. The birthplace of Shakya is declared to be Kapila-vastu, near the Himalayas, on the banks of the river Bhagirathi.

The last pages of the book treat on the evils of causing schisms; the inveterate hostility of his nephew, Lhas-Kyim, towards himself, is mentioned.

The fifth volume commences with Pratimoksha Sútra, that [[174]]is, short precepts for securing final felicity, the sum of which is, that “vice is to be diligently avoided, virtue invariably practised, and the passions kept under entire subjection.”

Then follows a code of laws for the monks. The subject is enlarged more in the sixth, seventh, and eighth volumes, which comprehend 253 rules. Each of these arises, in general, from some improper conduct of a religious person. The offence comes to Shakya’s knowledge, who summons the culprit into the congregation and reproves him publicly. On his confession and penitence he is pardoned; then Shakya pronounces the law with a view of preventing a like transgression in future.

The ninth volume is of the same general tenor as the preceding four, but it is addressed to the female followers of Buddha, the priestesses or nuns, “Gélong-má,” or “Bhikshuni” in Sanskrit. Many of the rules are repeated from the foregoing volumes, and almost in identical terms.

The tenth and eleventh volumes relate to matters and rules of minor importance, such as, that the monks shall not use vitrified bricks as a flesh-brush, nor fragrant ointments, nor wear rings or seal-rings made of precious metals, nor eat garlic, nor learn music and dancing. There are directions for the building of chaityas or religious edifices to deposit relics in, such as the hair, nails, &c. of Buddha, which he gave to various persons during his lifetime. There are also to be found some tales of a political and historical character, an account of the destruction of Kapila, the metropolis of the Shakyas, the murder or expulsion of its inhabitants, many of whom are said to have fled into Nepal.

The eleventh volume closes with an account of the “Nirvaná,” or emancipation and death of Shakya in Kamrup, in Western Assam. Eight cities contend for his remains, which are consequently divided among them and deposited in chaityas built for that purpose.

On the death of Shakya, Kasyapa, the head of the Buddhas, directs five hundred superior monks to make a compilation of the doctrines of their master. Thus: the Do was compiled by Ananda, the Dul-va by Upali; the Ma-mom, Abhi-dharma, and Prájná-páramita by Kasyapa himself. He presides over the sects at Rajagriha till his death. Ananda succeeds him, as Buddha. On Ananda’s death his relics are divided between [[175]]the Lichchavis, the republican inhabitants of Vaisali, and the King of Magadha, and two chaityas are built for their reception, one at Vaisali (in Tibetan Yangs-pa-chen, Allahabad), and the other at Pataliputra (Patna).

One hundred years after Shakya’s Nirvana, his religion is carried into Kashmir. After a further period of one hundred and ten years, in the reign of Asoka, a king of Pataliputra, a new compilation of the laws of Buddha was prepared by 700 monks at Yangs-pa-chen.

The twelfth and thirteenth volumes of the Dulva contain supplementary rules, as communicated by Shakya to Upali his disciple in answer to certain inquiries.

At the end of the analysis of this part of the Kahgyur, in the twentieth volume of the “Asiatic Researches,” Part I., p. 94, Csoma placed the following note:—“I may here close my analysis of the Dulva collection; from the tenor of which it may in some measure be judged what is to be found in the remaining eighty-seven volumes of the Kahgyur. Of the whole of the voluminous compilation, I have prepared a detailed analysis with occasional translations of such passages as excited curiosity, particularly the relation of the life and death of Shakya. The whole are deposited in manuscript, among the archives of the Asiatic Society, and will at any time be available to the scholar, who may consult the first volume of the Asiatic Society’s Journal, page 375, for a general view of their contents, by Professor Wilson. For further information and details of the Kahgyur, a reference may be made to the publication indicated above.”

b. Notices on Shakya’s life are contained in two principal Tibetan works, namely, the Gya-ch’her-rol-pa and the Non-par-byung-va.

c. Sher-ch’hin or Shes-rab-kyi-pha-rol-tu-p’hyin-pa (Prajna paramita in Sanskrit, transcendental wisdom), fills twenty-one volumes.

B. The Stangyur.

The second part of the great Tibetan encyclopædia, the Stangyur, consists of two principal divisions, with a third one, consisting of a collection of hymns and prayers. The whole makes 225 volumes, namely:— [[176]]

The Gyud treats on ritual and ceremonies, and extends over eighty-seven volumes.

The Do treats on science and literature, and occupies 136 volumes.

The hymns and praises are contained in one volume, and there is one volume more representing the index of the whole compilation.

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II.

Geographical Notice of Tibet from Native Sources.

The vast mountainous country between 73° and 98° E. long. from Greenwich, and 27° and 38° N. latitude may be assigned to Tibet, since the Tibetan language is generally understood there, from Baltistan or little Tibet to the frontier of China, although there are various dialects; but the inhabitants of those countries have the same manners, customs, and faith, viz., Buddhism; have the same religious books, written or printed in characters common to all the provinces.

The native name of Tibet is Pot or Bod: Bod-yul, the country of Tibet; Bod-pa, a native man of Tibet; Bod-mo, a Tibetan woman. The Indian name for Tibet is Bhot.

Bod-yul, par excellence, is Middle Tibet, namely, the provinces of U and Tsang, with the capital of Lassa and Zhikátsé. Eastern Tibet or Great Tibet is called Kham or Kham-yul, the north-western part towards Ladak is Nári, and the southern part Bhutan; Lhopato or simply Lho, meaning south.

The whole of Tibet is highland, and lies among snowy mountains. In Tibetan books it is called by various poetical names, in allusion to snow, ice, glaciers, cold, and high elevation. The highest plateau is in Nari; the most elevated peak is Tisé or Tésé, called in Sanskrit Kailasa, about 80° E. longitude, and 34° N. latitude. The sources of the Indus, Sutlej, Gogra, and Brahmaputra are in Nári. Tibetan writers, in describing the situation of Tibet, have likened Nari to a water-pond, the provinces U and Tsang to four canals, and Kham-yul to a field of crops.

On the north, Tibet is bounded by the countries of the Turks and Mongols, called by Tibetans Hor and Sok. [[177]]

On the east by China (Gyanak); on the south by India (Gyagar); and on the west by India, Kashmir, Afghanistan, and Turkestan.

The neighbouring hill people are called by Tibetans “Mon,” their country Mon-yul; the males Mon-pa, and the females Mon-mo.

From the first range of the Himalayas on the Indian side to the plains of Tartary, they count six chains of mountains, running in the north-western and south-eastern direction, viewed from the lofty mountain Kangri in Nari.

In the spacious valley between the third and fourth range is the main road between Ladak and U-tsang. The three great divisions of Tibet described are—

1. U-tsang or Tibet proper, divided into several districts. The capital, Lassa, situated in the district U, is the residence of the Great Lama, the government of Tibet, and of the Amban, the Chinese Ambassador. The number of the inhabitants of this part of Tibet is reckoned at 130,000 families, who are, of all the Tibetan races, the most industrious, skilful, and polite.

2. The second or Eastern Division of Tibet is Kham-yul or Great Tibet; the east is bordered by China and subdivided into many small principalities. Its inhabitants differ much from other Tibetans in their stature, features, dress, and customs, as well as in the pronunciation of Tibetan. In physique they are very robust and simple, but very passionate; not fond of ornaments of any kind. The sect called Pon or Bon, very numerous here, still practise the ancient religion of Tibet; have a literature of their own, religious orders, monasteries, and many superstitious rites. They kill several animals for sacrifice.

3. The third great division is Nári, extending from Tsang to Ladak. The area of this is very extensive, containing many deserts, and is sparsely inhabited. The number of families, including Ladak and Baltistan, does not exceed 50,000. They dwell in tents made of haircloth, and lead a pastoral life, eschewing agriculture.

The more north-westerly part of Tibet is Belti-yul—Baltistan or little Tibet—divided among several chiefs. In the mountain defiles on the south live the predatory people known as the Dardús; they are barbarians of Afghan or Hindu origin. [[178]]The inhabitants for the most part are Shiah Mohammedans. Their language is a dialect of the Tibetan, but what literature there is, is Persian. The climate is warm; in the lower part snow never falls.

Lakes in Tibet are few. The principal one is Ma-pham-yu-tsho (Mansarovara), in Nari; its circumference is one and a half day’s journey (i.e., about thirty miles).

Medicinal and hot springs are in the provinces of U and Tsang, and to the east of the Mapham lake.

Four glaciers are enumerated, and called mountains of frozen snow, namely, the Tisé, Havo, Shámpo, and Pulé.

There are mines in Tibet, but they are not worked. Some gold-dust is gathered in Nári, Gugé, and Zanskar.

In Tibet there is a great deficiency of wood. In Baltistan and Bhutan fruit-trees are cultivated. In Khamyul some forests are found. In the western parts of Ladak and Baltistan grapes come to maturity.

The slopes of the mountains are mostly bare. In the valleys, where irrigation is practised, some cereals, such as wheat, barley, buckwheat, millet and pease, are sown. Tibet has no ricefields, but beans and lentils, turnips, cabbages, onions, &c., are cultivated.

The daily food of a Tibetan consists of gruel prepared from the meal of parched barley; meat, bread, sour-milk, curds; and tea, prepared in the Tartar fashion in a churn with butter and milk.

The origin of the Tibetan race is attributed to a fabulous union between a she-demon and an ape. Some refer their origin to India, others to China, others again to the Mongols or Turks. They admit five races among themselves, according to the countries they live in; their pronunciation differs much, but they all understand each other. Except the Mohammedans of Ladak and Baltistan, they all profess the religion of Buddha, whose records are written in the same language and character. [[179]]

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III.

Translation of a Tibetan Fragment, with Remarks by Dr. Wilson.

In the ninth volume of the Gyut class of the Kahgyur occurs the original of a Tibetan fragment which created in the beginning of the last century a lively sensation amongst the learned men of Europe, and the history of which furnishes an amusing instance of the vanity of literary pretensions, and of the patience and pain with which men of talent and erudition have imposed upon themselves and upon the world.

In the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century the Russians, in their incursions into Siberia, came upon various deserted temples and monasteries, in some of which considerable collections of books were deposited. These were in general destroyed or mutilated by the ignorant rapacity of the soldiery; but fragments of them were preserved, and found their way as curiosities into Europe.

Among these some loose leaves, supposed to have been obtained at the ruins of Ablakit, a monastery near the source of the Irtish, were presented to the Emperor Peter the Great. Literature being then at a low ebb in Russia, no attempt was made to decipher these fragments, and they were sent by the Czar to the French Academy, whose sittings he had attended when in Paris, and who deservedly enjoyed the reputation of being the most learned body in Europe. In 1720 the Abbé Bignon, on the part of the Academy, communicated to the Czar the result of their labour, apprising him that the fragments sent were portions of a work in the Tibetan language, and sending a translation of one page made by Abbé Fourmont with the help of a Latin and Tibetan Dictionary. The letter was published in the “Transactions of the Academy of St. Petersburg,” and the text and translation reprinted by Bayer in his “Museum Sinicum.” Müller, in 1747, criticised Fourmont’s translation, and gave a new one of the first lines, prepared with the double aid of a Tangutan priest, who rendered it into Mongol, and a Mongol student, who interpreted it [[180]]to Müller. It was afterwards reprinted, with corrections and additions, and a new translation, by Giorgi in his “Alphabetum Tibetanum,” and was at the beginning of the present century made the subject of animadversion by M. Rémusat in his “Recherches sur les Langues Tartares.”

Of the previous performances M. Rémusat thus speaks: “On avait d’abord admiré la profonde érudition qui avait permis à Fourmont de reconnaître seulement la langue dans laquelle le volume était écrit; on a vanté depuis celle de Giorgi, qui avait rectifié le texte et la traduction. Je ne sais comment on peut traduire ou corriger un texte qu’on n’est pas même capable de lire. Il n’y avait rien à admirer dans tout cela; interprètes et commentateurs, panégyristes, et critiques, tous étaient presque également hors d’état, je ne dis pas d’entendre une ligne, mais d’épeler une syllable du passage sur lequel ils dissertaient.”

The consequence was what might have been expected, and the attempts at translation and correction were most ludicrously erroneous. The greatest liberties possible were taken with the words, letters were omitted or inserted at pleasure, and the translation was not only unlike the original, but unlike common sense, and the Latin was quite as unintelligible as the Tangutan.

The three translations are given—namely, that of Fourmont, of Müller, and of Giorgi. Regarding the last, Dr. Wilson remarks, “This display of unprofitable erudition is in fact only a shelter for his ignorance, and Giorgi knows no more about the matter than did Fourmont, without having the merit of his blundering simplicity.”

After this follows Csoma’s exact translation of the whole passage with the original text in Tibetan, and its translation in Roman characters, from which those to whom this object is of interest will readily estimate for themselves the superiority of Csoma’s labours if they compare them with the text and the previous translations. [[181]]

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IV.

Note on Kála-Chakra and Adi-Buddha Systems.

The peculiar religious system entitled the Kála-Chakra is supposed to have been derived from Shambála, a fabulous country in the North. Its capital was Kalapa, a splendid city, the residence of many illustrious kings, situated beyond the river Sita or Yaxartes, where the increase of the days from vernal equinox till the summer solstice amounts to twelve Indian hours—that is, four hours and forty-eight minutes of our reckoning.

This system was introduced into Central India in the latter half of the tenth century A.D., and afterwards, viâ Kashmir, found its way into Tibet, where, in the course of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries several works were published on it.

Padmo Carpo thus describes its introduction into Nalanda in Central India by a certain pandit called Chilu. Having designed over the door of the Vihar the ten guardians of the world, he wrote underneath the pictures thus:—

“He that does not know the chief first Buddha (Adi-Buddha) knows not the circle of time (Kala, time; Chakra, a wheel, a circle).

“He that does not know the circle of time knows not the exact enumeration of the divine attributes.

“He that does not know the exact enumeration of the divine attributes, knows not the Supreme Intelligence.

“He that does not know the supreme intelligence knows not the Tantrika principles.

“He that does not know these, and creatures like him, are wanderers in the orb of transmigration, and are out of the path of the Supreme Conqueror.

“Therefore, Adi-Buddha must be taught by every true Lama, and every true disciple who aspires to liberation is bound to hear him.” [[182]]

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V.

Translation of a Tibetan Passport, dated A.D. 1688.

In Hyde’s “Historia Veterum Persarum” is an engraving of a passport granted by the Grand Lama of Lassa to an Armenian, which at the time of its publication could not be deciphered by any European; and the learned author was nearly as much misled regarding its character and the manner of reading it, as was Monsieur Fourmont of the French Academy on another occasion. It informs us also of the insecurity in travelling in the countries to which it refers.

The translation of the curious text follows:—

“From the noble city of Lassa, the circumambulating race of religion.

“To those that are on the road as far as Arya Désa (country of Aryans, India); to clerical, laical, noble, and not noble lords or masters of men; to residents in the forts; to stewards, managers; to Mongols, Tibetans, Turks; to dwellers in tents in the desert; to envoys and ambassadors going to and fro; to keepers of bye-ways; to headmen charged to perform any business of small or great importance;—to all these it is ordered, respecting the four persons named in the passport, not to hinder, rob, or plunder them, but let them go to and fro in peace.”

The document is provided with a square seal Seal.

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VI.

The Origin of the Shakya Race.

On a certain occasion when Shakya (Sansrgyas, bChom-ldan-hdas, Buddha Bhagaván) was in Nyagrodha (Árama) grove, near Kapilavastu, many of the Shakyas who inhabited Kapilavastu [[183]]being gathered together in their council-house, questioned one another, saying, “Shes-dan-tak! (intelligent brethren) whence did the Shakya race spring?

“What is their origin?

“What is the cause or reason thereof?

“What is their ancient descent as a nation? If any one should come and ask us about these points, we could not tell him whence the Shakyas originated. Come, let us go to the Bhagaván and ask him to enlighten us on the subject, that we may abide by his advice.”

Thereupon a very great number of Shakyas, inhabitants of Kapilavastu, went to the Bhagaván, and after having made their salutation by prostrating themselves at his feet, sat aside.

In addressing him they explained the cause of their errand, and begged him to enlighten them.

Bhagaván thought that, should he himself tell the story, his opponents the Tirthikas and others might say that he was telling only what was pleasing to himself. Not to give, therefore, an opportunity for such remarks, he intrusted his disciple Mongalyana to impart the required information, to which Mongalyana assented.

Shakya seeing that he was obeyed, folded up his cloak and composed himself to sleep.

Mongalyana, in order to collect his ideas on the subject, entered into deep meditation. Recovering from his ecstasy, he sat down on a carpet, surrounded by his priests, and addressed them at length.

Mongalyana’s story was that, after the world was destroyed, men were born in heaven among gods; they walked in the air, and their food consisted of pleasures only. Afterwards the earth turned into water, and there was nothing but one ocean, which covered all. On this a thin film like milk was visible, which became thicker and thicker, and thus was formed the present earth.

Then some animated beings inhabiting the heavens, having finished their lives there, were born again to taste the condition of manhood, and came to the earth. They were perfect animal beings, and lived for a long period. At that time [[184]]there was no sun, no moon, and no stars, no time, no night, and no day. No distinction between male and female. They were all called animals.

Afterwards an animal, being of a covetous nature, tasted the earthly essence; the more he tasted it the more he liked it. Other animal beings did the same.

When they all had eaten a mouthful of the earthly substance, as a consequence solidity and weight entered into their bodies. The brightness of their colour vanished, and darkness set in in the world. When darkness was thus established, the sun and moon appeared, the stars, and the division into night and day.

Their food continued as before; those that had eaten little of that food acquired a fine complexion and colour; those that had eaten much, on the contrary, became of a bad colour. Then they began to reproach each other and to dispute.

On account of the sin of such vainglorious talk the earthly essence disappeared.

This was the cause of much lamentation, and there arose from the earth a fatty substance. It was enjoyable as food; but the same happened regarding its use and effect as in the former case, and owing to the sin of pride and division among themselves this substance also disappeared.

The greasy substance was then replaced by sugar-cane plantations, and these again, for similar reasons, by pure rice (salu), without ploughing or sowing the fields. If cut in the evening, the harvest ripened over night and was ready for next morning, and so it continued for a long time.

From the use of rice arose the distinction of sexes. At first the different sexes regarded each other with fixed eyes, and were drawn towards each other. Such as have loved each other had pieces of stone or clods of earth thrown at them by those who had not acted like them. The custom, therefore, of throwing rice, shoes, &c., at newly-married couples in our own day seems to have been derived from Buddhistic cosmogony. The couples afterwards searched after hiding-places, calling out, “Khyim, Khyim,”[1] and built themselves houses. [[185]]

Then there arose the necessity of laying in stores of food for their wants; but on cutting down their rice-fields this time they perceived that the crops did not grow again, as was the case before. The animal beings—mankind—therefore gathered together to reflect on their former state. Some amongst them said, “We must mete out the land and assign a boundary to every man’s property, saying, ‘This is mine, and that is thine.’ ” It was done accordingly.

It happened afterwards that a certain individual took the salu (rice) of another without its being given to him; that is to say, he stole his brother’s share. On this he was seized and dragged before the assembly, and was publicly reproved. Such instances occurred repeatedly.

Then they all assembled for the purpose of deliberation, and agreed to elect one who had a better complexion than themselves, more beautiful, was more fortunate and more renowned, and made him master and proprietor of all their fields.

They said, “He shall punish those who deserve punishment, and reward those to whom a reward is due. From the produce of the land he shall receive a certain portion.”

They accordingly chose one and called him Maha Sammata, the Honoured by Men! Maha Sammata’s family reigned for a long period. The last descendant was called Ikshwaku Virudhaka.

He had four sons. After his first wife’s death he married again, this time a princess, his father-in-law insisting that his daughter’s son should become heir to the throne.

The king agreed to this, and expelled his four sons from the kingdom.

The four brothers, taking their half-sisters with them, and accompanied by many followers, left the ancient capital, Potala, went towards Himalaya to settle on the banks of Bhagirathi, not far from the hermitage where Kapila the Rishi lived. By the advice and with the sanction of this hermit, they married their half-sisters and begat many children. The Rishi afterwards marked out a place for them, where a city was built, and in honour of this sainted man it was called Kapilavastu.

At Potala the king, thinking of his four sons, inquired on one [[186]]occasion from his courtiers what had become of the princes, his sons? On this he was informed that after he had banished them they settled in the neighbourhood of the Himalaya, took their half-sisters for wives, and multiplied exceedingly.

The king, being much surprised on hearing this, exclaimed, “Shakya! Shakya! is it possible! is it possible!” And this is the origin of the Shakya name.

Thus ends the narration of Mongalyana. Shakya, the Bhagaván, approved of it, and recommended it to his followers.

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VII.

Mode of Expressing Numerals in Tibetan.

Here the same system prevails as in Sanskrit. The printed Tibetan text has the dates in figure above, and then they are written in the body of the text, in symbolical words, so as to secure them against the danger of alteration. This system, in fact, gives the sane safeguard against incertitude of figures that the mode of writing values and sums at length in European documents is intended to secure.

There are many astronomical and astrological treatises to be found in Tibet, which have not been embodied into the Kahgyur or Stangyur collections. Of these the most celebrated was written by a Viceroy at Lassa in the latter half of the seventeenth century A.D. In all works of this description symbolical names are used instead of numerals; as, for instance, lag, hand, for + 2; - mé, fire, for - 3; × chhu, water, for × 4; ÷ so, a tooth, for ÷ 32.

Besides the nine units and the zero, the following numerals have special expressions, namely, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 24, 25, 27, and 32.

When dictating to an assistant in symbolical names what to write in characters, the pandit commences the operation from right to left, thus, if you say Nyima, sun, that means = 12; mkhah, void, means = 0; mtsho, a lake = 4, the copyist writes 4012. The very same method has been adopted in the Shastras. [[187]]

As examples the following are cited:—

zla, the moon, stands for Number 1.
lag, the hand, stands,, for Number,, 2.
mé, fire, stands,, for Number,, 3.
chhu, water, stands,, for Number,, 4.
mdah, an arrow, stands,, for Number,, 5.
dus, time, stands,, for Number,, 6.
ri, a hill, stands,, for Number,, 7.
sbrul, a serpent, stands,, for Number,, 8.
srin-po, a goblin, stands,, for Number,, 9.
phyogs, a corner (of the world), stands,, for Number,, 10.
Dragpo, the brave (Rudra), stands,, for Number,, 11.
Nyima, sun, stands,, for Number,, 12.
hdod-pa, lust, desire, stands,, for Number,, 13.
yid, the mind, stands,, for Number,, 14.
tshes, nyin-zhag, the 15th day of the lunar month, stands,, for Number,, 15.
Rgyalpo, a king, stands,, for Number,, 16.
nyes-pa, a blemish, stands,, for Number,, 18.
Rgyalva, a Buddha, stands,, for Number,, 24.
de-nyid, same self, stands,, for Number,, 25.
skar-ma, a star, stands,, for Number,, 27.
so, a tooth, stands,, for Number,, 32.
for zero, mkhah, void space, or: thig, a spot or stain, or: Stongpa, the vacuum, a zero.

It may be fitting to add here a few notes on the systems of reckoning time in use among the Tibetans, which the author noticed at page 147 of the appendix to his Grammar.

The Tibetans derived their astronomical and astrological knowledge, not from India only, but also from the Chinese people.

The mode of reckoning, according to the Indian system, is called by them “Karçis,” that derived from China, “Nakçis.” On both these systems are to be found numerous works in the Tibetan language.

The most common mode of reckoning time, especially in calculating the years of the present generation, or of determining the age of an individual, is that by the cycle of twelve years, in which each year is designated by the name of an animal, in this manner:— [[188]]

Tibetan. English.
1. byi-lo the mouse-year.
2. glang-lo the,, ox-year.
3. stag-lo the,, tiger-year.
4. yos-lo the,, hare-year.
5. hbrug-lo the,, dragon-year.
6. sbrul-lo the,, serpent-year.
7. rta-lo the,, horse-year.
8. lug-lo the,, sheep-year.
9. spré-lo the,, ape-year.
10. bya-lo the,, bird-year.
11. khyi-lo the,, dog-year.
12. phag-lo the,, hog-year.

But in books, in correspondence, and in every transaction of greater importance, the use of the cycle of sixty years has been adopted; and this system is twofold, the Indian and the Chinese.

The years of the Indian cycle, prevalent south of the Nermada river, exactly coincide with the Tibetan era, the Sanskrit names having been translated literally, but the Tibetans count the commencement of their first cycle from A.D. 1026; the Indians, on the contrary, date theirs from the Kaliyuga, and sometimes from the reign of Salivahana.

The Tibetans, like the Chinese, divide each year into lunar months, calling them first, second, third month, &c. During the period of each lunar cycle, which corresponds to nineteen solar years, they insert seven intercalary months, generally one in every third year, to make them agree with the solar years. In this manner the calculation exactly corresponds with the luni-solar system of the Hindus.

The Indian system differs from the Chinese in the mode of naming years. The Chinese nomenclature is made up by the names of five elements, and made ten by affixing the male and female termination to each, and this series is repeated six times; therefore 6 × 10 = 60.

The second series is made up of twelve zodiacal constellations, and is repeated five times, 5 × 12 = 60, thus making the cycle of sixty years.

The names of the five elements are as follows:—

Chinese. Tibetan. English.
1. kya. shing pho. wood, masculine.
2. yi. shing mo. wood, feminine.
3. ping. mé pho. fire, masculine.
4. ting. mé mo. fire, feminine.
5. vou. sa pho. earth, masculine.
6. kyi. sa mo. earth, feminine.
7. king. lchags pho. iron, masculine.
8. zin. lchags mo. iron, feminine.
9. zhin. chhu po. water, masculine.
10. kuhi. chu mo. water, feminine.

[[189]]

The names of the twelve animals of the zodiac are these—

Chinese. Tibetan. English.
1. Tsi. byi. Mouse.
2. Tshihu. glang. Ox.
3. Yin. stag. Tiger.
4. Mahu. yos. Hare.
5. Shin (Tshin ?). hbrug. Dragon.
6. Zi. sbrul. Serpent.
7. Hu (n). rta. Horse.
8. Wuhi. lug. Sheep.
9. Shing. spré. Ape.
10. Yéhu. bya. Bird.
11. Zuhi. khyi. Dog.
12. Hahi. phag. Hog.

Thus the first cycle, consisting of ten years, is repeated six times.

The second cycle of twelve years is repeated five times, to make up the whole cycle of sixty years.

The list of the names of animals for each of the sixty years in a cycle, arranged in Chinese, Sanskrit, Tibetan, and English, is given in the text. See op. cit., p. 151–154.

[[Contents]]

VIII.

Extracts from Tibetan Works Translated.

1. Tibetan Beau-ideal of a Wife. (Kahgyur, MDo Kha, p. 106–7.)

The required qualities in a maiden who may aspire to be united in marriage with Shakya are thus defined by himself:

“No ordinary woman is suitable to my taste and habits, none who is incorrect in her behaviour, who has bad qualities, or who does not speak the truth. But such one alone will be pleasing and fit for me, who, exhilarating my mind, is chaste, young, of good complexion, and of a pure family and descent.”

He indited a catalogue of these qualifications in verse, and said:— [[190]]

“If there shall be found any girl with the virtues I have described, since I like not an unrestrained woman, let her be given to me in marriage. She who is young, well-proportioned, and elegant, yet not boastful of her beauty; who is affectionate towards her brother, sister, and mother; who, always rejoicing in giving alms, knoweth the proper manner how to bestow them on the priests and Brahmans; if there be found any such damsel, father! let her be brought to me. One who, being without arrogance, pride, and passion, has left off artifice, envy, and deceit, and is of an upright nature; who even in her dreams hath not lusted after any other man; who resteth content with her own husband, and is always submissive and chaste; who is firm and not wavering, who is not proud or haughty, but full of humility like a female slave; who has no excessive fondness of the vanity of sound, smell, taste (music, perfumes, and exquisite viands), nor for wine; who is void of cupidity, who has not a covetous heart, but is content with her own possessions; who, being upright, goeth not astray, is not fluctuating; is modest in her dress, and does not indulge in laughing and boasting; who is diligent in her moral duties without being righteous overmuch. Who is very clean and pure in her body, her speech, and her mind; who is not drowsy nor dull, proud nor stupid, but of good judgment, doth everything with due reflection; who hath for her father- and mother-in-law equal reverence as for a spiritual teacher; who treateth her servants both male and female with constant mildness; who is as well versed as any courtesan in the rites and ceremonies described in the Shastras; who goeth last to sleep and riseth earliest from her couch; who maketh every endeavour with mildness, like a mother, without affectation. If there be any such maiden to be found, father! give her unto me as a wife.”

Afterwards the King Shuddhodana directs his Brahman minister to go into the great city of Kapilavastu, and to inquire there in every house after a girl possessed with these good qualities, showing at the same time Shakya’s letter, and uttering two verses of the following meaning:—“Bring hither that maiden who has the required qualities, whether she be of the royal tribe or of the Brahman caste, of the gentry or of the plebeian class. My son regardeth not tribe nor family [[191]]extraction; his delight is in good qualities, truth and virtue alone.”

The objections of the Buddhists to the seclusion of women may be gathered from the following imaginary conversation of Shakya’s wife (extracted from Kahgyur, Do, Kha, vol. i, p. 120, 121). Sa-tsho-ma (Gopa), the wife of Shakya, upon hearing of her being upbraided by the domestics for not concealing her face when in company with others, expresses herself in some verses against the veil, the meaning of which is as follows:—

“Sitting, standing, and walking, those that are venerable are pleasing when not concealed. A bright gem will give more lustre if put on the top of the standard.

“The venerable are pleasing when they go; they are agreeable also when they come. They are so, whether they stand or whether they are sitting. In every manner the venerable are pleasing.

“They who put off all vices are venerable. Fools committing vices, how much soever they be adorned, are never pleasing.

“The venerable are always like a bowl full of milk and curd. It is a great happiness to see human nature capable of such purity.

“For such as have restrained their body, have suppressed the several defects of it, have refrained their speech and never used deceitful language, and having subdued the flesh are held in restraint by a pure conscience; for such, to what purpose is the veiling of the face?

“Moreover the great Lord (God), who is wise in knowing the hearts of others, yea, also the whole company of the gods, know my thoughts, my good morals, my virtues, my vows, chastity. Therefore why should I conceal my face?”

Shuddhodana, the father of Shakya, her father-in-law, was much pleased with these expressions, and presented her with several precious things. He uttered at the same time a sloka, the meaning of which is this:—

“My son being adorned with such qualities as he has, and my daughter-in-law having such virtuous qualifications as she describes: to see two such pure persons united, is like when butter and ghee are mixed together.”

As breathing in accordance with the virtuous sentiments of [[192]]the above favourable specimen of the Tibetan sacred works, we may here extract a curious correspondence (but whether imaginary or real we will not pretend to say), stated to have taken place between a princess of Ceylon and the Buddhist Saint. This letter is very generally known and admired throughout Tibet, being introduced in every collection of epistolary forms for the instruction of youth.

Ratnavali’s Letter to Shakya.

Ratnavali, a young princess of Ceylon, the daughter of King Singala, having been informed by some merchants from Central India of Buddha and of his doctrine, was much pleased with it; and as those merchants were about to return home, she sent some presents to Shakya (Chom-dan-dás), with a letter of the following contents:—

“Reverenced by Suras, Asuras, and men! really delivered from birth, sickness, and fear! Lord, who art greatly celebrated by thy far-extending renown from the sage’s ambrosial portion, kindly grant me religious instruction and wisdom.”

Shakya received this letter, and sent to the princess a picture of Buddha on cotton cloth, with some verses written above and below the image, containing the terms upon which refuge is obtained with Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, and a few fundamental articles of the faith, together with two stanzas recommending Buddhism. The two stanzas are these:—

1. Arise, commence a new course of life,

Turn to the religion of Buddha;

Conquer the host of the lord of death, the passions,

As an elephant subdues everything under his feet in a muddy lake.

2. Whoever has lived a pure life,

According to the precept of this law,

Shall be free from transmigration,

And shall put an end to all his miseries.

In Tibetan, according to the pronunciation of the Lamas of Sikkim.

1. Tsampar chashing jungwar cha,

Sangye tenla suppar cha;

Dampü chimna longchen zhin,

Chida deni zhonpar cha.

[[193]]

2. Kanshik raptu payö par

Chödul dela dögyur pa

Tyeove khorua rappan sa

Dugnal ṭḥamar cḥopar gyur.

The compendium of the doctrine of Buddha in one sloka:—

In Tibetan.

Digpa chiyan minja te

Geba pünsum tsopa tsán

Rangi sempa yonsu dul

Ṭḥéni sangye tempa yin.

In English.

No vice is to be committed;

Virtue must be perfectly practised;

Subdue entirely your desires.

This is the doctrine of Buddha.

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IX.

Interpretation of the Tibetan Inscription on a Bhotian Banner taken in Assam.

The following is the description of this trophy:—

It is a bit of plank, mounted on a staff, painted red, with an image of Buddha on one side and a Tibetan inscription on the other. The Demangiri Rajah always had it carried before him with great solemnity and under the special charge of a large guard of honour, who, however, in the affair of Subang-Kotta ran away without it, and it fell into our hands. A copy of the inscription was forwarded to Csoma for translation. With the exception of the salutation at the beginning and the conclusion and a few terms in the middle, the whole is in the Tibetan language. The purport of it was to obtain the favour and protection of several inferior divinities for the person and family for whom the ceremony had been performed and this magic emblem set up.

It may be that this flagstaff was carried before the Tibetan [[194]]chief in his march and so used as an ensign in war; but it is more probable that it may have belonged originally to the house-top or terrace of the Prince of Bhotan; because the houses of great personages in that country are generally decorated with such ensigns of victory.

The inscription, as already mentioned, is an invocation to several deities, and concludes thus: “Ye all! look on this emblem of Hu, the regent or governor (by whom, namely, it was set up). Ye divine principal Rakshákas, rulers of the world, I beseech you, that you will make this patron, the bestower of charitable gifts, obtain the fruit of his work and actions, who is very faithful to the doctrine of Shakya. May he, with his household and family, prosper more and more, and abound in life, fortune, honour, wealth—like the increasing face of the moon.”

The text is given in the original with a literal translation.

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X.

Note on the White Satin Embroidered Scarfs of the Tibetan Priests.

(Translated by Csoma at Mayor Lloyd’s request.)

These scarfs are almost indispensable in all religious offerings, and when distinguished strangers are presented at court, the master of ceremonies throws one of them across the shoulders of the visitor.

An inferior, on approaching a superior in rank, presents a white silk scarf, and when dismissed has in return one thrown over his neck. Equals exchange scarfs on meeting, bending towards each other. No intercourse whatever takes place without the intervention of a scarf. It always accompanies every letter sent by a messenger. Two colours are used for the manufacture, which is done in China; white and red. The latter is rather confined to the lower orders, the white is respectful in proportion to the purity and fineness of its material. There are various degrees in both. [[195]]

This is the Tibetan text of the inscription in Roman Characters:—

Nyin-mo bde-legs mts’han bde-legs

Nyin-mahi gung yang bde-legs shing

Nyin mts-han rag-tu brda-legs-pahi

Dkon-chag gsum-gyi bkrashis shog.

Translation.

Blessed the day, blessed the night,

The mid-day also being blessed;

May the day and night always return (to us),

The special favour of the three holy ones.

[[Contents]]

XI.

Notices on Different Systems of Buddhism Extracted from Tibetan Authorities.

Sángye is the generic name for expressing the Supreme Being or the Supreme Intelligence in the Buddhistic system. This word signifies “the most perfect Being,” that is, pure and clean and free from all imperfections and abounding in all good qualities.

There are three distinctions with respect to the essence, the substance, or the body of Buddha, namely—

1. Dharma-Kaya. This is the primary essence of all things, and is designated by the names of: Adi Buddha, Samanta Buddha, the Swabhàva, or the self-produced, self-existing. Dharmadhàtu, the root of all things, the Jina of Jinas; the origin of all things, existing without the three epochs, that is, without beginning, duration, and end.

2. Sambhoga-Kaya. To this class or distinction belong the attendants of the Dharma-Kaya (the Adi Buddha); they are the Dhyani Buddhas, the chief of whom is Vairochana the Illuminator.

3. Nirmankaya. To this distinction or class belong the [[196]]several incarnations of Buddha. Immense is the number of incarnations in past ages. The present age is called the happy one, and the number of incarnations is to amount to one thousand. The first four incarnations have already appeared, the rest are to follow. In the modern Buddhistic system Shakya is the last incarnate Buddha.

The systems of Buddhism known in Tibet are the following four, each having again a number of subdivisions.

The first is called Vaibhashika, with four subdivisions, taken from the names of Shakya’s four principal disciples. The followers of this system stand on the lowest degree of merit. They accept everything that is contained in the Scriptures, believe everything, and will not dispute.

The second system or school is Sautrántika, followers of the Sútras, with two subdivisions. The one will prove everything by scriptural authority, the other by argument.

The third system or school is the Yogáchárya, with nine subdivisions. Arya Sangha was its founder, in the seventh century A.D.

The fourth is the Madhyamika school; they keep the middle faith. This is the true philosophical school, formulated 700 years after Shakya’s death, by Nagarjuna.

The two first systems are dogmatical; the two latter are philosophical, and are studied by the learned few.

There is another classification of Shakya’s followers, namely, the Tri-yánam or the three vehicles; because all Buddhistic Scriptures are destined for the lowest, the middle, and the highest capacities. Some authors use the name of Lám-rim, classifying men under three degrees of intellectual capacity, according to this:

1. Men of a common capacity must believe that there is a God, that there is a future life, and that all will obtain, according to their deeds in this life, a reward hereafter.

2. Men of a middle degree of intellectual or moral capacity, in addition to the above doctrines, must understand that every compound thing is perishable; that there is no reality in things; that every imperfection causes suffering, and that deliverance from suffering, and eventually from bodily existence, is final beatitude.

3. Men of the highest capacities will know that between the [[197]]body and the supreme soul nothing exists by itself, nor can we prove whether the supreme soul will continue for ever, or absolutely cease; because everything exists by a casual concatenation.

Concerning the Course of Life.

Those of common capacity are content with the observance of the Ten Commandments.

Those of the middle degree also endeavour to excel in morality, meditation, and wisdom.

Those of the highest capacities practise, besides the above, the six transcendental virtues as well.

Regarding Salvation.

Those of the first degree, seeing the miseries of those who, by virtue of the metempsychosis, suffer in the bad places of transmigration as beasts, &c., desire to be born again among men, or among angels (asuras), or among gods.

Those of the second class are not content with the lot of the former, and wish to be entirely delivered from all bodily existence.

The highest class, regarding existence, under whatever form, as suffering, crave for final emancipation, and by arriving at the supreme perfection, are enabled to assist others out of their miseries.

Several philosophical sects are mentioned, but the general principles of practical Buddhism are these:—

[[Contents]]

XII.

Enumeration of Historical and Grammatical Works to be met with in Tibet.

The historical works are enumerated under seven classes:—

The Grammatical Works.

The Sanskrit grammatical works were known to ancient Tibetans, and were partially translated into their tongue.

The names of such works have been given in the last volume of Stangyur. The principal ones are Pánini-vyákarana in two thousand slokas.

Maha-bhána, a commentary on the previous work, in one hundred thousand slokas. [[199]]

A commentary on chandrapá, by Pandita Ratna Mali, in twelve thousand slokas, and many others are named besides. There are likewise in Tibet several works teaching how to read the Sanskrit texts, the Mantras, &c.

The most ancient grammatical work extant in the Tibetan tongue is that by Sambhota of the seventh century. Names of many authors are given; but there are yet other grammatical works of which no special mention is made in the essay under review.

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XIII.

Remarks on Amulets in Use by the Trans-Himalayan Buddhists.

The two scrolls procured at Rampúr, near Kotgarh, by Surgeon W. C. Carte of the 69th Regiment N.I., were forwarded to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, where, at the request of the secretary, an explanation of them was furnished by the librarian, Mr. Alexander Csoma, who stated that they contained abstracts of some larger Tantrika or religious works in Tibetan, interspersed with Mantras in Sanskrit.

The first scroll, eight feet and a half long, is covered with figures to the extent of two feet. The rest of the paper bears printed text, containing 244 lines in Tibetan, each line being three and a half inches long. The figures are roughly traced, representing a victorious king, a tortoise with nine spots on the belly, showing the lucky and the unlucky periods, according as the moon is affected by the planets in her path. Afterwards come the twelve animals representing the twelve years of a cycle; then the zodiacal signs, the planets, sun and moon, &c., then the representations of the four, eight, and ten corners of the world. There is also seen the picture of a king with his minister, a horse, an elephant, a soldier, an eye, &c., then the head of a bird, and also certain Chinese symbolical figures, which appear to have been used under the Han [[200]]dynasty 200 years before Christ. The Tibetans still use them extensively. After these symbolical representations follows the text, containing abridgments of five different Tantrika works.

The first is the salutation to the “Circle of Time,” the Kalachakraya. Then come the regents of the year, month, day, and hour, and those of the planets and stars. The Nagas, imps, &c., are requested to be favourable to the person who wears these symbols and to the mystical prayers, that he may succeed in all his undertakings. All classes of divinities are requested not to hinder him in any of his occupations, but to give assistance that he may increase in prosperity.

The abstract of the second Tantrika work contains in Sanskrit short addresses to Shakya, Vagishwari, Manipadme, and others.

The third contains a sloka and a half in Tibetan to Manju Sri, the god of wisdom.

The fourth is called the venerable Sutra dispelling the darkness. The salutation is addressed to the God of Wisdom, to the ten Buddhas in the ten corners of the world. To each is addressed a short prayer thus: “If I go towards that corner over which you preside, after having obtained my aim, grant that I may quickly return.”

The fifth is styled the Sutra of eight lights. The salutation is addressed to Buddha, to religion, and to the holy priests. There are several prayers in Sanskrit, asking to avert any unlucky year, month, day, and hour, and to counteract the influence of a malignant planet or star. Other mantras are written down, having the object of preventing any unlucky accident in the morning or in the afternoon, &c.

The second scroll, four feet eight inches long, contains twelve figures of animals representing the cycle of twelve years. The text covers 121 lines, each three inches in length. There are, besides, rough sketches of a tortoise with the nine mystical spots in a square, and the twelve animals of a cycle of twelve years.

This is the sum of the general contents of these two scrolls. [[201]]

[[Contents]]

XIV.

Review of a Tibetan Medical Work.

The principal work on medicine in the Tibetan language is called rGyud bZhi, in four parts. Its authorship is attributed to Shakya himself. The materials of the Tibetan treatise are derived from Sanskrit works. The learned Lama who made the analysis gave the following account of it to Csoma.

In the time of King Khri-srong Dehutsán, in the eighth or ninth century after Christ, a Tibetan interpreter, during his residence in Kashmir, with the assistance of a pandit who was himself a physician, made the translation into his native tongue, and presented the work to the said king. The treatise was subsequently revised and augmented by other learned men, and generally accepted as an authority. It is stated that besides this there are about forty other works on medicine in Tibet, not counting the five volumes embodied in the great encyclopædia, the Stangyur.

The principal medical school of Tibet is in Chák-phuri, a monastery near Lassa. Two smaller ones, called Chák-Zúr, are in the interior of the country.

A. The First Part

is called the root or basis of the medical treatise, and is divided into six chapters.

I. The first chapter describes how, in a forest abounding in medicinal plants, Shakya transformed himself into a chief physician, and there, in a magnificent palace, delivered his instructions, having for his pupils the gods, the sages, and a large number of orthodox men and also heretics.

II. In the second chapter Shakya speaks thus:—

Friends! be it known to you that every human creature who wishes to remain in health, and such also as desire to cure disease and to prolong life, must be instructed in the science of medicine. So also he that seeks after morality, [[202]]virtue, wealth or happiness, and seeks to be delivered from the miseries of sickness, as also such a one as wishes to be honoured and respected by others, must be taught the art of healing. He must be instructed on the four parts of the medical science, which are as follows:—

The theory, the explanation, the instruction, and the manual operation requisite for the practice. He must likewise be specially instructed in the eight branches of healing, namely:—

The number of chapters in the whole treatise amounts to 156.

III. In the third chapter the human constitution is illustrated by a simile taken from the Indian fig-tree; thus, there are to be considered three roots or trunks, nine stems, forty-seven branches, 224 leaves, two blossoms, and three fruits.

The seven fundamental supports of the body are described as those on which life depends, namely: the chyle, the blood, the flesh, the fat, bone, the marrow, and the semen.

The excretions are three: fæces, urine, and sweat.

The principal causes of disease are these three: lust, anger, and ignorance.

The accessory causes are four: a. the seasons, hot or cold; b. evil spirits; c. abuse of food; d. indiscreet or bad conduct.

The parts of the body capable of being affected by disease are said to be six: the skin, the flesh, the veins, the bones, the internal viscera, and the alimentary canal.

There are three humours: the phlegm, the bile, and the wind.

The fourth chapter treats of symptoms of diseases. Examination of the tongue and urine. Feeling of the pulse. [[203]]Inquiry into the origin of the disease, and its progress; what food has agreed or disagreed? what pain is felt? The physician’s twenty-nine questions, which are to be put to the patient, regarding food, exercise, previous history of the disease, &c., are here detailed.

The fifth chapter enumerates the means of curing diseases, and these are to be considered—

The varieties of medicines are such as assuage pain, or purge the bowels, or cause vomiting. Then there are remedies for flatulence, for anointing the body, embrocations, &c. Against bile, phlebotomy and bathing in cold water; against phlegm, warm applications are prescribed.

The sixth chapter contains recapitulation of subjects contained in the last three chapters.

Carrying on the metaphor of the Indian fig-tree, the two blossoms are, health and longevity; the three fruits, good morals, wealth, and happiness.

B. In the Second Part

four things are considered as to treatment of maladies, namely:—

The means of curing disease are enumerated thus: diet, exercise, medicine, and surgical operations. A chapter on the conception and the growth of the embryo is added, one chapter on bones, and another on nerves. Then the humours are fully considered. And the last chapter describes the requisite qualities of a physician, namely, that he should be well acquainted with the theory and practice of medicine, and be an unselfish, an upright, and a good-hearted man. [[204]]

C. The Third Part

treats on separate diseases, and the following points are considered under each head:—

a. Primary causes; b. accessory causes and effects; c. subdivisions; d. symptoms; e. manner of treating disease.

The following is the list of maladies: swellings, dropsies, pulmonary diseases, including phthisis, fevers, wounds, and inflammation; epidemic diseases, smallpox, ulcers, catarrh; diseases of the eyes, of the ear, of the nose, of the mouth, of lips, tongue, palate, of the throat and teeth, with several distinctions under each; diseases of the neck, of the chest, the heart, liver, spleen, kidneys, stomach, bowels; diseases peculiar to women; hæmorrhoids, erysipelas. Then follows the treatment of wounds, simple and poisoned. Diseases of old age are treated of, and the subject of virility is discussed.

D. The Fourth Part

contains details of the practice of medicine, such as examination of the pulse and urine; varieties of medicaments, mixtures, pills, syrups, and powders. Nomenclature of medicinal plants. Description of purgatives, emetics, extracts, or elixirs.

The conclusion is this:—

Though there be 1200 ways of examining the heat and the cold, &c., in any given disease, they are all summed up in the following: examine the tongue and the urine, feel the pulse, and inquire into the history of the case. The remedies are said to be 1200 in number; but they are reduced into the following four classes:—

a. Medicament; b. manual operation; c. diet; d. exercise.

Medicaments either assuage pain or are depuratory. Manual operations are either gentle or violent. Food is either wholesome or noxious. Exercise is either violent or gentle.

There are said to be 360 practical ways of curing disease; but they may be reduced to these three:—

Hints are given how a physician can keep himself safe from any malignant or infectious disease. [[205]]

[[Contents]]

XV.

A Brief Notice of Subháshita Ratna Nidhi of Saskya Pandita.

This paper was ready in 1833, but owing to the difficulties in the way of bringing out the Tibetan text with the translation, it was not published till eleven years after Csoma’s death, and then it was accomplished through the kind assistance of Dr. A. Campbell.

This work was composed by the celebrated Sa-skya Pandita, who flourished in the thirteenth century of our era, in the time of Gengiz Khan and his successors. The author resided in the Sa-skya Monastery in Middle Tibet, in the province of Ts’ang, and was the uncle of a Great Lama. Many important Sanskrit books, brought thither from India, are still to be found in the monastery. The work begins thus:—

To the ten commandments[2] are to be added the following rules, which were enacted by a religious king of Tibet named Srong-b,tsán (apostolic king, defender of faith, Dharma Raja). These rules are:—

These are the sixteen rules. Subáshíta Ratna Nidhinama Shastra is the title of the work in Sanskrit.

Salutation to Manju Sri.

To the question: What is a “precious treasure of elegant sayings?” the following answer is given:—

It is the exhibition of judicious reflections upon all sorts of worldly affairs and upon the conduct of holy men, without offending against good morals. The following are the chapters:—

The wealth of a man who is contented with little, is inexhaustible; he who seeks always and is never satisfied, will have a continual rain of sorrow.

As children are loved by their parents, to the same degree they are not respected in return by their children.

He that is acquainted with the manners of the world, will exercise true religion. He that practises good morals is the living biography of a saint, &c.

This work contains 454 slókas in the original, but only 234 are given in this paper. [[207]]

[[Contents]]

XVI.

A Dictionary or Sanskrit and Tibetan Words, Phrases, and Technical Terms.

We give the following résumé and index kindly furnished by Dr. Rajendrolála Mitra, of an extensive and most important work, which has already been referred to in these pages, but the existence of which is known at present to only a few, because since Csoma’s decease Tibetan learning in India seems to have received no special attention. With some adaptation to the requirements of the present day and with the addition of a special index, this compilation, if rescued, as it deserves to be, from its manuscript condition, will form a most valuable help to the study of Buddhist writings, to which so many eminent and learned men in Europe are devoting their earnest attention. The MS. is in the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

Note by Dr. Rajendrolála Mitra, dated 14th February 1883.

“The volume is a foolscap folio of 686 pages, with 20 pages of index and some blank pages, in a good state of preservation. Some sheets of the paper bear the water-mark of “Snelgrove, 1828,” others of 1830. The writing, therefore, was not undertaken until 1831, when Csoma de Körös was in Calcutta, and he must have taken some time to complete it. The whole is in the handwriting of Csoma. From the general appearance of neatness and absence of erasures, corrections, and interlineations, it is evident that the volume is a fair copy. The matter is arranged in four columns, the first containing the serial number, next the Sanskrit word in English letters, then the Tibetan equivalent in Tibetan character, and lastly the English meaning. The words are grouped in classes, as shown in the index. The arrangements being according to classes and not alphabetical, it is difficult to use the volume for reference.” [[208]]

This is the index of the work, showing the several heads or titles under which Sanskrit and Tibetan words, proper names, phrases, technical terms, &c. &c., were collected or compiled by ancient learned Indian pandits and Tibetan Lotsavas (interpreters) or translators.

Note.—The number of titles shows the regular series in the original (though it has not been marked there); and the number of page indicates where the chapter under that head or title commences in this compilation.

Heads or Titles of Chapters.

No. PAGE
1. Names (epithets, attributes, &c. &c.) of Buddha (and also of Shakya) 1
2. Names of different Tathagatas (or Buddhas) 6
3. Names of the mansions of Buddha (Buddha bhumi), of the five bodies or aggregates of those that are equal and of the unequalled (of Adi Buddha and the five Dhyani Buddhas), and the names of the three persons or bodies of Buddha (substances) 7
4. Names of the ten powers of Tathagata (of Buddha) 8
5. Names of those four things in which a Tathagata is bold 495
6. Names of the eighteen pure religious articles of Buddha 496
7. Names of the thirty-two kinds of mercy of Tathagata 499
8. Names of the three kinds of clear recollection 505
9. Names of four things in which a Tathagata is inculpable 506
10. Names of the four kinds of discriminative knowledge 507
11. Names of the five kinds of eminent (special) knowledge 508
12. Names originating with the occasion of the six special knowledges 508
13. Names of the three miraculous transformations 514
14. Names of the thirty-two characteristic signs of the great man (Maha Purusha) 181
15. Names of the eighty points of beauty (on the body of a Tathagata) 184
16. Names of the excellence of Tathagata according to the Sutras 171
17. Names of the sixty branches (parts) of melody or harmony 167
18. Names of deep meditations (or ecstasies) according to the Sherchin or Prajna paramita system 290
19. General terms or names for a Bodhisatwa 10 [[209]]
20. Names of different Bodhisatwas 11
21. Names of the deep meditations (ecstasies) of a Bodhisatwa 514
22. Names of the twelve dharanis (superhuman powers) of a Bodhisatwa 515
23. Names of the ten powers of a Bodhisatwa 17
24. Names of those ten things which are in the power of a Bodhisatwa 517
25. Names of those four things of which a Bodhisatwa is not afraid 517
26. Names of the eighteen unmixed (pure) laws of a Bodhisatwa 519
27. Names of the qualifications (or good qualities, perfections) of Bodhisatwas, according to the Sutras 306
28. Names of the mansions (Bhumis) or the several degrees of perfection of the Bodhisatwas 18
29. Names of the ten kinds of religious practices 19
30. Names of the ten transcendental (cardinal) virtues 19
31. Names of those four things by which moral merit is acquired 523
32. Names of the three kinds of acquirement 523
33. Names of the eighteen kinds of voidness or abstractedness (Shunyata) 20
34. Names of the four kinds of recollection 22
35. Names of those four things that must be entirely avoided 524
36. Names of four supernatural modes or means 525
37. Names of the five organs 525
38. Names of the five faculties or powers 525
39. Names of the seven branches of perfect wisdom 23
40. Names of the eight branches of the sublime way 23
41. Names of the different degrees of self-sainted persons (as are the Rishis or hermits) (Prentyak Buddhas) 527
42. Names of the several degrees of perfection of the hearers or disciples of Buddha or Tathagata 24
43. Names of divers hearers or disciples (of Shakya) 26
44. Names of the qualifications of (Shakya’s) hearers or disciples 29
45. Names of the twelve kinds of rigid qualifications 74
46. Names of the several Bhumis (degrees of perfection) of the Hearers or disciples (of Buddha) 529
47. Names of six things that ought to be remembered 36
48. Names of unpleasant or disagreeable things 528
49. Names of the several degrees of respiration (exhalation and inhalation) 529 [[210]]
50. Names of the four excellent truths divided into sixteen minor truths 535
51. Names of the sixteen kinds of patience or forbearance in making reflections on or thinking of patience 577
52. Names of the ten kinds of knowledge 579
53. Four kinds of ways (or moments of actions) 540
54. } Names of the different kinds of vehicles (or principles) 36
54. } Names of the distinctions of mental organs (powers or faculties) 541
55. Names of the five kinds of Buddhistic perfection 541
56. Enumeration of the several kinds of Buddhistic scriptures 542
57. Names relating to the turning of the wheel of the law (by Shakya) 546
58. Names (or list) of religious tracts (current among the Buddhists) 152
59. Names of several terms relating to the doctrine of Buddha, and the manner and form of delivering it to the hearers 162
60. Names of the four kinds of meditation, &c. 549
61. Names of ecstasies 552
62. Names of the four immense things (in a Buddha) 555
63. Names of the eight kinds of liberation or emancipation 556
64. Names of the eight kinds of superior knowledge or conception 560
65. Names of the twelve accomplished or perfect sentiments 567
66. Names of the three doors of liberation or emancipation 569
67. Names of those four things on which one may rely 569
68. Names of the three kinds of wit or knowledge 151
69. Names of the five classes of science 37
70. Names of four moral maxims 570
71. Names of the seven precious (or good) things 571
72. Names of the most excellent six things 572
73. Names of the six kinds of benediction 573
74. Names of the nine good actions accompanied by great pleasure or delight 573
75. Names of those six bad things from which one should come out 575
76. Names of the four circles or kinds of goods and men 577
77. Names of rigid practices of abstinence, &c. 577
78. Names of abstract meditation on God, and the qualifications or perfections to be obtained by it 580
79. Names of the four kinds of thriving, that is, speaking, teaching, and prophesying 582
80. Names of the three kinds of criteria or definitions 582 [[211]]
81. Names of the four kinds of thinking 583
82. Names of the nine kinds of ironical thought or conception 583
83. Names of being at rest and of seeing more, that is, the high degrees of fixed meditation 584
84. Names of the ten immoral actions 192
85. Names of the ten virtuous actions 192
86. Names of those things by which one may acquire moral merit 193
87. Names of true or real meaning of the Holy and True One 194
88. Names of deliverance from pain 196
89. Names of the several kinds of refuge and protection 197
90. Names of the several kinds of respect to be paid to a religious guide, &c. 198
91. Names of assiduity and diligent application 201
92. Names of the aggregate (the body), its regions and sensation, &c. 204
93. Names of the division of the corporeal objects 204
94. Names of the division of the aggregate of sensation 211
95. Names of the division of the aggregate of consciousness or perception 211
96. Names of notions or ideas formed of animate and of inanimate existences or beings 211
97. Names of the division of the aggregate, of equation, and of perfect knowledge 219
98. Names of the twelve senses or the vehicles of perfection 219
99. Names of the eighteen regions (of senses) 220
100. Names of the twenty-two organs 222
101. Names of the several terms used on the occasion of explaining the aggregate, its regions, and the senses 224
102. Names of affection, passion, lust, desire, and longing 585
103. Names of the three kinds of sorrow or trouble 588
104. Names of the eight kinds of sorrow 588
105. Names of the twelve branches of causal concatenation or dependent contingency 39
106. Names of the six causes 589
107. Names of the four accessory causes or effects 590
108. Names of the five fruits, viz., consequences, effects 590
109. Names of the four plans or ways of coming forth or being born 591
110. Names of the four kinds of food 591
111. Names of the nine places or abodes of animate existences 591 [[212]]
112. Names of the eight undesirable things 593
113. Names of the consequences of moral actions or works, of their coming to maturity 594
114. Names of the five boundless (most atrocious) acts 596
115. Names of other five crimes approaching to the former 597
116. Names of the five sorts of dregs or degenerations 597
117. Names of eight common maxims or sayings 598
118. Names of all sorts of good qualities 599
119. Names of imperfections or defects 608
120. Names expressive of the chief Head of the pure, the liberated, or the emancipated 614
121. Names of being purified, liberated, or emancipated (purification or emancipation) 616
122. Names of relinquishing all imperfections and of becoming free 618
123. Names expressive of praise, blame, celebrity or renown 623
124. Names of opposite or contrary things 626
125. Names expressive of great, small, high, low, and similar adjectives 629
126. Names of the several degrees of acquaintance or familiarity 632
127. Names of virtue and blessings 634
128. Names expressive of speaking or hearing any religious tract; names expressive of noise, sound, expression or utterance 636
129. Names of several examples illustrative of illusion or unreality 641
130. Names of charity or alms-giving, and of oblations and sacrifices 644
131. Names of the several kinds of advantage and utility 647
132. Names of several terms expressive of the intellect, the understanding, the discrimination 648
133. Names expressive of the enumeration of the several sorts of learned men 649
134. Names of the enumeration of synonymous terms for profound or deep learning 651
135. Names of the enumeration of synonymous terms for joy or pleasure 652
136. Names expressive of anger of the several degrees of mischief or injury 654
137. Names of the four kinds of moral men 656
138. Names expressive of the life in this world and in the next; death and transmigration 656
139. Names expressive of solitude and retirement 658 [[213]]
140. Names of the four kinds of abiding, or the manner of living 658
141. Names of the several degrees of shocks in an earthquake 282
142. Names of brilliancy, light, or lustre 284
143. Names of great and small powers 275
144. Names of the four great fabulous continents 276
145. Names of the several degrees of elevation of the three regions of the world 278
146. Names of the gods in the region of cupidity (or in the realm of Cupid) 278
147. Names of the mansion of the 1st degree of meditation 279
148. Names,, of,, the,, mansion,, of,, the,, 2d degree of meditation 280
149. Names,, of,, the,, mansion,, of,, the,, 3d degree of meditation 280
150. Names,, of,, the,, mansion,, of,, the,, 4th degree of meditation 280
151. Names of the pure (or holy) mansion 281
152. Names of the incorporeal mansions 281
153. Names of the gods inhabiting this or that world 317
154. Names of the nine planets 322
155. Names of the twenty moving stars (Nakshatras) 322
156. Names of gods, Nagas, &c. 324
157. Names of the Naga kings or princes 325
158. Names of common or ordinary Nagas 331
159. Names of the Yaksha king, or of the prince of the Yakshas 335
160. Names of the prince of the Gandharvas 336
161. Names of the five gods, the Daityas, Titans, giants, Asuras 337
162. Names of Vishnu’s bird, the Garuda, the prince of the winged creation 338
163. Names of the Prince of the Kinnaras 339
164. Names of the prince of the Mahoragas 340
165. Names of the Prince of the Kumbhándas 342
166. Names of the great Rishis 40
167. Names of the ancient Buddhistic learned men in India 42
168. Names of curious philosophical systems and sects 44
169. Names of the six Tirthika teachers (in Tibetan, Mu-stegs-pá-chen) 47
170. Names of the series of the universal monarchs 47
171. Names of the excellent qualities, and of the seven precious things of an universal monarch 659
172. Names of the sons or children of whom each universal monarch had a whole thousand 660
173. Names of the four divisions of troops 662 [[214]]
174. Names of ordinary kings 52
175. Names of the Pandavas 53
176. Names of the several classes or ranks, dignities, occupations, and professions among men 53
177. Names of different castes or tribes 66
178. Names of parentage, consanguinity, &c. 68
179. Names of the several members and limbs of the body 71
180. Names of the several degrees of the formation of the embryo and of several ages of men 79
181. Names of old age and sickness 81
182. Names of places, countries, cities, towns, &c., mentioned in Buddhistic works 82
183. Names of mountains, fabulous and real 85
184. Synonymous names for sea or ocean, rivers, &c. 86
185. Names of trees 135
186. Names of terms originating with the Tantrika system 110
187. Names of signs for prognostication 662
188. Names of dialectical and sophistical terms 664, 254
189. Names of terms originating with the Nyáya doctrine 262
190. Names,, of,, terms,, originating,, with,, the,, Sankhya doctrine 264
191. Names,, of,, terms,, originating,, with,, the,, Mimansa 267
192. Names,, of,, terms,, originating,, with,, the,, Vaisheshika school 268
193. Terms of different dialectical systems 271, 667
194. Names of all sorts of theories 271
195. Names of fourteen theses that have not as yet been demonstrated or proved 272
196. Names of several terms expressive of the soul according to the Tirthika teachers 274
197. Names of twenty positions relating to annihilation 667
198. Names of grammatical terms 670
199. Inflections of a Sanskrit noun in the seven cases of all the three numbers 672
200. Names of the bad transmigrations or places of punishment after death 343
201. Names of several evil spirits (S. Preta, tib. Yidags, a ghost) 343
202. Names of all sorts of beasts into which bad or wicked men are supposed to transmigrate 344
203. Names of several Tartara, of the divisions of the hot Tartarus 354
204. Names of the several divisions of the cold Tartarus 354
205. Names of the eighteen classes of science 37
206. Names of mechanical arts and handicrafts 356
207. Names of all sorts of musical instruments 359 [[215]]
208. Names of the several tunes or parts of harmony 368
209. Names of the several kinds of dances, and the manner of dancing 361
210. Names of the literature and religious practices of the Brahmans 39
211. Names of the six occupations of a Brahman 362
212. Names of all sorts of words and phrases for such as wish to understand the Sanskrit language 362–382
213. Names of the dwelling-place or residence of the gods; names of the best, &c. 382
214. Names of all sorts of indeclinable words 88
215. Names of castles, forts, and all sorts of dwelling-places 94
216. Names of the implements belonging to a cart or chariot 100
217. Names of all sorts of corn and pulse 384
218. Names of festivals or solemn days 285
219. Names of curds, butter, and several kinds of food 286
220. Names of drugs for curing diseases 385
221. Names of clothes or garments 390
222. Names of utensils, instruments, &c. 393
223. Names of pigments, paint, colours for painting and for dyeing stuffs 395
224. Names of precious things, as gems or jewels; gold, silver, &c. 397
225. Names of conchs or shells 400
226. Names of several sorts of ornaments 401
227. Names of all sorts of armour and weapon 406
228. Names of all sorts of implements and ornamentations used on the occasion of oblations or sacrifices 409
229. Names of all sorts of flowers 411
230. Names of the several parts of flowers 417
231. Names of the excellence of some flowers 419
232. Names of the incenses and perfumes 419
233. Names of all sorts of words, phrases (for the use of those who wish to understand the Sanskrit text) 229–253
234. The names of numerals, the definite and indefinite numbers, according to the Phal-chin division of the Kahgyur 673
235. Names occurring in the Sherchin Treatise of the Kahgyur 676
236. Names originating with the Lalita Vistara, in the second vol. of the mDo class of the Kahgyur 680
237. Names occurring in the mkong-mdsod or Sanskrit Abhidharma, of the Stangyur 684 [[216]]
238. Names of the common numerals, of the inhabitants of the world 421
239. Names of all sorts of quantities and measures of distances from an atom to a Yojanam; a measure of 4000 fathoms 426
240. Names of the proportion of strength in a decimal progression 428
241. Names of time, and its subdivisions and seasons 101
242. Names of the corners and cardinal points or quarters, and intermediate corners of the world 107
243. } Names of the ten advantages derived from learning and discipline 429
243. } Names of the five classes of transgression, and of those of an indefinite character 430
244. Names of the four defects, or of the four great transgressions 431
245. Names of thirteen transgressions by which one is rendered a residue or dregs of the priests 431
246. Names of thirty transgressions, committed by accepting and using unlawful things, the wearing or carrying of which should be avoided 432
247. Names of the ninety transgressions 435
248. Names of those four transgressions that must be confessed to obtain forgiveness 445
249. Names of many things to be learned and observed 446
250. Names of seven terms for reconciling and settling disputes or quarrels 460
251. Names of punishment, chastisement, and correction 460
252. Names of entreating, addressing, petitioning, praying the priesthood, and of performing some ceremonies on certain occasions 362
253. Names of taking refuge with the three Holy Ones 465
254. Names of the eight fundamental articles to be learned and observed by those who enter into the religious order 466
255. Names of those four moral maxims that are repeated to him who will be made a Gelong (S. shramana) 122
256. Names of all sorts of religious persons 122
257. Names of several terms occurring in the Dulva, in the text entitled “The adopting of the religious order, or the taking of the religious character” 126
258. Names of the thirteen implements or utensils (of a religious person) 468
259. Names of utensils or implements of a Gelong 469 [[217]]
260. Names of those twelve persons who perform several assigned duties on behalf of others 477
261. Names of the four classes of the Buddhists, together with their eighteen subdivisions 479
262. The seventeen subjects or matters of the Dulva 481
263. Names of the five sorts of water fit to be drunk by the priests 483
264. Names of reproaching or rebuking a Buddhist priest (S. Shramana; Tib. Gelong), or any other religious person 484
265. Names of a Bihar (sacred edifice), and several other places and things belonging to it 486
266. Names of the material or stuff of which garments are made 487
267. Some words and phrases taken or collected from the Dulva 137
268. Names of those six persons among the disciples of Sakya, who were known under the name of the six Tribunes (in Sanskrit, Shadvargikah) 150
269. Names of the four kinds of nurses 151
270. Names of diseases 109
271. All sorts of distempers, diseases, or sickness 490

[[Contents]]

XVII.

A Comparative Vocabulary of Sanskrit, Hindi, Hungarian, &c., Words and Names.

A Fragment.

Not only in several memoranda of his friends, but in the preface of his Tibetan Dictionary, and also in the letters which Csoma addressed to Captain Kennedy in 1825, we find that the learned Hungarian had noticed, not merely a certain linguistic affinity between the Sanskrit and Hindi with the Hungarian tongue, but he discovered the existence of words and names, in the countries of South-East of Europe, which seem to point in that direction. Csoma has repeatedly given expression to such an opinion, the importance of which did not escape the notice of men like Wilson, Prinsep, Torrens, Campbell, and others. Yet, with the view to publication, he seemed always disinclined putting such memoranda on record, [[218]]because he had hoped, no doubt, that after arriving at Lassa he would be able to present to the public something more tangible and complete than what he could gather merely from resources collected in India.

The ardent hope of his life, that of visiting Lassa and the country beyond, was destined, however, never to be gratified.

A few pages of manuscript annotations in Csoma’s own handwriting are now in the possession of the Academy of Sciences of Hungary. These annotations are presented to the reader, however, it may be confessed, with some diffidence. Desirous to do justice to Csoma’s memory, we wish to guard against the supposition that he would ever have permitted this apparently unimportant vocabulary to appear as we find it, because the most cursory examination of it amply testifies that these memoranda are but casual annotations of words as they struck him in the course of his reading; still even so they will be considered as precious relics by those who look with interest on Csoma’s life and labours, as the plank of a sunken vessel would be that a wave chanced to throw upon a friendly shore.

With these preliminary remarks, and only under conditions just described, do we feel justified in bringing to light this hitherto unknown collection.

âtâ आता H. father atya.
annada अन्नद S. he who gives food enni adó.
annadânam अन्नदानं S. the giving food enni adás.
ashita अशित S. eaten ett, evett.
ash अश् S. to eat enni.
ashanam अशनं S. food ozsonya.
argha अर्घ S. price, value ár, becs.
astam अस्तं S. sunset este.
(?) astamatî अस्तमती S. getting towards evening esteledik.
amutra अमुत्र S. there amott.
agni अग्नि S. fire (tüz égni.)
âlasa आलस S. lazy aluszékony.
aswara अस्वर S. having deficient voice szótalan.
ardati अर्दति S. hurts árt.
alati अलति S. prevents elöz, megelöz. [[219]]
artha अर्थ S. price érték.
arthajna अर्थज्ञ S. understanding értelem.
aham अहं S. I, yes én, ám.
arthayate अर्थयते S. asks kérdez.
âm आम् S. indeed ám.
arha अर्ह S. value, price ár, becs.
arhati अर्हति S. values becaül.
artham अर्थं S. for —— ért.
e.g., gurvartham, guruért.
arthaka अर्थक S. wealth érték, gazdagság.
arthavat अर्थवत् S. wealthy értékes, gazdag.
âlasya आलस्य S. sleepy, apathetic aluszékony, aluszom.
(?) akar he will akar.
ati अति S. above, upper felette.
lâ ला S. taking, occupying, conquering foglaló.
(?) Atila अतिला (?) Adi-la, successful, great chief, conqueror elökelö, gyözelmes foglaló.
aṭala अटल S. firm, solid állandó.
angikâ अङ्गिका S. a shirt ümeg, ing.
argala अर्गल S. a bolt horgoló, rekesz.
ativṛiddha अतिवृद्ध S. very old megvénült.
asti अस्ति S. is van, vagyon.
nâsti नास्ति S. is not nincsen.
tejas तेजस् S. fire, energy tüz, fény.
twish त्विष् S. light, fire tüz.
tâta तात S. father atya.
trâta त्रात S. preserved megtartott.
trâyate त्रायते S. preserves megtart.
tâḍayati ताडयति S. pushes taszit.
twam त्वं S. thou te.
thâl, thâlâ, thâlî थाल, थाला, थाली H. a dish tál.
talati तलति S. to be full, complete telni.
tâlayati तालयति S. tölteni.
talapayati तलपयति (?) S. töltetni. [[220]]
tasyati तस्यति S. pushes, tosses taszit.
staryate स्तर्यते S. spreads terjed, terjeszkedik.
trâ, त्रा, to hold tartani.
trâyate, त्रायते,
trâpayate त्रापयते S.
râga राग S. anger harag.
râma राम S. joy öröm.
raktam रक्तं S. blood vér.
raktapa रक्तप S. blood-sucker, a leech vérszopó.
rakta-vîja रक्तवीज S. pomegranate veres bélü, veres magú.
râjati राजति S. shines ragyog.
loka लोक S. world világ.
loshṭa लोष्ट S. rust rozsda.
lankâ लङ्का S. a girl lyánka.
ghâs घास H. grass gaz, fü.
bol बोल H. speak thou szólj.
bolnâ बोल्ना H. to speak szólni.
bulânâ बुलाना H. to call szólitni.
bulwânâ बुलवाना H. to cause to call szólittatni.
(?) bâlya बाल्य S. the family család.
N.B.—Magyar family names: Bala, Buda, Bodala, Barta, Bálya, Bod, Bede, Binde, Vajna, Beder, Vida, Bardocz, Bihar,Hari, Csorja, Sánta, Buja, Székely.
bandhu बन्धु S. a friend barát.
bhrâtâ भ्राता S. brother bátya.
bhrátá me भ्राता मे S. my brother bátyám.
bhogyâ भोग्या S. a whore buja, bujálkodó.
bheka भेक S. a frog béka.
bṛiksha, vṛiksha बृक्ष S. a tree bükkfa.
bhâshita भाषित S. a discourse beszéd.
bhayânak भयानक H. champion (terrific) bajnok.
bṛikha, vṛisha वृख H. बृष S. a bull bika.
vichâraka, bichârak विचारक S. and H. the judge biró.
balgati बल्गति S. to tramp (to jump) ballagni.
Bharata भरत S. younger brother of Râma, son of Dushmanta and Sakuntalâ.
—Magyar words: Barát, Barta, Bartos.[[221]]
Budha बुध S. son of the moon, regent of the planet Mercury bölcs.
Buda.
bhâshe भाषे S. I talk beszélek.
balavân बलवान् S. (?) an idol bálvany.
eka एक S. and H. one egy.
idam इदं S. this ez.
hinsâ हिंसा S. injury kinzás.
hinsati हिंसति S. injures kinoz, kinzani.
hansa हंस S. a gander gantzi.
hâsya हास्य S. laughter kaczagás.
hazâr हज़ार H. one thousand ezer.
सहस्र S.
Himavat हिमवत् S. Himālaya range havas.
himâgama हिमागम S. cold season téli idöszak.
hikkati हिक्कति S. hiccoughs csuklik (csuklani).
hûṇa हूण S. a barbarian hun.
hûnkâra हूङ्कार S. uttering the sound of a hûn hun nyelven beszélni.
ûna (Hún?) ऊन S. to decrease megfogyni, kevesbedni.
hasati हसति S. laughs kaczag.
halabhṛit हलभृत् S. name of Balarâma eke-tartó.
chashaka चषक S. a cup csésze.
chakra चक्र S. a wheel kerék.
chakra; circus, circulus, cherk, in Russian; in Magyar: kerek, kerék, kör, kert, kerület, keritni, kerülni, kerités.
chhatra छत्र S. a parasol sátor, ernyö.
chhala छल S. deceit csalás.
chamû चमू S. multitude; an army csomó, sokaság.
chîkayati चीकयति S. touches, tickles csikland.
chyâvayati च्यावयति S. scorns csúfol.
chinoti चिनोति S. assembles, v.n. gyül.
chayayati चययति S. assembles, v.a. gyüjt.
chapayati चपयति S. assembles, v.c. gyüjtet.
cheṭa, cheḍa चेट, चेड S. servant cseléd. [[222]]
garta गर्त S. hole in the ground gödör.
galhate गल्हते S. blames gyaláz.
gohannam गोहन्नं S. cow-dung ganéj.
ghagghati घग्घति S. derides kaczag.
ghâtayan घातयन् S. killer katona.
(îsh) îshṭe (ईश्) ईष्टे S. rules uralkodik.
Îsha ईश S. name of Siva Siva isten neve.
îshîtâ ईशीता S. superiority uralkodás, felsöbbség.
îshitṛi, îshitâ ईशितृ, ईशिता S. owner tulajdonos, úr.
Sikandar सिकन्दर H. Alexander Sándor.
îḍ, îṭṭe ईड्, ईट्टे S. praises, greets üdvözöl.
îrte ईर्ते S. goes jár.
îrayati ईरयति S.
îyate ईयते S.
yâti याति S. walks jár.
yâ, yâti या, याति S. to go jár.
itastatas इतस्ततः S. here and there ide’s tova.
îrayati ईरयति S. lets go jártat.
iti इति S. thus igy.
îrshya ईर्श्य S. envy irigység.
îshṭe ईष्टे S. rules (to be a god) uralkodni, Isten, lenni.
ishṭam इष्टं S. (the desired) God Isten.
yazdân يزدان‎ P. God Isten.
uru, vṛihat उरु, वृहत् S. great, a giant úr, hatalmas.
urvîsha उर्वीश S. proprietor órias.
vahanam वहनं S. drawing, carrying vinni, vonni.
vasanam, vastra वसनं, वस्त्र S. the cloth, linen vászon.
varaṇa वरण S. defence óltalom.
Jegyz: Varna.
vâdayati वादयति S. accuses vádol.
vachaknu वचक्नु S. gossiping fecsegö.
-wâlâ ॰वाला H. belonging to a place or country hová való. [[223]]
vyâdha व्याध S. a hunter vadász.
vṛika वृक S. a wolf farkas.
(?) utsa उत्स ? street utcza.
uras उरस् S. great nagy úr.
varyya वर्य्य S. the chief vajda.
(?) varabala वरबल S. powerful (?) verböltz.
jalnâ जल्ना H. to ignite, v.n. gyúlni.
jalânâ जलाना H. to ignite, v.a. gyujtani.
jalwânâ जलवाना H. to burn, v.c. gyujtatni.
jwalati ज्वलति S. shines, burns fénylik, gyúl.
jwalana ज्वलन S. lighting meggyúl.
jayati जयति S. conquers, is victorious gyöz, gyözelmes.
jaya जय S. name of Yudhishthira Gyözö, Geyza.
yavana यवन S. a stranger jövevény.
yudh युध् S. war had, háború.
naḍa नड S. a reed nád.
naḍvat नड्वत् S. abounding in reeds nádas.
na न S., H. no, not ne, nem.
nápi नापि S. not even nem éppen.
nâma नाम S. is it not? nem é?
nacha नच S. nor, neither nem is.
nanu ननु S. is it not? nem é?
nirarthaka निरर्थक S. unmeaning érthetetlen.
mâyate, mâti मायते, माति S. measures mér.
mushka मुष्क S. a strong man, a thief erös ember, tolvaj.
N.B.—muszka.
mṛiga मृग S. deer szarvas, vad.
mṛigayati मृगयति S. sports vadász.
mṛigayâ मृगया S. a chase vadászat.
mṛigayu मृगयु S. a hunter vadász.
mṛiduromavat मृदुरोमवत् S. fine haired, a hare finom szörü, nyúl.
măyănâ मयना H. a maina (Gracula religiosa) szajkó.
N.B.—majom, majmolni-
kansa कंस S. goblet kancsó. [[224]]
kupatha कुपथ S. a hilly tract, a difficult path kárpát, hegyes.
kinchit किञ्चित् S. little kicsi.
kara कर S. arm, hand kar, kéz.
kukkuṭa कुक्कुट S. a cock kakas.
kashâya कषाय S. bitter keserü.
kûpa कूप S. a well kút.
kilâsa किलास S. a boil kelés.
kiki किकि S. a blue jay kék szajkó.
kukara कुकर S. having a crooked arm görbe karú.
kakkati कक्कति S. derides kaczag, gunyol.
(?) kikkati to cough köhögni.
koṛh कोढ़ H. leprosy kór.
kim किम् S. who ki.
kshomam क्षोमं S. silk selyem.
kapha कफ S. phlegm, spittle köp.
karpûra कर्पूर S. camphor kámfor.
kalasha कलश S. a goblet kulacs.
khara-nakhara खरनखर S. sharp-nailed köröm, körmös.
khyöd ཁྱོད་ (Tibetan) you kend, kegyelmed.
kashchit कश्चित् S. who? what? kicsoda? micsoda?
kishora किशोर S. a youth kis úr.
kîrtita कीर्तित S. celebrated hirdetett (megkürtölt).
kîrtti कीर्त्ति S. fame hir.
khatam खतं S. a pond gödör.
kis kâ किस का H. whose kié.
kis ko किस को H. to whom kinek.
kula कुल S. a family család.
sakula सकुल S. belonging to the same family ugyan azon családból való, székely?
paṇa, dhana पण, धन S. money, coin pénz.
pachati पचति S. to cook, to boil föni.
pachayati पचयति S. fözni.
pachayat पचयत् S. fözetni.
patati पतति S. carries viszen, szál.
patayati पतयति S. makes over (to) szálit. [[225]]
pâtayati पातयति S. delivers szálittat.
patha पथ S. road út.
pathati पथति S. travels utazik.
pathayati पथयति S. causes to travel utaztat.
panthati पन्थति S. shows the way utasít.
panthayati पन्थयति S.
pathin पथिन् S. travellerutas.
pathika पथिक S. utazó.
pathila पथिल S. wayfarer utazó.
pathika santati पथिकसन्तति S. a caravan utitársaság.
padika पदिक S. a footman gyalogos.
a pedestrian
padâsanam पदासनं S. footstool lábszék, zsámoly.
pachaka पचक S. a cook szakács.
pachaka strî पचकस्त्री S. a female cook fözö asszony.
(?) Pârthus पार्थुः S. a rebel pártütö, pártos.
N.B.—Parthi exules Scytharum (Justinianus).
palâla पलाल S. straw, stubble polyva, szalma.
pataka पतक S. that which falls or descends, a torrent a mi esik, patak.
pachaka पचक S. earthen vessel fazék.
pâṇḍu पाण्डु S. clothed in yellowish white (?) pandúr.
paṭa पट S. cloth posztó.
shîrshaka शीर्षक S. a helmet sisak.
suta सुत S. a son szülött, szülni.
sû सू parturition szülés.
sauchika सौचिक S. a tailor szabó.
sûchi सूचि S. a needle tü (talán szöcs?).
(sû) savanam (सू) सवनं S. to bring forth szülni.
suhṛita सुहृत S. a lover szeretö.
sûta सूत S. born szülte, szülött.
shakaṭa शकट S. a cart, carriage szekér.
sabhâ सभा S. a gathering of people, a room szoba. [[226]]
shobhâ शोभा S. beauty szépség.
sankaṭa सङ्कट S. narrow szük.
sevati सेवति S. serves szolgál.
sûshati सूषति S. brings forth szül.
skhadate स्खदते S. tears szakad.
(?) sabdati to destroy, to defeat leszabdalni.
shwasati श्वसति S. breathes szuszog.
sahate सहते S. bears szül.
sau सौ H. one hundred száz.
sa स S. he az.
sabala सबल S. one with an army, with a force or power (?) szabolcs.
shikhâ शिखा S. a stack or covered heap (fedél) asztag.
(?) sakti island sziget.
sukṛita सुकृत S. virtuous erényes.
suhṛida सुहृद S. lover, tender, compassionate szeretö.
surata सुरत S.
sûrya सूर्य्य S. the sun nap.
sûryâvartta सूर्य्यावर्त्त S. sunflower napraforgó.
sevaka सेवक S. servant szolga.
salavaṇa सलवण S. salted szalonna.
dwâram द्वारं S. a courtyard udvar.
dharati धरति S. holds tart.
dadâti ददाति S. gives, contributes adakozik.
dasha दश S. ten tiz.
dhṛi धृ S. to hold, to retain tartani.
N.B.—Examine these roots for all derivatives; e.g., “dhṛita-râshṭra,” the holder of a kingdom, a sovereign, a ruler, országtartó.
N.B.—dhar, in Hungarian: tart; tartani, tartozni, tartózkodni, tartás, tartomány, tartozó, tarlatik, &c.
dhwani ध्वनि S. a sound zaj, moraj.
(?) Duna Danube. [[227]]
(?) lip लिप to stride lépni.
(Conjugate this verb.)
Loma-pâda लोमपाद S. King of Anga, Bhaugulpore is its capital.
N.B.—Árpád.

Csoma affixed a remarkable note at the end of this paper, in the following words: Materiam dedi, formam habetis, quærite gloriam si placet! [[229]]

[1] A shelter, a house; in Tibetan, Khyim. [↑]

[2] The ten commandments of Buddha are these:—

1. Not to kill. 2. Not to steal. 3. Not to commit adultery. 4. Not to tell falsehood. 5. Not to use abusive language. 6. Not to speak nonsense. 7. Not to slander. 8. Not to be covetous. 9. Not to bear malice. 10. Not to be stubborn in a wrong principle. [↑]

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