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GERMANIC EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE

Charlemagne may be regarded as the chief regenerator of Western Europe after the dissolution of the Roman Empire. At the date of his coronation, 800 A.D., his empire was not inferior in extent to that of the old Roman Empire. He was master of all Germany and Gaul, the greater part of Italy, and part of Spain. Under him the Frankish dominion reached its highest point, and marks the formal termination of an antiquated state of society. It was also the introduction to another totally different form itself and from its predecessor. It was not barbarism, it was not feudalism; but it was the bridge which united the two.

The most important chapter in the history of the Middle Ages is that informing us how the ruins of the dilapidated Western Empire were for a time rebuilt into an imposing structure by the genius of a great man, the grandest figure of the Middle Ages,—Charlemagne. The real name of this great man was Karl, that is, Charles. Though best known by his French name of Charlemagne (Charles the Great), we must remember that he was not a Frenchman in our sense of the term, but a thorough Teuton, or German, in birth, instinct, speech, and residence.

WHAT THE DOMINIONS OF
CHARLEMAGNE COMPRISED

The kingdom of the Franks, to which Charlemagne fell heir on the death of his father, formed an extensive dominion comprising portions of the two countries we now call France and Germany,—for it must be remembered that the specific countries, France and Germany, did not yet exist at all.

At this time—the latter half of the eighth century—Italy was divided between the Lombards and the Eastern emperors, England had come into existence, but only as a number of feeble and warring states, Spain was under the rule of the Moslems. In the meantime the land of the Franks was lifting itself from out the surrounding barbarism of the new races, and was the center of that Germanic civilization which was struggling into existence.

It is important to bear in mind the actual condition of the European world at the time Charlemagne came on the stage, for it will help us to understand the work he did, how far he succeeded and how far he failed.

THE CENTRAL PLAN OF
CHARLEMAGNE’S EMPIRE

The ruling idea of Charlemagne was the re-establishment of the Roman Empire,—the building up on German soil of that colossal power which had toppled over because it rested on the too narrow basis of Latin nationality. In executing this design he aimed to use all the elements of civilization that the times presented, and especially these two great elements,—the political ideas and instincts of the Teutons, and the adhesive power of the Christian Church. Hence we find him, throughout his whole career, carefully cherishing all those old [408] German institutions upon which the mass of his people looked with deep reverence, while at the same time we behold him the protector of the Pope and the loyal and ardent champion of the Church.

OBJECT OF HIS WARS AND HIS
CHIEF FOES

It was in the effort to realize his grand idea that Charlemagne undertook the numerous wars and expeditions that filled the forty-six years of his reign. We shall not enter into the details of these wars; but it is needful to understand their object and their result.

The most important of Charlemagne’s military enterprises were directed against the fierce pagan nations of Germany and the wild Scythians in the outlying lands beyond. To appreciate the importance of these we must try to realize that the eastern frontier of the Frankish land, that is, the eastern boundary of Charlemagne’s kingdom, on the German side of the Rhine, ran into and abutted on the extensive stretch of country in Middle Europe that was still in the hands of the various uncivilized tribes. As long as these peoples remained in their warlike, savage, and pagan condition, they would press heavily on the struggling civilization of the Frankish kingdom, and would endanger, if not utterly destroy, its progress. Hence to subdue and especially to Christianize these tribes—to extend the domain of organized and law-governed society into the desert waste of Teutonic barbarism—was a main object with Charlemagne.

HE SUBDUES THE SAXONS AND
BAVARIANS

With the Saxon confederation, formed by various pagan tribes on the Weser and the Elbe (the same tribes from among which the Saxons and Angles, who conquered Britain three centuries before this, had gone forth), Charlemagne had the greatest trouble. He repeatedly marched into their country and subdued them; but they constantly rose up again, and it was only after some terrible acts of vengeance,—for example, he one day had forty-two hundred prisoners hanged,—that they at length submitted to be baptized and to become peaceable subjects.

Soon after this the Bavarians attempted to render themselves independent of the Frankish power by the assistance of the Avars, a Tartar race living in what we now call Hungary (then Pannonia). Charlemagne overpowered the Bavarians, incorporating Bavaria with his German territory; and then revenged himself on the Avars by conquering them, taking their treasures, and annexing Hungary to his dominion.

THE FIRST UNION OF THE GERMANS
UNDER ONE HEAD

The result of Charlemagne’s conquests on the east side of the Rhine was that Germany was for the first time all united under one head, and on that side the Frankish kingdom was extended to the confluence of the Danube with the Theiss and the Save.

Against the Saracens in Spain Charlemagne made an important expedition. The capture of Saragossa laid Aragon and Navarre at his feet, and he united the whole country as far as the Ebro to his own kingdom as a Spanish province. During his return the rear-guard under Roland, suffered a defeat in the valley of Roncesvalles, in which the bravest champions of the Franks were destroyed. This somewhat tarnished the laurels Charlemagne had won in Spain, but did not undo the substantial results of the campaign.

NORTHERN ITALY UNITED
TO HIS EMPIRE

We must now see what Charlemagne did in Italy. At this period the Lombards were very troublesome to the Pope, and frequently assailed the Roman territory. Accordingly, when Pope Adrian I. called on Charlemagne for aid, the Frankish monarch crossed the Alps, defeated the Lombards, shut up their king in a monastery, and himself assuming the famous “iron crown” of Lombardy, united the whole of Upper Italy to the kingdom of the Franks (A.D. 773). At the same time he confirmed the gifts made by Pepin to the Pope.

The general result of all the wars and conquests which we have described was that by the year 800 Charlemagne, who had inherited from Pepin a kingdom scarcely equal to all Gaul, found himself lord of a dominion as large as the ancient Roman Empire of the West, and extending from the Ebro (in Spain) on the west to the Elbe in the northeast, the Theiss (Hungary) in the southeast, and including [409] half of Italy, with Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles. He fell heir to a kingdom; he was now master of an empire.

CROWNED BY THE POPE AS EMPEROR
OF THE WEST

The year A.D. 800 forms the climax of Charlemagne’s reign. The sovereign had gone in splendid state to visit Italy. On Christmas day Charlemagne and his court were attending divine service in the church of St. Peter’s, at Rome. Suddenly, while the monarch was kneeling on the steps of the altar in prayer, the Pope, Leo III., placed a crown upon his head and solemnly saluted him as “Emperor of the West,” with the title of Charles I., Cæsar Augustus.

CHARLEMAGNE’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
CIVILIZATION OF HIS TIME

The latter years of Charlemagne’s life were spent in labors for the consolidation of his empire and the elevation of his people. He was a great patron of learning and learned men. He was himself a good Latin scholar, and he knew something of Greek. Wherever he was he was usually surrounded by learned churchmen, whom he drew to his court from all quarters, and with whom he delighted to hold conversations on literary and other subjects. The emperor, his family, and all attached to his household formed what was called the “School of the Palace.” Fond of literary pursuits, Charlemagne studied grammar, rhetoric, music, logic, astronomy, and natural history under his learned friends; and even after he was considerably advanced in years he took the pains to acquire the art of writing,—an accomplishment then very unusual except among churchmen.

HIS EFFORTS FOR EDUCATION
OF HIS PEOPLE

Nor was the emperor’s interest in education confined to his own household. Each of the numerous monasteries that he endowed was bound to maintain a school. He had copies of the writings of the ancient Romans made and distributed among the convents, he formed a collection of old German heroic ballads, and under his patronage church music was greatly improved.

CAPITAL AND FAVORITE RESIDENCE
OF CHARLEMAGNE

Charlemagne’s favorite place of residence was at Aix-la-Chapelle (in German, Aachen). He made this the northern capital of his empire, as Rome was the southern, and built a magnificent palace there. When his power was confirmed by his coronation as Emperor of the West, all the world hastened to pay him homage. The Saracen caliph, the famous Haroun-al-Raschid, who ruled the Eastern dominion of the Saracens, at Bagdad, exchanged courtesies with his great brother of the West, sending him, among other presents, an ape, an elephant, and a curious clock which struck the hours.

THE END OF CHARLEMAGNE’S
GREAT EMPIRE

Charlemagne died at the age of seventy-two, at Aix-la-Chapelle, in A.D. 814. The year before, he had caused his only living son, Louis, to assume the imperial crown. But the vast structure that Charlemagne had raised during his lifetime tottered and fell almost immediately after his death. Louis, known as the Gentle (le Debonnaire), was better fitted for the repose of a cloister than for the government of a warlike kingdom. His sons, among whom he divided the empire, turned their arms first against himself and then against one another. Finally, in A.D. 843, a treaty was made at Verdun, by which France, Germany and Italy became separate and independent states; so that, in less than thirty years after the death of Charlemagne, the history of the Franks came to an end, and the history of France and of Germany began.

COMPARATIVE HISTORY OF NATIONS--Continued

IX. FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE SIGNING OF MAGNA CHARTA BY KING JOHN, 843-1215 A. D.

Great Events of Period. 900-1000: Norse ravages and conquests continue; also private wars. 1000-1100: Increasing and beneficent power of the church exerted in the direction of order. Normans in Italy and Sicily. The Norman conquest of England; which as regards good government far surpasses all other countries. Quarrels between popes and emperors begin. 1100-1200: Quarrels between popes and emperors continue; zenith of papal power; Criticism revived. Private wars lessen; advance in power of kings and of towns at expense of the feudal baronage. The Crusades. 1200-1300: Rise of universities and of mendicant Friars. Quarrels between popes and emperors still continue. Last Crusades. English liberties recognized by the crown. Magna Charta.

A. D.	Spain	Britain	France	Germany	Italy	Church	Scandinavia and Slavs	Eastern Empire	Saracens	China, Japan, India	A. D.
850											850
			855. Kingdom divided. Louis II., Emperor, obtains Italy and Rhætia till 875. Charles, Provence,till 863.			860. Separation of the Greek and LatinChurches.	862. Russia: Rurik, first grandprince.			859. Japan: Powerful Seiwa family arises.
	864-1131. Kingdom of Barcelona.	866. Invasion of the Danes.				867. Pope Hadrian II., Photius, Patriarch ofConstantinople, deposed.	863-1030. Norway: Harold Harfargar to St. Olaf.	867-1057. Eastern emperors of theMacedonian line.	870-892. Muattemedre-establishes the capital at Bagdad.
		871-900. ALFRED THE GREAT.				872. Pope John VIII.
875			876. Kingdom divided: Charles the Fat obtains Suabia and Alsace till887.	Louis the Younger, Saxony and Thuringia till 882.	Carloman, Bavaria, etc. till 879; becomesKing of Italy, 877.						875
	885-1512. Kingdom of Navarre.		884. Charles the Fat reunites the monarchy of the Franks.				895. Hungary: Magyars under Arpadenter the Kingdom.	886-911. Leo VI., the Philosopher.
900		901-924. Edward the Elder, the first prince who takes thetitle of King of England.	Rollo, the Dane, forces Charles to confer on him the province of Normandy and becomes:							907-960. China: Period of five dynasties.	900
	912-961. Abderrahman III. The greatest Arab prince ofSpain; splendid edifices built; learning encouraged; commerce flourishes.		912. Robert, Duke of Normandy; capital Rouen.	919-1024. Kings and Emperors ofthe Saxon house.		911. The Northmen in France embrace Christianity.		917. The Bulgarians besiegeConstantinople.
				919-936. Henry I., the Fowler, a great prince, consolidates the empire.
925			France is now divided among the powerful barons, who exercise sovereign power in their respectivedomains.	936-973. OTHO the GREAT.		927. Odo, abbot of Cluny, establishes celebrated code ofdiscipline.		941. Russian expedition againstConstantinople, under Igor.			925
950				955. Decisive victory over the Huns, which leads to the consolidationof the margravate of Austria.	950-961. Berenger II., submitted to Otto as his suzerain.			956. Armenia and the provinces between the Black and theCaspian Sea, recovered from the Saracens.			950
				961-965. Otho’s second expedition intoItaly; he dethrones Berenger; is crowned king, and emperor.		959. St. Dunstan becomes Archbishop of Canterbury and attempts to reform the church; enforcing clericalcelibacy.		959-963. Romanus II.		960. China: Tai Tsoo founder of later Sung dynasty.
				962. Makes Rome his capital.		966. Poland receives Christianity under Miecislas.		964-975. Cyprus, Cilicia and Antioch are captured byNicephorus; Syria is overrun, and, under Zimisces, the Greeks penetrate to the Tigris.
				967. Otho II. crowned emperor.					969. The Fatimites become masters ofEgypt, with Cairo as the capital.
975		978-1016. Ethelred the Unready. New invasion of the Danes.						976-1025. Basil II.	980. Seljuk, a Turk officer ofthe khan of Tartary, becomes a Mohammedan, and settles in Samarcand.		975
			House of Capet
			987-996. Hugh Capet. France, for a longperiod before and after the accession of the Capets, has no national history; the royal authority is now restricted to the city in whichthe court resides.			989. Byzantine Christianity propagated in Russia by Vladimir theGreat. 999. Pope Sylvester II.
1000	1000-1035. Sancho III., the Great, King of Navarre and Castile. There existed henceforward threeChristian kingdoms in Spain: 1, Castile-Leon; 2, Navarre; 3, Aragon. Golden age of Arabian literature in Spain.	1016-1035. Canute the Great, King of Denmark.		1002-1024. Henry, Duke of Bavaria, a just and pious king. Continual wars with the Poles and Italy.	Venice, Genoa, and Pisa rise in power, opulence and civilization.					1000-1186. India: Supremacy of Ghazni.	1000
		1017-1041. Danish kings.		House of Franconia
				1024-1039. Conrad II., the Salic.			1019. Russia: Yaroslaff the Great.	1018. Bulgaria again reduced to a Grecian province.
1025	1026. Hixem III.				1029. Settlement of the Normans in SouthItaly.			1025-1028. Constantine IX. Culmination point of Byzantinegreatness. Greeks greatest merchants and capitalists of the world during this century.		Golden Age of Rajput civilization in India.	1025
	1030. With him ends the Califate of the West.			1039-1056. HENRY III. He defeats the Bohemians andHungarians and makes both tributary. The imperial power at its highest point.
		1042. The Saxon line restored. 1042-1066. Edward the Confessor. French Normans become a new source of trouble.			1041. They conquer Apulia from the Greeks; 1060, Calabria; 1060-1090, Sicily.				1042. Turks invade and conquer Persia. The kingdom of Ghizni declines after 1032, and is confined to India; falls 1183.
1050				1056-1106. Henry IV.				1057-1185. Eastern emperors of the houses ofthe Ducas and the Comnenes. Southern Italy lost to the Normans.			1050
				1059. Quarrels between the Popes and German Emperors respecting investitures and nomination to theHoly See.
			1060-1108. Philip I.		1060. Robert Guiscard, first duke. 1060-1090. Sicily conqueredby Count Roger, brother of Robert.Robert invades the Greek Empire and gains the battle of Durazzo.
	1072. Alfonso VI. of Castile, enlarges his dominions byconquests from the Mohammedans.	1066. Harold elected king, but is defeated and slain in the battle of Hastings, which givesEngland to William. 1066-1154. Norman Kings. 1066-1087.WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR.	1066. William, Duke of Normandy, invades England.			1073. POPE GREGORY VII. Papacy attains great power.
1075							1077. Hungary: Ladislas I., the Saint.		1076. Jerusalem captured by Turks.		1075
	1085. The Cid. Toledo is taken by Alfonso VI. after a threeyears’ siege.						1084. Bohemia erected into a kingdom by the Emperor Henry IV.		1084. Seljuks in Asia Minor.
	1086. The battle of Zalaca.	1087-1100. William II., Rufus. Revolt of the Normannobles. The feudal system established in England.				1088. Pope Urban II.			1092. The Seljuk Empire falls apart into anumber of smaller states. Iconium or Roum, Damascus, Aleppo, Kerman and Iran.
			1096. The First Crusade. Peter the Hermit andWalter the Penniless.						1095-1270. The First Crusade.
						1099. Pope Pascal II.			1099. Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon, elected king by the army.
1100		1100-1135. Henry I., Beauclerc.					1100-1523. Denmark: Introduction of Feudal system to Independence of Sweden. 1100-1468. Norway. 1100-1448. Sweden.				1100
		1101. Robert, Duke of Normandy, invades England.
		1103-1106. Henry invades and conquers Normandy.		1106-1125. Henry V., Emperor of Germany and King ofItaly.		1119. Pope Calixtus II.
1125	1139. Kingdom of Portugal.	Wars between the French and English, and rise of rivalry between these two nations, which lastsfor three centuries and a half.		House of Hohenstaufen 1138-1152. Conrad I., elected emperor.	1139. The two Sicilies erected into a kingdomunder Roger.					1127. China: Kaou Tsung, Emperor.	1125
			1147. The Second Crusade preached by St. Bernardand joined by the Emperor Conrad and Louis VII. of France.	Rise of the factions of Guelfs and Ghibelines.					1146. The Second Crusade. The power of thecrusaders declines.
1150		1154-1399. Plantagenets. 1154-1189. Henry II., Plantagenet.		1152-1190. Frederic I., Barbarossa, Emperor and King,one of the most heroic figures of the Middle Age.		1154. Pope Hadrian IV.					1150
		1159. War between France andEngland.			1158. Venice a great maritime power.	1159. Pope Alexander III.	1157. Denmark: Waldemar I., the Great.			1156. Japan: War between the families of Gen and Hei.
		1171-1172. Conquest of Ireland.	The French language cultivated.	1166. Frederic in Italy. League of the Italian cities, 1167, to preserve their liberties.		1170. The Waldenses.			1171-1193. Saladin becomes Sultan of Egypt.Extends his dominions in Egypt, conquers Syria, Assyria, Mesopotamia and Arabia.
1175		1189-1199.Richard I., the Lion-hearted. Dreadful massacre of the Jews at his coronation.	1180-1223. Philip II., the greatest prince sinceCharlemagne.	1183. Peace ofConstance re-establishes the independence of the Italian Republics.			1177. Poland: Casimir the Just.	1185-1204. Dynasty ofAngelus.		1186-1206.India: The Afghans of Ghor rule.	1175
		1189. Third Crusade led by Philip Augustus, of France; Richard, of England; and FredericBarbarossa.							1189. The Third Crusade.
				1190-1198. Henry VI., Emperor and King of Italy and the Sicilies.		1191. Pope Celestine III.			1193. Saladin dies; his dominionsdivided.
	1195. Battle of Alarcon in which the Christians are defeated.	1199-1216. John usurps over Arthur, the son of his elderbrother, Geoffrey.		1198. Philip of Suabia and Otho of Saxony, dispute thecrown; the former supported by the Ghibelines, the latter by the Guelfs.		1198. Pope Innocent III.
1200		1201-1206. War with France; Philip espouses the cause ofPrince Arthur.			1204. Venice aggrandized by the conquest ofConstantinople.	Papal power attains its climax. It is supreme over secular power.	1202-1241. Denmark: Waldemar II., the Conqueror.	1204. New revolution. TheCrusaders return, again take Constantinople. 1204-1261. Latin Empire.	1202. The Fourth Crusade.	1206.Genghis Khan becomes emperor of the Mongols.	1200
	1212. Battle of Navas de Tolosa; a victory for theChristians.		1202. The Fourth Crusade under Boniface of Montferrat.	1212-1250. Frederic II. becomes emperorand king of the two Sicilies.	1210-1212. First war of Venice and Genoa.	ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI (1182-1226)
	1213-1276. James I., the Conqueror in Aragon.	1213-1215. War with France; the English lose Vermandois and Valois.
	1214-1217. Henry I., King in Castile.	1215. Insurrection of the barons. Magna Charta signed at Runnymede.				1215. Fourth Lateran, and twelfth general council against theAlbigenses and all heretics. The doctrines of transubstantiation and auricular confession established.	1217-1262. Norway: Haco IV.

A. D.	Spain	Britain	France	Germany	Italy
850
			855. Kingdom divided. Louis II., Emperor, obtains Italy and Rhætia till 875. Charles, Provence,till 863.
	864-1131. Kingdom of Barcelona.	866. Invasion of the Danes.
		871-900. ALFRED THE GREAT.
875			876. Kingdom divided: Charles the Fat obtains Suabia and Alsace till887.	Louis the Younger, Saxony and Thuringia till 882.	Carloman, Bavaria, etc. till 879; becomesKing of Italy, 877.
	885-1512. Kingdom of Navarre.		884. Charles the Fat reunites the monarchy of the Franks.
900		901-924. Edward the Elder, the first prince who takes thetitle of King of England.	Rollo, the Dane, forces Charles to confer on him the province of Normandy and becomes:
	912-961. Abderrahman III. The greatest Arab prince ofSpain; splendid edifices built; learning encouraged; commerce flourishes.		912. Robert, Duke of Normandy; capital Rouen.	919-1024. Kings and Emperors ofthe Saxon house.
				919-936. Henry I., the Fowler, a great prince, consolidates the empire.
925			France is now divided among the powerful barons, who exercise sovereign power in their respectivedomains.	936-973. OTHO the GREAT.
950				955. Decisive victory over the Huns, which leads to the consolidationof the margravate of Austria.	950-961. Berenger II., submitted to Otto as his suzerain.
				961-965. Otho’s second expedition intoItaly; he dethrones Berenger; is crowned king, and emperor.
				962. Makes Rome his capital.
				967. Otho II. crowned emperor.
975		978-1016. Ethelred the Unready. New invasion of the Danes.
			House of Capet
			987-996. Hugh Capet. France, for a longperiod before and after the accession of the Capets, has no national history; the royal authority is now restricted to the city in whichthe court resides.
1000	1000-1035. Sancho III., the Great, King of Navarre and Castile. There existed henceforward threeChristian kingdoms in Spain: 1, Castile-Leon; 2, Navarre; 3, Aragon. Golden age of Arabian literature in Spain.	1016-1035. Canute the Great, King of Denmark.		1002-1024. Henry, Duke of Bavaria, a just and pious king. Continual wars with the Poles and Italy.	Venice, Genoa, and Pisa rise in power, opulence and civilization.
		1017-1041. Danish kings.		House of Franconia
				1024-1039. Conrad II., the Salic.
1025	1026. Hixem III.				1029. Settlement of the Normans in SouthItaly.
	1030. With him ends the Califate of the West.			1039-1056. HENRY III. He defeats the Bohemians andHungarians and makes both tributary. The imperial power at its highest point.
		1042. The Saxon line restored. 1042-1066. Edward the Confessor. French Normans become a new source of trouble.			1041. They conquer Apulia from the Greeks; 1060, Calabria; 1060-1090, Sicily.
1050				1056-1106. Henry IV.
				1059. Quarrels between the Popes and German Emperors respecting investitures and nomination to theHoly See.
			1060-1108. Philip I.		1060. Robert Guiscard, first duke. 1060-1090. Sicily conqueredby Count Roger, brother of Robert. Robert invades the Greek Empire and gains the battle of Durazzo.
	1072. Alfonso VI. of Castile, enlarges his dominions byconquests from the Mohammedans.	1066. Harold elected king, but is defeated and slain in the battle of Hastings, which givesEngland to William. 1066-1154. Norman Kings. 1066-1087.WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR.	1066. William, Duke of Normandy, invades England.
1075
	1085. The Cid. Toledo is taken by Alfonso VI. after a threeyears’ siege.
	1086. The battle of Zalaca.	1087-1100. William II., Rufus. Revolt of the Normannobles. The feudal system established in England.
			1096. The First Crusade. Peter the Hermit andWalter the Penniless.
1100		1100-1135. Henry I., Beauclerc.
		1101. Robert, Duke of Normandy, invades England.
		1103-1106. Henry invades and conquers Normandy.		1106-1125. Henry V., Emperor of Germany and King ofItaly.
1125	1139. Kingdom of Portugal.	Wars between the French and English, and rise of rivalry between these two nations, which lastsfor three centuries and a half.		House of Hohenstaufen 1138-1152. Conrad I., elected emperor.	1139. The two Sicilies erected into a kingdomunder Roger.
			1147. The Second Crusade preached by St. Bernardand joined by the Emperor Conrad and Louis VII. of France.	Rise of the factions of Guelfs and Ghibelines.
1150		1154-1399. Plantagenets. 1154-1189. Henry II., Plantagenet.		1152-1190. Frederic I., Barbarossa, Emperor and King,one of the most heroic figures of the Middle Age.
		1159. War between France andEngland.			1158. Venice a great maritime power.
		1171-1172. Conquest of Ireland.	The French language cultivated.	1166. Frederic in Italy. League of the Italian cities, 1167, to preserve their liberties.
1175		1189-1199.Richard I., the Lion-hearted. Dreadful massacre of the Jews at his coronation.	1180-1223. Philip II., the greatest prince sinceCharlemagne.	1183. Peace ofConstance re-establishes the independence of the Italian Republics.
		1189. Third Crusade led by Philip Augustus, of France; Richard, of England; and FredericBarbarossa.
				1190-1198. Henry VI., Emperor and King of Italy and the Sicilies.
	1195. Battle of Alarcon in which the Christians are defeated.	1199-1216. John usurps over Arthur, the son of his elderbrother, Geoffrey.		1198. Philip of Suabia and Otho of Saxony, dispute thecrown; the former supported by the Ghibelines, the latter by the Guelfs.
1200		1201-1206. War with France; Philip espouses the cause ofPrince Arthur.			1204. Venice aggrandized by the conquest ofConstantinople.
	1212. Battle of Navas de Tolosa; a victory for theChristians.		1202. The Fourth Crusade under Boniface of Montferrat.	1212-1250. Frederic II. becomes emperorand king of the two Sicilies.	1210-1212. First war of Venice and Genoa.
	1213-1276. James I., the Conqueror in Aragon.	1213-1215. War with France; the English lose Vermandois and Valois.
	1214-1217. Henry I., King in Castile.	1215. Insurrection of the barons. Magna Charta signed at Runnymede.

A. D.	Church	Scandinavia and Slavs	Eastern Empire	Saracens	China, Japan, India
850
	860. Separation of the Greek and LatinChurches.	862. Russia: Rurik, first grandprince.			859. Japan: Powerful Seiwa family arises.
	867. Pope Hadrian II., Photius, Patriarch ofConstantinople, deposed.	863-1030. Norway: Harold Harfargar to St. Olaf.	867-1057. Eastern emperors of theMacedonian line.	870-892. Muattemedre-establishes the capital at Bagdad.
	872. Pope John VIII.
875
		895. Hungary: Magyars under Arpadenter the Kingdom.	886-911. Leo VI., the Philosopher.
900					907-960. China: Period of five dynasties.
	911. The Northmen in France embrace Christianity.		917. The Bulgarians besiegeConstantinople.
925	927. Odo, abbot of Cluny, establishes celebrated code ofdiscipline.		941. Russian expedition againstConstantinople, under Igor.
950			956. Armenia and the provinces between the Black and theCaspian Sea, recovered from the Saracens.
	959. St. Dunstan becomes Archbishop of Canterbury and attempts to reform the church; enforcing clericalcelibacy.		959-963. Romanus II.		960. China: Tai Tsoo founder of later Sung dynasty.
	966. Poland receives Christianity under Miecislas.		964-975. Cyprus, Cilicia and Antioch are captured byNicephorus; Syria is overrun, and, under Zimisces, the Greeks penetrate to the Tigris.
				969. The Fatimites become masters ofEgypt, with Cairo as the capital.
975			976-1025. Basil II.	980. Seljuk, a Turk officer ofthe khan of Tartary, becomes a Mohammedan, and settles in Samarcand.
	989. Byzantine Christianity propagated in Russia by Vladimir theGreat. 999. Pope Sylvester II.
1000					1000-1186. India: Supremacy of Ghazni.
		1019. Russia: Yaroslaff the Great.	1018. Bulgaria again reduced to a Grecian province.
1025			1025-1028. Constantine IX. Culmination point of Byzantinegreatness. Greeks greatest merchants and capitalists of the world during this century.		Golden Age of Rajput civilization in India.
				1042. Turks invade and conquer Persia. The kingdom of Ghizni declines after 1032, and is confined to India; falls 1183.
1050			1057-1185. Eastern emperors of the houses ofthe Ducas and the Comnenes. Southern Italy lost to the Normans.
	1059. Quarrels between the Popes and German Emperors respecting investitures and nomination to theHoly See.
	1073. POPE GREGORY VII. Papacy attains great power.
1075		1077. Hungary: Ladislas I., the Saint.		1076. Jerusalem captured by Turks.
		1084. Bohemia erected into a kingdom by the Emperor Henry IV.		1084. Seljuks in Asia Minor.
	1088. Pope Urban II.			1092. The Seljuk Empire falls apart into anumber of smaller states. Iconium or Roum, Damascus, Aleppo, Kerman and Iran.
				1095-1270. The First Crusade.
	1099. Pope Pascal II.			1099. Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon, elected king by the army.
1100		1100-1523. Denmark: Introduction of Feudal system to Independence of Sweden. 1100-1468. Norway. 1100-1448. Sweden.
	1119. Pope Calixtus II.
1125					1127. China: Kaou Tsung, Emperor.
				1146. The Second Crusade. The power of thecrusaders declines.
1150	1154. Pope Hadrian IV.
	1159. Pope Alexander III.	1157. Denmark: Waldemar I., the Great.			1156. Japan: War between the families of Gen and Hei.
	1170. The Waldenses.			1171-1193. Saladin becomes Sultan of Egypt.Extends his dominions in Egypt, conquers Syria, Assyria, Mesopotamia and Arabia.
1175		1177. Poland: Casimir the Just.	1185-1204. Dynasty ofAngelus.		1186-1206.India: The Afghans of Ghor rule.
				1189. The Third Crusade.
	1191. Pope Celestine III.			1193. Saladin dies; his dominionsdivided.
	1198. Pope Innocent III.
1200	Papal power attains its climax. It is supreme over secular power.	1202-1241. Denmark: Waldemar II., the Conqueror.	1204. New revolution. TheCrusaders return, again take Constantinople. 1204-1261. Latin Empire.	1202. The Fourth Crusade.	1206.Genghis Khan becomes emperor of the Mongols.
	ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI (1182-1226)
	1215. Fourth Lateran, and twelfth general council against theAlbigenses and all heretics. The doctrines of transubstantiation and auricular confession established.	1217-1262. Norway: Haco IV.

X. FROM THE SIGNING OF MAGNA CHARTA TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS, 1215-1492 A. D.

Great Events of Period. 1200-1300: Hanse League established. Great conquests Tartars in Asia; they overrun Russia and establish a dynasty at Moscow. 1300-1400: Growth of cities and trade—especially in Italy, where also literature and art, inspired by Dante and Giotto, make progress. Popes at Avignon. Era of Wyclif: his teaching spreads in Bohemia. Invention of gunpowder. Mariner’s compass comes into use in the West. 1400-1500: Turks take Constantinople. Revival of learning and advance of art in the West—especially in Italy. Consolidation of France and Spain. End of Tartar rule in Russia. Invention of printing. Formation of modern “middle classes.” Maritime discoveries: The cape route to India; the “New World.” End of the Middle Ages.

A. D.	Spain, Portugal	Britain	France	Holy Roman Empire		Switzerland, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia	Scandinavia and Russia	Eastern Empire	Saracens	China, Japan, India	A. D.
				Italy and Church	Germany
		1214-1292. ROGER BACON.		Struggle of the Guelfs and Ghibelines. The power of the Roman pontiffs is carried to thehighest pitch during this century.
	1217. Ferdinand, King of Castile.	1216-1272. Henry III.								1219. Japan: The shogunate seized by the Fujiwara.
							1224-1240. Mongolian invasion of Russia.	1221. Robert Guiscard, Emperor.		1221. The Khorasmian Empire overthrown by Genghis Khan.
1225	1230. Castile andLeon united by Ferdinand III., who takes large territory from the Moors.	1228. The Fifth Crusade.Many English and French nobles join.	1226-1270. LOUIS IX., Saint. Blanche of Castile, his mother,regent.	1227-1274. THOMAS AQUINAS.							1225
			1248. The king sets out on The SixthCrusade.	1243. Struggle of Pope Innocent IV. with the Emperor Frederick.	1243. The Hanseatic League.		1242. Alexander Nevski, Prince of Novgorod.	1244. The Khorasmians take Jerusalem.
1250	1253. The Alhambra founded.				1250. Conrad IV., Emperor.				1250. Egypt: The Mamelukes rule; take Damascus and Aleppo.		1250
		1263-1265. CIVIL WAR.					1262. Norway: Iceland subjected.Greenland tributary to Norway.	1261. Michael Palæologus recoversConstantinople and overthrows the Latin Empire.	1258. Hulaku Khan enters Persia, takes Bagdad, and an end to the caliphate.	1259-1294. China: Kublai Khan, Emperor of all China, founder of theMongol dynasty.
		1265. Parliament of Simon of Montfort. Beginning of the House ofCommons. Defeat and death of Simon of Montfort at Evesham.								1264. China: Kublai Khan builds Pekin, and makes it his capital.
		1270. The Seventh and Last Crusade.			House of Hapsburg
	1274. Crown of Navarre passes to France.	1272-1307. Edward I., Longshanks.		1274. Fourteenth General Council at Lyons.	1273. Rudolf, Emperor, founds House of Hapsburg.
1275		1283. England and Wales united.Robert Bruce and John Balliol contend for the crown of Scotland.	1276. France at war with Castile.				1279. Russia: Hanseatic settlement atNovgorod.			1281. Japan: Invasion of MongolTatars.	1275
		1284. Annexation of Wales to England.
	1291. James II., King of Aragon.	1297. War between England andScotland.	1297. Invasion of Flanders.	1293. Naval war between Genoa and Venice.	1298. Adolphus,Emperor, deposed and Albert I. enthroned.	1295. Poland: Vladislav the Dwarf, founder ofPolish greatness.		1291. Capture of Acre by the Mamelukes; end of the European states inAsia Minor.	1288. Othman begins to lay the foundations of the Turkish power in Asia Minor.
1300			1302. First convocation of the states-general in France.	1303. Papal power declines.							1300
			1304. War with Flanders.		1304. Rise of the Swiss towns.
		1306. Robert Bruce proclaimed king of Scotland.			1306. Rudolf of Austria, Emperor.
				1309. Seat of the popes transferred to Avignon.	1308. Henry of Luxemburg, Emperor. General insurrection in Switzerland.
	1312. Alphonso XI., King of Castile and Leon.			1311. General Council at Vienna.	1314. Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria contendfor the crown.	1315-1388. AUSTRO-SWISS WAR.
				1265-1321. DANTE.	1322. Frederick of Austria defeated.
1325									1326. Death of Othman; Orkhan, son of Othman, makes Prusa hiscapital.		1325
	1327. Arrival of 200,000 Moors to assist Granada.	1327-1377. Edward III.							1327. Nicomedia taken by Orkhan.
		1328-1400. CHAUCER.	1328-1498. The House of Valois. 1328-1350. Philip VI.				1328. Moscow under the Grand-duke Ivan Kalita becomes paramount in Russia.	1329. Andronicus III. defeated by the Turks in the battleof Pelekanon. 1330. Nicæa taken.
				1265-1337. GIOTTO.		1333. Poland: Casimir the Great becomes King.				1333. China: Shun-te last of the Mongol Emperors succeeds. Japan: Fall ofthe Hojo family.
	1340. Moors defeated atTarifa.	1337. Edward lays claim to France which gives riseto: 1337-1453. HUNDRED YEARS WAR.		1339. Struggle in Rome between the Colonna and theUrsini.	House of Luxemburg	1342.Hungary: Louis the Great.	1340. Denmark: Waldemar III.	1341. John V.(Paleologus), Emperor.		1336-1392. Japan: Feudalism reached its height.
				1347. Democracy in Rome under Rienzi, last of the Tribunes.	1346-1378. Charles IV., King of Bohemia.
1350	Heroic Age of Portugal.			1354. Rienzi killed; papal dominion restored.	1355-1356. Promulgation of the golden bull;it fixes the prerogatives of the electoral college. Fundamental law of the empire.			1354. Turks seize Gallipoli in Europe.			1350
									1359. Murad I., conquered Adrianople.
			1364-1380. Charles V. the Wise.						1365. Adrianople residence of sovereigns.	1363. Timur, or Tamerlane, begins his career of conquest.
										1368-1398. China: Hung Woo establishes the native Ming dynasty.
						1370. Poland: Extinction of the royal race of Piasts with CasimirIII.				1369. Timur becomes king of Transoxiana and makes Samarcand the capital of his new empire.
1375					1378. Wenceslas, King of Bohemia, Emperor.		1382. Russia: The Tartars sack Moscow.	1381. The empire pays tribute to theTurks.			1375
	1394-1460. Henry the Navigator, Kingof Portugal.						1387. Denmark and Norway: Margaret, the Semiramis of the North, becomes queen.			1392. Timur subjugates Persia.
		1399-1461. House ofLancaster. 1399. Henry IV., King of England.					1397. Union of Calmar, forming Denmark, Sweden and Norway into a single monarchy.			1398. Invasion of India by Timur; he takes Delhi.
1400					1400. Robert, Count of Palatine, Emperor.				1402. Bajazet defeated and made prisoner by Timur at the battle ofAngora.	1400-1573. Japan: The Shoguns dominate for almost two centuries.	1400
									1403. Empire of the Turks divided after death of Bajazet, among Solyman I., Musa and Mohammed I.
	1407. John II., King of Castile.	1406. James I., King of Scotland.	1410. Civil war between Orleans andBurgundy.		1411. Sigismund, King of Hungary,Emperor.
	1416. Alphonso V., King of Aragon andSicily.	1414. Henry V. claims the French crown.		1414. Council of Constance.		1419. Bohemia: HUSSITE WAR.			1413. Mohammed I. sole ruler of the Turks.
		1422. Henry VI. proclaimed at Paris, King ofFrance. War with France.			1420. Sigismund becomes king of Bohemia.
						1424. Bohemia: Death of John Ziska, the Hussite leader.
1425	1430. War between Castile andGranada.		1427-1429. Siege of Orleans. The English defeated by theFrench under Joan of Arc. France saved from the fate of Ireland. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims.	1429-1463. Cosmo de’ Medici inFlorence, great patron of the arts and sciences.							1425
			1431. Joan of Arc burned.
					1438. House of Austria. Albert II. (King of Bohemia and Hungary), Emperor.			1438-1439. The emperor visits Italy to obtain help against the Turks.
		1444. Truce with France. Marriage of Henry to Margaret of Anjou.			1446. War with Hungary.		1448. Denmark: Christian I., of Oldenburg,King. Sweden: Charles VIII.	1448. Constantine XII., last of the Greekemperors.
1450	1450-1560. Period of great maritime power of the Portuguese.	1450. Richard, Duke of York, claims the throne.		1450-1466. House of Sforza in Milan.					1451. Mohammed II., sultan of the Turks.		1450
	1452. Civil war in Navarre, in which Castile and Aragon join.	1453. End of the French and English wars, without anyformal peace.			1453. Austria made an hereditary duchy by EmperorFrederick III.			1453. Siege and capture of Constantinople by the Turks,ending the Eastern Empire.
	1454. Henry IV. of Castile, King of Spain.	1455-1485. WARS OF THE ROSES.		1454. Struggle between Cosmo de’ Medici and the aristocracy.				Ottoman Empire
						1458. Hungary: Matthias Corvinus makes his country formidable to her neighbors.		1458. Greece subjected to the Turks.
		1461-1485. House of York. 1461. Edward IV., King. Houseof York.	1461. Louis XI., King.		1462. The emperor besieged in court at Vienna.			1464. War with Hungary.
								1468. Uzun Hasan, master of all Persia.
	1469. Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella of Castile.	1470. Henry VI. restored by Warwick.		1469. Lorenzo de’ Medici at Florence.	1469-1480. Invasion of the Turks.			1470. Forms an alliance with the Venetiansand the Duke of Burgundy against the Turks; conquers Bagdad.		1469. India: The Sikhs become powerful.
		1471. Return of Edward IV. Deaths of Warwick and Henry VI.		1471. Increase of the power of the Medici. Rise of learning. Sixtus IV., Pope.			1472. Russia: Ivan III. marries Sophia, niece of theGreek Emperor.
1475		1475. Edward IV. invades France.	1477. Artois and Burgundy united to France.		1477. Marriage of Maximilian and Maria ofBurgundy.	1477. Hungary: War with Frederick III.					1475
	1479. Union of Castile and Aragon.	1480. War between England and Scotland.						1480. Otranto taken. 1481. Bajazet II., Sultan.
		House of Tudor	1483-1498. Charles VIII.
		1485-1509. Henry VII.				1485. Hungary: Matthias Corvinus takes Vienna.
	1492. Conquest of Granada and union of the kingdom with Castile.
	1492. America discovered by Columbus.

A. D.	Spain, Portugal	Britain	France	Holy Roman Empire
				Italy and Church	Germany
		1214-1292. ROGER BACON.		Struggle of the Guelfs and Ghibelines. The power of the Roman pontiffs is carried to thehighest pitch during this century.
	1217. Ferdinand, King of Castile.	1216-1272. Henry III.
1225	1230. Castile andLeon united by Ferdinand III., who takes large territory from the Moors.	1228. The Fifth Crusade.Many English and French nobles join.	1226-1270. LOUIS IX., Saint. Blanche of Castile, his mother,regent.	1227-1274. THOMAS AQUINAS.
			1248. The king sets out on The SixthCrusade.	1243. Struggle of Pope Innocent IV. with the Emperor Frederick.	1243. The Hanseatic League.
1250	1253. The Alhambra founded.				1250. Conrad IV., Emperor.
		1263-1265. CIVIL WAR.
		1265. Parliament of Simon of Montfort. Beginning of the House ofCommons. Defeat and death of Simon of Montfort at Evesham.
		1270. The Seventh and Last Crusade.			House of Hapsburg
	1274. Crown of Navarre passes to France.	1272-1307. Edward I., Longshanks.		1274. Fourteenth General Council at Lyons.	1273. Rudolf, Emperor, founds House of Hapsburg.
1275		1283. England and Wales united.Robert Bruce and John Balliol contend for the crown of Scotland.	1276. France at war with Castile.
		1284. Annexation of Wales to England.
	1291. James II., King of Aragon.	1297. War between England andScotland.	1297. Invasion of Flanders.	1293. Naval war between Genoa and Venice.	1298. Adolphus,Emperor, deposed and Albert I. enthroned.
1300			1302. First convocation of the states-general in France.	1303. Papal power declines.
			1304. War with Flanders.		1304. Rise of the Swiss towns.
		1306. Robert Bruce proclaimed king of Scotland.			1306. Rudolf of Austria, Emperor.
				1309. Seat of the popes transferred to Avignon.	1308. Henry of Luxemburg, Emperor. General insurrection in Switzerland.
	1312. Alphonso XI., King of Castile and Leon.			1311. General Council at Vienna.	1314. Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria contendfor the crown.
				1265-1321. DANTE.	1322. Frederick of Austria defeated.
1325
	1327. Arrival of 200,000 Moors to assist Granada.	1327-1377. Edward III.
		1328-1400. CHAUCER.	1328-1498. The House of Valois. 1328-1350. Philip VI.
				1265-1337. GIOTTO.
	1340. Moors defeated atTarifa.	1337. Edward lays claim to France which gives riseto: 1337-1453. HUNDRED YEARS WAR.		1339. Struggle in Rome between the Colonna and theUrsini.	House of Luxemburg
				1347. Democracy in Rome under Rienzi, last of the Tribunes.	1346-1378. Charles IV., King of Bohemia.
1350	Heroic Age of Portugal.			1354. Rienzi killed; papal dominion restored.	1355-1356. Promulgation of the golden bull;it fixes the prerogatives of the electoral college. Fundamental law of the empire.
			1364-1380. Charles V. the Wise.
1375					1378. Wenceslas, King of Bohemia, Emperor.
	1394-1460. Henry the Navigator, Kingof Portugal.
		1399-1461. House ofLancaster. 1399. Henry IV., King of England.
1400					1400. Robert, Count of Palatine, Emperor.
	1407. John II., King of Castile.	1406. James I., King of Scotland.	1410. Civil war between Orleans andBurgundy.		1411. Sigismund, King of Hungary,Emperor.
	1416. Alphonso V., King of Aragon andSicily.	1414. Henry V. claims the French crown.		1414. Council of Constance.
		1422. Henry VI. proclaimed at Paris, King ofFrance. War with France.			1420. Sigismund becomes king of Bohemia.
1425	1430. War between Castile andGranada.		1427-1429. Siege of Orleans. The English defeated by theFrench under Joan of Arc. France saved from the fate of Ireland. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims.	1429-1463. Cosmo de’ Medici inFlorence, great patron of the arts and sciences.
			1431. Joan of Arc burned.
					1438. House of Austria. Albert II. (King of Bohemia and Hungary), Emperor.
		1444. Truce with France. Marriage of Henry to Margaret of Anjou.			1446. War with Hungary.
1450	1450-1560. Period of great maritime power of the Portuguese.	1450. Richard, Duke of York, claims the throne.		1450-1466. House of Sforza in Milan.
	1452. Civil war in Navarre, in which Castile and Aragon join.	1453. End of the French and English wars, without anyformal peace.			1453. Austria made an hereditary duchy by EmperorFrederick III.
	1454. Henry IV. of Castile, King of Spain.	1455-1485. WARS OF THE ROSES.		1454. Struggle between Cosmo de’ Medici and the aristocracy.
		1461-1485. House of York. 1461. Edward IV., King. Houseof York.	1461. Louis XI., King.		1462. The emperor besieged in court at Vienna.
	1469. Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella of Castile.	1470. Henry VI. restored by Warwick.		1469. Lorenzo de’ Medici at Florence.	1469-1480. Invasion of the Turks.
		1471. Return of Edward IV. Deaths of Warwick and Henry VI.		1471. Increase of the power of the Medici. Rise of learning. Sixtus IV., Pope.
1475		1475. Edward IV. invades France.	1477. Artois and Burgundy united to France.		1477. Marriage of Maximilian and Maria ofBurgundy.
	1479. Union of Castile and Aragon.	1480. War between England and Scotland.
		House of Tudor	1483-1498. Charles VIII.
		1485-1509. Henry VII.
	1492. Conquest of Granada and union of the kingdom with Castile.
	1492. America discovered by Columbus.

A. D.	Switzerland, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia	Scandinavia and Russia	Eastern Empire	Saracens	China, Japan, India
					1219. Japan: The shogunate seized by the Fujiwara.
		1224-1240. Mongolian invasion of Russia.	1221. Robert Guiscard, Emperor.		1221. The Khorasmian Empire overthrown by Genghis Khan.
1225
		1242. Alexander Nevski, Prince of Novgorod.	1244. The Khorasmians take Jerusalem.
1250				1250. Egypt: The Mamelukes rule; take Damascus and Aleppo.
		1262. Norway: Iceland subjected.Greenland tributary to Norway.	1261. Michael Palæologus recoversConstantinople and overthrows the Latin Empire.	1258. Hulaku Khan enters Persia, takes Bagdad, and an end to the caliphate.	1259-1294. China: Kublai Khan, Emperor of all China, founder of theMongol dynasty.
					1264. China: Kublai Khan builds Pekin, and makes it his capital.
1275		1279. Russia: Hanseatic settlement atNovgorod.			1281. Japan: Invasion of MongolTatars.
	1295. Poland: Vladislav the Dwarf, founder ofPolish greatness.		1291. Capture of Acre by the Mamelukes; end of the European states inAsia Minor.	1288. Othman begins to lay the foundations of the Turkish power in Asia Minor.
1300
	1315-1388. AUSTRO-SWISS WAR.
1325				1326. Death of Othman; Orkhan, son of Othman, makes Prusa hiscapital.
				1327. Nicomedia taken by Orkhan.
		1328. Moscow under the Grand-duke Ivan Kalita becomes paramount in Russia.	1329. Andronicus III. defeated by the Turks in the battleof Pelekanon. 1330. Nicæa taken.
	1333. Poland: Casimir the Great becomes King.				1333. China: Shun-te last of the Mongol Emperors succeeds. Japan: Fall ofthe Hojo family.
	1342.Hungary: Louis the Great.	1340. Denmark: Waldemar III.	1341. John V.(Paleologus), Emperor.		1336-1392. Japan: Feudalism reached its height.
1350			1354. Turks seize Gallipoli in Europe.
				1359. Murad I., conquered Adrianople.
				1365. Adrianople residence of sovereigns.	1363. Timur, or Tamerlane, begins his career of conquest.
					1368-1398. China: Hung Woo establishes the native Ming dynasty.
		1370. Poland: Extinction of the royal race of Piasts with CasimirIII.			1369. Timur becomes king of Transoxiana and makes Samarcand the capital of his new empire.
1375		1382. Russia: The Tartars sack Moscow.	1381. The empire pays tribute to theTurks.
		1387. Denmark and Norway: Margaret, the Semiramis of the North, becomes queen.			1392. Timur subjugates Persia.
		1397. Union of Calmar, forming Denmark, Sweden and Norway into a single monarchy.			1398. Invasion of India by Timur; he takes Delhi.
1400				1402. Bajazet defeated and made prisoner by Timur at the battle ofAngora.	1400-1573. Japan: The Shoguns dominate for almost two centuries.
				1403. Empire of the Turks divided after death of Bajazet, among Solyman I., Musa and Mohammed I.
	1419. Bohemia: HUSSITE WAR.			1413. Mohammed I. sole ruler of the Turks.
	1420. Sigismund becomes king of Bohemia.
	1424. Bohemia: Death of John Ziska, the Hussite leader.
1425	1429-1463. Cosmo de’ Medici inFlorence, great patron of the arts and sciences.
			1438-1439. The emperor visits Italy to obtain help against the Turks.
		1448. Denmark: Christian I., of Oldenburg,King. Sweden: Charles VIII.	1448. Constantine XII., last of the Greekemperors.
1450				1451. Mohammed II., sultan of the Turks.
			1453. Siege and capture of Constantinople by the Turks,ending the Eastern Empire.
			Ottoman Empire
	1458. Hungary: Matthias Corvinus makes his country formidable to her neighbors.		1458. Greece subjected to the Turks.
			1464. War with Hungary.
			1468. Uzun Hasan, master of all Persia.
			1470. Forms an alliance with the Venetiansand the Duke of Burgundy against the Turks; conquers Bagdad.		1469. India: The Sikhs become powerful.
		1472. Russia: Ivan III. marries Sophia, niece of theGreek Emperor.
1475	1477. Hungary: War with Frederick III.
			1480. Otranto taken. 1481. Bajazet II., Sultan.
		1483-1498. Charles VIII.
	1485. Hungary: Matthias Corvinus takes Vienna.

XI. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA, 1492-1648 A. D.

Great Events of Period. 1500-1600: The Reformation: Immense development of new life in Europe. Age of Charles V. Power of Spain, and her conquests in America. The monarchy strong in England. 1600-1700: The Thirty Years’ War, at first a life struggle of Roman Catholics and Protestants, results in downfall of Spain, and the ascendency of France, which reached its zenith under Louis XIV.

A. D.	Britain	Spain and Portugal	Holland	France	Holy Roman Empire		Poland, Prussia, Hungary, Bohemia	Scandinavia and Russia	Ottoman Empire and Persia	China, Japan, India	A. D.
					Italy and Church	Germany and Austria
		The power of Spain grew rapidly. Greatest power in Europe during most of Sixteenth Century.		1491. Bretagne united to the crown.
		1492. America discovered by COLUMBUS.				1493-1519. Maximilian I.
		1494-1529. WARS WITH FRENCH for control of Italy.		1494-1529. WARS FOR THE CONTROL OF ITALY between the French and Spanish.	1494. Expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy. 1494-1559.Sixty-five years of Italian Wars.	1495. Diet at Worms.
		1497-1503. Voyages of Amerigo Vespucius. South American coast explored.				COPERNICUS (1473-1543).
		1498. Vasco de Gama reaches India via Cape of Good Hope.
1500	1502. Marriage of Henry’s eldest daughter,Margaret, with James IV., King of Scotland.				1500. Partition of Naples between France and Spain.			1502. Destruction of the Golden Horde and end of Mongolpower in Russia.	1502. Persia: Ismail Shah Sufi makes himself solesovereign of Persia.		1500
					1503. Naples annexed to the Spanish crown. JULIUS II., pope.
	1509. Henry VIII., King.	1506. Columbus dies at Valladolid.	1506-1530. Margaret of Austria regent for her nephewCharles.				1506. Poland: Sigismund I., the Great.		1505. War with Persia.	1506. China: Portuguese, first Europeans in China.
	1512. War with France. Alliance with Spain and the Pope againstFrance.			1510. Council of Tours.		1512. Maximilian divides the empire into ten circles.			1512. Selim I. dethrones and puts to death his father.
	1513. Battle of Flodden; James IV. killed.				1513. Pope LEO X. patron of literature and the arts.	LUTHER (1483-1546).			1514. Persians defeated; Kurdistan added to theempire.
	1515. Wolsey, chancellor and cardinal.			1515. Francis I. invades Italy.
		1516-1556. CHARLES I. of Spain and V. of Germany.			ARIOSTO (1474-1533).	1517. Beginning of the Reformation.			1516. Cairo taken.
		1519. Conquest of Mexico by Cortez.			RAPHAEL (1483-1520).	1519-1556. CHARLES V., King of Spain, Emperor.		1520. Christian II. of Denmark invades Sweden and overthrows StenSture.	1520. Soliman the Magnificent, Sultan.
				1521. First war with Charles V.		1521. Accession of Bohemia and Hungary to the House of Hapsburg.		1523. Sweden: Revolt under GustavusVasa. The Danes expelled. Union of Calmar dissolved. Denmark and Norway: Frederick I.	1521. Belgrade taken.
1525				1525. Francis defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia.	1525. Spanish ascendency by the victory of Pavia. MICHAELANGELO (1475-1564). TITIAN (1477-1576).	HOLBEIN (1498-1559).	1525. Albert, Grand-master of Teutonic Order makes East Prussia a secular possession.		1526. Invasion of Hungary.	1526. India: Baber founds the Mogul dynasty at Delhi.	1525
				1527. Second war with Charles V.
	1529. Reformation begins in England.	Rivalry of Spain and France begins.		CALVIN (1509-1564).				1530. Russia: Ivan IV., the Terrible.	1529. Invasion of Austria. Siege of Vienna.
	1532. The king marries Anne Boleyn.	1531-1532. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro.		1532-1544. Struggle for possession of Italy.				1533. Norway and Denmark: Christian III.
	1535. Henry excommunicated by the Pope.	IGNATIUS LOYOLA (1491-1556).							1535. Barbarossa seizes Tunis.
		1540. Lisbon the market of the world.			1540. Order of Jesuits founded by LOYOLA.
	1543. Invasion of France.	1541. De Soto discovers the Mississippi River.				1543. Alliance with England against France.
	1547. Edward VI., King. Formal establishment ofProtestantism.			1547. Henry II., King; Catherinede’ Medici, Queen.	1545. Council of Trent.	1546-1547. Schmalkaldic War.			1547. Turks invade Persia.
1550				1552. Fifth war with Charles V.	1550. Julius III., Pope.	1551. Treaty of Passau secures religious liberty to theProtestants.			1551. Tripoli taken.		1550
	1553. Mary Tudor, Queen of England.								1552. Invasion of Hungary.
	1554. Lady Jane Grey executed.			PALISSY (1510-1589).
	1555. Persecution of the Protestants.	1556. Philip II., King.				1556. Charles V. abdicates.				1556. India: AKBAR becomes Mogul emperor, a patron ofscience and literature. Mogul Empire at its greatest splendor.
	1558. ELIZABETH, Queen. Rise of the Puritans.	CAMOENS (1525-1579).		RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE 1562-1598.	1559. Termination of French wars in Italy.			1559. Denmark and Norway: Frederick II.	1559. Military power of the Turks at its greatest heightunder Soliman.
		1564. Acquisition of the Philippines.		1562. Religious liberty granted to the Huguenots.	Tintoretto (1512-1594).	1564. Maximilian II.,Emperor.		Tycho Brahe (1546-1601).
	1568. Mary, Queen of Scots, takes refugein England.	1567. Duke of Alva, Governor of the Netherlands.	WAR OF LIBERATION. 1568-1648. Sanguinary tribunals. Egmont and Horn beheaded, 1568.	MONTAIGNE (1533-1592).	1569. Florence a grand duchy.		1569. Poland and Lithuania united by the Dietof Lublin.		1570. War with Venice.
	SPENSER (1553-1599). SIR WALTER RALEIGH (1552-1618).	1571. Battle of Lepanto.	Reign of Terror under Alva.	1572. Massacre of St. Bartholomew.	Torquato Tasso (1544-1595).			1571. Russia devastated by the Tartars, and Moscow burned.	1571. Battle of Lepanto.	1573. Japan: Fall of the Ashikaga shoguns;Nobunaga supreme.
1575				1576. The Catholic league.		1576. Rudolph II., (King of Bohemia and Hungary),Emperor.	1575. Poland: Stephen Bathori chosen king; he strengthens the Jesuits.				1575
				1577. Sixth religious war.			1578. Alliance of Sweden and Poland against Russia.
		1580. Portugal passes under Spanish dominion.	1579. Commencement of the Dutch Republic by the Union of Utrecht; William, Prince ofOrange, stadholder.
	1584. Raleigh’s colony in Virginia.		1584. William of Orange assassinated.
	1585. War with Spain.				1585. Pope Sixtus V. restores the Vatican library.
	1588. Spanish Armada destroyed.	1588. Defeat of the Spanish Armada. England savedfrom Spanish invasion.		1588. Revolt of Paris.			1587. Poland: Sigismund III., King.	1588. Denmark: Christian IV.
	Maritime supremacy of England begins.			1589-1792. House of Bourbon. 1589-1610. HENRY IV.					1589. Revolt of the Janisaries.
		CERVANTES (1547-1616).		1590. Siege of Paris raised by the Spaniards.	1592. The Rialto and Piazza di San Marco built at Venice.			1592. Sweden: Sigismund III., of Poland, succeeds to theSwedish crown.
	1596-1597. Naval expeditions of Drake and Raleigh inSouth America. Cadiz taken, and the Spanish fleet burned.	1598-1621. Philip III.		1598. Edict of Nantestoleration granted to the Protestants.	GALILEO (1564-1642).	1594. Union of Protestants at Heilbronn.	RUBENS (1577-1640).		1595. Power in Hungary declines; revolt of Wallachia.
	SHAKESPEARE (1564-1616).					KEPLER (1571-1630).
1600	1603. Union of England and Scotland.									1603. Japan: Tokugawa Iyeyasu makes himself shogun: hisdescendants retain power till 1868.	1600
	BACON (1561-1626).		1583-1645. GROTIUS.
	1607. English settlement at Jamestown.	1609. Expulsion of the Moors.		1610. Assassination of HenryIV.	1609. Leghorn becomes theemporium of the Levant trade.	1608. Protestant union under Frederick theElector.		1611. Sweden:GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, King. War with Denmark. Oxenstiern, Minister.		1605. India: Jehangir, Mogul, Emperor.
				1614. Last assembly of the states-general.				1613. Russia: Michael Romanoff, Czar, founder of the present ruling line.
								1616. Sweden dominates the North.
	1618-1648.	THIRTY YEARS WAR—THIRTY YEARS WAR—THIRTY YEARS WAR—THIRTY YEARSWAR.						1618-1648.
	1620. Emigration of Pilgrims to New England and founding of Plymouth.	1621. Dutch War.	1621. Dutch West India Company incorporated.			1620. Massacre of Prague.
	HARVEY (1578-1657).			1624. Ministry of Cardinal Richelieu.
1625	1625. Charles I., King.	1625. Naval war with England.	1625. Breda taken by Spinola.	DESCARTES (1596-1650).	1626. St. Peter’s dedicated.	1628. Victories of Wallenstein.					1625
						1629. Gustavus Adolphus lands in Germany.			War with Austria 1682-1699.
	1632. Maryland settled by a colony sent out by LordBaltimore.				1631. Influence of France increases.	1632. Battle of Lutzen.	1632. War with Russia. Poles advance to Moscow.	1632. Sweden: Christina,Queen; Oxenstiern, Regent.	1634. Murad invades Persia.
			1639. Great naval victory by Van Tromp,over the Spanish fleet in the Downs. Vandyck (1599-1641).	1638. Invasion of Spain.					1637. Troubles on the Tartar frontier. Bagdad taken by the Turks.
	1642-1649. CIVIL WAR AND REVOLUTION.	1640. Portugal regains independence. VELASQUEZ(1599-1660).		1640. Turin taken by the French. 1643. LOUIS XIV., King.	1646. Revolt ofNaples under Masaniello.		1640. Frederick William of Prussia.		1645. War with Venice.	1644. China: Establishment of the Manchudynasty.
	1648. Cromwell routs the Scotch. The presbyterians expelled from parliament, which receives the name of“the Rump.”			1648. Wars of the Fronde.		1648. Peace of Westphalia, the Basis of all Subsequent Treaties; Signed atMunster. At this time begins the policy of the “Balance of Power” inEurope.

A. D.	Britain	Poland, Prussia, Hungary, Bohemia	Scandinavia and Russia	Ottoman Empire and Persia	China, Japan, India
1500	1502. Marriage of Henry’s eldest daughter,Margaret, with James IV., King of Scotland.		1502. Destruction of the Golden Horde and end of Mongolpower in Russia.	1502. Persia: Ismail Shah Sufi makes himself solesovereign of Persia.
	1509. Henry VIII., King.	1506. Poland: Sigismund I., the Great.		1505. War with Persia.	1506. China: Portuguese, first Europeans in China.
	1512. War with France. Alliance with Spain and the Pope againstFrance.			1512. Selim I. dethrones and puts to death his father.
	1513. Battle of Flodden; James IV. killed.			1514. Persians defeated; Kurdistan added to theempire.
	1515. Wolsey, chancellor and cardinal.
				1516. Cairo taken.
			1520. Christian II. of Denmark invades Sweden and overthrows StenSture.	1520. Soliman the Magnificent, Sultan.
			1523. Sweden: Revolt under GustavusVasa. The Danes expelled. Union of Calmar dissolved. Denmark and Norway: Frederick I.	1521. Belgrade taken.
1525		1525. Albert, Grand-master of Teutonic Order makes East Prussia a secular possession.		1526. Invasion of Hungary.	1526. India: Baber founds the Mogul dynasty at Delhi.
	1529. Reformation begins in England.		1530. Russia: Ivan IV., the Terrible.	1529. Invasion of Austria. Siege of Vienna.
	1532. The king marries Anne Boleyn.		1533. Norway and Denmark: Christian III.
	1535. Henry excommunicated by the Pope.			1535. Barbarossa seizes Tunis.
	1543. Invasion of France.
	1547. Edward VI., King. Formal establishment ofProtestantism.			1547. Turks invade Persia.
1550				1551. Tripoli taken.
	1553. Mary Tudor, Queen of England.			1552. Invasion of Hungary.
	1554. Lady Jane Grey executed.
	1555. Persecution of the Protestants.				1556. India: AKBAR becomes Mogul emperor, a patron ofscience and literature. Mogul Empire at its greatest splendor.
	1558. ELIZABETH, Queen. Rise of the Puritans.		1559. Denmark and Norway: Frederick II.	1559. Military power of the Turks at its greatest heightunder Soliman.
			Tycho Brahe (1546-1601).
	1568. Mary, Queen of Scots, takes refugein England.	1569. Poland and Lithuania united by the Dietof Lublin.		1570. War with Venice.
	SPENSER (1553-1599). SIR WALTER RALEIGH (1552-1618).		1571. Russia devastated by the Tartars, and Moscow burned.	1571. Battle of Lepanto.	1573. Japan: Fall of the Ashikaga shoguns;Nobunaga supreme.
1575		1575. Poland: Stephen Bathori chosen king; he strengthens the Jesuits.
		1578. Alliance of Sweden and Poland against Russia.
	1584. Raleigh’s colony in Virginia.
	1585. War with Spain.
	1588. Spanish Armada destroyed.	1587. Poland: Sigismund III., King.	1588. Denmark: Christian IV.
	Maritime supremacy of England begins.			1589. Revolt of the Janisaries.
			1592. Sweden: Sigismund III., of Poland, succeeds to theSwedish crown.
	1596-1597. Naval expeditions of Drake and Raleigh inSouth America. Cadiz taken, and the Spanish fleet burned.	RUBENS (1577-1640).		1595. Power in Hungary declines; revolt of Wallachia.
	SHAKESPEARE (1564-1616).
1600	1603. Union of England and Scotland.				1603. Japan: Tokugawa Iyeyasu makes himself shogun: hisdescendants retain power till 1868.
	BACON (1561-1626).
	1607. English settlement at Jamestown.		1611. Sweden:GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, King. War with Denmark. Oxenstiern, Minister.		1605. India: Jehangir, Mogul, Emperor.
			1613. Russia: Michael Romanoff, Czar, founder of the present ruling line.
			1616. Sweden dominates the North.
	1618-1648. THIRTY YEARS WAR. 1618-1648.
	1620. Emigration of Pilgrims to New England and founding of Plymouth.
	HARVEY (1578-1657).
1625	1625. Charles I., King.
				War with Austria 1682-1699.
	1632. Maryland settled by a colony sent out by LordBaltimore.	1632. War with Russia. Poles advance to Moscow.	1632. Sweden: Christina,Queen; Oxenstiern, Regent.	1634. Murad invades Persia.
				1637. Troubles on the Tartar frontier. Bagdad taken by the Turks.
	1642-1649. CIVIL WAR AND REVOLUTION.	1640. Frederick William of Prussia.		1645. War with Venice.	1644. China: Establishment of the Manchudynasty.
	1648. Cromwell routs the Scotch. The presbyterians expelled from parliament, which receives the name of“the Rump.”	1648. Peace of Westphalia, the Basis of all Subsequent Treaties; Signed atMunster. At this time begins the policy of the “Balance of Power” inEurope.

A. D.	Spain and Portugal	Holland	France	Holy Roman Empire
				Italy and Church	Germany and Austria
	The power of Spain grew rapidly. Greatest power in Europe during most of Sixteenth Century.		1491. Bretagne united to the crown.
	1492. America discovered by COLUMBUS.				1493-1519. Maximilian I.
	1494-1529. WARS WITH FRENCH for control of Italy.		1494-1529. WARS FOR THE CONTROL OF ITALY between the French and Spanish.	1494. Expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy. 1494-1559.Sixty-five years of Italian Wars.	1495. Diet at Worms.
	1497-1503. Voyages of Amerigo Vespucius. South American coast explored.				COPERNICUS (1473-1543).
	1498. Vasco de Gama reaches India via Cape of Good Hope.
1500				1500. Partition of Naples between France and Spain.
				1503. Naples annexed to the Spanish crown. JULIUS II., pope.
	1506. Columbus dies at Valladolid.	1506-1530. Margaret of Austria regent for her nephewCharles.
			1510. Council of Tours.		1512. Maximilian divides the empire into ten circles.
				1513. Pope LEO X. patron of literature and the arts.	LUTHER (1483-1546).
			1515. Francis I. invades Italy.
	1516-1556. CHARLES I. of Spain and V. of Germany.			ARIOSTO (1474-1533).	1517. Beginning of the Reformation.
	1519. Conquest of Mexico by Cortez.			RAPHAEL (1483-1520).	1519-1556. CHARLES V., King of Spain, Emperor.
			1521. First war with Charles V.		1521. Accession of Bohemia and Hungary to the House of Hapsburg.
1525			1525. Francis defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia.	1525. Spanish ascendency by the victory of Pavia. MICHAELANGELO (1475-1564). TITIAN (1477-1576).	HOLBEIN (1498-1559).
			1527. Second war with Charles V.
	Rivalry of Spain and France begins.		CALVIN (1509-1564).
	1531-1532. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro.			1532-1544. Struggle for possession of Italy.
	IGNATIUS LOYOLA (1491-1556).
	1540. Lisbon the market of the world.		1540. Order of Jesuits founded by LOYOLA.
	1541. De Soto discovers the Mississippi River.				1543. Alliance with England against France.
			1547. Henry II., King; Catherinede’ Medici, Queen.	1545. Council of Trent.	1546-1547. Schmalkaldic War.
1550			1552. Fifth war with Charles V.	1550. Julius III., Pope.	1551. Treaty of Passau secures religious liberty to theProtestants.
			PALISSY (1510-1589).
	1556. Philip II., King.				1556. Charles V. abdicates.
	CAMOENS (1525-1579).		RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE 1562-1598.	1559. Termination of French wars in Italy.
	1564. Acquisition of the Philippines.		1562. Religious liberty granted to the Huguenots.	Tintoretto (1512-1594).	1564. Maximilian II.,Emperor.
	1567. Duke of Alva, Governor of the Netherlands.	WAR OF LIBERATION. 1568-1648. Sanguinary tribunals. Egmont and Horn beheaded, 1568.	MONTAIGNE (1533-1592).	1569. Florence a grand duchy.
	1571. Battle of Lepanto.	Reign of Terror under Alva.	1572. Massacre of St. Bartholomew.	Torquato Tasso (1544-1595).
1575			1576. The Catholic league.		1576. Rudolph II., (King of Bohemia and Hungary),Emperor.
			1577. Sixth religious war.
	1580. Portugal passes under Spanish dominion.	1579. Commencement of the Dutch Republic by the Union of Utrecht; William, Prince ofOrange, stadholder.
		1584. William of Orange assassinated.
				1585. Pope Sixtus V. restores the Vatican library.
	1588. Defeat of the Spanish Armada. England savedfrom Spanish invasion.		1588. Revolt of Paris.
			1589-1792. House of Bourbon. 1589-1610. HENRY IV.
	CERVANTES (1547-1616).		1590. Siege of Paris raised by the Spaniards.	1592. The Rialto and Piazza di San Marco built at Venice.
	1598-1621. Philip III.		1598. Edict of Nantestoleration granted to the Protestants.	GALILEO (1564-1642).	1594. Union of Protestants at Heilbronn.
					KEPLER (1571-1630).
1600
		1583-1645. GROTIUS.
	1609. Expulsion of the Moors.		1610. Assassination of HenryIV.	1609. Leghorn becomes theemporium of the Levant trade.	1608. Protestant union under Frederick theElector.
			1614. Last assembly of the states-general.
	1618-1648.	THIRTY YEARS WAR—THIRTY YEARS WAR.			1618-1648.
	1621. Dutch War.	1621. Dutch West India Company incorporated.			1620. Massacre of Prague.
			1624. Ministry of Cardinal Richelieu.
1625	1625. Naval war with England.	1625. Breda taken by Spinola.	DESCARTES (1596-1650).	1626. St. Peter’s dedicated.	1628. Victories of Wallenstein.
					1629. Gustavus Adolphus lands in Germany.
				1631. Influence of France increases.	1632. Battle of Lutzen.
		1639. Great naval victory by Van Tromp,over the Spanish fleet in the Downs. Vandyck (1599-1641).	1638. Invasion of Spain.
	1640. Portugal regains independence. VELASQUEZ(1599-1660).		1640. Turin taken by the French. 1643. LOUIS XIV., King.	1646. Revolt ofNaples under Masaniello.
			1648. Wars of the Fronde.		1648. Peace of Westphalia, the Basis of all Subsequent Treaties; Signed atMunster. At this time begins the policy of the “Balance of Power” inEurope.

XII. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE CLOSE OF AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1648-1783 A. D.

Great Events of Period. 1600-1700: Civil and religious liberty fought out in England under the Stuarts. Rise of modern science and philosophy. 1700-1800: Astounding growth of the British Empire. Government in England now and henceforth carried on by a Cabinet Ministry. Development of manufactures in England. Inventions and discoveries. Immense advance in arts and sciences. INDEPENDENCE OF THE UNITED STATES. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION which powerfully influences social, political and intellectual progress for the next hundred years.

A. D.	United States	Britain	Spain and Portugal	France	Italy and Church	Holland	Scandinavia	Germany	Prussia and Poland	Russia	Ottomans, India, Japan, China	A. D.
		1649. Trial and execution of Charles I. The Commonwealth.		1649. Siege of Paris.					1648. Poland: The Cossacks revolt and defeat the Poles. John Casimir, King.
1650		1652. War with Holland.										1650
		1653. CROMWELL, Lord Protector.	1654. Brazil recovered from the Dutch.	1653. Mazarin enters Paris in triumph.		1653. John de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland.	1653. Sweden: Christina resigns. Charles X. first of the House of Zweibrucken.		1653. Poland: War with Russia.	1654. Russian victories in Poland.
		MILTON (1608-1674).	1655. War with England.	MOLIERE (1622-1673).		REMBRANDT (1607-1669).	1655. Charles X. of Sweden invades Poland.		1656. The Elector of Brandenburg allies himself with Sweden againstPoland.
		Stuarts restored.		1659. Peace of the Pyrenees.			1658. Denmark: War against the Swedes, who overrun Denmark, andmenace Copenhagen.	1657. Leopold I., Emperor.	1657. Poland cedes Prussia to the Elector.		1657. Alliance with Sweden against Poland.
		1660. Charles II., King.	1661. Invasion of Portugal.				1660. Denmark: Peace of Copenhagen. Revolution in Denmark; absolute monarchy established. Prussiaacknowledged independent.				1661. War with Austria.
	1663. Settlement of North Carolina under royal patent.										1662. Invasion of Hungary.
	1664. New Amsterdam occupied by the English.		1665-1700. Charles II.					1665. Tyrol united to Austria.			1664. India: Rise of the Mahratta power. Sivaji takes and sacks Surat.
		1668. Triple alliance of England, Sweden and Hollandagainst France.	MURILLO (1618-1682).	1667-1697. First three wars of Louis XIV. 1667. War withSpain.	1669. Candia taken from Venice.	1667. Holland: Peace of Breda; loss of New Netherlands.
					1670. War between Genoa and Savoy.	SPINOZA (1632-1677).				1671. The Cossacks subjugated.
				1672. War with Holland.		1672. Sea fight between the Dutch fleet, under De Witt and De Ruyter, and the English and Frenchfleets; Dutch defeated. Holland: William III., Stadtholder.		1672. The Emperor and Elector of Brandenburg ally themselves with Holland against France.			1672. Invasion of Poland.
			1673. War with France to protect Holland.					1673. War of Austria and France.	1674. Sobieski, King of Poland.
1675	1675-1676. King Philip’s War in New England. Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia.				1676. Messina blockaded by the Dutch and Spanishfleets.		1675. The Swedes invade Brandenburg and are defeated at Fehrbellin.	1676. General revolt of the Hungarians.				1675
		1679. Habeas Corpus Actpassed.		1678. Peace with Holland and Spain restores tranquility toEurope.			1677. Battle of the Lund, between the Swedes and Danes; the latter defeated.	LEIBNITZ (1646-1716).			1678. First war with Russia.
		NEWTON (1642-1727).		1680. France the most formidable power in Europe.				1680. Greater part of Alsace seized by France.		1682. Ivan and Peter, Czars.	1682. War with Austria.
		1685. James II., King. Rise of the Whigs and Tories.		1685. Revocation of the edict of Nantes.				1683. Siege of Vienna by the Turks.
		JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704).						1686. Buda taken after being held by the Turks one hundred and forty-five years.			1686. Russia declares war. 1686. India: The Dekkan conquered byAurungzeb.
		1688. Revolution.		1688. War of the allies against France.				1687. Joseph I., King of Hungary.	1688. Prussia: Frederick III.		1687. Revolution in Constantinople. Solyman II., Sultan.
	1689-1697. War of William and Mary with the French.		1689. Revolt in Catalonia in favor of France.		1689. Alexander VIII., Pope.					1689. Russia: PETER THE GREAT begins personal rule after overthrowing his sister Sophia andrepressing the Streltsi.	1689. First trade with China. India: Height of the Mogul power underAurungzeb. China: Great influence of Jesuits.
		1689. William III., King, and Mary II., Queen. War withFrance.
		1690. Battle of the Boyne. James defeated, returns to France.	1691. Incursion of the French into Aragon.		1693. Battle of Marsaglia.		1693. The King of Sweden declaredabsolute.	1690. Joseph I. elected King of the Romans.		1692. First trade with China.
						1695. Brussels bombarded by the French.			1696. Poland: Death of Sobieski; succeeded by:
		1697. General peace.		1697. General peace of Ryswick between France and the allies.			1699. CHARLES XII. begins to reign. Denmark, Poland and Russia forman alliance against Sweden.	1697. Victories of Prince Eugene over the Sultan Mustapha at Zenta.	1697. Frederick Augustus I.		1699. Peace of Carlowitz. The Ottoman power broken.
1700		1701-1714.	WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION				1701-1714.	1700-1721. GREAT NORTHERN WARS.				1700
	1702-1713. QueenAnne’s War with the French.		1701. Philip V., King.	1702. Invasion of Holland. Revolt of theHuguenots.	1702. French victory at Luzzara over theImperialists.		1702-1706. Charles XII. sweeps Poland andRussia.	1701. Hague alliance.	1701. Prussia is erected into a kingdom under FrederickI.	1700. Peter the Great wars with the Northern Powers.
		1702. Queen Anne. War against France and Spain.
		1704. Gibraltar taken by English.	1705. Barcelona taken by the Allies.	1704. Defeat at Blenheim.	1706. French driven from Italy by PrinceEugene.			1704. Battle of Blenheim. Bavarians and Frenchdefeated by English and Allies. Germany delivered from Louis XIV.	1704. Stanislaus I., King of Poland.	1703. St. Petersburg founded.	1703. Mustapha II. deposed by the Janizaries.
	1707. Unsuccessful expedition against Port Royal.	1707. Act of union of England and Scotland. First united parliament of Great Britain meets.			1707. All Spanish possessions in Italy abandoned.					1707. Revolt of the Cossack Mazeppa. 1708. Charles XII. of Sweden invadesRussia.
								1711. Charles VI.,Emperor.	1712-1786. FrederickII.	1709. Is defeated at Pultowa by Peter the Great. Russia becomes a great power.
	1713. Treaty of Utrecht which gives Arcadia to the English.	1713. Peace of Utrecht. England acquires large American possessions.		1713. Peace of Utrecht; perpetual separation of the crown of France and Spain.						1714. Finland conquered.
				1715. Death of Louis XIV.; Louis XV., King.	1715. Siege of Corfu raised.	1715. Treaty of Antwerp with Austria.	1715. Charles returns to Sweden. Prussia and England join the alliance against him.
				MONTESQUIEU (1689-1755).							1717. Turks lose Belgrade.
	1718. New Orleans settled by the French.	1718. War with Spain. Quadruple Alliance of the Emperor, France, England andHolland, Against the designs of Spain.
				VOLTAIRE (1694-1778).	1719. Sicily invaded by the Spanish.		1718. Charles XII. invades Norway and is killed at the siege of Frederickshall.	BACH (1685-1754).
			1724. Spain: Philip V. abdicatesbut resumes power after some months.	1724-1725. Congress of Cambray toconsider claims of Spain and Austria.			1720. Sweden: The queen abdicates in favor of her husband, Frederick I.	HANDEL (1685-1759).		1721. Peter assumes the title “Emperor of all theRussias.”	1723. Turks and Russians attempt to dismember Persia.
1725		1727. George II., King of England.					LINNAEUS (1707-1778).	1725. Treaty of Vienna, alliance between Spain and Austria.		1727. Treaty with China.		1725
	1729. The Carolinas separated.			1733. The Polish succession involves Francein war.	1730. Clement XII., Pope.		1730. Denmark: Christian VI.	1733. War of the Polishsuccession.	1733. Poland: Frederick Augustus II. The diet electsStanislaus, but is compelled by the Russian army to elect Frederick.	1730. Peter II., last of the Romanoffs.
	1734. Beginning of the Great Awakening in New England.		1734. Conquest of Sicily and Naples by Don Carlos.						1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, escapes to Konigsberg.		1734. Turks driven from Persia by Nâdir Shah.
		1739. War with Spain.									1739. India: Invaded by Nâdir Shah who takes and plunders Delhi.
		1740-1748. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION—WAR OF THE AUSTRIANSUCCESSION 1740-1748.							1740-1786. FREDERICK THE GREAT of Prussia.		1740. Renewed invasion of Turkey.
							1741. Sweden: War with Russia. Swedes driven out of Finland.	1741. MARIA THERESA succeeds to the hereditary states.
		1745. Troubles in Scotland.		1744. War with England and Austria. D’Alembert (1717-1783).	1744. Italy invaded by the French and Spaniards.		1743. Peace of Abo with Sweden gives to Russia southern Finland.	1745. Francis I., husband of Maria Theresa,Emperor.
		HUME (1711-1776).	1746. Ferdinand VI., King.	1747. War with Holland.	1746. French and Spaniards driven from Lombardy.	1747. Netherlands: William IV., Stadtholder.
1750						1751. Netherlands: William V., Stadtholder.						1750
	1754-1763. OLD FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR OR SEVEN YEARS WAR: ENGLAND AND PRUSSIA VS. FRANCE,AUSTRIA, RUSSIA, SPAIN AND SWEDEN. 1754-1763.
		1756. Alliance with Prussia.									1756. India: Calcutta taken by Surajah Dowlah of Bengal; the Black Hole.
	1759. Invasion of Canada; death of Wolfe. Quebec taken.	1760-1820. George III.		1760. Loss of all Canada.
		1762. War with Spain.								1762. CATHERINE II. reigns.
	FRANKLIN (1706-1790).	1763. Peace of Paris.		1763. Peace of Paris.				1763. Prussia and Austria hold the balance of power on the Continent.
	1765. Stamp Act resisted in Massachusetts andVirginia.	GIBBON (1737-1794). 1765.Establishment of a British Empire in India.	1767. Jesuits expelled fromSpain.				1766. Denmark: Christian VII.	LESSING (1729-1781).	1764. Poland: Stanislaus Poniatowski elected king.	1768. War with theOttoman Empire.	1768. War between Russia and theOttoman Empire.
		JAMES WATT (1736-1819).		1770. Marriage of the dauphin to Marie Antoinette.	1773. Jesuits expelled from Rome.		1772. Despotism re-established in Sweden by GustavusIII.	1772. Joseph II. takes part in the firstpartition of Poland, the territory acquired being made into the Kingdom of Galicia.	1772. First partition of Poland, among Russia, Prussiaand Austria.		1773. Ottoman Empire: The Russians are repulsed at Varnaand Silistria. Abdul Hamid succeeds.
				1774. LOUIS XVI., King.				IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804).		1774. Revolt of the Cossacks. Peace of Kutchuk-Kainarji between Russia and Turkey.	1774. India: Warren Hastings, first British governor-general.
1775	1775-1783. AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR.											1775
	1775. April 19, skirmish at Lexington. June 17, battle of Bunker Hill.	1775. Lord North’s “conciliatory measures” rejected by the colonies.
	1776. Declaration of Independence, July 4. British army takes possession of New York. Hessians hired forservice in America.	ARKWRIGHT (1732-1792).		1776. Franklin in Paris.
	1777. Battle of Saratoga and critical battle of the Revolution.	1778. Siege and capture of Pondicherry, by theEnglish.	1777. Portugal: Maria, Queen.	1778. Alliance with America.				1778. War of the Bavarian succession. Bavaria seized by Germany.			1778. India: War between the English and theMahrattas.
			1779. Spain: Alliance with the American colonists.					MOZART (1756-1791).
	1781. Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown.	1783. Treaty of Versailles. Independence ofthe United States acknowledged.		1780. Rochambeau sent to aid the Americans.			1780. Declaration of the Armed Neutrality for the protection of neutral flagsagainst the right of maritime search claimed by England—joined by Denmark and Sweden. Prussia and Austria, 1781. Portugal, 1782.
				LAVOISIER (1743-1794).
	1783. Peace of Versailles between France, Spain, England and America.

A. D.	United States	Britain	Spain and Portugal	France	Italy and Church
		1649. Trial and execution of Charles I. The Commonwealth.		1649. Siege of Paris.
1650		1652. War with Holland.
		1653. CROMWELL, Lord Protector.	1654. Brazil recovered from the Dutch.	1653. Mazarin enters Paris in triumph.
		MILTON (1608-1674).	1655. War with England.	MOLIERE (1622-1673).
		Stuarts restored.		1659. Peace of the Pyrenees.
		1660. Charles II., King.	1661. Invasion of Portugal.
	1663. Settlement of North Carolina under royal patent.
	1664. New Amsterdam occupied by the English.		1665-1700. Charles II.
		1668. Triple alliance of England, Sweden and Hollandagainst France.	MURILLO (1618-1682).	1667-1697. First three wars of Louis XIV. 1667. War withSpain.	1669. Candia taken from Venice.
					1670. War between Genoa and Savoy.
				1672. War with Holland.
			1673. War with France to protect Holland.
1675	1675-1676. King Philip’s War in New England. Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia.				1676. Messina blockaded by the Dutch and Spanishfleets.
		1679. Habeas Corpus Actpassed.		1678. Peace with Holland and Spain restores tranquility toEurope.
		NEWTON (1642-1727).		1680. France the most formidable power in Europe.
		1685. James II., King. Rise of the Whigs and Tories.		1685. Revocation of the edict of Nantes.
		JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704).
		1688. Revolution.		1688. War of the allies against France.
	1689-1697. War of William and Mary with the French.		1689. Revolt in Catalonia in favor of France.		1689. Alexander VIII., Pope.
		1689. William III., King, and Mary II., Queen. War withFrance.
		1690. Battle of the Boyne. James defeated, returns to France.	1691. Incursion of the French into Aragon.		1693. Battle of Marsaglia.
		1697. General peace.		1697. General peace of Ryswick between France and the allies.
1700		1701-1714. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION 1701-1714.
	1702-1713. QueenAnne’s War with the French.		1701. Philip V., King.	1702. Invasion of Holland. Revolt of theHuguenots.	1702. French victory at Luzzara over theImperialists.
		1702. Queen Anne. War against France and Spain.
		1704. Gibraltar taken by English.	1705. Barcelona taken by the Allies.	1704. Defeat at Blenheim.	1706. French driven from Italy by PrinceEugene.
	1707. Unsuccessful expedition against Port Royal.	1707. Act of union of England and Scotland. First united parliament of Great Britain meets.			1707. All Spanish possessions in Italy abandoned.
	1713. Treaty of Utrecht which gives Arcadia to the English.	1713. Peace of Utrecht. England acquires large American possessions.		1713. Peace of Utrecht; perpetual separation of the crown of France and Spain.
				1715. Death of Louis XIV.; Louis XV., King.	1715. Siege of Corfu raised.
				MONTESQUIEU (1689-1755).
	1718. New Orleans settled by the French.	1718. War with Spain. Quadruple Alliance of the Emperor, France, England andHolland, Against the designs of Spain.
				VOLTAIRE (1694-1778).	1719. Sicily invaded by the Spanish.
			1724. Spain: Philip V. abdicatesbut resumes power after some months.	1724-1725. Congress of Cambray toconsider claims of Spain and Austria.
1725		1727. George II., King of England.
	1729. The Carolinas separated.			1733. The Polish succession involves Francein war.	1730. Clement XII., Pope.
	1734. Beginning of the Great Awakening in New England.		1734. Conquest of Sicily and Naples by Don Carlos.
		1739. War with Spain.
		1740-1748. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION—WAR OF THE AUSTRIANSUCCESSION 1740-1748.
		1745. Troubles in Scotland.		1744. War with England and Austria. D’Alembert (1717-1783).	1744. Italy invaded by the French and Spaniards.
		HUME (1711-1776).	1746. Ferdinand VI., King.	1747. War with Holland.	1746. French and Spaniards driven from Lombardy.
1750
	1754-1763. OLD FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR OR SEVEN YEARS WAR: ENGLAND AND PRUSSIA VS. FRANCE,AUSTRIA, RUSSIA, SPAIN AND SWEDEN. 1754-1763.
		1756. Alliance with Prussia.
	1759. Invasion of Canada; death of Wolfe. Quebec taken.	1760-1820. George III.		1760. Loss of all Canada.
		1762. War with Spain.
	FRANKLIN (1706-1790).	1763. Peace of Paris.		1763. Peace of Paris.
	1765. Stamp Act resisted in Massachusetts andVirginia.	GIBBON (1737-1794). 1765.Establishment of a British Empire in India.	1767. Jesuits expelled fromSpain.
		JAMES WATT (1736-1819).		1770. Marriage of the dauphin to Marie Antoinette.	1773. Jesuits expelled from Rome.
				1774. LOUIS XVI., King.
1775	1775-1783. AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR.
	1775. April 19, skirmish at Lexington. June 17, battle of Bunker Hill.	1775. Lord North’s “conciliatory measures” rejected by the colonies.
	1776. Declaration of Independence, July 4. British army takes possession of New York. Hessians hired forservice in America.	ARKWRIGHT (1732-1792).		1776. Franklin in Paris.
	1777. Battle of Saratoga and critical battle of the Revolution.	1778. Siege and capture of Pondicherry, by theEnglish.	1777. Portugal: Maria, Queen.	1778. Alliance with America.
			1779. Spain: Alliance with the American colonists.
	1781. Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown.	1783. Treaty of Versailles. Independence ofthe United States acknowledged.		1780. Rochambeau sent to aid the Americans.
				LAVOISIER (1743-1794).
	1783. Peace of Versailles between France, Spain, England and America.

A. D.	Holland	Scandinavia	Germany	Prussia and Poland	Russia	Ottomans, India, Japan, China
				1648. Poland: The Cossacks revolt and defeat the Poles. John Casimir, King.
1650
	1653. John de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland.	1653. Sweden: Christina resigns. Charles X. first of the House of Zweibrucken.		1653. Poland: War with Russia.	1654. Russian victories in Poland.
	REMBRANDT (1607-1669).	1655. Charles X. of Sweden invades Poland.		1656. The Elector of Brandenburg allies himself with Sweden againstPoland.
		1658. Denmark: War against the Swedes, who overrun Denmark, andmenace Copenhagen.	1657. Leopold I., Emperor.	1657. Poland cedes Prussia to the Elector.		1657. Alliance with Sweden against Poland.
		1660. Denmark: Peace of Copenhagen. Revolution in Denmark; absolute monarchy established. Prussiaacknowledged independent.				1661. War with Austria.
						1662. Invasion of Hungary.
			1665. Tyrol united to Austria.			1664. India: Rise of the Mahratta power. Sivaji takes and sacks Surat.
	1667. Holland: Peace of Breda; loss of New Netherlands.
	SPINOZA (1632-1677).				1671. The Cossacks subjugated.
	1672. Sea fight between the Dutch fleet, under De Witt and De Ruyter, and the English and Frenchfleets; Dutch defeated. Holland: William III., Stadtholder.		1672. The Emperor and Elector of Brandenburg ally themselves with Holland against France.			1672. Invasion of Poland.
			1673. War of Austria and France.	1674. Sobieski, King of Poland.
1675		1675. The Swedes invade Brandenburg and are defeated at Fehrbellin.	1676. General revolt of the Hungarians.
		1677. Battle of the Lund, between the Swedes and Danes; the latter defeated.	LEIBNITZ (1646-1716).			1678. First war with Russia.
			1680. Greater part of Alsace seized by France.		1682. Ivan and Peter, Czars.	1682. War with Austria.
			1683. Siege of Vienna by the Turks.
			1686. Buda taken after being held by the Turks one hundred and forty-five years.			1686. Russia declares war. 1686. India: The Dekkan conquered byAurungzeb.
			1687. Joseph I., King of Hungary.	1688. Prussia: Frederick III.		1687. Revolution in Constantinople. Solyman II., Sultan.
					1689. Russia: PETER THE GREAT begins personal rule after overthrowing his sister Sophia andrepressing the Streltsi.	1689. First trade with China. India: Height of the Mogul power underAurungzeb. China: Great influence of Jesuits.
		1693. The King of Sweden declaredabsolute.	1690. Joseph I. elected King of the Romans.		1692. First trade with China.
	1695. Brussels bombarded by the French.			1696. Poland: Death of Sobieski; succeeded by:
		1699. CHARLES XII. begins to reign. Denmark, Poland and Russia forman alliance against Sweden.	1697. Victories of Prince Eugene over the Sultan Mustapha at Zenta.	1697. Frederick Augustus I.		1699. Peace of Carlowitz. The Ottoman power broken.
1700	1701-1714. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION 1701-1714.		1700-1721. GREAT NORTHERN WARS.
		1702-1706. Charles XII. sweeps Poland andRussia.	1701. Hague alliance.	1701. Prussia is erected into a kingdom under FrederickI.	1700. Peter the Great wars with the Northern Powers.
			1704. Battle of Blenheim. Bavarians and Frenchdefeated by English and Allies. Germany delivered from Louis XIV.	1704. Stanislaus I., King of Poland.	1703. St. Petersburg founded.	1703. Mustapha II. deposed by the Janizaries.
					1707. Revolt of the Cossack Mazeppa. 1708. Charles XII. of Sweden invadesRussia.
			1711. Charles VI.,Emperor.	1712-1786. FrederickII.	1709. Is defeated at Pultowa by Peter the Great. Russia becomes a great power.
					1714. Finland conquered.
	1715. Treaty of Antwerp with Austria.	1715. Charles returns to Sweden. Prussia and England join the alliance against him.
						1717. Turks lose Belgrade.
	1718. War with Spain. Quadruple Alliance of the Emperor, France, England andHolland, Against the designs of Spain.
		1718. Charles XII. invades Norway and is killed at the siege of Frederickshall.	BACH (1685-1754).
		1720. Sweden: The queen abdicates in favor of her husband, Frederick I.	HANDEL (1685-1759).		1721. Peter assumes the title “Emperor of all theRussias.”	1723. Turks and Russians attempt to dismember Persia.
1725		LINNAEUS (1707-1778).	1725. Treaty of Vienna, alliance between Spain and Austria.		1727. Treaty with China.
		1730. Denmark: Christian VI.	1733. War of the Polishsuccession.	1733. Poland: Frederick Augustus II. The diet electsStanislaus, but is compelled by the Russian army to elect Frederick.	1730. Peter II., last of the Romanoffs.
				1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, escapes to Konigsberg.		1734. Turks driven from Persia by Nâdir Shah.
						1739. India: Invaded by Nâdir Shah who takes and plunders Delhi.
	1740-1748. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION—WAR OF THE AUSTRIANSUCCESSION 1740-1748.			1740-1786. FREDERICK THE GREAT of Prussia.	1740. Renewed invasion of Turkey.
		1741. Sweden: War with Russia. Swedes driven out of Finland.	1741. MARIA THERESA succeeds to the hereditary states.
		1743. Peace of Abo with Sweden gives to Russia southern Finland.				1745. Francis I., husband of Maria Theresa,Emperor.
			1747. Netherlands: William IV., Stadtholder.
1750	1751. Netherlands: William V., Stadtholder.
	1754-1763. OLD FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR OR SEVEN YEARS WAR: ENGLAND AND PRUSSIA VS. FRANCE,AUSTRIA, RUSSIA, SPAIN AND SWEDEN. 1754-1763.
						1756. India: Calcutta taken by Surajah Dowlah of Bengal; the Black Hole.
					1762. CATHERINE II. reigns.
			1763. Prussia and Austria hold the balance of power on the Continent.
		1766. Denmark: Christian VII.	LESSING (1729-1781).	1764. Poland: Stanislaus Poniatowski elected king.	1768. War with theOttoman Empire.	1768. War between Russia and theOttoman Empire.
		1772. Despotism re-established in Sweden by GustavusIII.	1772. Joseph II. takes part in the firstpartition of Poland, the territory acquired being made into the Kingdom of Galicia.	1772. First partition of Poland, among Russia, Prussiaand Austria.		1773. Ottoman Empire: The Russians are repulsed at Varnaand Silistria. Abdul Hamid succeeds.
			IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804).		1774. Revolt of the Cossacks. Peace of Kutchuk-Kainarji between Russia and Turkey.	1774. India: Warren Hastings, first British governor-general.
1775
			1778. War of the Bavarian succession. Bavaria seized by Germany.			1778. India: War between the English and theMahrattas.
			MOZART (1756-1791).
		1780. Declaration of the Armed Neutrality for the protection of neutral flagsagainst the right of maritime search claimed by England—joined by Denmark and Sweden. Prussia and Austria, 1781. Portugal, 1782.

XIII. FROM THE RECOGNITION OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SECOND FRENCH REPUBLIC, 1783-1848 A. D.

Great Events of Period. France chief power in Europe. Napoleon’s colossal power and downfall. Fall of despotisms and rise of Republicanism; great political advance of European people. Continued rapid advancement of science, inventions and discoveries. Increased philanthropic effort and intellectual enlightenment.

A. D.	United States	Great Britain	Spain and Portugal	France	Italy and Church	Scandinavia, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland	Germany	Prussia and Poland	Russia	Ottomans, China, India, Japan	A. D.
		1787. Warren Hastings impeached.	1788. Charles IV., King.	1787. First assembly of Notables. Lafayette commander of the nationalguards.			SCHILLER (1759-1805).	1786. Prussia: Death of Frederick the Great. Frederick William II.	1787. War with the Turks.	1787. Disastrous war with Austria and Russia.
	1789. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President.			1789-1799. FRENCH REVOLUTION.
				1792. War with Germany. France declared a republic. Battle of Valmy.		1792. Sweden: Gustavus IV.	1792. War with France.
	1793. Washington re-elected. Neutrality in regard to France.	1793. First Coalition against France: Directed by England, which formsalliances with Russia, Sardinia, Spain, Naples, Prussia, Austria, Portugal and Tuscany; all Europe except Sweden, Denmark andTurkey.
				1793. King and Queen beheaded. Reign of Terror.				1793. Second partition of Poland by Russia and Prussia.
	HAMILTON 1757-1804.						GOETHE (1749-1832).	1794. Polish revolt at Cracow. Revolt under Kosciuszko.
				1795. The Directorate. 1795. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE commands thearmy.		1795. Holland conquered and the Batavian Republic proclaimed.		1795. Final partition of Poland; extinction of the kingdom.
	1797. John Adams, second president.	1797. NELSON destroys French fleet near Alexandria.	1796. Alliance with France; war against England.	1796. War in Italy. 1797. Napoleon in Austria.	1796-1797. Napoleon’s Italian campaign.		1797. Napoleon’s Austrian campaign. Peace of Campo Formio inwhich Austria cedes Belgium and Lombardy receiving Venetia.		1796. Unsuccessful war with Persia.
		1798. Second Coalition against France: Alliances of England withRussia, Naples, Sicily, Turkey and Austria—Prussia, Holland and Belgium, neutral.
				1798. Expedition to Egypt.	1798. Roman republic proclaimed by the French.	1798. Swiss revolution. Helvetian Republic declared.		1798. Prussia: Frederick William III.		1798. War with the French in Egypt.
				1799. Swiss campaign.
1800		1800. Union of England.		1800. Battle of Marengo.							1800
	1801. THOMAS JEFFERSON, third president.	SIR WALTER SCOTT (1771-1832).		Madame de Staël (1766-1817). 1802-1815. NAPOLEONICWARS.	1802. Napoleon, President of the Italian Republic.	1801. Danish fleet at Copenhagen defeated by Nelson.			1801. Alexander I.
	1803. Purchase of Louisiana.	1803. Successful war in India.	1803. Purchases neutrality with the French by a subsidiary treaty; declares war against England,1804.				1803. End of the Holy Roman Empire. Frances II.			1803. Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo. 1803. India: GreatMahratta War.
	JOHN MARSHALL 1755-1835.			1804-1814. First French Empire. Napoleon I., Emperor of the French. BICHAT (1771-1802). 1804. Code Napoleon published.			1804. The Emperor of Germany assumes the title of Emperor of Austria.		1804. War with Persia.
							Confederation of the Rhine. Prussia henceforth the center of the German federatesystem.
							HEGEL (1770-1831).
		1805. Third Coalition against France: formed by England; alliances withSweden, Russia and Austria—Prussia unfortunately neutral.
		1805. Napoleon defeated at Trafalgar.	1805. Battle of Trafalgar.	1805. May 26, Bonaparte crowned King of Italy, at Milan. Naval defeat at Trafalgar. Austriancampaign; battle of Austerlitz. Peace of Presburg.	1805. Napoleon crowned King of Italy.		1805. Battle of Austerlitz.
		WORDSWORTH (1770-1850).					Napoleon Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine.
				CUVIER (1769-1832).
		1806. Fourth Coalition against France: England, Russia,Prussia, Saxony and Sweden.
	1806. British Orders in Council and Napoleon’s decrees seriously impair American commerce.	1807. Bill for the abolition of the slave trade,passed.	1807. Invasion of Portugal.	1806. Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine. Victories of Auerstädt and Jena overthe Prussians. Berlin decree against British commerce.		1806. Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland.	1807. Victories of Eylau and of Friedland are followed by the peaceof Tilsit in which Prussia loses her Polish territories.		1807. Treaty of Tilsit.	1807. War against Russia and England.
			1808. Madrid taken by the French. Joseph Bonaparte, King.		1808. Rome annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy.	1808. Denmark: Frederick VI.	BEETHOVEN (1770-1827).
	1809. James Madison, fourth president.	1809. Fifth Coalition against France: England, Austria, Spain andPortugal.			1809. Papal states annexed to France.	1809. Sweden: Charles XIII.; Bernadotte becomes prince royal.	1809. Battles of Eckmühl, Aspern and Wagram. Peace of Vienna. Austria cedes territory to Russia,Bavaria and France.
				1810. Continental peace except with Spain. 1810. Emperor marries MariaLouisa of Austria.		1810. Holland joined to France.
				1811. Napoleon II., King of Rome, born.			A. VON HUMBOLDT (1769-1859).
	1812-1814. WAR OF 1812, between United States and Great Britain.		1812. Battle of Salamanca.	1812. Disastrous war against Russia. The Poles declared a nation by Napoleon. Diet of Warsaw.				1812. The Poles declared a nation by Napoleon. Diet of Warsaw.	1812. Russian campaign. Invasion of Napoleon. Moscow burned.
		1813. Sixth Great Coalition against France and General Insurrection of theNations of Europe Against French Dominion: England, Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Austria after the Congress of Prague, with800,000 men; against France, Italy, the Confederation of the Rhine and Denmark, with about 400,000 men.
	1813. Perry’s victory on Lake Erie.						1813. War of German independence. Battle of Leipsic. Bonaparte driven to the Rhine.			1813. Servia invaded by Turkish army.
	1814. City of Washington burned by the British.		1814. Ferdinand VII., restored.	1814. Allies enter Paris. House of Bourbon.	1814. Fall of Napoleon. Kingdom ceases.	1814. Union of Holland and Belgium. 1814. Union of Sweden and Norwayas two kingdoms under one monarch.				1814. Malta falls to England.
	1815. British defeated at New Orleans.	1815. WELLINGTON victorious at Waterloo. The Allies enter Paris, and Napoleon is banished to St. Helena.	1815. Union of Portugal and Brazil under John VI.	1815. Napoleon returns from Elba. Hundred Days’ war. Abdication of Napoleon.	1815. Kingdom of Two Sicilies restored.	1815. William I., King of Netherlands. Battle of Waterloo and defeat of Napoleon.	1815. Congress of Vienna effects the political reconstruction of Europe. GermanicConfederation organized.		1815. Joins the “Holy Alliance”: Russia, Prussia and Austria, later joined by France.Poland united to Russia.
	1816. U. S. Bank incorporated.	1816. Bombardment of Algiers. The Bey compelled to abolish slavery.		Talleyrand (1754-1838).
	1817. James Monroe, President.		1817. Slave trade abolished.				1817. Population 28,000,000.
	First passage of the Atlantic by steam effected by the Savannah, of New York, to Liverpool.			1818. France joins in Holy Alliance.		1818. Sweden: Charles XIV. (Bernadotte).	1818. Napoleon’s son made Duke of Reichstadt.	1818. The Zollverein formed.
	1819. Florida purchase.	1820-1830. George IV.	1819. Ferdinand of Spain sells Florida to the United States.				Metternich (1773-1859).	1819. Death of Marshal Blucher.	1819. Establishment of military colonies. Liberty of the press in Poland nullified.
		1821-1829.	War of Grecian Independence. Greeks, aided by England, Russia, and France vs.Turks.							1821-1829.
	1821. Monroe re-elected. Missouri Compromise bill passed.	1823. The Canningministry.		1821. Death of Napoleon at St. Helena.	1821. Austrian invasion of Italy.			1821. Congress of monarchs at Laybach.		1822. Greek declaration of independence. Massacre of Scioand capture of Acropolis of Athens by patriots.
	1824. Visit of Lafayette.			1824. Charles X., King.
1825	1825. Erie Canal opened. Protective tariff enacted. J. Q. Adams, President.	GEORGE STEPHENSON (1781-1848).			1825. Death of Ferdinand after reign of sixty-six years.						1825
	DANIEL WEBSTER 1782-1852.				1827. Treaty between Russia and Turkey respectingGreece.				1826. Nicholas I. crowned at Moscow. War against Persia.	1826. Greece: Missolonghi and Athens (1827) taken by the Turks.
		1828. Wellington ministry. Irish disturbances.							1828. Russia: War declared against Turkey. By the peace of Turkmantchai, Persian Armenia isacquired.
	1829. Andrew Jackson, President.	1830. William IV., King. Difficulties with China.	1830. Salic law abolished.	1830. Algiers taken by the French. Revolution and abdication ofCharles X. Louis Philippe, King.		1830. Belgium revolts from Holland, and is declared independent bythe Great Powers.	1829-1834. Prussia, Bavaria, and finally all Germany, save Austria, unite in a Zollverein orCustoms-Union, which gave great impetus to trade and helped towards national unity.
	1831. Northeastern boundary between the United States and British provinces established.	1832. Reform Bill passed.		1831. Abolition of hereditary peerage in France.	1831-1833. Formation of Young Italy party by Mazzini.	1831. Leopold I., King of the Belgians. New constitution for Denmark, Sleswick and Holstein;with representative local councils.	1831. Austria interferes in Italian affairs.		1832. Poland made part of Empire.	1832. Kingdom of Greece founded.
	1833. President Jackson re-elected. Bank deposits removed from the U. S. Bank.		1833. Isabella II., Queen of Spain. Portugal a constitutional monarchy.
			1836. Spain: The queen regent adopts the constitution of 1812.	1836. Insurrection attempted by Louis Napoleon at Strasburg.			1836. Visit of the Emperor of Russia. Ferdinand I., Emperor.
	1837. Independence of Texas acknowledged. Martin Van Buren, President.	1837. VICTORIA, Queen.	1837. The monasteries in Spain dissolved.	H. DE BALZAC (1799-1850).		1839. Christian VIII. succeeds.	1838. Commercial treaty with England.		1838. Smuggling carried on extensively.	1839-1842. China: Opium War with GreatBritain. Hong Kong ceded to latter.
	EMERSON 1803-1882.	1840. War with China over the opium trade. War in Syria; Great Britain an ally of Austria and Turkey.				1840. William I. abdicates as King of Holland.	RICHARD WAGNER 1813-1883.	1840. Frederick William, King.
	1841. W. H. Harrison, President. Death of Harrison and succession of John Tyler.	1841. Chinese war ended.	1842. Insurrection in Barcelona.	Guizot (1832-1848).
	MORSE 1791-1872.	THOMAS CARLYLE 1795-1884.			1843. King Otho of Greece compelled to accept a constitution.					1843. Greece: King Otho compelled to accept constitution, Sept. 15.
	1845. Texas annexed to the U. S. Treaty with China. James K. Polk,President.	1844. Daniel O’Connell’s trial. Sentence reversed by the House of Lords.		1844. War with Morocco. The Second Republic.					1845. Emperor visits England.	1844. China: Commercial treaty with United States.
	1846-1848. War with Mexico. The Oregon treaty with Great Britain settlingthe northwestern boundary of the United States.	1846. Repeal of the English corn-laws.	1846. Civil war in Portugal.	VICTOR HUGO 1802-1885.
		1847. Severe famine in Ireland.					1847. Austria takes possession of Cracow.
	1848. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ends Mexican War. Gold discovered in California.	1848. Civil war in Ireland. Habeas Corpus Act suspended.		1848. Abdication of Louis Philippe, and a republic proclaimed. Louis Napoleon, President. Bloody insurrectionin Paris.	1848. Rising of the great Italian cities in revolution. Roman republic overthrown.	1848. Holland receives a constitution. Denmark: Frederick VII., King; revolt of Schleswig-Holstein.	1848. Revolution in Hungary. Francis Joseph, Emperor. Kossuth withdraws his armyfrom Vienna.	1848. Insurrection in Berlin.

A. D.	United States	Great Britain	Spain and Portugal	France	Italy and Church
		1787. Warren Hastings impeached.	1788. Charles IV., King.	1787. First assembly of Notables. Lafayette commander of the nationalguards.
	1789. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President.			1789-1799. FRENCH REVOLUTION.
				1792. War with Germany. France declared a republic. Battle of Valmy.
	1793. Washington re-elected. Neutrality in regard to France.	1793. First Coalition against France: Directed by England, which formsalliances with Russia, Sardinia, Spain, Naples, Prussia, Austria, Portugal and Tuscany; all Europe except Sweden, Denmark andTurkey.
				1793. King and Queen beheaded. Reign of Terror.
	HAMILTON 1757-1804.
				1795. The Directorate. 1795. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE commands thearmy.
	1797. John Adams, second president.	1797. NELSON destroys French fleet near Alexandria.	1796. Alliance with France; war against England.	1796. War in Italy. 1797. Napoleon in Austria.
		1798. Second Coalition against France: Alliances of England withRussia, Naples, Sicily, Turkey and Austria—Prussia, Holland and Belgium, neutral.
				1798. Expedition to Egypt.	1798. Roman republic proclaimed by the French.
				1799. Swiss campaign.
1800		1800. Union of England.		1800. Battle of Marengo.
	1801. THOMAS JEFFERSON, third president.	SIR WALTER SCOTT (1771-1832).		Madame de Staël (1766-1817). 1802-1815. NAPOLEONICWARS.	1802. Napoleon, President of the Italian Republic.
	1803. Purchase of Louisiana.	1803. Successful war in India.	1803. Purchases neutrality with the French by a subsidiary treaty; declares war against England,1804.
	JOHN MARSHALL 1755-1835.			1804-1814. First French Empire. Napoleon I., Emperor of the French. BICHAT (1771-1802). 1804. Code Napoleon published.
		1805. Third Coalition against France: formed by England; alliances withSweden, Russia and Austria—Prussia unfortunately neutral.
		1805. Napoleon defeated at Trafalgar.	1805. Battle of Trafalgar.	1805. May 26, Bonaparte crowned King of Italy, at Milan. Naval defeat at Trafalgar. Austriancampaign; battle of Austerlitz. Peace of Presburg.	1805. Napoleon crowned King of Italy.
		WORDSWORTH (1770-1850).
				CUVIER (1769-1832).
		1806. Fourth Coalition against France: England, Russia,Prussia, Saxony and Sweden.
	1806. British Orders in Council and Napoleon’s decrees seriously impair American commerce.	1807. Bill for the abolition of the slave trade,passed.	1807. Invasion of Portugal.	1806. Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine. Victories of Auerstädt and Jena overthe Prussians. Berlin decree against British commerce.
			1808. Madrid taken by the French. Joseph Bonaparte, King.		1808. Rome annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy.
	1809. James Madison, fourth president.	1809. Fifth Coalition against France: England, Austria, Spain andPortugal.			1809. Papal states annexed to France.
				1810. Continental peace except with Spain. 1810. Emperor marries MariaLouisa of Austria.
				1811. Napoleon II., King of Rome, born.
	1812-1814. WAR OF 1812, between United States and Great Britain.		1812. Battle of Salamanca.	1812. Disastrous war against Russia. The Poles declared a nation by Napoleon. Diet of Warsaw.
		1813. Sixth Great Coalition against France and General Insurrection of theNations of Europe Against French Dominion: England, Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Austria after the Congress of Prague, with800,000 men; against France, Italy, the Confederation of the Rhine and Denmark, with about 400,000 men.
	1813. Perry’s victory on Lake Erie.
	1814. City of Washington burned by the British.		1814. Ferdinand VII., restored.	1814. Allies enter Paris. House of Bourbon.	1814. Fall of Napoleon. Kingdom ceases.
	1815. British defeated at New Orleans.	1815. WELLINGTON victorious at Waterloo. The Allies enter Paris, and Napoleon is banished to St. Helena.	1815. Union of Portugal and Brazil under John VI.	1815. Napoleon returns from Elba. Hundred Days’ war. Abdication of Napoleon.	1815. Kingdom of Two Sicilies restored.
	1816. U. S. Bank incorporated.	1816. Bombardment of Algiers. The Bey compelled to abolish slavery.		Talleyrand (1754-1838).
	1817. James Monroe, President.		1817. Slave trade abolished.
	First passage of the Atlantic by steam effected by the Savannah, of New York, to Liverpool.			1818. France joins in Holy Alliance.
	1819. Florida purchase.	1820-1830. George IV.	1819. Ferdinand of Spain sells Florida to the United States.
		1821-1829.	War of Grecian Independence. Greeks, aided by England, Russia, andFrance vs. Turks.		1821-1829.
	1821. Monroe re-elected. Missouri Compromise bill passed.	1823. The Canningministry.		1821. Death of Napoleon at St. Helena.	1821. Austrian invasion of Italy.
	1824. Visit of Lafayette.			1824. Charles X., King.
1825	1825. Erie Canal opened. Protective tariff enacted. J. Q. Adams, President.	GEORGE STEPHENSON (1781-1848).			1825. Death of Ferdinand after reign of sixty-six years.
	DANIEL WEBSTER 1782-1852.				1827. Treaty between Russia and Turkey respectingGreece.
		1828. Wellington ministry. Irish disturbances.
	1829. Andrew Jackson, President.	1830. William IV., King. Difficulties with China.	1830. Salic law abolished.	1830. Algiers taken by the French. Revolution and abdication ofCharles X. Louis Philippe, King.
	1831. Northeastern boundary between the United States and British provinces established.	1832. Reform Bill passed.		1831. Abolition of hereditary peerage in France.	1831-1833. Formation of Young Italy party by Mazzini.
	1833. President Jackson re-elected. Bank deposits removed from the U. S. Bank.		1833. Isabella II., Queen of Spain. Portugal a constitutional monarchy.
			1836. Spain: The queen regent adopts the constitution of 1812.	1836. Insurrection attempted by Louis Napoleon at Strasburg.
	1837. Independence of Texas acknowledged. Martin Van Buren, President.	1837. VICTORIA, Queen.	1837. The monasteries in Spain dissolved.		H. DE BALZAC (1799-1850).
	EMERSON 1803-1882.	1840. War with China over the opium trade. War in Syria; Great Britain an ally of Austria and Turkey.
	1841. W. H. Harrison, President. Death of Harrison and succession of John Tyler.	1841. Chinese war ended.	1842. Insurrection in Barcelona.	Guizot (1832-1848).
	MORSE 1791-1872.	THOMAS CARLYLE 1795-1884.			1843. King Otho of Greece compelled to accept a constitution.
	1845. Texas annexed to the U. S. Treaty with China. James K. Polk,President.	1844. Daniel O’Connell’s trial. Sentence reversed by the House of Lords.		1844. War with Morocco. The Second Republic.
	1846-1848. War with Mexico. The Oregon treaty with Great Britain settlingthe northwestern boundary of the United States.	1846. Repeal of the English corn-laws.	1846. Civil war in Portugal.	VICTOR HUGO 1802-1885.
		1847. Severe famine in Ireland.
	1848. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ends Mexican War. Gold discovered in California.	1848. Civil war in Ireland. Habeas Corpus Act suspended.		1848. Abdication of Louis Philippe, and a republic proclaimed. Louis Napoleon, President. Bloody insurrectionin Paris.	1848. Rising of the great Italian cities in revolution. Roman republic overthrown.

A. D.	Scandinavia, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland	Germany	Prussia and Poland	Russia	Ottomans, China, India, Japan
		SCHILLER (1759-1805).	1786. Prussia: Death of Frederick the Great. Frederick William II.	1787. War with the Turks.	1787. Disastrous war with Austria and Russia.
	1792. Sweden: Gustavus IV.	1792. War with France.
	1793. First Coalition against France: Directed by England, which formsalliances with Russia, Sardinia, Spain, Naples, Prussia, Austria, Portugal and Tuscany; all Europe except Sweden, Denmark andTurkey.
			1793. Second partition of Poland by Russia and Prussia.
		GOETHE (1749-1832).	1794. Polish revolt at Cracow. Revolt under Kosciuszko.
	1795. Holland conquered and the Batavian Republic proclaimed.		1795. Final partition of Poland; extinction of the kingdom.
	1796-1797. Napoleon’s Italian campaign.	1797. Napoleon’s Austrian campaign. Peace of Campo Formio inwhich Austria cedes Belgium and Lombardy receiving Venetia.		1796. Unsuccessful war with Persia.
	1798. Second Coalition against France: Alliances of England withRussia, Naples, Sicily, Turkey and Austria—Prussia, Holland and Belgium, neutral.
	1798. Swiss revolution. Helvetian Republic declared.		1798. Prussia: Frederick William III.		1798. War with the French in Egypt.
1800
	1801. Danish fleet at Copenhagen defeated by Nelson.			1801. Alexander I.
		1803. End of the Holy Roman Empire. Frances II.			1803. Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo. 1803. India: GreatMahratta War.
		1804. The Emperor of Germany assumes the title of Emperor of Austria.		1804. War with Persia.
		Confederation of the Rhine. Prussia henceforth the center of the German federatesystem.
		HEGEL (1770-1831).
	1805. Third Coalition against France: formed by England; alliances withSweden, Russia and Austria—Prussia unfortunately neutral.
		1805. Battle of Austerlitz.
		Napoleon Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine.
	1806. Fourth Coalition against France: England, Russia,Prussia, Saxony and Sweden.
	1806. Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland.	1807. Victories of Eylau and of Friedland are followed by the peaceof Tilsit in which Prussia loses her Polish territories.		1807. Treaty of Tilsit.	1807. War against Russia and England.
	1808. Denmark: Frederick VI.	BEETHOVEN (1770-1827).
	1809. Sweden: Charles XIII.; Bernadotte becomes prince royal.	1809. Battles of Eckmühl, Aspern and Wagram. Peace of Vienna. Austria cedes territory to Russia,Bavaria and France.
	1810. Holland joined to France.
		A. VON HUMBOLDT (1769-1859).
			1812. The Poles declared a nation by Napoleon. Diet of Warsaw.	1812. Russian campaign. Invasion of Napoleon. Moscow burned.
	1813. Sixth Great Coalition against France and General Insurrection of theNations of Europe Against French Dominion: England, Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Austria after the Congress of Prague, with800,000 men; against France, Italy, the Confederation of the Rhine and Denmark, with about 400,000 men.
		1813. War of German independence. Battle of Leipsic. Bonaparte driven to the Rhine.			1813. Servia invaded by Turkish army.
	1814. Union of Holland and Belgium. 1814. Union of Sweden and Norwayas two kingdoms under one monarch.				1814. Malta falls to England.
	1815. William I., King of Netherlands. Battle of Waterloo and defeat of Napoleon.	1815. Congress of Vienna effects the political reconstruction of Europe. GermanicConfederation organized.		1815. Joins the “Holy Alliance”: Russia, Prussia and Austria, later joined by France.Poland united to Russia.
		1817. Population 28,000,000.
	1818. Sweden: Charles XIV. (Bernadotte).	1818. Napoleon’s son made Duke of Reichstadt.	1818. The Zollverein formed.
		Metternich (1773-1859).	1819. Death of Marshal Blucher.	1819. Establishment of military colonies. Liberty of the press in Poland nullified.
	1821-1829.	War of Grecian Independence. Greeks, aided by England, Russia, and Francevs. Turks.			1821-1829.
			1821. Congress of monarchs at Laybach.		1822. Greek declaration of independence. Massacre of Scioand capture of Acropolis of Athens by patriots.
1825
				1826. Nicholas I. crowned at Moscow. War against Persia.	1826. Greece: Missolonghi and Athens (1827) taken by the Turks.
				1828. Russia: War declared against Turkey. By the peace of Turkmantchai, Persian Armenia isacquired.
	1830. Belgium revolts from Holland, and is declared independent bythe Great Powers.	1829-1834. Prussia, Bavaria, and finally all Germany, save Austria, unite in a Zollverein orCustoms-Union, which gave great impetus to trade and helped towards national unity.
	1831. Leopold I., King of the Belgians. New constitution for Denmark, Sleswick and Holstein;with representative local councils.	1831. Austria interferes in Italian affairs.		1832. Poland made part of Empire.	1832. Kingdom of Greece founded.
		1836. Visit of the Emperor of Russia. Ferdinand I., Emperor.
	1839. Christian VIII. succeeds.	1838. Commercial treaty with England.		1838. Smuggling carried on extensively.	1839-1842. China: Opium War with GreatBritain. Hong Kong ceded to latter.
	1840. William I. abdicates as King of Holland.	RICHARD WAGNER 1813-1883.	1840. Frederick William, King.
					1843. Greece: King Otho compelled to accept constitution, Sept. 15.
				1845. Emperor visits England.	1844. China: Commercial treaty with United States.
		1847. Austria takes possession of Cracow.
	1848. Holland receives a constitution. Denmark: Frederick VII., King; revolt of Schleswig-Holstein.	1848. Revolution in Hungary. Francis Joseph, Emperor. Kossuth withdraws his armyfrom Vienna.	1848. Insurrection in Berlin.

XIV. FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SECOND FRENCH REPUBLIC TO THE FOUNDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE, 1848-1871 A. D.

Great Events of Period. Continued rapid advancement of science, inventions and discoveries. Increased philanthropic effort and intellectual enlightenment. Unification of Italy. Commercial treaties with China and Japan. American Civil War. Union of Austria and Hungary. Franco-Prussian War. Establishment of the German Empire.

A. D.	United States	Spain and Portugal	Great Britain	France	Italy and Church	Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Scandinavia	The German Confederation		Russia	Turkey, Greece, China, India, Japan	A. D.
							Prussia	Austria
	1849. Zachary Taylor, President. Railroad from Boston to NewYork.		1849. Mooltan in India taken.	1848-1852. Second Republic.	1849. Catania, Syracuse, and Palermo taken by assault.Mazzini’s proclamation of provisional government. Victor Emanuel, King. Romesurrenders to the French; Garibaldi leaves city. Bourbon rule begins.		1849. The king declines the Imperial Crown. Armistice between Prussiaand Denmark.	1849. New constitution promulgated.	1849. Aids Austria in subduing Hungary.
1850	1850. Attempted invasion of Cuba by filibusters. Death of President Taylor; Millard Fillmore, President. Texasboundary settled. Fugitive Slave Law passed.		1850. The war in Lahore ended. The Punjab annexed to the British Crown. 1850-1853. Kafir War in South Africa.	1850. Jerome Bonaparte, Field-Marshal.		1850. Denmark: Bloody battle of Idstedt, between the Danes and Schleswig-Holsteiners.	1850. Treaty of peace with Denmark. New constitution for Prussia.		1850. Harbor of Sebastopol completed.	1850. Turkey: Insurrection in Bosnia. 1850-1864. China: Taipingrebellion.	1850
	1851. Erie railway opened. Charleston Convention. Kossuth arrives in New York.	1851. Death of Dodoy, “Prince of Peace.”	1851. Continuance of the Kafir war. Kossuth visits England.					1851. Louis Kossuth sentenced to death at Pesth.
				1852-1870. Second Empire. 1852. Napoleon III. declared Emperor.	1852. CAVOUR becomes Prime Minister in Piedmont.			1852. Emperor of Austria visits Emperor of Prussia.		1852. Greece: Convention of London by England, France, Prussia, Bavaria and Greece in reference tothe affairs of Greece. 1852. Turkey: War between the Turks and Montenegrins.
	1853. Franklin Pierce, President. Gadsden Purchase.		1853. Queen Victoria visits Ireland. Kafir war ended.			1853. Denmark: Parliament prorogued and a “fundamental” law issued. 1853. Belgium: Marriage of the Duke of Brabant, heir-apparent of the throne, and the ArchduchessMaria. Holland: The first chamber adopts the much-disputed law on religious liberty.	1853. Plot to overthrow the government.		1853. War declared against Turkey.
	1854. Treaty with Japan. Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed. Ostend Manifesto issued.	1854. Military insurrection under O’Donnell.	1854-1856. CRIMEAN WAR. Treaty of alliance with France.	1854. War declared against Russia.			1854. Treaty with Austria, offensive and defensive.	1854. Alliance with England and France.	1854-1856. CRIMEAN WAR. Russia vs. Turkey aided by Great Britain, France and Sardinia.
									1854. War with France and England. Siege of Sebastopol. Battle of Balak-lava.	1854. Japan: Treaty with the United States.
	1855. Panama Railroad completed. Troubles in Kansas.		1855. British fleet bombards and partially destroys Canton, China.		1855. Important concordant between Italy and Austria.				1855. Death of Nicholas I. Alexander II., Emperor.
			ROBERT BROWNING (1812-1889).	1856. Peace with Russia.				1856. Hungarians granted amnesty.	1856. Destruction of Sebastopol docks. Evacuation of Crimea.
	1857. Dred Scott decision. James Buchanan, President. Great financial panic.		1857-1858. Sepoy Mutiny. Sepoys vs. English.							1857-1858. Sepoy Mutiny. 1857-1860. China: Second war with GreatBritain.
	1859. John Brown captures Harpers Ferry.	1859. War with Morocco.	1858. Completion of the Atlantic telegraph cable.	1859. THE WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION.Sardinia-Piedmont and France vs. Austria.		1859. Sweden: Oscar I., died July 8; succeeded by hisson Charles XV.	1859. THE WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION.		1858. Partial emancipation of the serfs.
								Peace after battle of Solferino.
	1860. South Carolina passes ordinance of secession.	1860. Defeat of the Moors.	1860. Rebellion in India subdued. Neutrality proclaimed during the American Civil War.	1860. Commercial treaty with England.	1860. Garibaldi lands in Sicily, and assumes dictatorship.
	1861-1865. AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. Federal Government of United States vs. Southern Confederacy. ABRAHAMLINCOLN, President.	1861. Annexation of Santo Domingo. Intervention in Mexico.			1861. Victor Emanuel II., King of Sardinia, first King of Italy.		1861. William I., King.	1861. New constitution for the Austrian monarchy.
			TENNYSON (1809-1892).	1862. Great distress caused by American Civil War.	1862. Garibaldi establishes a provisional government.		1862. BISMARCK, Premier.	1862. Amnesty to political offenders in Hungary.	1862. Nesselrode, Chancellor.	1862. Bloody conflict between Servians and Turks in Belgrade.
	1863. Battle of Gettysburg.		DARWIN 1809-1882.	1863. The French occupy Mexico.		1863. Denmark: Christian IX. succeeds Frederick VII.	1863. King resolves to govern without parliament. Congress of German sovereigns at Frankfort. “One FederalState” proposed.		1863. Termination of serfdom.
		1864. Rupture with Peru.		1864. Maximilian accepts Mexican crown.	1864. Florence made capital of Italy.	1864. Peace between Denmark and the allies, to whom Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg are surrendered.	1864. DANISH WAR. Austria and Prussia vs. Denmark.		1864. Emigration of Caucasian tribes into Turkey.	1864. George of Denmark becomes King of Greece.
	1865. Assassination of President Lincoln; Andrew Johnson, President.	1865. Dispute with Chile.	1865. Fenian outbreaks in Ireland. British and French governments rescind their recognition ofthe Confederate States of America.		1865. Ionian Isles made over to Greece.	1865. Leopold II. succeeds his father, Leopold I. in Belgium.
	1866. Civil Rights Bill passed. Atlantic telegraph completed.	1866. Military insurrection headed by General Prim.			1866. Austrian War. Venetia proclaimed a part of Italy.		1866-1871. North German Confederation. 1866.AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR. Prussia with smaller North German States and Italy vs. Austria, Hanover, Saxony and South German States.		1866. Inauguration of trial by jury. War with Bokhara.
								Austria-Hungary
	1867. General amnesty proclamation. Purchase of Alaska.	1867. Death of Marshal O’Donnell.		1867. Great exposition in Paris.	1867. Garibaldi and the Papal States.		1867. North German Constitution accepted.	1867. Autonomy for Hungary announced. Emperor crowned King of Hungary.	1867. Alaska sold to the United States.
	1868. Burlingame treaty with China.	1868. Queen deposed.	1868. Gladstone, Premier	PASTEUR 1822-1895.			HELMHOLTZ 1821-1894.			1868. Japan: End of the Shogunate. Restoration of the Mikado.
	1869. U. S. Grant, President. Union Pacific railway opened fortraffic.				1869. Vatican Council opened at Rome.
		1870. Isabella II. abdicates; Amadeus, King.	1870. Irish Land Act passed.	1870. Third Republic. 1870-1871. FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. France vs.Prussia supported by all German States including South. Battle of Sedan. Surrender of Metz.	1870. Rome is annexed to Italy and declared the capital.	HENRIK IBSEN 1828-1908.	1870-1871. FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. Battle of Sedan.	1870. Concordat with Rome suspended.
		1871. Sagasta, Prime Minister.	HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903).	1871. Capitulation of Paris. Peace ratified.			1871- ——. House of Hohenzollern. 1871. King ofPrussia proclaimed Emperor of Germany.	1871. New German Empire recognized.	1871. Electric telegraph between Russia and Japan.	1871. Japan: Feudalism abolished.

A. D.	United States	Spain and Portugal	Great Britain	France	Italy and Church
	1849. Zachary Taylor, President. Railroad from Boston to NewYork.		1849. Mooltan in India taken.	1848-1852. Second Republic.	1849. Catania, Syracuse, and Palermo taken by assault.Mazzini’s proclamation of provisional government. Victor Emanuel, King. Romesurrenders to the French; Garibaldi leaves city. Bourbon rule begins.
1850	1850. Attempted invasion of Cuba by filibusters. Death of President Taylor; Millard Fillmore, President. Texasboundary settled. Fugitive Slave Law passed.		1850. The war in Lahore ended. The Punjab annexed to the British Crown. 1850-1853. Kafir War in South Africa.	1850. Jerome Bonaparte, Field-Marshal.
	1851. Erie railway opened. Charleston Convention. Kossuth arrives in New York.	1851. Death of Dodoy, “Prince of Peace.”	1851. Continuance of the Kafir war. Kossuth visits England.
				1852-1870. Second Empire. 1852. Napoleon III. declared Emperor.	1852. CAVOUR becomes Prime Minister in Piedmont.
	1853. Franklin Pierce, President. Gadsden Purchase.		1853. Queen Victoria visits Ireland. Kafir war ended.
	1854. Treaty with Japan. Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed. Ostend Manifesto issued.	1854. Military insurrection under O’Donnell.	1854-1856. CRIMEAN WAR. Treaty of alliance with France.	1854. War declared against Russia.
	1855. Panama Railroad completed. Troubles in Kansas.		1855. British fleet bombards and partially destroys Canton, China.		1855. Important concordant between Italy and Austria.
			ROBERT BROWNING (1812-1889).	1856. Peace with Russia.
	1857. Dred Scott decision. James Buchanan, President. Great financial panic.		1857-1858. Sepoy Mutiny. Sepoys vs. English.
	1859. John Brown captures Harpers Ferry.	1859. War with Morocco.	1858. Completion of the Atlantic telegraph cable.	1859. THE WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION.Sardinia-Piedmont and France vs. Austria.
	1860. South Carolina passes ordinance of secession.	1860. Defeat of the Moors.	1860. Rebellion in India subdued. Neutrality proclaimed during the American Civil War.	1860. Commercial treaty with England.	1860. Garibaldi lands in Sicily, and assumes dictatorship.
	1861-1865. AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. Federal Government of United States vs. Southern Confederacy. ABRAHAMLINCOLN, President.	1861. Annexation of Santo Domingo. Intervention in Mexico.			1861. Victor Emanuel II., King of Sardinia, first King of Italy.
			TENNYSON (1809-1892).	1862. Great distress caused by American Civil War.	1862. Garibaldi establishes a provisional government.
	1863. Battle of Gettysburg.		DARWIN 1809-1882.	1863. The French occupy Mexico.
		1864. Rupture with Peru.		1864. Maximilian accepts Mexican crown.	1864. Florence made capital of Italy.
	1865. Assassination of President Lincoln; Andrew Johnson, President.	1865. Dispute with Chile.	1865. Fenian outbreaks in Ireland. British and French governments rescind their recognition ofthe Confederate States of America.		1865. Ionian Isles made over to Greece.
	1866. Civil Rights Bill passed. Atlantic telegraph completed.	1866. Military insurrection headed by General Prim.		1866. Austrian War. Venetia proclaimed a part of Italy.
	1867. General amnesty proclamation. Purchase of Alaska.	1867. Death of Marshal O’Donnell.		1867. Great exposition in Paris.	1867. Garibaldi and the Papal States.
	1868. Burlingame treaty with China.	1868. Queen deposed.	1868. Gladstone, Premier	PASTEUR 1822-1895.
	1869. U. S. Grant, President. Union Pacific railway opened fortraffic.				1869. Vatican Council opened at Rome.
		1870. Isabella II. abdicates; Amadeus, King.	1870. Irish Land Act passed.	1870. Third Republic. 1870-1871. FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. France vs.Prussia supported by all German States including South. Battle of Sedan. Surrender of Metz.	1870. Rome is annexed to Italy and declared the capital.
		1871. Sagasta, Prime Minister.	HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903).	1871. Capitulation of Paris. Peace ratified.

A. D.	Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Scandinavia	The German Confederation		Russia	Turkey, Greece, China, India, Japan
		Prussia	Austria
		1849. The king declines the Imperial Crown. Armistice between Prussiaand Denmark.	1849. New constitution promulgated.	1849. Aids Austria in subduing Hungary.
1850	1850. Denmark: Bloody battle of Idstedt, between the Danes and Schleswig-Holsteiners.	1850. Treaty of peace with Denmark. New constitution for Prussia.		1850. Harbor of Sebastopol completed.	1850. Turkey: Insurrection in Bosnia. 1850-1864. China: Taipingrebellion.
			1851. Louis Kossuth sentenced to death at Pesth.
			1852. Emperor of Austria visits Emperor of Prussia.		1852. Greece: Convention of London by England, France, Prussia, Bavaria and Greece in reference tothe affairs of Greece. 1852. Turkey: War between the Turks and Montenegrins.
	1853. Denmark: Parliament prorogued and a “fundamental” law issued. 1853. Belgium: Marriage of the Duke of Brabant, heir-apparent of the throne, and the ArchduchessMaria. Holland: The first chamber adopts the much-disputed law on religious liberty.	1853. Plot to overthrow the government.		1853. War declared against Turkey.
		1854. Treaty with Austria, offensive and defensive.	1854. Alliance with England and France.	1854-1856. CRIMEAN WAR. Russia vs. Turkey aided by Great Britain, France and Sardinia.
				1854. War with France and England. Siege of Sebastopol. Battle of Balak-lava.	1854. Japan: Treaty with the United States.
				1855. Death of Nicholas I. Alexander II., Emperor.
			1856. Hungarians granted amnesty.	1856. Destruction of Sebastopol docks. Evacuation of Crimea.
					1857-1858. Sepoy Mutiny. 1857-1860. China: Second war with GreatBritain.
	1859. Sweden: Oscar I., died July 8; succeeded by hisson Charles XV.	1859. THE WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION.		1858. Partial emancipation of the serfs.
			Peace after battle of Solferino.
		1861. William I., King.	1861. New constitution for the Austrian monarchy.
		1862. BISMARCK, Premier.	1862. Amnesty to political offenders in Hungary.	1862. Nesselrode, Chancellor.	1862. Bloody conflict between Servians and Turks in Belgrade.
	1863. Denmark: Christian IX. succeeds Frederick VII.	1863. King resolves to govern without parliament. Congress of German sovereigns at Frankfort. “One FederalState” proposed.		1863. Termination of serfdom.
	1864. Peace between Denmark and the allies, to whom Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg are surrendered.	1864. DANISH WAR. Austria and Prussia vs. Denmark.		1864. Emigration of Caucasian tribes into Turkey.	1864. George of Denmark becomes King of Greece.
	1865. Leopold II. succeeds his father, Leopold I. in Belgium.
		1866-1871. North German Confederation. 1866.AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR. Prussia with smaller North German States and Italy vs. Austria, Hanover, Saxony and South German States.		1866. Inauguration of trial by jury. War with Bokhara.
			Austria-Hungary
		1867. North German Constitution accepted.	1867. Autonomy for Hungary announced. Emperor crowned King of Hungary.	1867. Alaska sold to the United States.
		HELMHOLTZ 1821-1894.			1868. Japan: End of the Shogunate. Restoration of the Mikado.
	HENRIK IBSEN 1828-1908.	1870-1871. FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. Battle of Sedan.	1870. Concordat with Rome suspended.
		1871- ——. House of Hohenzollern. 1871. King of Prussiaproclaimed Emperor of Germany.	1871. New German Empire recognized.	1871. Electric telegraph between Russia and Japan.	1871. Japan: Feudalism abolished.

XV. FROM THE FOUNDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE TO THE CLOSE OF THE EUROPEAN WAR AND THE RECONSTRUCTION OF EUROPE, 1871- ——

A. D.	United States	Spain and Portugal	Great Britain	Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Scandinavia	France	Italy and Church	Germany	Austria-Hungary	Russia	Turkey and Balkans, China, India, Japan	A. D.
				1872. One thousandth anniversary of kingdom of Norwaycelebrated. Death of Charles XV. of Sweden, succeeded by Oscar II. Coinage made uniform in Denmark, Sweden and Norway.			1871. William I., emperor.
			1873. Payment of Alabama claims to the United States.		1873. Marshal MacMahon, president.				1873. Khiva captured.
		1874. Alfonso XII., king.			1874. Death of Guizot.
1875		1875. Civil war.								1875. Insurrection against the Turks in Herzegovina. Insurrection in Bosnia.	1875
	1877. R. B. Hayes, president.		1876. Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India.				1877. Attempted assassination of emperor.		1877. War against Turkey.	1876. Sultan Murad deposed; Abdul Hamid II. succeeds. Six weeks’ armistice between Turkeyand Servia. Constitution for Turkey announced.
					1879. Jules Grevy, president.	1878. Death of Victor Emmanuel II. Humbert, king. Death of Pius IX. Leo XIII., pope.		1878. Occupation of Bosnia.	1878. Spread of Nihilism in the empire.
1880									1880. Many Nihilists imprisoned and executed.		1880
	1881. James A. Garfield, president. President Garfield assassinated, July 2d; Chester A. Arthur,president.	1883. Sagasta again minister.	1882. Attempt on life of Queen Victoria.			1882. Death of Garibaldi.	1883. Italy joins the alliance between Germany andAustria, thus forming the Triple Alliance.	1882. Six hundredth anniversary of the House ofHapsburg.	1881. Alexander II. assassinated. Alexander III., emperor.	1881. Roumania declared a kingdom.
	1885. Grover Cleveland, president. Apache IndianWar.					1885. War with Abyssinia.	1884. German annexations on African slave coast; December 19, in Pacific Ocean, beginnings of German colonialpolicy.		1885. Ship canal from St. Petersburg to Cronstadtopened. Trouble with the Afghans.	1885. Outbreak of war between Servia and Bulgaria.
			1887. Queen’s Jubilee.		1887. Sadi-Carnot, president.	1887. Alliance of Italy with Austria-Hungary and Germanysigned. Crispi, prime minister.	1888. Accession and death of Frederick III.William II., emperor.	1886. Army put on war footing of one million five hundred thousand men.	1886. Russia interferes in Bulgaria. 1888. Central Asian railwayopened.	1886. Servia, Bulgaria and Greece compelled by the powers to disarm. Treaty of peace signed between Serviaand Bulgaria.
	1889. Benjamin Harrison, president. Johnstown flood.	1889. Trial by jury first put in force. Accession of Carlos I. to Portuguese throne on death of his father,Luis I.	1889. Great labor strikes.							1889. Japan’s Constitution proclaimed.
1890	1890. McKinley tariff bill passed.	1890. Castillo, premier.	1890. Stanley returns from Africa.	1890. Holland: William III. of the Netherlands dies, and is succeeded by his daughter, Wilhelmina, under theregency of her mother.	1890. War with Dahomey.		1890. Resignation of Bismarck as chancellor.		1890-1892. Famine through the empire.		1890
				1891. Switzerland: Celebration of the six hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the Swiss Confederacy.	1892. Panama scandals.	1891. Treaty of Italy with Great Britain relative to East Africa. Triple Alliance renewed.	1891. Triple Alliance renewed.	1891. Renewal of Triple Alliance.	1891. Imperial ukase orders expulsion of Jews from Moscow.
	1893. Grover Cleveland, president. Chinese exclusion bill approved. World’s Columbianexposition at Chicago.	1893. War with Morocco.	1893. Behring Sea arbitration.	1893. Belgium: Universal suffrage in combination with plural voting established.		1893. Pope’s Jubilee at Rome.	1893. Anti-Jesuit law repealed.
			1894. Manchester ship canal opened.	1894. Denmark: Fall of the Estrup ministry, succeeded by a cabinet under Reeds-Thott.	1894. President Carnot assassinated at Lyons. M. Casimir-Perier, president. Captain Dreyfus tried andimprisoned.		1894. Commercial treaty with Russia. New parliament house opened.	1894. Commercial treaty with Russia ratified.	1894. Death of Alexander III. Nicholas II., czar.	1894. Turkey: British, French and Russian ambassadors present note to sultan demanding reforms inArmenia. 1894-1895. Chinese-Japanese war.
					1895. President Casimir-Perier resigns. M. Felix Faure, president. Death of PASTEUR.		1895. North Sea and Baltic canal opened. Restrictions imposed on American insurance companies.	1895. Anti-Semitic agitation.	1895. Diplomatic relations with Abyssinia. Persecution of the Jews.
	1897. William McKinley, president.	1897. Assassination of Premier Canovas del Castillo.Scheme of Cuban autonomy approved.	1897. Blackwell tunnel opened. The Queen’s Diamond Jubileecelebrated.	1896. Belgium: International Bimetallic Congress assembles at Brussels.	1897. Ten-hour law for railway employes passed.	1896. Peace with Abyssinia. Italy abandons claims to a protectorate over that country.	1896. New civil code for the empire completed.	1896. Archduke Karl Ludwig, heir to the throne, dies. Millennial exposition at Budapest.	1896. First official census of the empire. 1897. Judicial reform inSiberia.	1897. Turko-Grecian war. China: Kiau-Chau, withsurrounding zone, leased to Germany for ninety-nine years. Port Arthur and Ta-lien-wan leased to Russia for twenty-five years.
	1898. Destruction of the “Maine” at Havana. Spanish-American war between United States andSpain. Treaty of Paris.		1898. Death of Gladstone. Irish local government bill passed. Imperial penny postage goes into effect.		1898. Review of Dreyfus case granted.	1898. Pope offers to mediate in the Cuban question.	1898. Death of Bismarck. Emperor visits Constantinople and Jerusalem.	1898. Assassination of the empress by an anarchist at Geneva. Ausgleich of 1867 renewed.	1898. Port Arthur leased from China.
	1899. Cuba is relinquished by Spain. Philippines and Porto Rico acquired.	1899. Death of Premier Canovas of Spain. Spain sells the Caroline, Pelew and Ladrone islands toGermany.	1899. The Boer war in South Africa.						1899. Czar proposes universal peace. The Finnish diet is deprived of the exclusive right oflegislation and a thorough policy of Russification begun.
1900	1900. Civil government established in the Philippines. Chinese troubles.		1900. Field Marshal Roberts takes command in South Africa.			1900. Assassination of King Humbert of Italy. Victor Emmanuel III., king.	1900. Abolition of the Roman law throughout Germany.	1900. Marriage of the heir apparent, Francis Ferdinand.		1900. China: Boxer uprising.	1900
	1901. Assassination of President McKinley by the anarchist Czolgosz. Capture of Aguinaldo. Death of ex-PresidentHarrison.		1901. Census of the Indian empire taken. Death of Queen Victoria and accession of Edward VII.	1901. The Norwegian Parliament confers the franchise in municipal and communal elections on womentax-payers. Marriage of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands to Duke Henry of Mecklenberg-Schwerin.	1901. Diplomatic relations with Turkey suspended.		1901. Bicentenary of the coronation of the first king of Prussia.		1901. Count Tolstoi excommunicated.	1901. Turkey pays to the United States the claims advanced in behalf of the missionaries in Asia Minor for lossesincurred during the Armenian disturbances of 1895-1896.
	1902. Cuban independence under Platt amendment. President Roosevelt recommends the purchase of the Panama Canalcompany.	1902. Alfonso XIII., king.	1902. The British-Japanese alliance signed. Boer war ended. Marquis of Salisbury resigns as premier.		1902. M. Combes forms a new French ministry.		1902. Prince Henry of Prussia visits the United States. England and Germany press theirVenezuelan claims.	1902. Triple Alliance renewed. The language question between Germany and Czechs.		1902. Treaty of alliance signed between Great Britain and Japan.
	1903. Panama Canal treaty signed with Colombia. Commercial treaty with China signed. Independence of Panamarecognized.		1903. King Edward visits the king of Italy. Irish land bill passed the Houses of Parliament.		1903. Dreyfus case reopened. President Loubet visits King Edward.	1903. Death of Pope Leo XIII. Pope Pius X.		1903. New tariff bill. Visit of the czar of Russia.	1903. Russo-Japanese crisis.	1903. Servia: A band of conspirators invade the royal palace and slay King Alexander and Queen Draga. Thenational assembly chooses Peter Karageorgevitch king.
	1904. Great Baltimore fire. U. S. Senator Burton convicted of malfeasance in office. St. Louis expositionopened.	1904. Death of ex-Queen Isabella at Paris.	1904. Col. Younghusband enters Tibet.		1904. Arbitration treaties with Holland, Spain, Sweden, Norway and the United States. Bill for separation ofchurch and state introduced.	1904. King and queen of Italy visit England.	1904. German troops defeated in Africa.	1904. Ultimatum to the Sultan issued. Great railway strike.	1904. War with Japan over Manchuria begun.	1904. Japanese war with Russia.
	1905. Protocol with Santo Domingo.	1905. Attempted assassination of the king in Paris.	1905. Resignation of Lord Curson as viceroy of India.	1905. Norway: Haakon VII., king.	1905. The Moroccan situation grows in complexity.	1905. The railway bills passed in Italy.	1905. Intervention of Germany in Moroccan affairs. The new commercial treaties. Marriage of the crownprince.	1905. Treaty with Germany ratified. Universal suffrage on an educational basis advocated.	1905. Fall of Port Arthur and end of war. Great railway strike at Petrograd, Warsaw and Moscow. Constitutiongranted by czar and the Duma authorized.	1905. The Russo-Japanese peace treaty ratified.
	1906. Riot at Brownsville, Texas. The president visited Panama. Great earthquake at San Francisco.	1906. King Alfonso married to Princess Victoria of England.	1906. King Edward visits Paris.	1906. Death of King Christian of Denmark. Norway and Sweden independent kingdoms. The crown prince ofDenmark is proclaimed King Frederick VIII. The Belgian Chamber votes in favor of annexing the Congo Free State.	1906. M. Fallières, president. The church controversy. The Pope’s encyclical. M. Sarcien,premier.	1906. Sonnino, premier. International exhibition at Milan.	1906. Propaganda against Socialism.	1906. Prince Schillingfurst succeeds Baron Gautch.	1906. The czar opened the first Russian Duma.
	1907. Philippine assembly opened.	1907. King and queen visit England.	1907. King Edward and Emperor Francis Joseph meet at Ischl.	1907. Death of Oscar II. of Sweden. Gustav V., king. Norwegian Parliament votes to grant the suffrageto about three hundred thousand women, based upon a property qualification.	1907. Wine growers’ agitation. French occupation of Morocco.	1907. Italy signs arbitration treaty with Argentina.	1907. German emperor visited London.	1907. Universal suffrage bill passed.	1907. Third Russian Duma convened. Resignation of Count Witte as prime minister of Russia.	1907. Abdication of Korean emperor.
	1908. Voyage of the Pacific fleet to Asiatic waters.		1908. Asquith, premier.
	1909. Tariff revised.			1909. Belgium: Albert I., king.				1909. Bosnia and Herzegovina acquired.
1910	1910. Elections result in great Democratic gains.	1910. Spain recalled its envoy to the vatican. Portugal becomes a republic.	1910. Death of King Edward VII. Accession of George V.	1910. Denmark: Christian X., king.	1910. Briand cabinet resigned.	1910. Decree issued by the king of Greece for a revision of the constitution.	1910. Emperor William received ex-President Roosevelt.		1910. Death of Count Tolstoi.	1910. Japan annexed Korea. Montenegro became a kingdom with Nicholas as king.	1910
	1911. Extra session of Congress called by President Taft. Canadian reciprocity bill passed.	1911. Further creation of religious orders prohibited.	1911. King George formally opens the British Parliament.		1911. New ministry formed by premier.	1911. Second Parliament assembles. 1911-1912. War with Turkeyover Tripoli.	1911. The Emperor urged a policy of reclamation.	1911. Austria strengthens her army and navy.	1911. Russian army mobilized on Chinese frontier. Premier Stolypin assassinated.
	1912. Tariff revision begun by Congress.		1912. King George returns from Durbar, in India. Steamship “Titanic” sinks with appalling loss oflife.				1912. Large Socialist gains in German Diet.	1912. Death of Premier Aerenthal.		1912. Greece joins Balkan Allies in war against Turkey. Death of Mutsuhito; Yoshito becomes mikado ofJapan.
	1913. Democratic Party comes into power. Parcels Post System inaugurated. Woodrow Wilson inauguratedpresident.	1913. Continued Strife between Royalists and Republicans. Attempted assassination of King Alfonso.	1913. Colonies aid policy of Naval Expansion.		1913. Raymond Poincaré inaugurated president.		1913. Declares support of Triple Alliance.	1913. Mobilize army on Servian frontier to conserve interests of Empire pending Balkan war. Archduke andDuchess of Austria assassinated in Bosnia.	1913. Serfdom obliterated from entire empire.	1913. Assassination of King George of Greece. Constantine, king. China a republic; Yuan, president.
	Greatest European War in History begins with the British Empire, France, Russia, Belgium, Japan,Servia, Italy, Portugal and Roumania on one side, and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria on the other.
	1914. Anti-trust legislation begun in Congress. Declares neutrality in the European war. New regional bankingsystem goes into operation. Panama Canal officially opened.	1914. Portuguese cabinet resigns, Bernardino Machado, premier. Portugal supports the Triple Entente.	1914. King George urges mutual concessions in Irish Home Rule controversy. Wages war on the TeutonicAlliance as a member of Triple Entente.		1914. A new political party is formed to be known as the Briandist. Joins Great Britain and Russia in war uponTeutonic Alliance.		1914. Germany’s new fiscal policy lays a tax on royalty. Declares war on the Triple Entente.	1914. Austria adopts a strong policy against Balkan expansion. Joins Germany in a declaration of war on theTriple Entente.	1914. Russian Premier Kokovtsov resigns. As a member of the Triple Entente joins in war on the TeutonicAlliance.	1914. Greece retains the Aegean islands wrested from Turkey.
	1915. American protectorate established over Haiti. La Follette Seaman’s Act passed by Congress. Diplomaticinterchanges with Germany concerning rights of neutral ships. Carranza government in Mexico recognized by the United States.	1915. The Spanish cabinet resigns. Spain maintains strict neutrality in European war.	1915. War Council created to direct the policies of the Allies in the European war. Gigantic war loans strainBritish finances. The British blockade of the Central Powers only partially successful.	1915. Holland continues her policy of strict neutrality. Belgium passes under the military rule ofGermany.	1915. The Viviani coalition ministry resigned. Immense war loans successfully floated.	1915. Italy joins the Triple Entente in the war. Declares war on Bulgaria.	1915. Wages a ruthless submarine war on allied shipping and neutral vessels carrying contraband of war. Showsastonishing efficiency in the conduct of the war against the Entente Allies.	1915. At the suggestion of the United States, its Ambassador, Dr. Dumba, is recalled from Washington.	1915. Russia declares war on Bulgaria. Loses Poland and its capital, Warsaw, to the Teutonic Allies.	1915. King Constantine of Greece refuses to support Venizelos’ pro-allies policy. Latter resigns aspremier. Turkey successfully repulsed the attempt of the Entente Allies to force the Dardanelles. Bulgaria enters the war onbehalf of the Teutonic Allies. Yoshohito crowned emperor of Japan.
	1916. Year of great industrial and commercial activity and high prices. Woodrow Wilson re-electedPresident. Woman suffrage a pronounced political power. Santo Domingo passes under the military rule of the United States.President sends a military force into Mexico.	1916. Martial law is declared throughout Spain on account of the widespread railway strike.	1916. British and French forces compelled to withdraw from operations against the Dardanelles with disastrouslosses. Rebellious uprising in Ireland suppressed by military force. Home Rule agitation continues. Asquith cabinet overthrown, and DavidLloyd George made premier with practically dictatorial powers.	1916. Frequent Belgian protests against German military rule. Many Belgians deported to Germanyas a military measure.	1916. Verdun is successfully defended against violent assaults of the Germanic forces. Gen. Joffre is succeededas commander-in-chief of the French army by General Petain. A war council succeeds the general ministry.	1916. Italian military movements ineffective on the Austrian frontier. A change of ministry forecasted.	1916. German military operations and conquests stand out in marked contrast with those of the Entente Allies.Belgium, Servia, Montenegro, Poland, Lithuania, Albania and Roumania are held under Teutonic rule. Poland is declared independent byGermany and Austria.	1916. Austria-Hungary proves a powerful aid to the Teutonic Allies in the Balkans. Emperor Francis Joseph diesand is succeeded on the throne by Emperor Charles I.	1916. Premier Sturmer resigns and is succeeded by M. Trepoff. Russian and Roumanian armies are defeated anddriven back with frightful losses in the Balkans.	1916. Roumania enters the war on side of the Entente, and is conquered by the Teutonic-Bulgar forces with theloss of its capital, Bucharest. President Yuan of China assassinated. Li Yuan-hung becomes president. Premier Okuma of Japanresigns, and is succeeded by Count Terauchi, an aggressive champion of both Japan and China.
	1917. Famous “Peace Note” issued to the nations of the world by President Wilson. Rupturewith Germany, and diplomatic relations severed. War declared by the United States on Germany, and war loan of seven billion dollarspassed by Congress.	1917. Seventh attempt made upon the life of King Alfonso.	1917. Great Britain rejects the peace overtures of the Central Powers. Sends envoys, headed by ex-premierBalfour, to United States for an Allied War Council.		1917. France joins Great Britain in rejecting the Kaiser’s peace overtures. Ex-premier Viviana andGeneral Joffre sent to United States as members of the Allied War Council.	1917. Conference of Entente Allies held in Rome. Much discontent in Italy over the war.	1917. The German government sends peace overtures to belligerent and neutral nations. Germany declares arigid blockade of the Entente Powers.	1917. Austro-Bulgarian army makes a strong drive against Roumania, and Russia. Emperor Charles crownedKing of Hungary.	1917. The Russian government supports France and Great Britain in rejecting peace overtures of the CentralPowers. Russian monarchy overthrown; Czar abdicates and a republic is established.	1917. Great political unrest in India. Turkey revokes all treaties limiting her absolute independence asa nation.

A. D.	United States	Spain and Portugal	Great Britain	Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Scandinavia	France
				1872. One thousandth anniversary of kingdom of Norwaycelebrated. Death of Charles XV. of Sweden, succeeded by Oscar II. Coinage made uniform in Denmark, Sweden and Norway.
			1873. Payment of Alabama claims to the United States.		1873. Marshal MacMahon, president.
		1874. Alfonso XII., king.			1874. Death of Guizot.
1875		1875. Civil war.
	1877. R. B. Hayes, president.		1876. Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India.
					1879. Jules Grevy, president.
1880
	1881. James A. Garfield, president. President Garfield assassinated, July 2d; Chester A. Arthur,president.	1883. Sagasta again minister.	1882. Attempt on life of Queen Victoria.
	1885. Grover Cleveland, president. Apache IndianWar.
			1887. Queen’s Jubilee.		1887. Sadi-Carnot, president.
	1889. Benjamin Harrison, president. Johnstown flood.	1889. Trial by jury first put in force. Accession of Carlos I. to Portuguese throne on death of his father,Luis I.	1889. Great labor strikes.
1890	1890. McKinley tariff bill passed.	1890. Castillo, premier.	1890. Stanley returns from Africa.	1890. Holland: William III. of the Netherlands dies, and is succeeded by his daughter, Wilhelmina, under theregency of her mother.	1890. War with Dahomey.
				1891. Switzerland: Celebration of the six hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the Swiss Confederacy.	1892. Panama scandals.
	1893. Grover Cleveland, president. Chinese exclusion bill approved. World’s Columbianexposition at Chicago.	1893. War with Morocco.	1893. Behring Sea arbitration.	1893. Belgium: Universal suffrage in combination with plural voting established.
			1894. Manchester ship canal opened.	1894. Denmark: Fall of the Estrup ministry, succeeded by a cabinet under Reeds-Thott.	1894. President Carnot assassinated at Lyons. M. Casimir-Perier, president. Captain Dreyfus tried andimprisoned.
					1895. President Casimir-Perier resigns. M. Felix Faure, president. Death of PASTEUR.
	1897. William McKinley, president.	1897. Assassination of Premier Canovas del Castillo.Scheme of Cuban autonomy approved.	1897. Blackwell tunnel opened. The Queen’s Diamond Jubileecelebrated.	1896. Belgium: International Bimetallic Congress assembles at Brussels.	1897. Ten-hour law for railway employes passed.
	1898. Destruction of the “Maine” at Havana. Spanish-American war between United States andSpain. Treaty of Paris.		1898. Death of Gladstone. Irish local government bill passed. Imperial penny postage goes into effect.		1898. Review of Dreyfus case granted.
	1899. Cuba is relinquished by Spain. Philippines and Porto Rico acquired.	1899. Death of Premier Canovas of Spain. Spain sells the Caroline, Pelew and Ladrone islands toGermany.	1899. The Boer war in South Africa.
1900	1900. Civil government established in the Philippines. Chinese troubles.		1900. Field Marshal Roberts takes command in South Africa.
	1901. Assassination of President McKinley by the anarchist Czolgosz. Capture of Aguinaldo. Death of ex-PresidentHarrison.		1901. Census of the Indian empire taken. Death of Queen Victoria and accession of Edward VII.	1901. The Norwegian Parliament confers the franchise in municipal and communal elections on womentax-payers. Marriage of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands to Duke Henry of Mecklenberg-Schwerin.	1901. Diplomatic relations with Turkey suspended.
	1902. Cuban independence under Platt amendment. President Roosevelt recommends the purchase of the Panama Canalcompany.	1902. Alfonso XIII., king.	1902. The British-Japanese alliance signed. Boer war ended. Marquis of Salisbury resigns as premier.		1902. M. Combes forms a new French ministry.
	1903. Panama Canal treaty signed with Colombia. Commercial treaty with China signed. Independence of Panamarecognized.		1903. King Edward visits the king of Italy. Irish land bill passed the Houses of Parliament.		1903. Dreyfus case reopened. President Loubet visits King Edward.
	1904. Great Baltimore fire. U. S. Senator Burton convicted of malfeasance in office. St. Louis expositionopened.	1904. Death of ex-Queen Isabella at Paris.	1904. Col. Younghusband enters Tibet.		1904. Arbitration treaties with Holland, Spain, Sweden, Norway and the United States. Bill for separation ofchurch and state introduced.
	1905. Protocol with Santo Domingo.	1905. Attempted assassination of the king in Paris.	1905. Resignation of Lord Curson as viceroy of India.	1905. Norway: Haakon VII., king.	1905. The Moroccan situation grows in complexity.
	1906. Riot at Brownsville, Texas. The president visited Panama. Great earthquake at San Francisco.	1906. King Alfonso married to Princess Victoria of England.	1906. King Edward visits Paris.	1906. Death of King Christian of Denmark. Norway and Sweden independent kingdoms. The crown prince ofDenmark is proclaimed King Frederick VIII. The Belgian Chamber votes in favor of annexing the Congo Free State.	1906. M. Fallières, president. The church controversy. The Pope’s encyclical. M. Sarcien,premier.
	1907. Philippine assembly opened.	1907. King and queen visit England.	1907. King Edward and Emperor Francis Joseph meet at Ischl.	1907. Death of Oscar II. of Sweden. Gustav V., king. Norwegian Parliament votes to grant the suffrageto about three hundred thousand women, based upon a property qualification.	1907. Wine growers’ agitation. French occupation of Morocco.
	1908. Voyage of the Pacific fleet to Asiatic waters.		1908. Asquith, premier.
	1909. Tariff revised.			1909. Belgium: Albert I., king.
1910	1910. Elections result in great Democratic gains.	1910. Spain recalled its envoy to the vatican. Portugal becomes a republic.	1910. Death of King Edward VII. Accession of George V.	1910. Denmark: Christian X., king.	1910. Briand cabinet resigned.
	1911. Extra session of Congress called by President Taft. Canadian reciprocity bill passed.	1911. Further creation of religious orders prohibited.	1911. King George formally opens the British Parliament.		1911. New ministry formed by premier.
	1912. Tariff revision begun by Congress.		1912. King George returns from Durbar, in India. Steamship “Titanic” sinks with appalling loss oflife.
	1913. Democratic Party comes into power. Parcels Post System inaugurated. Woodrow Wilson inauguratedpresident.	1913. Continued Strife between Royalists and Republicans. Attempted assassination of King Alfonso.	1913. Colonies aid policy of Naval Expansion.		1913. Raymond Poincaré inaugurated president.
	Greatest European War in History begins with the British Empire, France, Russia, Belgium, Japan,Servia, Italy, Portugal and Roumania on one side, and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria on the other.
	1914. Anti-trust legislation begun in Congress. Declares neutrality in the European war. New regional bankingsystem goes into operation. Panama Canal officially opened.	1914. Portuguese cabinet resigns, Bernardino Machado, premier. Portugal supports the Triple Entente.	1914. King George urges mutual concessions in Irish Home Rule controversy. Wages war on the TeutonicAlliance as a member of Triple Entente.		1914. A new political party is formed to be known as the Briandist. Joins Great Britain and Russia in war uponTeutonic Alliance.
	1915. American protectorate established over Haiti. La Follette Seaman’s Act passed by Congress. Diplomaticinterchanges with Germany concerning rights of neutral ships. Carranza government in Mexico recognized by the United States.	1915. The Spanish cabinet resigns. Spain maintains strict neutrality in European war.	1915. War Council created to direct the policies of the Allies in the European war. Gigantic war loans strainBritish finances. The British blockade of the Central Powers only partially successful.	1915. Holland continues her policy of strict neutrality. Belgium passes under the military rule ofGermany.	1915. The Viviani coalition ministry resigned. Immense war loans successfully floated.
	1916. Year of great industrial and commercial activity and high prices. Woodrow Wilson re-electedPresident. Woman suffrage a pronounced political power. Santo Domingo passes under the military rule of the United States.President sends a military force into Mexico.	1916. Martial law is declared throughout Spain on account of the widespread railway strike.	1916. British and French forces compelled to withdraw from operations against the Dardanelles with disastrouslosses. Rebellious uprising in Ireland suppressed by military force. Home Rule agitation continues. Asquith cabinet overthrown, and DavidLloyd George made premier with practically dictatorial powers.	1916. Frequent Belgian protests against German military rule. Many Belgians deported to Germanyas a military measure.	1916. Verdun is successfully defended against violent assaults of the Germanic forces. Gen. Joffre is succeededas commander-in-chief of the French army by General Petain. A war council succeeds the general ministry.
	1917. Famous “Peace Note” issued to the nations of the world by President Wilson. Rupturewith Germany, and diplomatic relations severed. War declared by the United States on Germany, and war loan of seven billion dollarspassed by Congress.	1917. Seventh attempt made upon the life of King Alfonso.	1917. Great Britain rejects the peace overtures of the Central Powers. Sends envoys, headed by ex-premierBalfour, to United States for an Allied War Council.		1917. France joins Great Britain in rejecting the Kaiser’s peace overtures. Ex-premier Viviana andGeneral Joffre sent to United States as members of the Allied War Council.

A. D.	Italy and Church	Germany	Austria-Hungary	Russia	Turkey and Balkans, China, India, Japan
		1871. William I., emperor.
				1873. Khiva captured.
1875					1875. Insurrection against the Turks in Herzegovina. Insurrection in Bosnia.
		1877. Attempted assassination of emperor.		1877. War against Turkey.	1876. Sultan Murad deposed; Abdul Hamid II. succeeds. Six weeks’ armistice between Turkeyand Servia. Constitution for Turkey announced.
	1878. Death of Victor Emmanuel II. Humbert, king. Death of Pius IX. Leo XIII., pope.		1878. Occupation of Bosnia.	1878. Spread of Nihilism in the empire.
1880				1880. Many Nihilists imprisoned and executed.
	1882. Death of Garibaldi.	1883. Italy joins the alliance between Germany andAustria, thus forming the Triple Alliance.	1882. Six hundredth anniversary of the House ofHapsburg.	1881. Alexander II. assassinated. Alexander III., emperor.	1881. Roumania declared a kingdom.
	1885. War with Abyssinia.	1884. German annexations on African slave coast; December 19, in Pacific Ocean, beginnings of German colonialpolicy.		1885. Ship canal from St. Petersburg to Cronstadtopened. Trouble with the Afghans.	1885. Outbreak of war between Servia and Bulgaria.
	1887. Alliance of Italy with Austria-Hungary and Germanysigned. Crispi, prime minister.	1888. Accession and death of Frederick III.William II., emperor.	1886. Army put on war footing of one million five hundred thousand men.	1886. Russia interferes in Bulgaria. 1888. Central Asian railwayopened.	1886. Servia, Bulgaria and Greece compelled by the powers to disarm. Treaty of peace signed between Serviaand Bulgaria.
					1889. Japan’s Constitution proclaimed.
1890		1890. Resignation of Bismarck as chancellor.		1890-1892. Famine through the empire.
	1891. Treaty of Italy with Great Britain relative to East Africa. Triple Alliance renewed.	1891. Triple Alliance renewed.	1891. Renewal of Triple Alliance.	1891. Imperial ukase orders expulsion of Jews from Moscow.
	1893. Pope’s Jubilee at Rome.	1893. Anti-Jesuit law repealed.
		1894. Commercial treaty with Russia. New parliament house opened.	1894. Commercial treaty with Russia ratified.	1894. Death of Alexander III. Nicholas II., czar.	1894. Turkey: British, French and Russian ambassadors present note to sultan demanding reforms inArmenia. 1894-1895. Chinese-Japanese war.
		1895. North Sea and Baltic canal opened. Restrictions imposed on American insurance companies.	1895. Anti-Semitic agitation.	1895. Diplomatic relations with Abyssinia. Persecution of the Jews.
	1896. Peace with Abyssinia. Italy abandons claims to a protectorate over that country.	1896. New civil code for the empire completed.	1896. Archduke Karl Ludwig, heir to the throne, dies. Millennial exposition at Budapest.	1896. First official census of the empire. 1897. Judicial reform inSiberia.	1897. Turko-Grecian war. China: Kiau-Chau, withsurrounding zone, leased to Germany for ninety-nine years. Port Arthur and Ta-lien-wan leased to Russia for twenty-five years.
	1898. Pope offers to mediate in the Cuban question.	1898. Death of Bismarck. Emperor visits Constantinople and Jerusalem.	1898. Assassination of the empress by an anarchist at Geneva. Ausgleich of 1867 renewed.	1898. Port Arthur leased from China.
				1899. Czar proposes universal peace. The Finnish diet is deprived of the exclusive right oflegislation and a thorough policy of Russification begun.
1900	1900. Assassination of King Humbert of Italy. Victor Emmanuel III., king.	1900. Abolition of the Roman law throughout Germany.	1900. Marriage of the heir apparent, Francis Ferdinand.	1900. China: Boxer uprising.
		1901. Bicentenary of the coronation of the first king of Prussia.		1901. Count Tolstoi excommunicated.	1901. Turkey pays to the United States the claims advanced in behalf of the missionaries in Asia Minor for lossesincurred during the Armenian disturbances of 1895-1896.
		1902. Prince Henry of Prussia visits the United States. England and Germany press theirVenezuelan claims.	1902. Triple Alliance renewed. The language question between Germany and Czechs.		1902. Treaty of alliance signed between Great Britain and Japan
	1903. Death of Pope Leo XIII. Pope Pius X.		1903. New tariff bill. Visit of the czar of Russia.	1903. Russo-Japanese crisis.	1903. Servia: A band of conspirators invade the royal palace and slay King Alexander and Queen Draga. Thenational assembly chooses Peter Karageorgevitch king.
	1904. King and queen of Italy visit England.	1904. German troops defeated in Africa.	1904. Ultimatum to the Sultan issued. Great railway strike.	1904. War with Japan over Manchuria begun.	1904. Japanese war with Russia.
	1905. The railway bills passed in Italy.	1905. Intervention of Germany in Moroccan affairs. The new commercial treaties. Marriage of the crownprince.	1905. Treaty with Germany ratified. Universal suffrage on an educational basis advocated.	1905. Fall of Port Arthur and end of war. Great railway strike at Petrograd, Warsaw and Moscow. Constitutiongranted by czar and the Duma authorized.	1905. The Russo-Japanese peace treaty ratified.
	1906. Sonnino, premier. International exhibition at Milan.	1906. Propaganda against Socialism.	1906. Prince Schillingfurst succeeds Baron Gautch.	1906. The czar opened the first Russian Duma.
	1907. Italy signs arbitration treaty with Argentina.	1907. German emperor visited London.	1907. Universal suffrage bill passed.	1907. Third Russian Duma convened. Resignation of Count Witte as prime minister of Russia.	1907. Abdication of Korean emperor.
			1909. Bosnia and Herzegovina acquired.
1910	1910. Decree issued by the king of Greece for a revision of the constitution.	1910. Emperor William received ex-President Roosevelt.		1910. Death of Count Tolstoi.	1910. Japan annexed Korea. Montenegro became a kingdom with Nicholas as king.
	1911. Second Parliament assembles. 1911-1912. War with Turkeyover Tripoli.	1911. The Emperor urged a policy of reclamation.	1911. Austria strengthens her army and navy.	1911. Russian army mobilized on Chinese frontier. Premier Stolypin assassinated.
		1912. Large Socialist gains in German Diet.	1912. Death of Premier Aerenthal.		1912. Greece joins Balkan Allies in war against Turkey. Death of Mutsuhito; Yoshito becomes mikado ofJapan.
		1913. Declares support of Triple Alliance.	1913. Mobilize army on Servian frontier to conserve interests of Empire pending Balkan war. Archduke andDuchess of Austria assassinated in Bosnia.	1913. Serfdom obliterated from entire empire.	1913. Assassination of King George of Greece. Constantine, king. China a republic; Yuan, president.
	Greatest European War in History begins with the British Empire, France, Russia, Belgium, Japan,Servia, Italy, Portugal and Roumania on one side, and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria on the other.
		1914. Germany’s new fiscal policy lays a tax on royalty. Declares war on the Triple Entente.	1914. Austria adopts a strong policy against Balkan expansion. Joins Germany in a declaration of war on theTriple Entente.	1914. Russian Premier Kokovtsov resigns. As a member of the Triple Entente joins in war on the TeutonicAlliance.	1914. Greece retains the Aegean islands wrested from Turkey.
	1915. Italy joins the Triple Entente in the war. Declares war on Bulgaria.	1915. Wages a ruthless submarine war on allied shipping and neutral vessels carrying contraband of war. Showsastonishing efficiency in the conduct of the war against the Entente Allies.	1915. At the suggestion of the United States, its Ambassador, Dr. Dumba, is recalled from Washington.	1915. Russia declares war on Bulgaria. Loses Poland and its capital, Warsaw, to the Teutonic Allies.	1915. King Constantine of Greece refuses to support Venizelos’ pro-allies policy. Latter resigns aspremier. Turkey successfully repulsed the attempt of the Entente Allies to force the Dardanelles. Bulgaria enters the war onbehalf of the Teutonic Allies. Yoshohito crowned emperor of Japan.
	1916. Italian military movements ineffective on the Austrian frontier. A change of ministry forecasted.	1916. German military operations and conquests stand out in marked contrast with those of the Entente Allies.Belgium, Servia, Montenegro, Poland, Lithuania, Albania and Roumania are held under Teutonic rule. Poland is declared independent byGermany and Austria.	1916. Austria-Hungary proves a powerful aid to the Teutonic Allies in the Balkans. Emperor Francis Joseph diesand is succeeded on the throne by Emperor Charles I.	1916. Premier Sturmer resigns and is succeeded by M. Trepoff. Russian and Roumanian armies are defeated anddriven back with frightful losses in the Balkans.	1916. Roumania enters the war on side of the Entente, and is conquered by the Teutonic-Bulgar forces with theloss of its capital, Bucharest. President Yuan of China assassinated. Li Yuan-hung becomes president. Premier Okuma of Japanresigns, and is succeeded by Count Terauchi, an aggressive champion of both Japan and China.
	1917. Conference of Entente Allies held in Rome. Much discontent in Italy over the war.	1917. The German government sends peace overtures to belligerent and neutral nations. Germany declares arigid blockade of the Entente Powers.	1917. Austro-Bulgarian army makes a strong drive against Roumania, and Russia. Emperor Charles crownedKing of Hungary.	1917. The Russian government supports France and Great Britain in rejecting peace overtures of the CentralPowers. Russian monarchy overthrown; Czar abdicates and a republic is established.	1917. Great political unrest in India. Turkey revokes all treaties limiting her absolute independence asa nation.