NOTES.
l. 1. hwät: for this interjectional formula opening a poem, cf. Andreas, Daniel, Juliana, Exodus, Fata Apost., Dream of the Rood, and the "Listenith lordinges!" of mediaeval lays.—E. Cf. Chaucer, Prologue, ed. Morris, l. 853:
"Sin I shal beginne the game,
What, welcome be the cut, a Goddes name!"
we ... gefrunon is a variant on the usual epic formulæ ic gefrägn ([l. 74]) and mîne gefræge ([l. 777]). Exodus, Daniel, Phoenix, etc., open with the same formula.
l. 1. "Gâr was the javelin, armed with two of which the warrior went into battle, and which he threw over the 'shield-wall.' It was barbed."—Br. 124. Cf. Maldon, l. 296; Judith, l. 224; Gnom. Verses, l. 22; etc.
l. 4. "Scild of the Sheaf, not 'Scyld the son of Scaf'; for it is too inconsistent, even in myth, to give a patronymic to a foundling. According to the original form of the story, Sceáf was the foundling; he had come ashore with a sheaf of corn, and from that was named. This form of the story is preserved in Ethelwerd and in William of Malmesbury. But here the foundling is Scyld, and we must suppose he was picked up with the sheaf, and hence his cognomen."—E., p. 105. Cf. the accounts of Romulus and Remus, of Moses, of Cyrus, etc.
l. 6. egsian is also used in an active sense (not in the Gloss.), = to terrify.
l. 15. S. suggests þâ (which) for þät, as object of dreógan; and for aldor-leáse, Gr. suggested aldor-ceare.—Beit. ix. 136.
S. translates: "For God had seen the dire need which the rulerless ones before endured."
l. 18. "Beowulf (that is, Beaw of the Anglo-Saxon genealogists, not our Beowulf, who was a Geat, not a Dane), 'the son of Scyld in Scedeland.' This is our ancestral myth,—the story of the first culture-hero of the North; 'the patriarch,' as Rydberg calls him, 'of the royal families of Sweden, Denmark, Angeln, Saxland, and England.'"—Br., p. 78. Cf. A.-S. Chron. an. 855.
H.-So. omits parenthetic marks, and reads (after S., Beit. ix. 135) eaferan; cf. Fata Apost.: lof wîde sprang þeódnes þegna.
"The name Bēowulf means literally 'Bee-wolf,' wolf or ravager of the bees, = bear. Cf. beorn, 'hero,' originally 'bear,' and bēohata, 'warrior,' in Cædmon, literally 'bee-hater' or 'persecutor,' and hence identical in meaning with bēowulf."—Sw.
Cf.
"Arcite and Palamon,
That foughten breme, as it were bores two."
—Chaucer, Knightes Tale, l. 841, ed. Morris.
Cf. M. Müller, Science of Lang., Sec. Series, pp. 217, 218; and Hunt's Daniel, 104.
l. 19. Cf. [l. 1866], where Scedenig is used, = Scania, in Sweden(?).
l. 21. wine is pl.; cf. its apposition wil-gesîðas below. H.-So. compares Héliand, 1017, for language almost identical with [ll. 20], [21].
"In elde is bothe wisdom and usage."
—Chaucer, Knightes Tale, l. 1590, ed. Morris.
l. 26. Reflexive objects often pleonastically accompany verbs of motion; cf. [ll. 234], [301], [1964], etc.
l. 28. faroð = shore, strand, edge. Add these to the meanings in the Gloss.
l. 31. The object of âhte is probably geweald, to be supplied from wordum weóld of [l. 30].—H.-So.
R., Kl., and B. all hold conflicting views of this passage: Beit. xii. 80, ix. 188; Zachers Zeitschr. iii. 382, etc. Kl. suggests lændagas for lange.
l. 32. "hringed-stefna is sometimes translated 'with curved prow,' but it means, I think, that in the prow were fastened rings through which the cables were passed that tied it to the shore."—Br., p. 26. Cf. [ll. 1132], [1898]. Hring-horni was the mythic ship of the Edda. See Toller-Bosworth for three different views; and cf. wunden-stefna ([l. 220]), hring-naca ([l. 1863]).
ll. 34-52. Cf. the burial of Haki on a funeral-pyre ship, Inglinga Saga; the burial of Balder, Sinfiötli, Arthur, etc.
l. 35. "And this [their joy in the sea] is all the plainer from the number of names given to the ship-names which speak their pride and affection. It is the Ætheling's vessel, the Floater, the Wave-swimmer, the Ring-sterned, the Keel, the Well-bound wood, the Sea-wood, the Sea-ganger, the Sea-broad ship, the Wide-bosomed, the Prow-curved, the Wood of the curved neck, the Foam-throated floater that flew like a bird."—Br., p. 168.
l. 49. "We know from Scandinavian graves ... that the illustrious dead were buried ... in ships, with their bows to sea-ward; that they were however not sent to sea, but were either burnt in that position, or mounded over with earth."—E. See Du Chaillu, The Viking Age, xix.
l. 51. (1) sele-rædende (K., S., C.); (2) sêle-rædenne (H.); (3) sele-rædende (H.-So.). Cf. [l. 1347]; and see Ha.
l. 51. E. compares with this canto Tennyson's "Passing of Arthur" and the legendary burial-journey of St. James of Campostella, an. 800.
l. 53. The poem proper begins with this, "There was once upon a time," the first 52 lines being a prelude. Eleven of the "fitts," or cantos, begin with the monosyllable þâ, four with the verb gewîtan, nine with the formula Hrôðgâr (Beówulf, Unferð) maðelode, twenty-four with monosyllables in general (him, swâ, sê, hwät, þâ, hêht, wäs, mäg, cwôm, stræt).
l. 58. gamel. "The ... characteristics of the poetry are the use of archaic forms and words, such as mec for mé, the possessive sín, gamol, dógor, swát for eald, dæg, blód, etc., after they had become obsolete in the prose language, and the use of special compounds and phrases, such as hildenædre (war-adder) for 'arrow,' gold-gifa (gold-giver) for 'king,' ... goldwine gumena (goldfriend of men, distributor of gold to men) for 'king,'" etc.—Sw. Other poetic words are ides, ielde (men), etc.
l. 60. H.-So. reads ræswa (referring to Heorogâr alone), and places a point (with the Ms.) after Heorogâr instead of after ræswa. Cf. l. 469; see B., Zachers Zeitschr. iv. 193.
l. 62. Elan here (OHG. Elana, Ellena, Elena, Elina, Alyan) is thought by B. (Tidskr. viii. 43) to be a remnant of the masc. name Onela, and he reads: [On-]elan ewên, Heaðoscilfingas(=es) healsgebedda.
l. 68. For hê, omitted here, cf. [l. 300]. Pronouns are occasionally thus omitted in subord. clauses.—Sw.
l. 70. þone, here = þonne, than, and micel = mâre? The passage, by a slight change, might be made to read, medo-ärn micle mâ gewyrcean,—þone = by much larger than,—in which þone (þonne) would come in naturally.
l. 73. folc-scare. Add folk-share to the meanings in the Gloss.; and cf. gûð-scearu.
l. 74. ic wide gefrägn: an epic formula very frequent in poetry, = men said. Cf. Judith, ll. 7, 246; Phoenix, l. 1; and the parallel (noun) formula, mîne gefræge, [ll. 777], [838], [1956], etc.
ll. 78-83. "The hall was a rectangular, high-roofed, wooden building, its long sides facing north and south. The two gables, at either end, had stag-horns on their points, curving forwards, and these, as well as the ridge of the roof, were probably covered with shining metal, and glittered bravely in the sun."—Br., p. 32.
l. 84. Son-in-law and father-in-law; B., a so-called dvanda compound. Cf. [l. 1164], where a similar compound means uncle and nephew; and Wîdsîð's suhtorfædran, used of the same persons.
l. 88. "The word dreám conveys the buzz and hum of social happiness, and more particularly the sound of music and singing."—E. Cf. [l. 3021]; and Judith, l. 350; Wanderer, l. 79, etc.
ll. 90-99. There is a suspicious similarity between this passage and the lines attributed by Bede to Cædmon:
Nû wê sculan herian heofonrices Weard, etc.
—Sw., p. 47.
ll. 90-98 are probably the interpolation of a Christian scribe.
ll. 92-97. "The first of these Christian elements [in Beówulf] is the sense of a fairer, softer world than that in which the Northern warriors lived.... Another Christian passage ([ll. 107], [1262]) derives all the demons, eotens, elves, and dreadful sea-beasts from the race of Cain. The folly of sacrificing to the heathen gods is spoken of ([l. 175]).... The other point is the belief in immortality ([ll. 1202], [1761])."—Br. 71.
l. 100. Cf. [l. 2211], where the third dragon of the poem is introduced in the same words. Beowulf is the forerunner of that other national dragon-slayer, St. George.
l. 100. onginnan in Beówulf is treated like verbs of motion and modal auxiliaries, and takes the object inf. without tô; cf. ll. [872], [1606], [1984], [244]. Cf. gan (= did) in Mid. Eng.: gan espye (Chaucer, Knightes Tale, l. 254, ed. Morris).
l. 101. B. and H.-So. read, feónd on healle; cf. l. [142].—Beit. xii.
ll. 101-151. "Grimm connects [Grendel] with the Anglo-Saxon grindel (a bolt or bar).... It carries with it the notion of the bolts and bars of hell, and hence a fiend. ... Ettmüller was the first ... to connect the name with grindan, to grind, to crush to pieces, to utterly destroy. Grendel is then the tearer, the destroyer."—Br., p. 83.
l. 102. gäst = stranger (Ha.); cf. [ll. 1139], [1442], [2313], etc.
l. 106. "The perfect and pluperfect are often expressed, as in Modern English, by hæfð and hæfde with the past participle."—Sw. Cf. [ll. 433], [408], [940], [205] (p. p. inflected in the last two cases), etc.
l. 106. S. destroys period here, reads in Caines, etc., and puts þone ... drihten in parenthesis.
l. 108. þäs þe = because, especially after verbs of thanking (cf. [ll. 228], [627], [1780], [2798]); according as ([l. 1351]).
l. 108. The def. article is omitted with Drihten (Lord) and Deofol (devil; cf. [l. 2089]), as it is, generally, sparingly employed in poetry; cf. tô sæ ([l. 318]), ofer sæ ([l. 2381]), on lande ([l. 2311]), tô räste ([l. 1238]), on wicge (l. [286]), etc., etc.
l. 119. weras (S., H.-So.); wera (K., Th.).—Beit. ix. 137.
l. 120. unfælo = uncanny (R.).
l. 131. E. translates, majestic rage; adopting Gr.'s view that swyð is = Icel. sviði, a burn or burning. Cf. [l. 737].
l. 142. B. supposes heal-þegnes to be corrupted from helþegnes; cf. [l. 101].—Beit. xii. 80. See Gûðlâc, l. 1042.
l. 144. See Ha., p. 6, for S.'s rearrangement.
l. 146. S. destroys period after sêlest, puts wäs ... micel in parenthesis, and inserts a colon after tîd.
l. 149. B. reads sârcwidum for syððan.
l. 154. B. takes sibbe for accus. obj. of wolde, and places a comma after Deniga.—Beit. xii. 82.
l. 159. R. suggests ac se for atol.
l. 168. H.-So. plausibly conjectures this parenthesis to be a late insertion, as, at [ll. 180-181], the Danes also are said to be heathen. Another commentator considers the throne under a "spell of enchantment," and therefore it could not be touched.
l. 169. ne ... wisse: nor had he desire to do so (W.). See Ha., p. 7, for other suggestions.
l. 169. myne wisse occurs in Wanderer, [l. 27].
l. 174. The gerundial inf. with tô expresses purpose, defines a noun or adjective, or, with the verb be, expresses duty or necessity passively; cf. [ll. 257], [473], [1004], [1420], [1806], etc. Cf. tô + inf. at [ll. 316], [2557].
ll. 175-188. E. regards this passage as dating the time and place of the poem relatively to the times of heathenism. Cf. the opening lines, In days of yore, etc., as if the story, even then, were very old.
l. 177. gâst-bona is regarded by Ettmüller and G. Stephens (Thunor, p. 54) as an epithet of Thor (= giant-killer), a kenning for Thunor or Thor, meaning both man and monster.—E.
l. 189. Cf. [l. 1993], where similar language is used. H.-So. takes both môd-ceare and mæl-ceare as accus., others as instr.
ll. 190, 1994. seáð: for this use of seóðan cf. Bede, Eccles. Hist., ed. Miller, p. 128, where p. p. soden is thus used.
l. 194. fram hâm = in his home (S., H.-So.); but fram hâm may be for fram him (from them, i.e. his people, or from Hrothgar's). Cf. Ha., p. 8.
l. 197. Cf. [ll. 791], [807], for this fixed phrase.
l. 200. See Andreas, Elene, and Juliana for swan-râd (= sea). "The swan is said to breed wild now no further away than the North of Sweden." —E. Cf. ganotes bäð, [l. 1862].
l. 203. Concessive clauses with þeáh, þeáh þe, þeáh ... eal, vary with subj. and ind., according as fact or contingency is dominant in the mind; cf. [ll. 526], [1168], [2032], etc. (subj.), 1103, 1614 (ind.). Cf. gif, nefne.
l. 204. hæl, an OE. word found in Wülker's Glossaries in various forms, = augury, omen, divination, etc. Cf. hælsere, augur; hæl, omen; hælsung, augurium, hælsian, etc. Cf. Tac., Germania, 10.
l. 207. C. adds "= impetrare" to the other meanings of findan given in the Gloss.
l. 217. Cf. [l. 1910]; and Andreas, [l. 993].—E. E. compares Byron's
"And fast and falcon-like the vessel flew,"
—Corsair, i. 17.
and Scott's
"Merrily, merrily bounds the bark."
—Lord of the Isles, iv. 7.
"The fomy stedes on the golden brydel
Gnawinge."
—Chaucer, Knightes Tale, [l. 1648], ed. Morris.
l. 219. Does ân-tîd mean hour (Th.), or corresponding hour = ând-tîd (H.-So.), or in due time (E.), or after a time, when ôþres, etc., would be adv. gen.? See C., Beit. viii. 568.
l. 224. eoletes may = (1) voyage; (2) toil, labor; (3) hurried journey; but sea or fjord appears preferable.
ll. 229-257. "The scenery ... is laid on the coast of the North Sea and the Kattegat, the first act of the poem among the Danes in Seeland, the second among the Geats in South Sweden."—Br., p. 15.
l. 239. "A shoal of simple terms express in Beówulf the earliest sea-thoughts of the English.... The simplest term is Sæ.... To this they added Wæter, Flod, Stream, Lagu, Mere, Holm, Grund, Heathu, Sund, Brim, Garsecg, Eagor, Geofon, Fifel, Hron-rad, Swan-rad, Segl-rad, Ganotes-bæð."—Br., p. 163-166.
l. 239. "The infinitive is often used in poetry after a verb of motion where we should use the present participle."—Sw. Cf. [ll. 711], [721], [1163] 1803, 268, etc. Cf. German spazieren fahren reiten, etc., and similar constructions in French, etc.
l. 240, W. reads hringed-stefnan for helmas bæron. B. inserts (?) after holmas and begins a new line at the middle of the verse. S. omits B.'s "on the wall."
l. 245. Double and triple negatives strengthen each other and do not produce an affirmative in A.-S. or M. E. The neg. is often prefixed to several emphatic words in the sentence, and readily contracts with vowels, and h or w; cf. [ll. 863], [182], [2125], [1509], [575], [583], [3016], etc.
l. 249. seld-guma = man-at-arms in another's house (Wood); = low-ranking fellow (Ha.); stubenhocker, stay-at-home (Gr.), Scott's "carpet knight," Marmion, i. 5.
l. 250. näfne (nefne, nemne) usually takes the subj., = unless; cf. [ll. 1057], [3055], [1553]. For ind., = except, see l. [1354]. Cf. bûtan, gif, þeáh.
l. 250. For a remarkable account of armor and weapons in Beówulf, see S. A. Brooke, Hist. of Early Eng. Lit. For general "Old Teutonic Life in Beówulf," see J. A. Harrison, Overland Monthly.
l. 252. ær as a conj. generally has subj., as here; cf. [ll. 264], [677], [2819], [732]. For ind., cf. [l. 2020].
l. 253. leás = loose, roving. Ettmüller corrected to leáse.
l. 256. This proverb (ôfest, etc.) occurs in Exod. (Hunt), l. 293.
l. 258. An "elder" may be a very young man; hence yldesta, = eminent, may be used of Beowulf. Cf. Laws of Ælfred, C. 17: Nâ þät ælc eald sý, ac þät he eald sý on wîsdôme.
l. 273. Verbs of hearing and seeing are often followed by acc. with inf.; cf. [ll. 229], [1024], [729], [1517], etc. Cf. German construction with sehen, horen, etc., French construction with voir, entendre, etc., and the classical constructions.
l. 275. dæd-hata = instigator. Kl. reads dæd-hwata.
l. 280. ed-wendan, n. (B.; cf. 1775), = edwenden, limited by bisigu. So ten Br. = Tidskr. viii. 291.
l. 287. "Each is denoted ... also by the strengthened forms 'æghwæðer ('ægðer), éghwæðer, etc. This prefixed 'æ, óe corresponds to the Goth, aiw, OHG. eo, io, and is umlauted from á, ó by the i of the gi which originally followed."—Cook's Sievers' Gram., p. 190.
l. 292. "All through the middle ages suits of armour are called 'weeds.'"—E.
l. 303. "An English warrior went into battle with a boar-crested helmet, and a round linden shield, with a byrnie of ringmail ... with two javelins or a single ashen spear some eight or ten feet long, with a long two-edged sword naked or held in an ornamental scabbard.... In his belt was a short, heavy, one-edged sword, or rather a long knife, called the seax ... used for close quarters."—Br., p. 121.
l. 303. For other references to the boar-crest, cf. [ll. 1112], [1287], [1454]; Grimm, Myth. 195; Tacitus, Germania, 45. "It was the symbol of their [the Baltic Æstii's] goddess, and they had great faith in it as a preservative from hard knocks."—E. See the print in the illus. ed. of Green's Short History, Harper & Bros.
l. 303. "See Kemble, Saxons in England, chapter on heathendom, and Grimm's Teutonic Mythology, chapter on Freyr, for the connection these and other writers establish between the Boar-sign and the golden boar which Freyr rode, and his worship."—Br., p. 128. Cf. Elene, l. 50.
l. 304. Gering proposes hleór-bergan = cheek-protectors; cf. Beit. xii. 26. "A bronze disk found at Öland in Sweden represents two warriors in helmets with boars as their crests, and cheek-guards under; these are the hleór-bergan."—E. Cf. hauberk, with its diminutive habergeon, < A.-S. heals, neck + beorgan, to cover or protect; and harbor, < A.-S. here, army + beorgan, id.—Zachers Zeitschr. xii. 123. Cf. cinberge, Hunt's Exod. l. 175.
l. 305. For ferh wearde and gûðmôde grummon, B. and ten Br. read ferh-wearde ([l. 305]) and gûðmôdgum men ([l. 306]), = the boar-images ... guarded the lives of the warlike men.
l. 311. leóma: cf. Chaucer, Nonne Preestes Tale, l. 110, ed. Morris:
"To dremen in here dremes
Of armes, and of fyr with rede lemes."
l. 318. On the double gender of sæ, cf. Cook's Sievers' Gram., p. 147; and note the omitted article at [ll. 2381], [318], [544], with the peculiar tmesis of between at [ll. 859], [1298], [1686], [1957]. So Cædmon, l. 163 (Thorpe), Exod. l. 562 (Hunt), etc.
l. 320. Cf. [l. 924]; and Andreas, l. 987, where almost the same words occur. "Here we have manifestly before our eye one of those ancient causeways, which are among the oldest visible institutions of civilization." —E.
l. 322. S. inserts comma after scîr, and makes hring-îren (= ring-mail) parallel with gûð-byrne.
l. 325. Cf. [l. 397]. "The deposit of weapons outside before entering a house was the rule at all periods.... In provincial Swedish almost everywhere a church porch is called våkenhus,... i.e. weapon-house, because the worshippers deposited their arms there before they entered the house."—E., after G. Stephens.
l. 333. Cf. Dryden's "mingled metal damask'd o'er with gold."—E.
l. 336. "æl-, el-, kindred with Goth. aljis, other, e.g. in ælþéodig, elþéodig, foreign."—Cook's Sievers' Gram., p. 47.
l. 336. Cf. [l. 673] for the functions of an ombiht-þegn.
l. 343. Cf. [l. 1714] for the same beód-geneátas,—"the predecessor title to that of the Knights of the Table Round."—E. Cf. Andreas (K.), l. 2177.
l. 344. The future is sometimes expressed by willan + inf., generally with some idea of volition involved; cf. [ll. 351], [427], etc. Cf. the use of willan as principal vb. (with omitted inf.) at [ll. 318], [1372], [543], [1056]; and sculan, [ll. 1784], [2817].
l. 353. sîð here, and at [l. 501], probably means arrival. E. translates the former by visit, the latter by adventure.
l. 357. unhâr = hairless, bald (Gr., etc.).
l. 358. eode is only one of four or five preterits of gân (gongan, gangan, gengan), viz. geóng (gióng: [ll. 926], [2410], etc.), gang ([l. 1296], etc.), gengde ([ll. 1402], [1413]). Sievers, p. 217, apparently remarks that eode is "probably used only in prose." (?!). Cf. geng, Gen. ll. 626, 834; Exod. (Hunt) l. 102.
l. 367. The MS. and H.-So. read with Gr. and B. glädman Hrôðgâr, abandoning Thorkelin's glädnian. There is a glass. hilaris glädman.—Beit. xii. 84; same as gläd.
l. 369. dugan is a "preterit-present" verb, with new wk. preterit, like sculan, durran, magan, etc. For various inflections, see ll. [573], [590], [1822], [526]. Cf. do in "that will do"; doughty, etc.
l. 372. Cf. [l. 535] for a similar use; and [l. 1220]. Bede, Eccles. Hist., ed. Miller, uses the same expression several times. "Here, and in all other places where cniht occurs in this poem, it seems to carry that technical sense which it bore in the military hierarchy [of a noble youth placed out and learning the elements of the art of war in the service of a qualified warrior, to whom he is, in a military sense, a servant], before it bloomed out in the full sense of knight."—E.
l. 373. E. remarks of the hyphened eald-fäder, "hyphens are risky toys to play with in fixing texts of pre-hyphenial antiquity"; eald-fäder could only = grandfather. eald here can only mean honored, and the hyphen is unnecessary. Cf. "old fellow," "my old man," etc.; and Ger. alt-vater.
l. 378. Th. and B. propose Geátum, as presents from the Danish to the Geatish king.—Beit. xii.
l. 380. häbbe. The subj. is used in indirect narration and question, wish and command, purpose, result, and hypothetical comparison with swelce = as if.
ll. 386, 387. Ten Br. emends to read: "Hurry, bid the kinsman-throng go into the hall together."
l. 387. sibbe-gedriht, for Beowulf's friends, occurs also at [l. 730]. It is subject-acc. to seón. Cf. [ll. 347], [365], and Hunt's Exod. l. 214.
l. 404. "Here, as in the later Icelandic halls, Beowulf saw Hrothgar enthroned on a high seat at the east end of the hall. The seat is sacred. It has a supernatural quality. Grendel, the fiend, cannot approach it."—Br., p. 34. Cf. [l. 168].
l. 405. "At Benty Grange, in Derbyshire, an Anglo-Saxon barrow, opened in 1848, contained a coat of mail. 'The iron chain work consists of a large number of links of two kinds attached to each other by small rings half an inch in diameter; one kind flat and lozenge-shaped ... the others all of one kind, but of different lengths.'"—Br., p. 126.
l. 407. Wes ... hâl: this ancient Teutonic greeting afterwards grew into wassail. Cf. Skeat's Luke, i. 28; Andreas (K.), 1827; Layamon, l. 14309, etc.
l. 414. "The distinction between wesan and weorðan [in passive relations] is not very clearly defined, but wesan appears to indicate a state, weorðan generally an action."—Sw. Cf. Mod. German werden and sein in similar relations.
l. 414. Gr. translates hâdor by receptaculum; cf. Gering, Zachers Zeitschr. xii. 124. Toller-Bosw. ignores Gr.'s suggestion.
ll. 420, 421. B. reads: þær ic (on) fîfelgeban (= ocean) ýðde eotena cyn. Ten Br. reads: þær ic fîfelgeban ýðde, eotena hâm. Ha. suggests fîfelgeband = monster-band, without further changes.
l. 420. R. reads þæra = of them, for þær.—Zachers Zeitschr. iii. 399; Beit. xii. 367.
l. 420. "niht has a gen., nihtes, used for the most part only adverbially, and almost certainly to be regarded as masculine."—Cook's Sievers' Gram., p. 158.
l. 425. Cf. also [ll. 435], [635], [2345], for other examples of Beowulf's determination to fight single-handed.
l. 441. þe hine = whom, as at [l. 1292], etc. The indeclinable þe is often thus combined with personal pronouns, = relative, and is sometimes separated from them by a considerable interval.—Sw.
l. 443. The MS. has Geotena. B. and Fahlbeck, says H.-So., do not consider the Geátas, but the Jutes, as the inhabitants of Swedish West-Gothland. Alfred translates Juti by Geátas, but Jutland by Gotland. In the laws they are called Guti.—Beit. xii. 1, etc.
l. 444. B., Gr., and Ha. make unforhte an adv. = fearlessly, modifying etan. Kl. reads anforhte = timid.
l. 446. Cf. [l. 2910]. Th. translates: thou wilt not need my head to hide (i.e. bury). Simrock supposes a dead-watch or lyke-wake to be meant. Wood, thou wilt not have to bury so much as my head! H.-So. supposes heáfod-weard, a guard of honor, such as sovereigns or presumptive rulers had, to be meant by hafalan hýdan; hence, you need not give me any guard, etc. Cf. Schmid, Gesetze der A., 370-372.
l. 447. S. places a colon after nimeð.
l. 451. H.-So., Ha., and B. (Beit. xii. 87) agree essentially in translating feorme, food. R. translates consumption of my corpse. Maintenance, support, seems preferable to either.
l. 452. Rönning (after Grimm) personifies Hild.—Beovulfs Kvadet, l. 59. Hildr is the name of one of the Scandinavian Walkyries, or battle-maidens, who transport the spirits of the slain to Walhalla. Cf. Kent's Elene, l. 18, etc.
l. 455. "The war-smiths, especially as forgers of the sword, were garmented with legend, and made into divine personages. Of these Weland is the type, husband of a swan maiden, and afterwards almost a god."— Br., p. 120. Cf. A. J. C. Hare's account of "Wayland Smith's sword with which Henry II. was knighted," and which hung in Westminster Abbey to a late date.—Walks in London, ii. 228.
l. 455. This is the ælces mannes wyrd of Boethius (Sw., p. 44) and the wyrd bið swîðost of Gnomic Verses, 5. There are about a dozen references to it in Beówulf.
l. 455. E. compares the fatalism of this concluding hemistich with the Christian tone of [l. 685] seq.
ll. 457, 458. B. reads wære-ryhtum ( = from the obligations of clientage).
l. 480. Cf. [l. 1231], where the same sense, "flown with wine," occurs.
l. 488. "The duguð, the mature and ripe warriors, the aristocracy of the nation, are the support of the throne."—E. The M. E. form of the word, douth, occurs often. Associated with geogoð, [ll. 160] and [622].
l. 489. Kl. omits comma after meoto and reads (with B.) sige-hrêð-secgum, = disclose thy thought to the victor-heroes. Others, as Körner, convert meoto into an imperative and divide on sæl = think upon happiness. But cf. onband beadu-rûne, [l. 501]. B. supposes onsæl meoto =speak courteous words. Tidskr. viii. 292; Haupts Zeitschr. xi. 411; Eng. Stud. ii. 251.
l. 489. Cf. the invitation at [l. 1783].
l. 494. Cf. Grimm's Andreas, l. 1097, for deal, =proud, elated, exulting; Phoenix (Bright), l. 266.
l. 499. MS. has Hunferð, but the alliteration requires Ûnferð, as at [ll. 499], [1166], [1489]; and cf. [ll. 1542], [2095], [2930]. See List of Names.
l. 501. sîð = arrival (?); cf. [l. 353].
l. 504. þon mâ = the more (?), may be added to the references under þon.
l. 506. E. compares the taunt of Eliab to David, I Sam. xvii. 28.
l. 509. dol-gilp = idle boasting. The second definition in the Gloss. is wrong.
l. 513. "Eagor-stream might possibly be translated the stream of Eagor, the awful terror-striking stormy sea in which the terrible [Scandinavian] giant dwelt, and through which he acted."—Br., p. 164. He remarks, "The English term eagre still survives in provincial dialect for the tide-wave or bore on rivers. Dryden uses it in his Threnod. Angust. 'But like an eagre rode in triumph o'er the tide.' Yet we must be cautious," etc. Cf. Fox's Boethius, ll. 20, 236; Thorpe's Cædmon, 69, etc.
l. 524. Krüger and B. read Bânstânes.—Beit. ix. 573.
l. 525. R. reads wyrsan (= wyrses: cf. Mod. Gr. guten Muthes) geþinges; but H.-So. shows that the MS. wyrsan ... þingea = wyrsena þinga, can stand; cf. gen. pl. banan, Christ, l. 66, etc.
l. 534. Insert, under eard-lufa (in Gloss.), earfoð, st. n., trouble, difficulty, struggle; acc. pl. earfeðo, [534].
l. 545 seq. "Five nights Beowulf and Breca kept together, not swimming, but sailing in open boats (to swim the seas is to sail the seas), then storm drove them asunder ... Breca is afterwards chief of the Brondings, a tribe mentioned in Wîdsíth. The story seems legendary, not mythical."—Br., pp. 60, 61.
ll. 574-578. B. suggests swâ þær for hwäðere, = so there it befell me. But the word at [l. 574] seems = however, and at [l. 578] = yet; cf. [l. 891]; see S.; Beit. ix. 138; Tidskr. viii. 48; Zacher, iii. 387, etc.
l. 586. Gr. and Grundt. read fâgum sweordum (no ic þäs fela gylpe!), supplying fela and blending the broken half-lines into one. Ho. and Kl. supply geflites.
l. 599. E. translates nýd-bâde by blackmail; adding "nêd bâd, toll; nêd bâdere, tolltaker."—Land Charters, Gloss, v.
l. 601. MS. has ond = and in three places only ([601], [1149], [2041]); elsewhere it uses the symbol 7 = and.
l. 612. seq. Cf. the drinking ceremony at [l. 1025]. "The royal lady offers the cup to Beowulf, not in his turn where he sate among the rest, but after it has gone the round; her approach to Beowulf is an act apart."—E.
l. 620. "The [loving] cup which went the round of the company and was tasted by all," like the Oriel and other college anniversary cups.—E.
l. 622. Cf. [ll. 160], [1191], for the respective places of young and old.
l. 623. Cf. the circlet of gold worn by Wealhþeów at [l. 1164].
l. 631. gyddode. Cf. Chaucer, Prol. l. 237 (ed. Morris):
"Of yeddynges he bar utterly the prys."
Cf. giddy.
l. 648. Kl. suggests a period after geþinged, especially as B. (Tidskr. viii. 57) has shown that oþþe is sometimes = ond. Th. supplies ne.
l. 650. oþþe here and at [ll. 2476], [3007], probably = and.
l. 651. Cf. 704, where sceadu-genga (the night-ganger of Leechdoms, ii. 344) is applied to the demon.—E.
l. 659. Cf. [l. 2431] for same formula, "to have and to hold" of the Marriage Service.—E.
l. 681. B. considers þeáh ... eal a precursor of Mod. Eng. although.
l. 682. gôdra = advantages in battle (Gr.), battle-skill (Ha.), skill in war (H.-So.). Might not nât be changed to nah = ne + âh (cf. [l. 2253]), thus justifying the translation ability (?) —he has not the ability to, etc.
l. 695. Kl. reads hiera.—Beit. ix. 189. B. omits hîe as occurring in the previous hemistich.—Beit. xii. 89.
l. 698. "Here Destiny is a web of cloth."—E., who compares the Greek Clotho, "spinster of fate." Women are also called "weavers of peace," as l. [1943]. Cf. Kent's Elene, l. 88; Wîdsîð, l. 6, etc.
l. 711. B. translates þâ by when and connects with the preceding sentences, thus rejecting the ordinary canto-division at [l. 711]. He objects to the use of com as principal vb. at [ll. 703], [711], and 721. (Beit, xii.)
l. 711. "Perhaps the Gnomic verse which tells of Thyrs, the giant, is written with Grendel in the writer's mind,—þyrs sceal on fenne gewunian âna inuan lande, the giant shall dwell in the fen, alone in the land (Sweet's Read., p. 187)."—Br. p. 36.
l. 717. Dietrich, in Haupt. xi. 419, quotes from Ælfric, Hom. ii. 498: hê beworhte þâ bigelsas mid gyldenum læfrum, he covered the arches with gold-leaf,—a Roman custom derived from Carthage. Cf. Mod. Eng. oriel = aureolum, a gilded room.—E. (quoting Skeat). Cf. [ll. 2257], [1097], [2247], [2103], [2702], [2283], [333], [1751], for various uses of gold-sheets.
l. 720. B. and ten Br. suggest hell-thane (Grendel) for heal-þegnas, and make häle refer to Beowulf. Cf. [l. 142].
l. 727. For this use of standan, cf. [ll. 2314], [2770]; and Vergil, Ecl. ii. 26:
"Cum placidum ventis staret mare."
l. 757. gedräg. Tumult is one of the meanings of this word. Here, appar. = occupation, lair.
l. 759. R. reads môdega for gôda, "because the attribute cannot be separated from the word modified unless the two alliterate."
l. 762. Cf. Andreas, l. 1537, for a similar use of ût = off.—E.
l. 769. The foreign words in Beówulf (as ceaster-here) are not numerous; others are (aside from proper names like Cain, Abel, etc.) deófol (diabolus), candel ([l. 1573]), ancor ([l. 303]), scrîfan (for- ge-), segn ([l. 47]), gigant ([l. 113]), mîl- ([l. 1363]), stræt ([l. 320]), ombeht ([l. 287]), gim ([l. 2073]), etc.
l. 770. MS. reads cerwen, a word conceived by B. and others to be part of a fem. compd.: -scerwen like -wenden in ed-wenden, -ræden, etc. (cf. meodu-scerpen in Andreas, l. 1528); emended to -scerwen, a great scare under the figure of a mishap at a drinking-bout; one might compare bescerwan, to deprive, from bescyrian (Grein, i. 93), hence ealu-scerwen would = a sudden taking away, deprivation, of the beer.—H.-So., p. 93. See B., Tidskr. viii. 292.
l. 771. Ten Br. reads rêðe, rênhearde, = raging, exceeding bold.
l. 792. Instrumental adverbial phrases like ænige þinga, nænige þinga (not at all), hûru þinga (especially) are not infrequent. See Cook's Sievers' Gram., p. 178; March, A.-S. Gram., p. 182.
l. 811. myrðe. E. translates in wanton mood. Toller-Bosw. does not recognize sorrow as one of the meanings of this word.
ll. 850, 851. S. reads deóp for deóg and erases semicolon after weól, = the death-stained deep welled with sword-gore; cf. [l. 1424]. B. reads deáð-fæges deóp, etc., = the deep welled with the doomed one's gore.—Beit. xii. 89.
l. 857. The meaning of blaneum is partly explained by fealwe mearas below, [l. 866]. Cf. Layamon's "and leop on his blancke" = steed, l. 23900; Kent's Elene, l. 1185.
l. 859. Körner, Eng. Stud. i. 482, regards the oft-recurring be sæm tweónum as a mere formula = on earth; cf. [ll. 1298], [1686]. tweóne is part of the separable prep. between; see be-. Cf. Baskerville's Andreas, l. 558.
l. 865. Cf. Voyage of Ôhthere and Wulfstân for an account of funeral horse-racing, Sweet's Read., p. 22.
l. 868. See Ha., p. 31, for a variant translation.
l. 871 seq. R. considers this a technical description of improvised alliterative verse, suggested by and wrought out on the spur of the moment.
l. 872. R. and B. propose secg[an], = rehearse, for secg, which suits the verbs in the next two lines.
ll. 878-98. "It pleases me to think that it is in English literature we possess the first sketch of that mighty saga [the Volsunga Saga = Wälsinges gewin] which has for so many centuries engaged all the arts, and at last in the hands of Wagner the art of music."—Br., p. 63. Cf. Nibelung. Lied, l. 739.
l. 894. Intransitive verbs, as gân, weorðan, sometimes take habban, "to indicate independent action."—Sw. Cf. hafað ... geworden, [l. 2027].
l. 895. "brûcan (enjoy) always has the genitive."—Sw.; cf. [l. 895]; acc., gen., instr., dat., according to March, A.-S. Gram., p. 151.
l. 898. Scherer proposes hâte, = from heat, instr. of hât, heat; cf. [l. 2606].
l. 901. hê þäs âron þâh = he throve in honor (B.). Ten Br. inserts comma after þâh, making siððan introduce a depend. clause.—Beit. viii. 568. Cf. weorð-myndum þâh, [l. 8]; ll. [1155], [1243].—H.-So.
l. 902. Heremôdes is considered by Heinzel to be a mere epithet = the valiant; which would refer the whole passage to Sigmund (Sigfrid), the eotenas, [l. 903], being the Nibelungen. This, says H.-So., gets rid of the contradiction between the good "Heremôd" here and the bad one, [l. 1710] seq.—B. however holds fast to Heremôd.—Beit. xii. 41. on feónda geweald, [l. 904],—into the hands of devils, says B.; cf. [ll. 809], [1721], [2267]; Christ, l. 1416; Andreas, l. 1621; for hine fyren onwôd, cf. Gen. l. 2579; Hunt's Dan. 17: hîe wlenco anwôd.
l. 902 seq. "Heremôd's shame is contrasted with the glory of Sigemund, and with the prudence, patience, generosity, and gentleness of Beowulf as a chieftain."—Br., p. 66.
l. 906. MS. has lemede. Toller-Bosw. corrects to lemedon.
l. 917. Cf. Hunt's Exod., l. 170, for similar language.
l. 925. hôs, G. hansa, company, "the word from which the mercantile association of the 'Hanseatic' towns took their designation."—E.
l. 927. on staþole = on the floor (B., Rask, ten Br.).—Beit. xii. 90.
l. 927. May not steápne here = bright, from its being immediately followed by golde fâhne? Cf. Chaucer's "his eyen stepe," Prol. l. 201 (ed. Morris); Cockayne's Ste. Marherete, pp. 9, 108; St. Kath., l. 1647.
l. 931. grynna may be for gyrnna (= sorrows), gen. plu. of gyrn, as suggested by one commentator.
l. 937. B. (Beit. xii. 90) makes gehwylcne object of wîd-scofen (häfde). Gr. makes weá nom. absolute.
l. 940. scuccum: cf. G. scheuche, scheusal; Prov. Eng. old-shock; perhaps the pop. interjection O shucks! (!)
l. 959. H. explains we as a "plur. of majesty," which Beówulf throws off at [l. 964].
l. 963. feónd þone frätgan (B. Beit. xii. 90).
l. 976. synnum. "Most abstract words in the poetry have a very wide range of meanings, diverging widely from the prose usage, synn, for instance, means simply injury, mischief, hatred, and the prose meaning sin is only a secondary one; hata in poetry is not only hater, but persecutor, enemy, just as nîð is both hatred and violence, strength; heard is sharp as well as hard."—Sw.
l. 986. S. places wäs at end of [l. 985] and reads stîðra nägla, omitting gehwylc and the commas after that and after sceáwedon. Beit. ix. 138; stêdra (H.-So.); hand-sporu (H.-So.) at [l. 987].
l. 986. Miller (Anglia, xii. 3) corrects to æghwylene, in apposition to fingras.
l. 987. hand-sporu. See Anglia, vii. 176, for a discussion of the intrusion of u into the nom. of n-stems.
l. 988. Cf. [ll. 2121], [2414], for similar use of unheóru = ungeheuer.
l. 992. B. suggests heátimbred for hâten, and gefrätwon for -od; Kl., hroden (Beit. ix. 189).
l. 995, 996. Gold-embroidered tapestries seem to be meant by web = aurifrisium.
l. 997. After þâra þe = of those that, the depend, vb. often takes sg. for pl.; cf. [ll. 844], [1462], [2384], [2736].—Sw.; Dietrich.
l. 998. "Metathesis of l takes place in seld for setl, bold for botl," etc.—Cook's Sievers' Gram., p. 96. Cf. Eng. proper names, Bootle, Battlefield, etc.—Skeat, Principles, i. 250.
l. 1000. heorras: cf. Chaucer, Prol. (ed. Morris) l. 550:
"Ther was no dore that he nolde heve of harre."
ll. 1005-1007. See Zachers Zeitschr. iii. 391, and Beit. xii. 368, for R.'s and B.'s views of this difficult passage.
l. 1009. Cf. [l. 1612] for sæl and mæl, surviving still in E. Anglia in "mind your seals and meals," = times and occasions, i.e. have your wits about you.—E.
ll. 1012, 1013. Cf. [ll. 753], [754] for two similar comparatives used in conjunction.
l. 1014. Cf. [l. 327] for similar language.
ll. 1015, 1016. H.-So. puts these two lines in parentheses (fylle ... þâra). Cf. B., Beit. xii. 91.
l. 1024. One of the many famous swords spoken of in the poem. See Hrunting, [ll. 1458], [1660]; Hûnlâfing, [l. 1144], etc. Cf. Excalibur, Roland's sword, the Nibelung Balmung, etc.
l. 1034. scûr-heard. For an ingenious explanation of this disputed word see Professor Pearce's article in Mod. Lang. Notes, Nov. 1, 1892, and ensuing discussion.
l. 1039. eoderas is of doubtful meaning. H. and Toller-Bosw. regard the word here = enclosure, palings of the court. Cf. Cædmon, ll. 2439, 2481. The passage throws interesting light on horses and their trappings
l. 1043. Grundt. emends wîg to wicg, = charger; and E. quotes Tacitus, Germania, 7.
l. 1044. "Power over each and both"; cf. "all and some," "one and all."
For Ingwin, see List of Names.
l. 1065. Gr. contends that fore here = de, concerning, about (Ebert's Jahrb., 1862, p. 269).
l. 1069. H.-So. supplies fram after eaferum, to govern it, = concerning (?). Cf. Fight at Finnsburg, Appendix.
l. 1070. For the numerous names of the Danes, "bright-" "spear-" "east-" "west-" "ring-" Danes, see these words.
l. 1073. Eotenas = Finn's people, the Frisians; cf. [ll. 1089], [1142], [1146], etc., and Beit. xii. 37. Why they are so called is not known.
l. 1084. R. proposes wiht Hengeste wið gefeohtan (Zachers Zeitschr. iii. 394). Kl., wið H. wiht gefeohtan.
ll. 1085 and 1099. weá-lâf occurs in Wulfstan, Hom. 133, ed. Napier.—E. Cf. daroða lâf, Brunanb., l. 54; âdes lâfe, Phoenix, 272 (Bright), etc.
l. 1098. elne unflitme = so dass der eid (der inhalt des eides) nicht streitig war.—B., Beit. iii. 30. But cf. 1130, where Hengist and Finn are again brought into juxtaposition and the expression ealles (?) unhlitme occurs.
l. 1106. The pres. part. + be, as myndgiend wære here, is comparatively rare in original A.-S. literature, but occurs abundantly in translations from the Latin. The periphrasis is generally meaningless. Cf. [l. 3029].
l. 1108. Körner suggests ecge, = sword, in reference to a supposed old German custom of placing ornaments, etc., on the point of a sword or spear (Eng. Stud. i. 495). Singer, ince-gold = bright gold; B., andiége = Goth, andaugjo, evidently. Cf. incge lâfe, [l. 2578]. Possibly: and inge (= young men) gold âhôfon of horde. For inge, cf. Hunt's Exod. l. 190.
ll. 1115-1120. R. proposes (hêt þâ ...) bânfatu bärnan ond on bæl dôn, earme on eaxe = to place the arms in the ashes, reading gûðrêc = battle-reek, for -rinc (Zachers Zeitschr. iii. 395). B., Sarrazin (Beit. xi. 530), Lichtenfeld (Haupts Zeitschr. xvi. 330), C., etc., propose various emendations. See H.-So., p. 97, and Beit. viii. 568. For gùðrinc âstâh, cf. Old Norse, stiga á bál, "ascend the bale-fire."
l. 1116. sweoloðe. "On Dartmoor the burning of the furze up the hillsides to let new grass grow, is called zwayling."—E. Cf. sultry, G. schwül, etc.
l. 1119. Cf. wudu-rêc âstâh, [l. 3145]; and Exod. (Hunt), l. 450: wælmist âstâh.
l. 1122. ätspranc = burst forth, arose (omitted from the Gloss.), < ät + springan.
l. 1130. R. and Gr. read elne unflitme, = loyally and without contest, as at [l. 1098]. Cf. Ha., p. 39; H.-So., p. 97.
l. 1137. scacen = gone; cf. [ll. 1125], [2307], [2728].
l. 1142. "The sons of the Eotenas" (B., Beit. xii. 31, who conjectures a gap after 1142).
l. 1144. B. separates thus: Hûn Lâfing, = Hûn placed the sword Lâfing, etc.—Beit. xii. 32; cf. R., Zachers Zeitschr. iii. 396. Heinzel and Homburg make other conjectures (Herrig's Archiv, 72, 374, etc.).
l. 1143. B., H.-So., and Möller read: worod rædenne, þonne him Hûn Lâfing, = military brotherhood, when Hûn laid upon his breast (the sword) Lâfing. There is a sword Laufi, Lövi in the Norse sagas; but swords, armor, etc., are often called the leaving (lâf) of files, hammers, etc., especially a precious heirloom; cf. [ll. 454], [1033], [2830], [2037], [2629], [796], etc., etc.
l. 1152. roden = reddened (B., Tidskr. viii. 295).
l. 1160. For [ll. 1069-1160], containing the Finn episode, cf. Möller, Alteng. Volksepos, 69, 86, 94; Heinzel, Anz. f. dtsch. Altert., 10, 226; B., Beit. xii. 29-37. Cf. Wîdsîð, l. 33, etc.
ll. 1160, 1161. leóð (lied = song, lay) and gyd here appear synonyms.
ll. 1162-1165. "Behind the wars and tribal wanderings, behind the contentions of the great, we watch in this poem the steady, continuous life of home, the passions and thoughts of men, the way they talked and moved and sang and drank and lived and loved among one another and for one another."—Br., p. 18.
l. 1163. Cf. wonderwork. So wonder-death, wonder-bidding, wonder-treasure, -smith, -sight, etc. at [ll. 1748], [3038], [2174], [1682], [996], etc. Cf. the German use of the same intensive, = wondrous, in wunder-schön, etc.
l. 1165. þâ gyt points to some future event when "each" was not "true to other," undeveloped in this poem, suhtor-gefäderan = Hrôðgâr and Hrôðulf, [l. 1018]. Cf. âðum-swerian, [l. 84].
l. 1167 almost repeats [l. 500], ät fôtum, etc., where Ûnferð is first introduced.
l. 1191. E. sees in this passage separate seats for youth and middle-aged men, as in English college halls, chapels, convocations, and churches still.
l. 1192. ymbutan, round about, is sometimes thus separated: ymb hie ûtan; cf. Voyage of Ôhthere, etc. (Sw.), p. 18, l. 34, etc.; Beówulf, [ll. 859], [1686], etc.
l. 1194. bewägned, a ἃπαξ λεγόμενον, tr. offered by Th. Probably a p. p. wägen, made into a vb. by -ian, like own, drown, etc. Cf. hafenian ( < hafen, < hebban), etc.
l. 1196. E. takes the expression to mean "mantle and its rings or broaches." "Rail" long survived in Mid. Eng. (Piers Plow., etc.).
l. 1196. This necklace was afterwards given by Beowulf to Hygd, [ll. 2173], [2174].
ll. 1199-1215. From the obscure hints in the passage, a part of the poem may be approximately dated,—if Hygelâc is the Chochi-laicus of Gregory of Tours, Hist. Francorum, iii. 3,—about A.D. 512-20.
l. 1200. The Breosinga men (Icel. Brisinga men) is the necklace of the goddess Freya; cf. Elder Edda, Hamarshemt. Hâma stole the necklace from the Gothic King Eormenrîc; cf. Traveller's Song, ll. 8, 18, 88, 111. The comparison of the two necklaces leads the poet to anticipate Hygelâc's history,—a suggestion of the poem's mosaic construction.
l. 1200. For Brôsinga mene, cf. B., Beit. xii. 72. C. suggests fleáh, = fled, for fealh, placing semicolon after byrig, and making hê subject of fleáh and geceás.
l. 1202. B. conjectures geceás êcne ræd to mean he became a pious man and at death went to heaven. Heime (Hâma) in the Thidrekssaga goes into a cloister = to choose the better part (?). Cf. H.-So., p. 98. But cf. Hrôðgâr's language to Beowulf, [ll. 1760], [1761].
l. 1211. S. proposes feoh, = property, for feorh, which would be a parallel for breóst-gewædu ... beáh below.
l. 1213. E. remarks that in the Laws of Cnut, i. 26, the devil is called se wôdfreca werewulf, the ravening werwolf.
l. 1215. C. proposes heals-bêge onfêng. Beit. viii. 570. For hreâ- Kl. suggests hræ-.
l. 1227. The son referred to is, according to Ettmüller, the one that reigns after Hrôðgâr.
l. 1229. Kl. suggests sî, = be, for is.
l. 1232. S. gives wine-elated as the meaning of druncne.—Beit. ix. 139; Kl. ibid. 189, 194. But cf. Judith, ll. 67, 107.
l. 1235. Cf. [l. 119] for similarity of language.
l. 1235. Kl. proposes gea-sceaft; but cf. [l. 1267].
l. 1246. Ring armor was common in the Middle Ages. E. points out the numerous forms of byrne in cognate languages,—Gothic, Icelandic, OHG., Slavonic, O. Irish, Romance, etc. Du Chaillu, The Viking Age, i. 126. Cf. Murray's Dict. s. v.
l. 1248. ânwîg-gearwe = ready for single combat (C.); but cf. Ha. p. 43; Beit. ix. 210, 282.
l. 1252. Some consider this fitt the beginning of Part (or Lay) II. of the original epic, if not a separate work in itself.
l. 1254. K., W., and Ho. read farode = wasted; Kolbing reads furode; but cf. wêsten warode, [l. 1266]. MS. has warode.
ll. 1255-1258. This passage is a good illustration of the constant parallelism of word and phrase characteristic of A.-S. poetry, and is quoted by Sw. The changes are rung on ende and swylt, on gesýne and wîdcûð, etc.
l. 1259. "That this story of Grendel's mother was originally a separate lay from the first seems to be suggested by the fact that the monsters are described over again, and many new details added, such as would be inserted by a new singer who wished to enhance and adorn the original tale."—Br., p. 41.
l. 1259. Cf. [l. 107], which also points to the ancestry of murderers and monsters and their descent from "Cain."
l. 1261. The MS. has se þe, m.; changed by some to seo þe. At [ll. 1393], [1395], [1498], Grendel's mother is referred to as m.; at [ll. 1293], [1505], [1541-1546], etc., as f., the uncertain pronoun designating a creature female in certain aspects, but masculine in demonic strength and savageness.—H.-So.; Sw. p. 202. Cf. the masc. epithets at [ll. 1380], [2137], etc.
l. 1270. âglæca = Grendel, though possibly referring to Beowulf, as at [l. 1513].—Sw.
l. 1273. "It is not certain whether anwalda stands for onwealda, or whether it should be read ânwealda, = only ruler.—Sw.
l. 1279. The MS. has sunu þeod wrecan, which R. changes to sunu þeód-wrecan, þeód- = monstrous; but why not regard þeód as opposition to sunu, = her son, the prince? See Sweet's Reader, and Körner's discussion, Eng. Stud. i. 500.
l. 1281. Ten Br. suggests (for sôna) sâra = return of sorrows.
l. 1286. "geþuren (twice so written in MSS.) stands for geþrúen, forged, and is an isolated p. p."—Cook's Sievers' Gram., 209. But see Toller-Bosw. for examples; Sw., Gloss.; March, p. 100, etc.
ll. 1292. þe hine = whom; cf. [ll. 441], [1437], [1292]; Hêliand, l. 1308.
l. 1298. be sæm tweonum; cf. [l. 1192]; Hunt's Exod. l. 442; and Mod. Eng. "to us-ward, etc.—Earle's Philol., p. 449. Cf. note, l. 1192.
l. 1301. C. proposes ôðer him ärn = another apartment was assigned him.
l. 1303. B. conjectures under hrôf genam; but Ha., p. 45, shows this to be unnecessary, under also meaning in, as in (or under) these circumstances.
l. 1319. E. and Sw. suggest nægde or nêgde, accosted, nêgan = Mid. Ger. nêhwian, pr. p. nêhwiandans, approach. For hnægan, press down, vanquish, see [ll. 1275], [1440], etc.
l. 1321. C. suggests neád-lâðum for neód-laðu, after crushing hostility; but cf. freónd-laðu, [l. 1193].
l. 1334. K. and ten Br. conjecture gefägnod = rejoicing in her fill, a parallel to æse wlanc, [l. 1333].
l. 1340. B. translates: "and she has executed a deed of blood-vengeance of far-reaching consequence."—Beit. xii. 93.
l. 1345. B. reads geó for eów (Zachers Zeitschr. iv. 205).
ll. 1346-1377. "This is a fine piece of folk-lore in the oldest extant form.... The authorities for the story are the rustics ([ll. 1346], [1356])." —E.
l. 1347. Cf. sele-rædende at [l. 51].
l. 1351. "The ge [of gewitan] may be merely a scribal error,—a repetition (dittography) of the preceding ge of gewislîcost."—Sw.
l. 1352. ides, like firas, men, etc., is a poetic word supposed by Grimm to have been applied, like Gr. νύμφη, to superhuman or semi-divine women.
ll. 1360-1495 seq. E. compares this Dantesque tarn and scenery with the poetical accounts of Æneid, vii. 563; Lucretius, vi. 739, etc.
l. 1360. firgenstreám occurs also in the Phoenix (Bright, p. 168) l. 100; Andreas, ll. 779, 3144 (K.); Gnomic Verses, l. 47, etc.
l. 1363. The genitive is often thus used to denote measure = by or in miles; cf. [l. 3043]; and contrast with partitive gen. at [l. 207].
l. 1364. The MS. reads hrinde = hrînende (?), which Gr. adopts; K. and Th. read hrinde-bearwas; hringde, encircling (Sarrazin, Beit. xi. 163); hrîmge = frosty (Sw.); with frost-whiting covered (Ha.). See Morris, Blickling Hom., Preface, vi., vii.
l. 1364. Cf. Ruin, hrîmige edoras behrofene, rimy, roofless halls.
l. 1366. nîðwundor may = nið- (as in nið-sele, q. v.) wundor, wonder of the deep.
l. 1368. The personal pronoun is sometimes omitted in subordinate and even independent clauses; cf. wite here; and Hunt's Exod., l. 319.
l. 1370. hornum. Such "datives of manner or respect" are not infrequent with adj.
l. 1371. "seleð is not dependent on ær, for in that case it would be in the subjunctive, but ær is simply an adverb, correlative with the conjunction ær in the next line: 'he will (sooner) give up his life, before he will,' etc."—Sw.
l. 1372. Cf. [ll. 318] and [543] for willan with similar omitted inf.
l. 1373. heafola is found only in poetry.—Sw. It occurs thirteen or fourteen times in this poem. Cf. the poetic gamol, swât ([l. 2694]), etc., for eald, blôd.
l. 1391. uton: hortatory subj. of wîtan, go, = let us go; cf. French allons, Lat. eamus, Ital. andiamo, etc. + inf. Cf. [ll. 2649], [3102].
l. 1400. H. is dat. of person indirectly affected, = advantage.
l. 1402. geatolîc probably = in his equipments, as B. suggests (Beit. xii. 83), comparing searolîc.
ll. 1402, 1413 reproduce the wk. form of the pret. of gân (Goth, gaggida). Cf. Andreas, l. 1096, etc.
l. 1405. S. (Beit. ix. 140) supplies [þær heó] gegnum fôr; B. (ibid. xii. 14) suggests hwær heó.
l. 1411. B., Gr., and E. take ân-paðas = paths wide enough for only one, like Norwegian einstig; cf. stîge nearwe, just above. Trail is the meaning. Cf. enge ânpaðas, uncûð gelâd, Exod. (Hunt), l. 58.
l. 1421. Cf. oncýð, [l. 831]. The whole passage ([ll. 1411-1442]) is replete with suggestions of walrus-hunting, seal-fishing, harpooning of sea-animals ([l. 1438]), etc.
l. 1425. E. quotes from the 8th cent. Corpus Gloss., "Falanx foeða."
l. 1428. For other mention of nicors, cf. [ll. 422], [575], [846]. E. remarks, "it survives in the phrase 'Old Nick' ... a word of high authority ... Icel. nykr, water-goblin, Dan. nök, nisse, Swed. näcken, G. nix, nixe, etc." See Skeat, Nick.
l. 1440. Sw. reads gehnæged, prostrated, and regards nîða as gen. pl. "used instrumentally," = by force.
l. 1441. -bora = bearer, stirrer; occurs in other compds., as mund-, ræd-, wæg-bora.
l. 1447. him = for him, a remoter dative of reference.—Sw.
l. 1455. Gr. reads brondne, = flaming.
l. 1457. león is the inf. of lâh; cf. onlâh (< onleón) at [l. 1468]. lîhan was formerly given as the inf.; cf. læne = læhne.
l. 1458. Cf. the similar dat. of possession as used in Latin.
l. 1458. H.-So. compares the Icelandic saga account of Grettir's battle with the giant in the cave. häft-mêce may be = Icel. heptisax (Anglia, iii. 83), "hip-knife."
l. 1459. "The sense seems to be 'pre-eminent among the old treasures.' ... But possibly foran is here a prep. with the gen.: 'one before the old treasures.'".—Sw. For other examples of foran, cf. [ll. 985], [2365].
l. 1460. âter-teárum = poison-drops (C., Beit. viii. 571; S., ibid. xi. 359).
l. 1467. þät, comp. relative, = that which; "we testify that we do know."
l. 1480. forð-gewitenum is in appos. to me, = mihi defuncto.—M. Callaway, Am. Journ. of Philol., October, 1889.
l. 1482. nime. Conditional clauses of doubt or future contingency take gif or bûton with subj.; cf. [ll. 452], [594]; of fact or certainty, the ind.; cf. [ll. 442], [447], [527], [662], etc. For bûton, cf. [ll. 967], [1561].
l. 1487. "findan sometimes has a preterit funde in W. S. after the manner of the weak preterits."—Cook's Sievers' Cram., p, 210.
l. 1490. Kl. reads wäl-sweord, = battle-sword.
l. 1507. "This cave under the sea seems to be another of those natural phenomena of which the writer had personal knowledge ([ll. 2135], [2277]), and which was introduced by him into the mythical tale to give it a local color. There are many places of this kind. Their entrance is under the lowest level of the tide."—Br., p. 45.
l. 1514. B. (Beit. xii. 362) explains niðsele, hrôfsele as roof-covered hall in the deep; cf. Grettir Saga (Anglia, iii. 83).
l. 1538. Sw., R., and ten Br. suggest feaxe for eaxle, = seized by the hair.
l. 1543. and-leán (R.); cf. [l. 2095]. The MS. has hand-leán.
l. 1546. Sw. and S. read seax.—Beit. ix. 140.
l. 1557. H.-So. omits comma and places semicolon after ýðelîce; Sw. and S. place comma after gescêd.
l. 1584. ôðer swylc = another fifteen (Sw.); = fully as many (Ha.).
ll. 1592-1613 seq. Cf. Anglia, iii; 84 (Grettir Saga).
l. 1595. blondenfeax = grizzly-haired (Bright, Reader, p. 258); cf. Brunanb., l. 45 (Bright).
l. 1599. gewearð, impers. vb., = agree, decide = many agreed upon this, that, etc. (Ha., p. 55; cf. [ll. 2025-2027], 1997; B., Beit. xii. 97).
l. 1605. C. supposes wiston = wîscton = wished.—Beit. viii. 571.
l. 1607. broden mæl is now regarded as a comp. noun, = inlaid or damascened sword.—W., Ho.
l. 1611. wäl-râpas = water-ropes = bands of frost ([l. 1610]) (?). Possibly the Prov. Eng. weele, whirlpool. Cf. wæl, gurges, Wright, Voc., Gnom. Verses, l. 39.—E.
l. 1611. wægrâpas (Sw.) = wave-bands (Ha.).
l. 1622. B. suggests eatna = eotena, eardas, haunts of the giants (Northumbr. ea for eo).
l. 1635. cyning-holde (B., Beit. xii. 369); cf. [l. 290].
l. 1650. H., Gr., and Ettmüller understand idese to refer to the queen.
l. 1651. Cf. Anglia, iii. 74, Beit. xi. 167, for coincidences with the Grettir Saga (13th cent.).
l. 1657. Restore MS. reading wigge in place of wîge.
l. 1664. B. proposes eotenise ... èste for eácen ... oftost, omitting brackets (Zackers Zeitschr. iv. 206). G. translates mighty ... often.
l. 1675. ondrædan. "In late texts the final n of the preposition on is frequently lost when it occurs in a compound word or stereotyped phrase, and the prefix then appears as a: abútan, amang, aweg, aright, adr'ædan."—Cook's Sievers' Gram., p. 98.
ll. 1680-1682. Giants and their work are also referred to at [ll. 113], [455], [1563], [1691], etc.
l. 1680. Cf. ceastra ... orðanc enta geweorc, Gnomic Verses, l. 2; Sweet's Reader, p. 186.
ll. 1687-1697. "In this description of the writing on the sword, we see the process of transition from heathen magic to the notions of Christian times .... The history of the flood and of the giants ... were substitutes for names of heathen gods, and magic spells for victory."—E. Cf. Mohammedan usage.
ll. 1703, 1704. þät þê eorl nære geboren betera (B., Tidskr. 8, 52).
l. 1715. âna hwearf = he died solitary and alone (B., Beit. xii. 38); = lonely (Ha.); = alone (G.).
l. 1723. leód-bealo longsum = eternal hell-torment (B., Beit. xii. 38, who compares Ps. Cott. 57, lîf longsum).
l. 1729. E. translates on lufan, towards possession; Ha., to possessions.
l. 1730. môdgeþonc, like lig, sæ, segn, niht, etc., is of double gender (m., n. in the case of môdgeþ.).
l. 1741. The doctrine of nemesis following close on ὓβρις, or overweening pride, is here very clearly enunciated. The only protector against the things that "assault and hurt" the soul is the "Bishop and Shepherd of our souls" ([l. 1743]).
l. 1745 appears dimly to fore-shadow the office of the evil archer Loki, who in the Scandinavian mythology shoots Balder with a mistletoe twig. The language closely resembles that of Psalm 64.
l. 1748. Kl. regards wom = wô(u)m; cf. wôh-bogen, [l. 2828]. See Gloss., p. 295, under wam. Contrast the construction of bebeorgan a few lines below ([l. 1759]), where the dat. and acc. are associated.
l. 1748. See Cook's Sievers' Gram., p. 167, for declension of wôh, wrong = gen. wôs or wôges, dat. wô(u)m, etc.; pl. gen. wôra, dat. wô(u)m, etc.; and cf. declension of heáh, hreóh, rûh, etc.
l. 1748. wergan gâstes; cf. Blickl. Hom. vii.; Andreas, [l. 1171]. "Auld Wearie is used in Scotland, or was used a few years ago, ... to mean the devil."—E. Bede's Eccles. Hist. contains (naturally) many examples of the expression = devil.
l. 1750. on gyld = in reward (B. Beit. xii. 95); Ha. translates boastfully; G., for boasting; Gr., to incite to boastfulness. Cf. Christ, l. 818.
l. 1767. E. thinks this an allusion to the widespread superstition of the evil eye (mal occhio, mauvais æil). Cf. Vergil, Ecl. iii. 103. He remarks that Pius IX., Gambetta, and President Carnot were charged by their enemies with possessing this weapon.
l. 1784. wigge geweorðad (MS. wigge weorðad) is C.'s conjecture; cf. Elene, l. 150. So G., honored in war.
l. 1785. The future generally implied in the present of beón is plainly seen in this line; cf. [ll. 1826], [661], [1830], [1763], etc.
l. 1794. Some impers. vbs. take acc. (as here, Geat) of the person affected; others (as þyncan) take the dat. of the person, as at ll. [688], [1749], etc. Cf. verbs of dreaming, being ashamed, desiring, etc.—March, A.-S. Gram., p. 145.
l. 1802. E. remarks that the blaca hrefn here is a bird of good omen, as opposed to se wonna hrefn of [l. 3025]. The raven, wolf, and eagle are the regular epic accompaniments of battle and carnage. Cf. ll. [3025-3028]; Maldon, 106; Judith, 205-210, etc.
l. 1803. S. emends to read: "then came the light, going bright after darkness: the warriors," etc. Cf. Ho., p. 41, l. 23. G. puts period before "the warriors." For onettan, cf. Sw.'s Gloss, and Bright's Read., Gloss.
ll. 1808-1810. Müllenh. and Grundt. refer se hearda to Beowulf, correct sunu (MS.) to suna Ecglâfes (i.e. Unferth); [he] (Beo.) thanked him (Un.) for the loan. Cf. ll. [344], [581], [1915].
ll. 1823-1840. "Beowulf departing pledges his services to Hroðgar, to be what afterwards in the mature language of chivalry was called his 'true knight'"—E.
l. 1832. Kl. corrects to dryhtne, in appos. with Higelâce.
l. 1835 gâr-holt more properly means spear-shaft; cf. äsc-holt.
l. 1855. sêl = better (Grundt.; B., Beit. xii. 96), instead of MS. wel.
ll. 1855-1866. "An ideal picture of international amity according to the experience and doctrine of the eighth century."—E.
l. 1858. S. and Kl. correct to gemæne, agreeing with sib.—Beit. ix. 140, 190.
l. 1862. "The gannet is a great diver, plunging down into the sea from a considerable height, such as forty feet."—E.
l. 1863. Kl. suggests heafu, = seas.
l. 1865. B. proposes geþôhte, = with firm thought, for geworhte; cf. [l. 611].
l. 1876. geseón = see again (Kl., Beit. ix. 190). S. and B. insert nâ to modify geseón and explain Hrôðgâr's tears. Ha. and G. follow Heyne's text. Cf. [l. 567].
l. 1881. Is beorn here = bearn (be-arn?) of [l. 67]? or more likely = born, barn, = burned?—S., Th.
l. 1887. orleahtre is a ἃπαξ λεγόμενον. E. compares Tennyson's "blameless" king. Cf. also [ll. 2015], [2145]; and the gôd cyning of [l. 11].
l. 1896. scaðan = warriors (cf. [l. 1804]) has been proposed by C.; but cf. [l. 253].
l. 1897. The boat had been left, at [ll. 294-302], in the keeping of Hrôðgâr's men; at [l. 1901] the bât-weard is specially honored by Beowulf with a sword and becomes a "sworded squire."—E. This circumstance appears to weld the poem together. Cf. also the speed of the journey home with ymb ân-tîd ôþres dôgores of [l. 219], and the similarity of language in both passages (fâmig-heals, clifu, nässas, sælde, brim, etc.).—The nautical terms in Beowulf would form an interesting study.
l. 1904. R. proposes, gewât him on naca, = the vessel set out, on alliterating as at [l. 2524] (Zachers Zeitschr. iii. 402). B. reads on nacan, but inserts irrelevant matter (Beit. xii. 97).
l. 1913. Cf. the same use of ceól, = ship, in the A.-S. Chron., ed. Earle-Plummer; Gnomic Verses, etc.
l. 1914. S. inserts þät hê before on lande.
l. 1916. B. makes leófra manna depend on wlâtode, = looked for the dear men ready at the coast (Beit. xii. 97).
l. 1924. Gr., W., and Ho. propose wunade, = remained; but cf. [l. 1929]. S. conceives [ll. 1924], [1925] as "direct speech" (Beit. ix. 141).
l. 1927 seq. "The women of Beowulf are of the fine northern type; trusted and loved by their husbands and by the nobles and people; generous, gentle, and holding their place with dignity."—Br., p. 67. Thrytho is the exception, [l. 1932] seq.
l. 1933. C. suggests frêcnu, = dangerous, bold, for Thrytho could not be called "excellent." G. writes "Modthrytho" as her name. The womanly Hygd seems purposely here contrasted with the terrible Thrytho, just as, at [l. 902] seq., Sigemund and Heremôd are contrasted. For Thrytho, etc., cf. Gr., Jahrb. für rom. u. eng. Lit. iv. 279; Müllenhoff, Haupts Zeitschr. xiv. 216; Matthew Paris; Suchier, Beit. iv. 500-521; R. Zachers Zeitschr. iii. 402; B., ibid. iv. 206; Körner, Eng. Stud. i. 489-492; H.-So., p. 106.
l. 1932-1963. K. first pointed out the connection between the historical Offa, King of Mercia, and his wife Cwendrida, and the Offa and Þryðo (Gr.'s Drida of the Vita Offæ Secundi) of the present passage. The tale is told of her, not of Hygd.
l. 1936. Suchier proposes andæges, = eye to eye; Leo proposes ândæges, = the whole day; G., by day. No change is necessary if an be taken to govqern hire, = on her, and däges be explained (like nihtes, etc.) as a genitive of time, = by day.
l. 1943. R. and Suchier propose onsêce, = seek, require; but cf. 2955.
l. 1966. Cf. the heofoncandel of Exod. l. 115 (Hunt). Shak.'s 'night's candles.'
l. 1969. Cf. [l. 2487] seq. for the actual slayer of Ongenþeów, i.e. Eofor, to whom Hygelâc gave his only daughter as a reward, [l. 2998].
l. 1981. meodu-scencum = with mead-pourers or mead-cups (G., Ha.); draught or cup of mead (Toller-Bosw.).
l. 1982. K., Th., W., H. supply [heal-]reced; Holler [heá-].
l. 1984. B. defends the MS., reading hæ nû (for hæðnû), which he regards as = Heinir, the inhabitants of the Jutish "heaths" (hæð). Cf. H.-So., p. 107; Beit. xii. 9.
l. 1985. sînne. "In poetry there is a reflexive possessive of the third person, sîn (declined like mîn). It is used not only as a true reflexive, but also as a non-reflexive (= Lat. ejus)"—Sw.; Cook's Sievers' Gram., p. 185. Cf. [ll. 1508], [1961], [2284], [2790].
l. 1994. Cf. [l. 190] for a similar use of seáð; cf. to "glow" with emotion, "boil" with indignation, "burn" with anger, etc. weallan is often so used; cf. [ll. 2332], [2066], etc.
l. 2010. B. proposes fâcne, = in treachery, for fenne. Cf. Juliana, l. 350; Beit. xii. 97.
l. 2022. Food of specific sorts is rarely, if at all, mentioned in the poem. Drink, on the other hand, occurs in its primitive varieties,—ale (as here: ealu-wæg), mead, beer, wine, lîð (cider? Goth. leiþus, Prov. Ger. leit- in leit-haus, ale-house), etc.
l. 2025. Kl. proposes is for wäs.
l. 2027. Cf. [l. 1599] for a similar use of weorðan, = agree, be pleased with (Ha.); appear (Sw., Reader, 6th ed.).
ll. 2030, 2031. Ten Br. proposes: oft seldan ( = gave) wære äfter leód-hryre: lytle hwîle bongâr bûgeð, þeáh seó brýd duge = oft has a treaty been given after the fall of a prince: but little while the murder-spear resteth, however excellent the bride be. Cf. Kl., Beit. ix. 190; B., Beit. xii. 369; R., Zachers Zeitschr. in. 404; Ha., p. 69; G., p. 62.
l. 2036. Cf. Kl, Beit. ix. 191; R., Zachers Zeitschr. iii. 404.
l. 2042. For beáh B. reads bâ, = both, i.e. Freaware and the Dane.
l. 2063. Thorkelin and Conybeare propose wîgende, = fighting, for lifigende.
l. 2068. W.'s edition begins section xxx. (not marked in the MS.) with this line. Section xxxix. (xxxviii. in copies A and B, xxxix. in Thorkelin) is not so designated in the MS., though þâ (at [l. 2822]) is written with capitals and xl. begins at [l. 2893].
l. 2095. Cf. [l. 1542], and note.
l. 2115 seq. B. restores thus:
Þær on innan gióng
niðða nâthwylc, neóde tô gefêng
hæðnum horde; hond ätgenam
seleful since fâh; nê hê þät syððan âgeaf,
þeáh þe hê slæpende besyrede hyrde
þeófes cräfte: þät se þióden onfand,
bý-folc beorna, þät hê gebolgen wäs.
—Beit. xii. 99; Zachers Zeitschr. iv. 210.
l. 2128. ätbär here = bear away, not given in the Gloss.
l. 2129. B. proposes færunga, = suddenly, for Gr.'s reading in the text.—Beit. xii. 98.
l. 2132. MS. has þine life, which Leo translates by thy leave (= ON. leyfi); B., by thy life.—Beit. xii. 369.
l. 2150. B. renders gen, etc., by "now I serve thee alone again as my gracious king" (Beit. xii. 99).
l. 2151. The forms hafu [hafo], hafast, hafað, are poetic archaisms.—Sw.
l. 2153. Kl. proposes ealdor, = prince, for eafor. W. proposes the compd. eafor-heáfodsegn, = helm; cf. [l. 1245].
l. 2157. The wk. form of the adj. is frequent in the vocative, especially when postponed: "Beowulf leófa," [l. 1759]. So, often, in poetry in nom.: wudu selesta, etc.
l. 2158. ærest is possibly the verbal subs. from ârîsan, to arise, = arising, origin. R. suggested ærist, arising, origin. Cf. Bede, Eccles. Hist., ed. Miller, where the word is spelt as above, but = (as usual) resurrection. See Sweet, Reader, p. 211; E.-Plummer's Chronicle, p. 302, etc. The MS. has est. See Ha., p. 73; S., Beit. x. 222; and cf. [l. 2166].
l. 2188. Gr., W., H. supply [wên]don, = weened, instead of Th.'s [oft säg]don.
l. 2188. The "slack" Beowulf, like the sluggish Brutus, ultimately reveals his true character, and is presented with a historic sword of honor. It is "laid on his breast" ([l. 2195]) as Hun laid Lâfing on Hengest's breast, [l. 1145].
l. 2188. "The boy was at first slothful, and the Geats thought him an unwarlike prince, and long despised him. Then, like many a lazy third son in the folk tales, a change came, he suddenly showed wonderful daring and was passionate for adventure."—Br., p. 22.
l. 2196. "Seven of thousands, manor and lordship" (Ha.). Kl., Beit. ix. 191, thinks with Ettm. that þûsendo means a hide of land (see Schmid, Ges. der Angl, 610), Bede's familia = 1/2 sq. meter; seofan being used (like hund, [l. 2995]) only for the alliteration.
l. 2196. "A vast Honour of 7000 hides, a mansion, and a judgment-seat" [throne].—E.
l. 2210. MS. has the more correct wintra.
l. 2211. Cf. similar language about the dragon at [l. 100]. Beowulf's "jubilee" is fitly solemnized by his third and last dragon-fight.
l. 2213. B. proposes sê þe on hearge hæðen hord beweotode; cf. Ha., p. 75.
l. 2215. "The dragon lies round the treasures in a cave, as Fafnir, like a Python, lay coiled over his hoard. So constant was this habit among the dragons that gold is called Worms' bed, Fafnir's couch, Worms' bed-fire. Even in India, the cobras ... are guardians of treasure."—Br., p. 50.
l. 2216. neóde. E. translates deftly; Ha., with ardor. H.-So. reads neóde, = with desire, greedily, instr. of neód.
l. 2223. E. begins his "Part Third" at this point as he begins "Part Second" at [l. 1252], each dragon-fight forming part of a trilogy.
ll. 2224, 2225. B. proposes: nealles mid gewealdum wyrmes weard gäst sylfes willum.—Zachers Zeitschr. iv. 211; Beit. xii. 100.
l. 2225. For þeów read þegn.—K. and Z.
l. 2225. þeów, st. m., slave, serf (not in H.-So.).
l. 2227. For ofer-þearfe read ærnes þearfa.—Z.
secg synbysig sôna onwlâtode,
þeáh þâm gyste gryrebrôga stôd,
hwäðre earmsceapen innganges þearfa
. . . . . . . . . .
feásceapen, þâ hyne se fær begeat.
—Beit. xii. 101. Cf. Ha., p. 69.
l. 2232. W. suggests seah or seîr for geseah, and Gr. suggests searolîc.
l. 2233. Z. surmises eorð-hûse (for -scräfe).
l. 2241. B. proposes læn-gestreóna, = transitory, etc.; Th., R. propose leng (= longer) gestreóna; S. accepts the text but translates "the long accumulating treasure."
l. 2246. B. proposed (1) hard-fyndne, = hard to find; (2) hord-wynne dæl,—a deal of treasure-joy (cf. [l. 2271]).—Zachers Zeitschr. iv. 211; Beit. xii. 102.
l. 2247. fecword = banning words (?) MS. has fec.
l. 2254. Others read feor-[mie], = furbish, for fetige: I own not one who may, etc.
l. 2261. The Danes themselves were sometimes called the "Ring-Danes," = clad in ringed (or a ring of) armor, or possessing rings. Cf. [ll. 116], [1280].
l. 2264. Note the early reference to hawking. Minstrelsy (hearpan wyn), saga-telling, racing, swimming, harpooning of sea-animals, feasting, and the bestowal of jewels, swords, and rings, are the other amusements most frequent in Beówulf.
l. 2264. Cf. Maldon, ll. 8, 9, for a reference to hawking.
l. 2276. Z. suggests swýðe ondrædað; Ho. puts gesêcean for Gr.'s gewunian.
l. 2277. Z. and K. read: hord on hrûsan. "Three hundred winters," at [l. 2279], is probably conventional for "a long time," like hund missera, [l. 1499]; hund þûsenda, [l. 2995]; þritig (of Beowulf's strength), [l. 379]; þritig (of the men slain by Grendel), [l. 123]; seofan þûsendo, [l. 2196], etc.
l. 2285. B. objects to hord as repeated in [ll. 2284], [2285]; but cf. Ha., p. 77. C. prefers sum to hord. onboren = inminutus; cf. B., Beit. xii. 102.
l. 2285. onberan is found also at line 991, = carry off, with on- = E. un—(un-bind, -loose, -tie, etc.), G. ent-. The negro still pronounces on-do, etc.
l. 2299. Cf. H.-So., p. 112, for a defense of the text as it stands. B. proposes "nor was there any man in that desert who rejoiced in conflict," etc. So ten Br.
l. 2326. B. and ten Br,. propose hâm, = home, for him.—Beit. xii. 103.
l. 2335. E. translates eálond utan by the sea-board front, the water-washed land on the (its) outside. See B., Beit. xii. 1, 5.
l. 2346. Cf. [l. 425], where Beowulf resolves to fight the dragon single-handed. E. compares Guy of Warwick, ll. 49, 376.
l. 2355. Ten Br. proposes laðan cynne as apposition to mægum.
l. 2360. Cf. Beowulf's other swimming-feat with Breca, [ll. 506] seq.
l. 2362. Gr. inserts âna, = lone-going, before xxx.: approved by B.; and Krüger, Beit. ix. 575. Cf. [l. 379].
l. 2362. "Beowulf has the strength of thirty men in the original tale. Here, then, the new inventor makes him carry off thirty coats of mail."—Br., p. 48.
l. 2364. Hetware = Chattuarii, a nation allied against Hygelâc in his Frisian expedition; cf. [ll. 1208] seq., 2917, etc.
l. 2368. B. proposes quiet sea as trans, of sióleða bigong, and compares Goth. anasilan, to be still; Swed. dial, sil, still water between waterfalls.—Zachers Zeitschr. iv. 214.
l. 2380. hyne—Heardrêd; so him, [l. 2358].
l. 2384. E. calls attention to Swió-rîce as identical with the modern Sverige = Sweden; cf. [l. 2496].
l. 2386. Gr. reads on feorme, = at the banquet; cf. Möller, Alteng. Volksepos, 111, who reads (f)or feorme. The MS. has or.
l. 2391. Cf. [l. 11].
l. 2394. B., Gr., and Mûllenh. understand [ll. 2393-2397] to mean that Eádgils, Ôhthere's son, driven from Sweden, returns later, supported by Beowulf, takes the life of his uncle Onela, and probably becomes himself O.'s successor and king of Sweden. For another view see H.-So., p. 115. MS. has freond ([l. 2394]), which Leo, etc., change to feónd. G. translates friend.—Beit. xii. 13; Anzeiger f. d. Altert. iii. 177.
l. 2395. Eádgils is Ôhthere's son; cf. [l. 2381]; Onela is Ôhthere's brother; cf. [ll. 2933], [2617].
l. 2402. "Twelfsome"; cf. "fifteensome" at [l. 207], etc. As Beówulf is essentially the Epic of Philanthropy, of the true love of man, as distinguished from the ordinary love-epic, the number twelve in this passage may be reminiscent of another Friend of Man and another Twelve. In each case all but one desert the hero.
l. 2437. R. proposes stýred, = ordered, decreed, for strêd.—Zachers Zeitschr. iii. 409.
l. 2439. B. corrects to freó-wine = noble friend, asking, "How can Herebeald be called Hæðcyn's freá-wine [MS.], lord?"
l. 2442. feohleás gefeoht, "a homicide which cannot be atoned for by money—in this case an unintentional fratricide."—Sw.
l. 2445. See Ha., pp. 82, 83, for a discussion of [ll. 2445-2463]. Cf. G., p. 75.
l. 2447. MS. reads wrece, justified by B. (Tidskr. viii. 56). W. conceives wrece as optative or hortative, and places a colon before þonne.
l. 2449. For helpan read helpe.—K., Th., S. (Zeitschr. f. D. Phil. xxi. 3, 357).
ll. 2454-2455. (1) Müllenh. (Haupts Zeitschr. xiv. 232) proposes:
þonne se ân hafað
þurh dæda nýd deáðes gefandod.
(2) B. proposes:
þurh dæda nîð deáðes gefondad.
—Zachers Zeitschr. iv. 215.
l. 2458. Cf. sceótend, pl., [ll. 704], [1155], like rîdend. Cf. Judith, l. 305, etc.
l. 2474. Th. considers the "wide water" here as the Mälar lake, the boundary between Swedes and Goths.
l. 2477. On oþþe = and, cf. B., Tidskr. viii. 57. See Ha., p. 83.
l. 2489. B. proposes hreá-blâc for Gr.'s heoro-.—Tikskr. viii. 297.
l. 2494. S. suggests êðel-wynne.
l. 2502. E. translates for dugeðum, of my prowess; so Ettmüller.
ll. 2520-2522. Gr. and S. translate, "if I knew how else I might combat the monster's boastfulness."—Ha., p. 85.
l. 2524. and-hâttres is H.'s invention. Gr. reads oreðes and âttres, blast and venom. Cf. oruð, [l. 2558], and [l. 2840] (where âttor- also occurs).
l. 2526. E. quotes fleón fôtes trym from Maldon, l. 247.
l. 2546. Gr., H.-So., and Ho. read standan stân-bogan (for stôd on stân-bogan) depending on geseah.
l. 2550. Grundt. and B. propose deór, brave one, i.e. Beowulf, for deóp.
L. 2565. MS. has ungleaw (K., Th.), unglaw (Grundt.). B. proposes unslâw, = sharp.—Beit. xii. 104. So H.-So., Ha., p. 86.
ll. 2570, 2571. (1) May not gescîfe (MS. to gscipe) = German schief, "crooked," "bent," "aslant," and hence be a parallel to gebogen, bent, coiled? cf. [l. 2568], þâ se wyrm gebeáh snûde tôsomne, and [l. 2828]. Coiled serpents spring more powerfully for the coiling. (2) Or perhaps destroy comma after tô and read gescäpe, = his fate; cf. [l. 26]: him þâ Scyld gewât tô gescäp-hwîle. G. appar. adopts this reading, p. 78.
l. 2589. grund-wong = the field, not the earth (so B.); H.-So., cave, as at [l. 2771]. So Ha., p. 87.
l. 2595. S. proposes colon after stefne.—Beit. ix. 141.
l. 2604. Müllenh. explains leód Scylfinga in Anzeiger f. d. Altert. iii. 176-178.
l. 2607. âre = possessions, holding (Kl., Beit. ix. 192; Ha., p. 88).
l. 2609. folcrihta. Add "folk-right" to the meanings in the Gloss.; and cf. êðel-, land-riht, word-riht.
l. 2614. H.-So. reads with Gr. wræccan wineleásum Weohstân bana, = whom, a friendless exile, W. had slain.
ll. 2635-61. E. quotes Tacitus, Germania, xiv.: "turpe comitatui virtutem principis non adaequare." Beowulf had been deserted by his comitatus.
l. 2643. B. proposes ûser.—Zachers Zeitschr. iv. 216.
l. 2649. wutun; [l. 3102], uton = pres. subj. pl. 1st person of wîtan, to go, used like Mod. Eng. let us + inf., Lat. eamus, Ital. andiamo, Fr. allons; M. E. (Layamon) uten. Cf. Psa. ii. 3, etc. March, A.-S. Gram., pp. 104, 196.
l. 2650. B. suggests hât for hyt,.—Beit. xii. 105.
l. 2656. fâne = fâh-ne; cf. fâra = fâh-ra, [l. 578]; so heánne (MS.) = heáh-ne, etc., [l. 984]. See Cook's Sievers' Gram.
ll. 2660, 2661. Why not read beadu-scrûd, as at [l. 453], = battle-shirt? B. and R. suppose two half-verses omitted between byrdu-scrûd and bâm gemæne. B. reads býwdu, = handsome, etc. Gr. suggests unc nû, = to us two now, for ûrum; and K. and Grundt. read beón gemæne for bâm, etc. This makes sense. Cf. Ha., p. 89.
l. 2666. Cf. the dat. absolute without preposition.
l. 2681. Nägling; cf. Hrunting, Lâfing, and other famous wundor-smiða geweorc of the poem.
l. 2687. B. changes þonne into þone (rel. pro.) = which.—Beit. xii. 105.
l. 2688. B. supports the MS. reading, wundum.
l. 2688. Cf. [l. 2278] for similar language.
l. 2698. B. (Beit. xii. 105) renders: "he did not heed the head of the dragon (which Beowulf with his sword had struck without effect), but he struck the dragon somewhat further down." Cf. Saxo, vi. p. 272.
l. 2698. Cf. the language used at [ll. 446] and [1373], where hafelan also occurs; and hýdan.
l. 2700. hwêne; cf. Lowl. Sc. wheen, a number; Chaucer's woon, number.
l. 2702. S. proposes þâ (for þät) þät fýr, etc., = when the fire began, etc.
l. 2704. "The (hup)-seax has often been found in Saxon graves on the hip of the skeleton."—E.
l. 2707. Kl. proposes: feorh ealne wräc, = drove out all the life; cf. Gen. l. 1385.—Beit. ix. 192. S. suggests gefylde,—he felled the foe, etc.—Ibid. Parentheses seem unnecessary.
l. 2727. däg-hwîl = time allotted, lifetime.
l. 2745, 2745. Ho. removes geong from the beginning of [l. 2745] and places it at the end of [l. 2744].
l. 2750. R. proposes sigle searogimmas, as at [l. 1158].
l. 2767. (1) B. proposes doubtfully oferhîgean or oferhîgan, = Goth, ufarhauhjan, p. p. ufarhauhids (Gr. τυφωθείς) = exceed in value.—Tidskr. viii. 60. (2) Kl. proposes oferhýdian, = to make arrogant, infatuate; cf. oferhýd.—Beit. ix. 192.
l. 2770. gelocen leoðocräftum = (1) spell-bound (Th., Arnold, E.); (2) wrought with hand-craft (G.); (3) meshed, linked together (H., Ho.); cf. Elene, ll. 1251, 522.
l. 2778. B. considers bill ... ealdhlâfordes as Beowulf's short sword, with which he killed the dragon, [l. 2704] (Tidskr. viii. 299). R. proposes ealdhlâforde. Müllenh. understands ealdhlâford to mean the former possessor of the hoard. W. agrees to this, but conceives ærgescôd as a compd. = ære calceatus, sheathed in brass. Ha. translates ærgescôd as vb. and adv.
l. 2791. Cf. [l. 224], eoletes ät ende; landes ät ende, Exod. (Hunt).
l. 2792. MS. reads wäteres weorpan, which R. would change to wätere sweorfan.
l. 2806. "Men saw from its height the whales tumbling in the waves, and called it Whale's Ness (Hrones-næs)."—Br. p. 28. Cf. [l. 3137].
l. 2815. Wîglâf was the next of kin, the last of the race, and hence the recipient of Beowulf's kingly insignia. There is a possible play on the word lâf (Wîg-lâf, ende-lâf).
l. 2818. gingeste word; cf. novissima verba, and Ger. jüngst, lately.
l. 2837. E. translates on lande, in the world, comparing on lîfe, on worulde.
l. 2840. geræsde = pret. of geræsan (omitted from the Gloss.), same as ræsan; cf. [l. 2691].
l. 2859. B. proposes deáð ârædan, = determine death.—Beit. xii. 106.
l. 2861. Change geongum to geongan as a scribal error (?), but cf. Lichtenheld, Haupts Zeitschr. xvi. 353-355.
l. 2871. S. and W. propose ôwêr.—Beit. ix. 142.
l. 2873. S. punctuates: wrâðe forwurpe, þâ, etc.
l. 2874. H.-So. begins a new sentence with nealles, ending the preceding one with beget.
l. 2879. ätgifan = to render, to afford; omitted in Gloss.
ll. 2885-2892. "This passage ... equals the passage in Tacitus which describes the tie of chief to companion and companion to chief among the Germans, and which recounts the shame that fell on those who survived their lord."—Br., p. 56.
l. 2886. cyn thus has the meaning of gens or clan, just as in many Oriental towns all are of one blood. E. compares Tacitus, Germania, 7; and cf. "kith and kin."
l. 2892. Death is preferable to dishonor. Cf. Kemble, Saxons, i. 235.
l. 2901. The ἄγγελος begins his ἀγγελία here.
l. 2910. S. proposes higemêðe, sad of soul; cf. [ll. 2853] and [2864] (Beit. ix. 142). B. considers higemêðum a dat. or instr. pl. of an abstract in -u (Beit. xii. 106). H. makes it a dat. pl. = for the dead. For heafod-wearde, etc., cf. note on [l. 446].
l. 2920-2921. B. explains "he could not this time, as usual, give jewels to his followers."—Beit. xii. 106.
l. 2922. The Merovingian or Frankish race.
cwäð hîe on mergenne mêces ecgum
gêtan wolde, sumon galgtreowu
âheáwan on holte ond hîe âhôan on þâ
fuglum tô gamene.
—Beit. xii. 107, 372.
Cf. S., Beit. ix. 143. gêtan = cause blood to be shed.
l. 2950. B. proposes gomela for gôda; "a surprising epithet for a Geat to apply to the 'terrible' Ongentheow."—Ha. p. 99. But "good" does not necessarily mean "morally excellent," as a "good" hater, a "good" fighter.
l. 2959. See H.-So. for an explanatory quotation from Paulus Diaconus, etc. B., K., and Th. read segn Higelâces, = H.'s banner uplifted began to pursue the Swede-men.—Beit. xii. 108. S. suggests sæce, = pursuit.
l. 2977. gewyrpton: this vb. is also used reflexively in Exod. (Hunt), l. 130: wyrpton hie wêrige.
l. 2989. bär is Grundt.'s reading, after the MS. "The surviving victor is the heir of the slaughtered foe."—H.-So. Cf. Hildebrands Lied, ll. 61, 62.
l. 2995. "A hundred of thousands in land and rings" (Ha., p. 100). Cf. [ll. 2196], [3051]. Cf. B., Beit. xii. 20, who quotes Saxo's bis senas gentes and remarks: "Hrolf Kraki, who rewards his follower, for the slaying of the foreign king, with jewels, rich lands, and his only daughter's hand, answers to the Jutish king Hygelâc, who rewards his liegeman, for the slaying of Ongentheów, with jewels, enormous estates, and his only daughter's hand."
l. 3006. H.-So. suggests Scilfingas for Scyldingas, because, at [l. 2397], Beowulf kills the Scylfing Eádgils and probably acquires his lands. Thus [ll. 3002], [3005], [3006], would indicate that, after Beowulf's death, the Swedes desired to shake off his hated yoke. Müllenh., however, regards [l. 3006] as a thoughtless repetition of [l. 2053].—Haupts Zeitschr. xiv. 239.
l. 3008. Cf. the same proverb at [l. 256]; and Exod. (Hunt.) l. 293.
"Thai token an harp gle and game
And maked a lai and yaf it name."
—Weber, l. 358.
and from Percy, "The word glee, which peculiarly denoted their art (the minstrels'), continues still in our own language ... it is to this day used in a musical sense, and applied to a peculiar piece of composition."
l. 3025. "This is a finer use than usual of the common poetic attendants of a battle, the wolf, the eagle, and the raven. The three are here like three Valkyrie, talking of all that they have done."—Br., p. 57.
l. 3033. Cf. Hunt's Dan. l. 731, for similar language.
l. 3039. B. supplies a supposed gap here:
[banan eác fundon bennum seócne
(nê) ær hî þæm gesêgan syllîcran wiht]
wyrm on wonge...
—Beit. xii. 372.
Cf. Ha., p. 102. W. and Ho. insert [þær] before gesêgan.
l. 3042. Cf. [l. 2561], where gryre-giest occurs as an epithet of the dragon. B. proposes gry[re-fâh].
l. 3044. lyft-wynne, in the pride of the air, E.; to rejoice in the air, Ha.
l. 3057. (1) He (God) is men's hope; (2) he is the heroes' hope; (3) gehyld = the secret place of enchanters; cf. hêlsmanna gehyld, Gr.'s reading, after A.-S. hælsere, haruspex, augur.
l. 3060. B. suggests gehýðde, = plundered (i.e. by the thief), for gehýdde.
ll. 3063-3066. (1) B. suggests wundur [deáðe] hwâr þonne eorl ellenrof ende gefêre = let a brave man then somewhere meet his end by wondrous venture, etc.—Zachers Zeitschr. iv. 241; cf. [l. 3038]. (2) S. supposes an indirect question introduced by hwâr and dependent upon wundur, = a mystery is it when it happens that the hero is to die, if he is no longer to linger among his people.—Beit. ix. 143. (3) Müllenh. suggests: is it to be wondered at that a man should die when he can no longer live?—Zachers Zeitschr. xiv. 241. (4) Possibly thus:
Wundrað hwät þonne,
eorl ellen-rôf, ende gefêre
lîf-gesceafta, þonne leng ne mäg (etc.),
in which hwät would = þurh hwät at [l. 3069], and eorl would be subject of the conjectural vb. wundrað: "the valiant earl wondereth then through what he shall attain his life's end, when he no longer may live. ... So Beówulf knew not (wondered how) through what his end should come," etc. W. and Ho. join þonne to the next line. Or, for hwâr read wære: Wundur wære þonne (= gif), etc., = "would it be any wonder if a brave man," etc., which is virtually Müllenhoff's.
l. 3053. galdre bewunden, spell-bound, throws light on [l. 2770], gelocen leoðo-cräftum. The "accursed" gold of legend is often dragon-guarded and placed under a spell. Even human ashes (as Shakespeare's) are thus banned. [ll. 3047-3058] recall the so-called "Treasury of Atreus."
l. 3073. herh, hearh, temple, is conjectured by E. to survive in Harrow. Temple, barrow, etc., have thus been raised to proper names. Cf. Biówulfes biorh of [l. 2808].
l. 3074. H.-So. has strude, = ravage, and compares [l. 3127]. MS. has strade. S. suggests stride, = tread.
l. 3074. H.-So. omits strâdan, = tread, stride over, from the Gloss., referring [ll. 3174] and [3074] to strûdan, q. v.
l. 3075. S. proposes: näs hê goldhwätes gearwor häfde, etc., = Beowulf had not before seen the greedy possessor's favor.—Beit. ix. 143. B. reads, goldhwäte gearwor häfde, etc., making goldhwäte modify êst, = golden favor; but see Beit. xii. 373, for B.'s later view.
l. 3086-3087. B. translates, "that which (i.e. the treasure) drew the king thither was granted indeed, but it overwhelmed us."—Beit. xii. 109.
l. 3097. B. and S. propose äfter wine deádum, = in memory of the dead friend.—Beit. ix. 144.
l. 3106. The brâd gold here possibly includes the iú-monna gold of [l. 3053] and the wunden gold of [l. 3135]. E. translates brâd by bullion.
l. 3114. B. supposes folc-âgende to be dat. sg. to gôdum, referring to Beowulf.
l. 3116. C. considers weaxan, = Lat. vescor, to devour, as a parallel to fretan, and discards parentheses.—Beit. viii. 573.
l. 3120. fûs = furnished with; a meaning which must be added to those in the Gloss.
eóde eahta sum under inwit-hrôf
hilderinca: sum on handa bär, etc.
—Beit. ix. 144.
l. 3136. H.-So. corrects (after B.) to äðelingc, the MS. having e.
l. 3145. "It was their [the Icelanders'] belief that the higher the smoke rose in the air the more glorious would the burnt man be in heaven."— Ynglinga Saga, 10 (quoted by E.). Cf. the funeral pyre of Herakles.
... swôgende lêc
wôpe bewunden windblonda lêg
(lêc from lâcan, see Gloss.).—Beit. xii. 110. Why not windblonda lâc?
l. 3147. Müllenhoff rejected wind-blond geläg because a great fire raises rather than "lays" the wind; hence B., as above, = "swoughing sported the flame wound with the howling of wind-currents."
l. 3151 seq. B. restores conjecturally:
swylce giômor-gyd sio geó-meowle
[äfter Beówulfe] bunden-heorde
[song] sorg-cearig, sæde geneahhe,
þät hió hyre [hearm-]dagas hearde on [dr]êde,
wälfylla worn, [w]îgendes egesan,
hý[n]ðo ond häftnýd, heóf on rîce wealg.
—Beit. xii. 100.
Here geó-meowle = old woman or widow; bunden-heorde = with bound locks; heóf = lamentation; cf. [l. 3143]. on rîce wealg is less preferable than the MS. reading, heofon rêce swealg = heaven swallowed the smoke.—H.-So. B. thinks Beowulf's widow (geómeowle) was probably Hygd; cf. [ll. 2370], [3017-3021].
l. 3162. H.-So. reads (with MS.) bronda be lâfe, for betost, and omits colon after bêcn. So B., Zachers Zeitschr. iv. 224.
l. 3171. E. quotes Gibbon's accounts of the burial of Attila when the "chosen squadrons of the Hun, wheeling round in measured evolutions, chanted a funeral song to the memory of a hero."
woldon gên cwîðan [ond] kyning
wordgyd wrecan ond ymb wel sprecan.
—Beit. xii. 112.
l. 3183. Z., K., Th. read manna for mannum.
l. 3184. "It is the English ideal of a hero as it was conceived by an Englishman some twelve hundred years ago."—Br., p. 18.