LIVING NATIONS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY

The world as it is known to-day comprises six great divisions or parts, namely, Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, and Oceania or Australasia. The most dependable statistics estimate their area and population as follows:

AREA AND POPULATION OF THE EARTH BY CONTINENTS

Continental
Divisions		Area in
Square
Miles		Inhabitants
NumberPer
Square
Mile
Africa11,632,000127,312,00010.9
America, N.7,146,641136,939,00019.1
America, S.7,344,50855,444,0007.55
Asia17,470,282842,100,00048.20
Australasia3,456,2908,000,0002.31
Europe3,671,624458,795,000124.9
Polar Reg.6,970,000300,000 .04
Total57,691,3451,628,890,00028.2

POPULATION OF THE EARTH ACCORDING TO RACE

RaceLocationNumber
Indo-Germanic or Aryan (white)Europe775,000,000
America
Persia
India
Australia
Mongolian or Turanian (yellow and brown)Asia600,000,000
Semitic (white)Africa65,000,000
Arabia, etc.
Negro and Bantu (black)Africa130,000,000
Malay and Polynesian (brown)Australasia33,000,000
American Indian, North and South (red and half breeds) 25,000,000
Total 1,628,000,000

At the opening of the European war in 1914 the human race was subject to fifty-four independent and five quasi-independent governments. The British Empire and Russia are the largest two, while Monaco with its eight square miles and San Marino with its thirty-eight square miles of territory are the smallest two. The absolute monarchies are Abyssinia, Afghanistan, Morocco, Siam, Oman, and Monaco; the limited monarchies are Albania, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bhutan, British Empire, Bulgaria, Denmark, German Empire, Greece, Italy, Japan, Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Montenegro, Nepal, Netherlands, Norway, Persia, Roumania, Russia, Servia, Spain, Sweden, and Turkey; the republics are Andorra, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Salvador, San Marino, Santo Domingo, Switzerland, United States, Uruguay, Venezuela.

PRINCIPAL LANGUAGES SPOKEN

There are said to be 3,424 spoken languages or dialects in the world, distributed as follows: America, 1,624; Asia, 937; Europe, 587; Africa, 276.

LanguagesNumber of Persons
Spoken by		Proportion
of the
Whole
1801191618011916
English20,520,000160,000,00012.727.3
French20,520,000160,000,00012.727.3
German30,320,000130,000,00018.722.2
Italian15,070,00050,000,0009.38.6
Spanish26,190,00050,000,00016.28.6
Portuguese7,480,00025,000,0004.74.3
Russian30,770,000100,000,00019.017.1
Total161,800,000585,000,000100.0100.0

RELIGIOUS POPULATION OF THE WORLD BY CONTINENTS

ReligionEuropeAsiaAfricaNorth
America		South
America		OceaniaTotal
Followers
Catholic Churches:
Roman Catholic183,760,0005,500,0002,500,00036,700,00036,200,0008,200,000272,860,000
Eastern Catholic98,000,00017,200,0003,800,0001,000,000......120,000,000
Protestant Churches93,000,0006,000,0002,750,00065,000,000400,0004,500,000171,650,000
Total Christians374,760,00028,700,0009,050,000102,700,00036,600,00012,700,000564,510,000
Confucianism and Taoism...300,000,00030,000100,000...700,000300,830,000
Hinduism...210,000,000300,000100,000110,00030,000210,540,000
Mohammedanism3,800,000142,000,00051,000,00015,00010,00025,000,000221,825,000
Buddhism...138,000,00011,000......20,000138,031,000
Judaism9,950,175484,359404,8362,144,06150,00019,41513,052,846
Animism...42,000,00098,000,00020,0001,250,00017,000,000158,270,000
Shintoism...25,000,000............25,000,000
Unclassified1,000,0006,000,000130,0008,000,000...150,00015,280,000
Total Non-Christians14,750,175863,484,359149,875,83610,379,0611,420,00042,919,4151,082,828,846

Note.—The Coptic Church has 706,322 followers (Egyptian census 1907); Nestorians 80,000; Jacobites 70,000.

INDEPENDENT COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD TODAY

The separate nationalities grouped under their respective hemispheres and continental divisions. On account of the European war the boundaries and statistics of the nations engaged will, doubtless, be subject to important changes within the next decade.

COUNTRIESPopulationSquare
Miles		CapitalsPresent Official Head
and
Date of Birth		Title and Date
of Accession		Salary
or
Budget
EASTERN HEMISPHERE
(1)Europe
Albania825,00011,000DurazzoEssad Pasha (b. ...)President (1914)...
Andorra6,000175Andorra...Consul...
Austria-Hungary50,000,000260,034ViennaCharles (b.1887)Emperor (1917)$ 4,520,000
Belgium7,571,38711,373BrusselsAlbert (b.1875)King (1909)623,600
Bulgaria4,755,00043,000SofiaFerdinand (b.1861)Czar (1887)250,000
Denmark2,775,07615,388CopenhagenChristian X. (b.1870)King (1912)262,500
France30,601,509207,054ParisRaymond Poincaré (b.1860)President (1913)140,000
German Empire66,715,000208,780BerlinWilliam II. (b.1859)Emperor (1888)3,700,000
King (1888)
Great BritainSee [page 467]......George V. (b.1865)King (1910)2,350,000
Greece5,000,00046,522AthensConstantine (b.1868)King (1913)260,000
Holland or Netherlands6,500,00012,648AmsterdamWilhelmina (b.1880)Queen (1898)250,000
Italy35,240,000110,623RomeVictor Emmanuel III. (b.1869)King (1900)2,650,000
Luxemburg268,000999LuxemburgMarie (b.1894)Grand Duchess (1912)...
Monaco20,0008...Albert (b.1848)Prince (1889)...
Montenegro520,0005,650CettinjeNicholas (b.1841)King (1910)24,000
Norway2,459,000124,129ChristianiaHaakon VII. (b.1872)King (1905)185,000
Poland..................
Portugal5,957,98535,490LisbonDr. Bernardino Machado (b.1850)President (1915)...
Roumania7,600,00054,000BucharestFerdinand (b.1865)King (1914)227,520
Russian Empire171,000,0008,647,657PetrogradNicholas II. (b.1868)Emperor (1894)12,000,000
San Marino10,65538......President (....)...
Servia4,600,00034,000...Peter (b.1844)King (1903)225,000
Spain19,588,688190,050MadridAlfonso XIII. (b.1886)King (1886)1,344,000
Sweden5,476,441172,876StockholmGustaf V. (b.1858)King (1907)416,500
Switzerland3,741,97115,976BerneDr. Shulteis (b. ...)President (1917)3,000
Turkey (Europe)1,892,00011,000ConstantinopleMohammed V. (b.1884)Sultan (1909)7,500,000
(2)Asia
Afghanistan6,000,000250,000KabulHabibulla Khan (b.1872)Ameer (1901)...
Arabia3,500,0001,000,000............
Bhutan250,00020,000Punakha.........
China400,000,0002,169,200PekinLi Yuan Hung (b. ...)President (1916)...
Japan52,985,423147,655TokioYoshihito (b.1879)Emperor (1912)2,250,000
Nepal4,000,00054,000KhatmanduDhiraja Tribhubana Sh’sher Jang (b.1906)Maharaja (1911)...
Oman750,00082,000MuscatSeyyid Taimur bin Turkee (b. ...)Sultan (1913)250,000
Persia9,000,000628,000TeheranAhmed Mirza (b.1897)Shah (1914)...
Siam6,000,000220,000BangkokVagiravudh (b.1880)King (1910)2,000,000
Turkey (Asia)19,382,000699,224............
(3)Africa
Abyssinia8,000,000390,000Adis AbabaLij Ey-assu (b. ...)Emperor (1914)...
Liberia2,060,00041,000MonroviaD. E. Howard (b. ...)President (1912)...
Morocco6,500,000200,000FezMuley Yusoef (b.1875)Sultan (1912)...
WESTERN HEMISPHERE
(1)North America
Costa Rica420,18023,000San JoseAlfredo Gonzalez (b. ...)President (1914)...
Cuba2,383,00044,164HavanaMario G. Menocal (b. ...)President (1913)25,000
Dominican Republic700,00019,325San DomingoRamon Baez (b. ...)President (1914)...
Guatemala2,119,16548,290GuatemalaManuel Estrada Cabrera (b.1856)President (1911)...
Haiti2,000,00010,204Port-au-PrinceGen. Dartiguenave (b. ...)President (1915)24,000
Honduras600,00046,250TegucigalpaDr. Bertrand (b.1867)President (1913)...
Mexico15,063,207765,535City of MexicoVenustiano Carranza (b. ...)President (1915)50,000
Nicaragua500,00049,200ManaguaAdolfo Diaz (b. ...)President (1911)...
Panama427,00032,380PanamaBelisario Porras (b. ...)President (1912)24,000
San Salvador700,0007,325San SalvadorCarlos Melendez (b. ...)President (1913)...
United States112,445,0003,743,312WashingtonWoodrow Wilson (b.1856)President (1913)75,000
(2)South America
Argentina8,000,0001,153,418Buenos AyresVictorino de la Plaza (b. ...)President (1914)36,000
Bolivia2,267,925708,195La PazIsmael Montes (b. ...)President (1913)...
Brazil24,000,0003,292,000Rio de JaneiroW. B. Pereira Gomes (b. ...)President (1914)40,000
Chile5,000,000292,100SantiagoJuan Luis San Fuentes (b. ...)President (1915)7,000
Columbia5,500,000438,000BogataJose Vicente Concha (b. ...)President (....)...
Ecuador1,500,000116,000QuitoLeonidas Plaza (b. ...)President (....)12,000
Paraguay800,000196,000AsuncionEduardo Schaerer (b. ...)President (1912)9,500
Peru4,000,000680,000LimaJose Pardo (b. ...)President (1915)12,000
Uruguay1,300,00072,210MontevideoFeliciano Viera (b. ...)President (1915)36,000
Venezuela3,000,000393,976CaracasJuan Vincente Gomez (b. ...)President (1915)...

WEALTH OF NATIONS

These are the latest estimates: United States, $188,000,000,000; Great Britain and Ireland $85,000,000,000; Canada, $7,000,000,000; India, $15,000,000,000; total British Empire (including possessions not here stated), $130,000,000,000; Germany, $80,000,000,000; France, $50,000,000,000; Russia, $40,000,000,000; Austria-Hungary, $25,000,000,000; Italy, $20,000,000,000; Belgium, $9,000,000,000; Spain, $5,400,000,000; Netherlands, $5,000,000,000; Switzerland, $4,000,000,000; Portugal, $2,500,000,000.

THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE

From its political and historical importance Europe has always been regarded as one of the great divisions of the earth’s surface though it is not a separate and independent mass. It is, rather, a great peninsula of what is sometimes called Eurasia—i.e. the continent of Europe and Asia combined—that extends westward its many arms between the Arctic Ocean on the north, the Atlantic on the west, and the Mediterranean Sea on the south.

Its name seems to have been derived from the Semitic word ereb, meaning “the land of the setting sun,” and came into use among the Greeks and Latins in very early times as Europa.

Outline and Extent. The most striking feature of its outline is that of its great irregularity, the deep inlets and gulfs of the ocean which penetrate its mass, and the peninsulas which run from it.

The greatest distance between its extreme north and south points—the North Cape of Norway and Cape Matapan in Greece—is about twenty-four hundred miles; and from east to west—from Cape La Roca, or the “Rock of Lisbon,” to Cape Apsheron, the eastern extremity of the Caucasus range, on the Caspian—about three thousand miles.

EUROPEAN GULFS
AND INLETS

On the north the White Sea, so called from the ice and snow which bind it up for more than half the year, reaches in from the Arctic Ocean. From the Atlantic, the shallow North Sea, or German Ocean, and the English Channel (called La Manche, or “The Sleeve,” by the French) break in to separate the British Isles from the mainland; and from the former the Skager Rak, “the crooked and boisterous strait,” leads through the Kattegat, the “Cat’s Throat,” and the “Belts” of the Danish islands, to the Baltic, or the “East Sea” of the Germans, and its continuations, the Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, and Riga.

Farther southward, the stormy Bay of Biscay, named from the Basque province of Vizcaya, sweeps in along the northern coast of Spain, and beyond the Peninsula the narrow Strait of Gibraltar leads into the great Mediterranean, which stretches eastward for twenty-three hundred miles.

THE MEDITERRANEAN AND
ITS ARMS

Among the many branches of this great basin are the Gallic Sea, running north toward Gaul, between Spain and the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, forming the stormy Gulf of the Lion and that of Genoa; the Tyrrhenian Sea, between Sardinia and Italy; the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic running north from it, between Italy and the Balkan peninsula, towards the ancient seaport of Adria, perhaps the oldest in Europe.

Beyond Greece, the island-studded Ægean leads north to the narrow inlet of the Dardanelles, opening into the little Sea of Marmora, named from its marble-yielding islands, and from that by the Bosporus or Oxford (the canal of Constantinople), into the second great Mediterranean basin, the Black Sea or Euxine, with its offshoot the shallow Sea of Azof. The Caspian Sea, forms part of the natural frontier between Europe and Asia.

The indented seaboard of Europe measures not less than sixty thousand miles.

PENINSULAS OF
EUROPE

Between each of these branches of the sea there run out corresponding promontories and peninsulas of the mainland. These are most numerous on the south side, where we find the Crimea, Turkey and Greece, Italy and Spain, bordered by the islands of the Archipelago, by Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, and the Baleares.

The western or Atlantic side presents the greatest peninsula, that of Scandinavia, and the most important island group, that of the British Isles. The Danish peninsula is remarkable as the only one in Europe, and indeed in almost any part of the world, that points northward.

SURFACE
CHARACTERISTICS

The great lowland of Europe lies toward the east, embracing the vast continental area of Russia, and sending out arms westward round the Gulf of Bothnia and the Swedish side of the Baltic, and through North Germany and Denmark, to form the lowlands of Holland and Belgium and of Western France, along the shores of the Bay of Biscay, as far as the rise of the Pyrenees.

The vast central area of the Russian lowland has almost everywhere the same character, woods and marshes alternating with cultivated land, affording a superfluity of grain, which is sent down by the rivers to the seaports of the Baltic and the Black Sea; but along its northern border, next the icy Arctic Sea, lie the moss-covered swamps called the Tundras, the soil of which is never thawed for more than a yard’s depth; all its southern margin toward the Black Sea and the Caspian is a treeless steppe, over which at some seasons the grasses shoot up above a man’s height, concealing the pasturing herds.

REMARKABLE SURFACE OF
FINLAND

Finland is one of the most remarkable regions of the great European plain; its granite floor, elevated above the sea-level probably in a recent geological period, is worn into thousands of angular lake-basins, which form a perfect network over its surface; to the sailor on the Baltic its margin presents a girdle of steep cliffs guarded by a fringe of rocky islets or skerries. The cliffy Aland Islands are detached fragments of this remarkable formation.

LOWLANDS OF WESTERN
EUROPE

The eastern portions of the North German plain, as far as the Oder, have the same character, the same corn-yielding clay soil, as the adjoining lowlands in Russia; but farther west, round the capital city of Berlin, the plain becomes less fertile, in some parts sandy and bare. Beyond the Elbe, in Hanover, the Lüneburg heath covers a large part of the plain; next it lie the moors, marshes, and fens of Oldenburg and the borders of Holland, where cattle and horses are the wealth of the land; and beyond these the highly cultivated lowlands on each side of the Rhine delta, separated by the heaths and moors of Brabant, which run out toward the lower Scheldt like a dividing wedge between Holland and Belgium.

Passing into France, and across the broad river basins of its lowlands which open to the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay, we come upon the great wine-yielding lands, such as Champagne and the vineyards of the Gironde, with the corn country of Brie northeast of Paris, and of Touraine, on the Loire between these; and lastly, at the extremity of this branch of the European plain, to the Landes along the coast between the mouth of the Gironde and the Pyrenees, composed of sandy heaths and marshes.

ISOLATED LOWLANDS OF
EUROPE

Of these, two of large extent occur in the basin of the river Danube, separated by the gorge of the “Iron Gate,” formed where the Balkan and Carpathian ranges approach most closely. The upper plain, circled about on all sides by mountains, is that of Hungary, over which corn fields interchange with pastoral steppes well stocked with horses and cattle, sheep and swine, merging in some parts into marsh lands or into dusty sand flats. Where the plain begins to rise to the sunny hills, the Hungarian grape ripens to yield its famous wines. The lower plain of the Danube, which might be called a branch of the vast Russian lowland, is that of Roumania, with its far-stretching treeless heaths and pasture lands supporting great herds of cattle and horses, passing into wide reed swamps which characterize the delta of the Danube.

Corresponding to the Roumanian plain is that of Lombardy, perhaps the most productive region of Europe, in which the irrigated meadows may be six times mowed in the year, and where wheat, maize, and rice, and wine and dairy produce, are yielded in vast quantity.

MOUNTAINS AND
HIGHLANDS

Europe presents two great mountain regions; a southern, extending along the northern border of the Mediterranean from Turkey to Spain, in continuation of the chief line of the heights of Asia; and a northern, appearing in Scandinavia and Britain, separated from the former by the western branch of the great lowland that we have been noticing.

THE ALPINE
REGION

The Alps rise as the central mass of the southern mountain region of Europe. The many groups comprised in this series of heights which curve round the plain of Lombardy arrange themselves into three generally recognized divisions:—The Western Alps, the groups lying between the Gulf of Genoa and the Little St. Bernard Pass; the Central Alps, extending from the St. Bernard to the pass named the Stilfser Joch; and the Eastern Alps beyond this. The central mass is the highest, rising with majestic forms from deep valleys up to sharp riven peaks, high above the line of permanent snow; its wings to east and west decrease in elevation towards the Gallic Sea and the plain of the Danube on either side. All the less jagged heights are mantled in snows, from which glacier streams descend. The largest of these ice streams are the Aletsch glacier from the group of the Finsteraarhorn, and those of the frequented valley of Chamounix, descending from Mont Blanc, the monarch of the Alps.

FAMOUS ALPINE
PASSES

The passes of the Alps have always had importance as the gates of traffic from North Italy to the rest of Europe; some of them, such as the two St. Bernard Passes, are under the protection of friendly monks; but railroads have now been constructed to pass the great barrier by the tunnels of Mont Cenis in the west, of St. Gothard in the center, and the Simplon farther east (opened 1906), by a line over the Brenner Pass from Innsbruck to Bozen, and by an eastern road over the Semmering from Vienna to Graz.

Southward the Alps fall steeply to the low plain of Lombardy, but a mass of lesser highlands and plateaus extends northward from them over central Europe to the border of the plain of Northern Germany.

OUTLYING SPURS OF
THE ALPS

The first division is the long limestone range of the Jura, with its magnificent pine forests. Beyond, bordering the Rhine valley, rises the Schwarzwald, or Black Forest, then the Odenwald and the Rhön mountains, leading into the Vogelsberg and Taunus, and to the outlying Harz, the farthest north of the central European heights. Turning eastward, we reach the Thüringerwald, the Fichtel Gebirge, and the metalliferous or Erz Gebirge; then across the Elbe, in Saxon Switzerland, come the Riesen Gebirge (the Giant Range), and the Sudetic Mountains, extending to the Oder. Turning south again towards the Alps, the Mährische Höhen (the Mavorian heights) are reached, and joining with these to close in the high valley of the Upper Elbe, the high Böhmerwald, the forest mountain of Bohemia. Almost all the area of South Germany, including Würtemberg, Bavaria, and Bohemia, enclosed by these heights, which extend northward from the Alpine mass, is high plateau land.

HIGHLANDS OF
FRANCE

Westward of these central European heights, beyond the Rhone, rises the range of the Cevennes in France, extending from near the Pyrenees northward through the Forez and Côte d’Or to the plateau of Langres, to the Vosges and Hardt, [446] the undulating plateau of Ardennes covered with beech and oak wood, and the volcanic group of the Eifel, skirting the Rhine valley. More centrally in France, contrasting with the adjoining long range of the Cevennes, the volcanic cones and domes of Auvergne rise from bare lava-covered plateaus.

PYRENEES AND SPANISH
PENINSULA

Shut off from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees whose high and close barrier admits easy passage only round its flanks, is the Spanish Peninsula, which, excepting in its river valleys, and along some parts of the seaboard, is a continuous highland. A number of mountain ranges, supporting broad plateaus between, traverse it from east to west. Along its northern edge the Cantabrian mountains prolong the high line of the Pyrenees; centrally rise the Sierras of Guadarrama and Estrella; farther south the Sierra Morena, and along the Mediterranean border the Sierra Nevada of Granada. Throughout the summer the table-lands of Castile, bare and treeless, are burned up by the hot sun, but through the chilly winter they are swept by violent winds. The herdsman who wears a broad-brimmed hat for protection against the excessive heat during the day, a few hours later puts on his thick warm cloak; in the same way, after the almost rainless summer, follows a cold winter with ice and snow.

MOUNTAINS OF ITALY AND
THE BALKANS

The Apennines prolong the Maritime Alps, and run like a backbone through the peninsula of Italy. Cleared of its natural wood, and scorched by the southern sun, this range is generally dreary and barren in aspect, like a long wall, with few peaks or salient points to recall the magnificent forms of the Alps. The volcano of Vesuvius, the only active one in all the continental part of Europe, rises over the coast plain of Campania.

The lines of the eastern wing of the Alps are prolonged north-eastward across the Danube by the grand curve of the wooded Carpathians and Transylvania Alps, circling round the plain of Hungary. Southeastward they branch into the many ranges which support between them the confused mass of highlands of Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Montenegro, of Servia and Albania. Farther on these heights take more definite shape in the range of the Balkan which runs east to the Black Sea, in the mass of the Rhodope mountains extending south-eastward to the Ægean Sea, and in the Pindus range, which gives shape to Greece, and runs out into the Mediterranean in the peninsulas of the Morea.

MASS OF THE
CAUCASUS

Distinct from all the rest of the southern highlands of Europe stands the huge mass of the Caucasus, the natural frontier of Europe on the southeast, rising like a wall from the flat isthmus between the Black Sea and the Caspian. Its close parallel chains are united by high plateaus cut into by deep narrow transverse gorges of extreme depth. Though attaining far greater heights than the Alps and reaching several thousand feet above the limit of perennial snows, the glaciers and snow-fields of the Caucasus are small and insignificant in comparison with those of the Alps. This is owing to the dryness of the region in which they stand, and the small snowfall over them.

SCANDINAVIAN MOUNTAIN
GROUPS

In the north European mountain region the mass of heights which form the Scandinavian peninsula are by far the most important. These present no definite range, but are rather a collection of broad plateaus topped with moor or snow-field, cut into by long steep-walled “fiords” on the Atlantic side, and resembling the Alps in the pine woods of their slopes, in their lakes and extensive glaciers, though they are nowhere of very great altitude.

The main field, which is applied to most of the Scandinavian mountain groups, suggests their plateau form; the Hardanger Field, Ymes Field, and Dovre Field, with the Jostedals Brae (or ice-brae—glacier), are the most prominent of the southern heights of Norway; in the north the broken heights which run along the Atlantic and Arctic borders of the peninsula have the general name of the Kiölen. The heather-covered hills of Scotland—the Grampians and west coast mountains—as well as those of Cumberland and Wales farther south in Great Britain, belong to the same system as that of the Scandinavian heights.

SURFACE OF EUROPEAN
ISLANDS

We have formerly noticed that almost all the European islands are high. In the Mediterranean we find the island of Crete reaching to upwards of eight thousand feet in Mount Ida; Sicily, with its volcano of Etna nine thousand six hundred and fifty-two feet; Sardinia with Mount Gennargentu (six thousand two hundred and ninety feet); Corsica, with Monte Rotondo (nine thousand and sixty-five feet); Iceland, on the border of the Arctic seas, recalling Norway in its grand fiords, rises high in its mass of volcanic jökulls (Oræfa, six thousand four hundred and eight feet; Hecla, five thousand one hundred and ten feet), covered in between with accumulated snows and glaciers; Spitzbergen’s black peaks, which give its name, also rise high from its white glacier fields.

CHAIN OF THE
URAL

Separate and distinct in character and direction from the mountains of the rest of Europe, is the long chain of the Ural, rich in gold, platinum, iron, and copper. It takes its name probably from the Tartar word meaning “belt,” which well expresses the length and continuity of this remarkable line of heights, stretching along the eastern border of the great European plain for more than twelve hundred miles. In height, however, the Ural is insignificant. Another separated height, that of the forest-covered Valdai hills in Western Russia, would scarcely be worthy of mention among the European highlands if it did not form the water-parting of the greatest of European rivers, the Volga.

For the height of the chief mountain peaks and ranges, consult the tables on [page 74] and following.

RIVERS OF EUROPE

European rivers flow in part to the Atlantic and its Mediterranean branches, partly to the Arctic Sea, and partly to the Caspian, which last belongs to the “continental” system of drainage, or the area from which no rivers escape to the open ocean.

The Volga, the largest European river, is the principal feeder of the Caspian, and the great highway of commerce of Central and South Russia.

The Don, Dnieper, Dniester, and Danube all flow into the Black Sea. The last-named is the second of European rivers, and forms, with its navigable tributaries, the route for traffic between Central Europe and the East.

The Po, the Rhone (the most rapid European river, though of little value for navigation), and the Ebro flow into the Mediterranean.

The chief rivers (all of immense importance) draining into the Atlantic, are: the Tagus (with its port of Lisbon), the Douro (Oporto), the Gironde (Bordeaux), the Loire (Nantes), and the Mersey (Liverpool); while of less importance are the Guadalquivir, Guadiana, Tagus, and Douro in Spain; the Garonne, Loire, and Seine in France. Into the North Sea flow the Thames (London), the Meuse (Rotterdam), the Rhine and the Elbe, giving uninterrupted water-way to Switzerland and into the heart of Bohemia; and into the Baltic, the rivers Oder, Vistula, Niemen, and Dwina, more or less important for purposes of transport.

On account of the great historic, political and scenic importance that attaches to the Rhine and the Danube, in addition to the fact that their courses are not confined strictly to any one country, these rivers call for more detailed descriptions. The other European rivers of importance are described in connection with the country to which they either wholly or in great part belong.

THE RHINE

THE RHINE (Ger. Rhein), is probably the most famous river in the world, and, except the period between 1697 and 1871, always a purely German possession. It is usually divided into the upper, middle, and lower parts, the first lying within and along part of the boundary line of Switzerland, the second between Basel and Cologne, and the third between Cologne and the sea.

THE UPPER RHINE AND
ITS SOURCE

A large number of rivulets, issuing from Swiss glaciers, unite to form the upper Rhine; but two are recognized as the principal sources—the Nearer and the Farther Rhine. The former emerges on the northeast slope of the St. Gotthard pass (seven thousand six hundred and ninety feet above sea-level), the other side of which is the cradle of the Rhone; the Farther Rhine has its origin on the flank of the Rheinwaldhorn, seven thousand two hundred and seventy feet high, not far from the Pass of Bernardino. The two mountain torrents meet at Reichenau, six miles southwest of Coire (Chur), in the Grisons canton, Switzerland, after they have descended the Nearer Rhine five thousand seven hundred and sixty-seven feet in twenty-eight miles, the Farther Rhine five thousand three hundred and forty-seven feet in twenty-seven miles.

LAKE CONSTANCE AND THE
FALLS OF SCHAFFHAUSEN

After plowing its way north for forty-five miles between Switzerland and Austrian Vorarlberg, the river enters the Lake of Constance, soon after leaving which, its water a deep transparent green, it plunges down the falls of Schaffhausen, nearly seventy feet, in three leaps, and flows westward to Basel, separating Baden from Switzerland. In this stretch the river (four hundred and ninety feet wide), receives from the left the waters of the Aar. At Basel (seven hundred and forty-two feet), now two hundred and twenty-five yards wide, it wheels round to the north, and traversing an open shallow valley that separates Alsace and the Bavarian Palatinate from Baden, reaches Mainz, split into many side arms and studded with green islands. Navigation begins at Basel.

THE MIDDLE RHINE FROM BASEL
TO COLOGNE

Of the numerous affluents here the largest are the navigable Neckar and the Main from the right, and the navigable Ill from the left. A little below Mainz, the Rhine (six hundred and eighty-five yards wide) is turned west by the Taunus range; but at Bingen it forces a passage through, and pursues a northwesterly direction across Rhenish Prussia, past Coblenz, Bonn, Cologne, Düsseldorf, Ruhrort, and Wesel as far as the Dutch frontier; here it is one thousand and eighty-five yards wide and thirty-six feet above sea-level.

THE FAMOUS STRETCH FROM
BINGEN TO BONN

The first half of this portion of the river from Bingen to Bonn is the Rhine of song and legend, the Rhine of romance, the Rhine of German patriotism. Its banks are clothed with vineyards that yield wine esteemed the world over; the rugged and fantastic crags that hem in its channel are crowned by ruined castles; the treasure of the Nibelungs rests at the bottom of the river (higher up, at Worms); the Bingerloch and the Mouse Tower of Bishop Hatto, the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, the rock of the siren Lorelei, the commanding statue of Germania (the trophy of German victory in 1870), and innumerable other features lend interest to this, the middle course of “Father Rhine.” Between Bingen and Bonn the steep rocky walls that fence in the river approach so close that road and railway have to find their way through tunnels. The Nahe enters the Rhine at Bingen, the Moselle at Coblenz; from the right side the Lahn enters above Coblenz. Gigantic rafts are floated down from the Black Forest to Dordrecht in Holland. Below Bonn the Rhine is joined by the Sieg, Wupper, Ruhr, and Lippe from the right.

PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE RIVER RHINE, THE MOST HISTORIC RIVER IN THE WORLD

Starting from the important city of Cologne and ascending the river. These pages and those immediately following give an almost photographic panorama of the entire Rhine valley as far as Mainz—the course of the river, its confluents, bridges, cities, villages, castles, fortresses, historic ruins and museums, and the general topography of the region through which river flows.

[Top left] Cologne Cathedral, the grandest Gothic church in the world. Begun in 1248, consecrated 1880. It has seven wonderful chapels.

[Bottom left] University Bldgs.

[Top right] Köln, or Cologne, sixth city in size in the German Empire, was originally an ancient Teutonic town and later an important Roman garrison. Its greatest ornament is the Cathedral. The city is encircled by a boulevard of great beauty. The Hahnentor Museum contains a famous collection of armor and weapon.

[Center right] Hahnentor in Cöln

[Center right] Bonn is 21 miles from Cologne, has a beautiful location, and is chiefly noted for its University, housed in the Electoral Palace built 1717-1730. It was a great Roman fortress and suffered many sieges. The Cathedral was founded by the mother of Constantine. In its cemetery are buried Niebuhr, the historian, Schlegel, Schumann, Arndt and Bunsen.

[Bottom right] Beethoven’s birthplace in Bonn was at 20 Bonngasse. There is a bronze statue of the great composer in Münsterplatz.

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[Top left] Godesburg Castle. A fine mediæval castle on a hill overlooking the Rhine. Splendid view.

[Top left] Rolandseck is half an hour’s sail above Königswinter on the right; and high on the hill above is the fragment of the castle said to have been built by Roland, paladin of Charlemagne, and rich in legends. See Bulwer’s “Pilgrims of the Rhine” for the story, which doubtless suggested Schiller’s ballad of “Ritter Toggenburg.”

[Center left] Rolandseck

[Center left] Remagen is renowned for its beautiful Gothic church on a hill just below the village. It was erected under the direction of Zwirner, the architect of the superb south portal of the Cologne cathedral and is adorned with large frescoes, which are masterpieces of Modern German art.

[Top right] Königswinter is beautifully situated at the foot of the Siebengebirge, or Seven Mountains, and nearest the castles crag of Drachenfels (Dragon’s rock). The Siebengebirge form a picturesque volcanic group, 1,000 to 1,500 ft. high, about 5m. square, covered with forests and ruins. The prospect from Drachenfels and from the Petersberg are among the finest on the Rhine. A funicular railway reaches the top of the Drachenfels and the Petersberg. See story of “Nibelungenlied.”

[Center right] A massive tower and ruined castle at Andernach memorialized in Longfellow’s “Hyperion.”
Hammerstein is a 10th century castle where Henry IV. took refuge. It was held during the Thirty Years’ war by Swedes, Spaniards and Germans.

[Bottom right] Andernach, with its ruined castle, ancient walls, and lofty watch tower is one of the most interesting towns on the Rhine. It was one of the 50 forts of Drusus; recaptured from the Alemanni by Julian in 339; a royal Franconian residence in the 6th century; an imperial town later; stormed by Cologne troops in 1496; and burned by the French in 1688. Nearby is the Benedictine Abbey of Laach, founded in 1093, with magnificent Romanesque church, on the vast crater-lake of the Laachser See.

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[Top left] Koblenz, the capital of Rhenish Prussia, is at the confluence of the Rhine and Moselle, whence the Romans called it Confluentia. It is a powerful fortress, with heights crossed with enormous fortifications. The Palace contains interesting Electoral Hall and Festival Hall. The Rhine is crossed by a bridge of boats and by a very fine railway bridge. Across the Rhine is Ehrenbreitstein, (“Honor’s Broad Stone”), “The Gibraltar of the Rhine,” a vast fortress on a precipitous rock, 387 ft. above the river, and commanding a wonderful view. It has often been beleaguered but yielded only twice.

[Bottom left] STOLZENFELS.

[Top right] Stolzenfels (“Proud rock”), a fine castle of the middle ages, on a projecting rock overlooking the Rhine, belongs to the Royal Family of Prussia. It was presented by the city of Koblenz to King William IV. Here they say treasures are buried which Archbishop Werner acquired by his knowledge of alchemy. Fine view of the Lahn Valley and Koblenz.

[Center right] Ehrenbreitstein

[Bottom right] Braubach, an ancient little town, at the entrance of the valley that winds round the Marksberg, with a fine old Castle, the Marksburg, a fortress of the middle ages, one of the few ancient Rhine castles which escaped destruction.

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[Top left] St. Goarshausen is under the castle called The Cat, built in 1393, and blown up by the French in 1804. Above is the Lurlei rock, a precipice 433 ft. high, rising over whirlpools in the deepest and narrowest part of the Rhine, and the fabled seat of a siren who lured sailors to a tragic death.

[Bottom left] RHEINSTEIN

[Top right] St. Goar
St. Goaris overlooked by the grandest ruin on the river, the famous Rheinfels, dating from 1245; besieged often; now royal property.

[Center right] Die „Lurlei“
Oberwesel is charmingly situated in the midst of the finest scenery of the Rhine. The Church of Notre Dame, south of the town, is a fine specimen of 14th century Gothic, with curious old pictures and monuments. The Chapel of St. Werner, erected in the 13th century, commemorates one of the old stories of child-murder by the Jews. Above the town are the ruins of Schönburg, built about the 12th century.
Caub (left) is a little town with a big castle, Gutenfels, towering above it, and not far above, in the midst of the river is the Pfalz, built by Louis of Bavaria early in the 14th century.

[Bottom right] The Niederwald.

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[Top left] Mouse Tower.
The Mouse Tower (Mäuserturm) is situated on a rock in the middle of the Rhine, near Bingen. It is notable from the legend of Bishop Hatto’s tragic fate.

[Top right] The Niederwald, opposite Bingen, is the great National Monument commemorating the restoration of the German Empire in 1870-71. It stands 740 feet above the river, and consists of a colossal statue of Germania, 33 feet high, upon a sculptured pedestal 78 feet high.

[Center right] Bingen

[Center right] Bingen is at the junction of the Rhine and the Nahe. The river scenery above Bingen is less interesting, though it is here the fertile and beautiful wine region begins. Rüdesheim, just across the river, has rich wines, far-viewing heights, wild legends, and a Roman fortress. On the heights is the Castle of Johannisberg, where Prince Metternich once lived. It is amid the best vineyards on the Rhine and commands a superb view. At Riebrich, opposite Mainz, is the beautiful palace of the Duke of Nassau.

[Bottom right] Mainz. Mainz, or Mayence, with its magnificent cathedral, has been both a German and a French town. Thorwaldsen’s statue of Gutenberg, the inventor of printing, stands near the Cathedral. The Electoral Palace is a rich museum of Roman relics and an important picture gallery. The city is a noted wine center and trade emporium.

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THE LOWER RHINE FROM COLOGNE
TO THE SEA

At Bonn the river enters the plains, and almost immediately after passing the Netherlands frontier its delta begins. The principal arm, carrying two-thirds of the volume, flows under the name of the Waal, and later the Mermede, to Dordrecht, picking up the Maas (Meuse) from the left. At Dordrecht the river again divides for a bit, one branch, the old Maas, running out to sea; the other, the Noord, forming a loop by way of Rotterdam. The northern arm sends one branch, the Yssel, due north to the Zuider Zee; the other branch is the Lek, which runs into the Waal-Maas arm above Rotterdam.

A thin stream, called the “Winding Rhine,” leaves the Lek and splits at Utrecht into two channels, of which the Old Rhine, a mere ditch, manages with the help of a canal and locks to struggle into the North Sea at Katwyk, northwest of Leyden, while the Vecht flows due north from Utrecht to the Zuider Zee near Amsterdam. In the delta the streams have to be bordered by dykes.

THE RHINE IN EARLY
EUROPEAN HISTORY

The Rhine was the Romans’ bulwark against the Teutonic invaders and was long a boundary between the province of Gaul and the German tribes. Under Charlemagne the Rhine valley became the focus of civilization. Except between 1697 and 1871 the Rhine was always a purely German river; at the peace of Ryswick, Alsace-Lorraine was appropriated by France, and the Rhine became part of the dividing line between France and Germany. In 1801 Napoleon incorporated the whole of the left bank with France; in 1815 the arrangement in force before 1801 was restored; and after 1871 the Rhine became once more wholly German. It has often been crossed by armies; twice by Julius Cæsar; again in the Thirty Years’ war, and in the wars of Louis XIV., the Revolution, and Napoleon. Its navigation was declared free in 1868.

The Rhine is connected by canals with the rivers Danube, Rhone and Marne. There is a railway along both its banks, but a steamboat is greatly preferable for viewing the incomparable course between Cologne (Köln) and Mainz (Fr., Mayence) as shown in panoramic form on preceding page. Its beauties are better displayed, also, at most points, in ascending the river than in descending it.

THE DANUBE

THE DANUBE (Ger., Donau), one of the most important rivers of Europe, and next to the Volga the largest, originates in two small streams rising in the Schwarzwald, or Black Forest, in Baden, Germany, and uniting at Donaueschingen, two thousand two hundred and sixty-four feet above sea level. The Germans occupy the entire upper basin, and portions of the middle and lower; the Slavs parts of both banks of the middle course; the Magyars the central portion of the valley; and the Roumanians the lower regions.

GENERAL COURSE OF THE
GERMAN DANUBE

The river flows first southeast and then northeast to Ulm, one thousand, five hundred and nineteen feet above sea level. At Regensburg it reaches its most northerly point, and from thence its course is generally southeast. Between Regensburg and Vienna the banks of the river are frequently remarkable for their romantic beauty. At Tuttlingen it contracts and the hills crowd close to the banks, while ruins of castles crown almost every possible summit. The scenery is wild and beautiful until the river passes Sigmaringen.

THE AUSTRIAN DANUBE, FAMED
IN HISTORY AND SONG

From Passau the Danube flows through Austria for a distance of two hundred and thirty-three miles. Closed in by mountains it flows past Linz in an unbroken stream; below, it expands and divides into many arms until it reaches the famous whirlpool near Grein, where its waters unite and flow on in one channel for forty miles through mountains and narrow passes. Between Linz and Vienna it is renowned not only for its picturesque beauty, but for the numerous historic buildings and ruins which crown its banks. The splendid Benedictine monastery of Melk, the ruins of Durrenstein, and the prison of Richard the Lion-hearted are among the most interesting.

Vienna, to defend the city against risk of inundation, the course of the Danube skirting it was, in 1868-81, diverted into an artificial channel. Similar works have been undertaken near Budapesth, in Hungary.

FROM VIENNA TO
THE IRON GATE

After passing Vienna and Marchfeld, the river cuts through a defile formed by the lower spurs of the Alps and Carpathians and enters Hungary at the ruined castle of Theben, a little above Pressburg, the old Magyar capital. Here, again, it gives off a number of branches, forming a labyrinth of islands known as Schütten, but on emerging it flows uninterruptedly southward through wide plains interspersed with pools, marshes, and sandy wastes. The principal affluents here are the Save, the Drave, and the Theiss.

Sixty miles before entering Roumania the river passes through a succession of rapids or cataracts which it has made in cutting a passage for itself through the cross chain of hills which connect the Carpathian Mountains with the Alps. The last of these cataracts, at Old Orsova, is called the Iron Gate. Between 1878 and 1898, the Hungarian government carried through, at a cost of seven million five hundred thousand dollars, extensive engineering works at the gorges of the Iron Gates for deepening the channel and cutting a canal.

ITS JOURNEY THROUGH THE BALKAN
COUNTRIES

The lower course of the Danube, in Roumania and Bulgaria, is through a flat and marshy tract, fertile but badly cultivated and thinly peopled. It forms the northern boundary of Bulgaria as far as Silistria; and from here it turns northward, skirting the Dobruja, and flows between marshy banks to Galatz, receiving on the way the Jalomitza and the Sereth. From [454] Galatz it flows east, and, after being joined by the Pruth from the north, it continues southeast to the Black Sea.

The delta is a vast wilderness (one thousand square miles) cut up by channels and lagoons; the farthest mouths are sixty miles apart. Two-thirds of the Danube’s volume passes through the Kilia, which, like the southern or St. George branch, forms a double channel near the outlet; and so ships enter by the middle or Sulina mouth, deepened to twenty feet and straightened in 1858-1903. The steel cantilever bridge across the river at Tchernavoda is one of the great railway bridges of the world.

ITS CHIEF TOWNS AND COMMERCIAL
IMPORTANCE

The principal towns on the Danube are Ratisbon, Vienna, Pressburg, Budapest, Belgrade, and Galatz. The width of the river varies considerably, and at some points the opposite shore is hardly discernible. It is first navigable at Ulm, and, thanks to various improvements, is now navigable continuously from that point to its mouth. Engineering work to this end, undertaken at Vienna, Budapest, and the Iron Gates has already been referred to. The International Danube Navigation Commission, appointed in 1856, controls the lower portion of the river, and has done much to improve navigation at the delta. Sea-going vessels of six hundred tons can now go nearly as far as the Iron Gates, while vessels of twenty-five hundred tons can go above Galatz. By means of canals the Danube is connected with the Rhine and the Elbe.

ITS PART IN HISTORY AND
INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

This mighty river is exceedingly rich in historical and political associations. For a long period it formed the frontier of the Roman Empire, and along its course are still found many notable Roman remains. Traces of the great wall erected by the Emperor Trajan are to be seen on the south side of the Hungarian Danube. At Turn Severin, east of the Carpathians, a tower and several piers of Trajan’s Roman bridge, a splendid piece of ancient engineering, are still standing; while his more marvelous road in the rocky Kazan defile is marked by a Roman tablet still visible.

The struggles of races and peoples in the lands bordering the Danube have been among the fiercest and strongest in all history. Finns, Kelts, Germans, Slavs, Greeks, Italians and Turks have all vied with one another in the race of conquest and possession; and even today the Balkan countries are still in the seething cauldron of new struggles for domination or independence.

The Lake Region of Europe lies round the Baltic. Ladoga, in Russia, is the largest fresh-water lake in Europe, as wide across as the English Channel, between Portsmouth and Cherbourg. Onega, and Peipus (Russia) are also of great size, as well as the lakes of Finland and Sweden, and some of those of the Alps. Chief of these are Wetter and Mœlar in Sweden; the myriad lakes of Finland; the beautiful lakes of the folds of the Alps, Geneva, Neuchatel, and Constance on the north side; and Maggiore, Como, and Garda in the Italian valleys. They will be noticed further under the countries to which they belong.

THE NATIONS OF EUROPE—THE GREAT POWERS

Of the nations of Europe it may be said that in point of rank Great Britain, Germany, France, Austria, and Russia stand first as the “five great powers.” These include within their limits more than two-thirds of the entire population of Europe, and have for a long time controlled all continental questions. Second come Italy, Spain, and Sweden; in third rank are Turkey, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, and Portugal.

Another grouping on the basis of race stocks is frequently made beginning with the highest in culture, the Germanic; passing thence to the Romanic; concluding with the Slavonic, and the lands under the rule of the Turks, lowest in the scale, which are most closely connected with the Mongols of Asia. The Germanic, or Teutonic nations, include Great Britain; the German Empire; Austria-Hungary; Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, Denmark); Holland, or the Netherlands; Switzerland, and Belgium. The Romanic nations include France; Italy; Spain; Portugal; Greece, and Roumania. The Slavonic nations, Russia in Europe; Servia, and Montenegro. The Turkish or Mongol nations, Turkey in Europe; Bulgaria.

For various reasons the first grouping is adopted in the pages following.

GREAT BRITAIN

The British Empire, Great Britain and England are often erroneously used in the popular mind for one and the same nation. In strict accuracy the British Empire consists of (1) The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; (2) India, and the British Colonies, Protectorates, and Dependencies. Great Britain proper includes only England, Scotland and Wales. What is really meant is the geographical group of the British Isles, including England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland and the adjacent islands. For here is the source of power and authority that holds together and controls this greatest of modern empires.

Geographical Features.—The British Isles belong distinctly to the mainland of Europe. If we imagine the sea level between England and Holland to fall sixty feet—the height of an ordinary house—the broad Dogger Bank, midway between England and Denmark, would begin to show its sands, and if a fall of two hundred feet took place one might walk dry shod across to the continent, to Belgium, Holland, or Denmark. From its shallows and banks, its stormy cross seas and frequent fogs, the navigation of the North Sea is dangerous; yet the traffic over it is enormous, for it is surrounded by countries, the inhabitants of which have been famous on the seas from the earliest times.

The great highways of commerce from it are Dover Strait, leading to the English Channel, in the south, and the stormy Pentland Firth, which separates Scotland from the Orkney Islands, in the north. The English Channel, though deeper than the North Sea, is also shallow; the enclosed Irish Sea, between England and Ireland, with St. George’s Channel and the North Channel leading out from it to the ocean, has been scoured deeper in its central lines; but there is a width of about fifty miles of shallow sea, or “soundings,” all round the islands, in the west, where they face the broad Atlantic.

Chief Islands and Divisions.—The main island of Great Britain, roughly triangular in shape, measures about six hundred miles in a straight line from its southwest corner, where the granite walls of Land’s End and the dark serpentine cliffs of the Lizard run out into the Atlantic, to the northern apex, the high red sandstone rocks of Dunnet Head, or its companion Duncansby Head, where John o’Groat’s House stood, on the beach of the Pentland Firth.

The base of the island, forming the north coast of the English Channel, measures only about half this distance, or three hundred and twenty miles; and the eastern side, from the chalk cliffs of the South Foreland, on the Strait of Dover, to the Pentland Firth, is about five hundred and forty miles long. No part of the interior of Great Britain is more distant than three or four days’ walk from the sea on one side or other. In the narrower parts of the north of Scotland, indeed, where the Moray Firth runs into the land, it is an easy day’s journey from the head of this inlet of the North Sea to that of one or other of the opposite sea lochs running in from the Atlantic.

The second island, Ireland, more rounded in general outline, measures three hundred miles from Malin Head, its northernmost point, to Mizen Head, its most southerly extremity, and two hundred miles from Carnsore Point, its southeastern corner nearest England, to Erris Head, its northwestern promontory on the Atlantic.

Smaller Islands.—The most extensive of the many island groups and islets are those which lie off the broken west coast of Scotland, the wild and rugged Outer and Inner Hebrides, of which Lewis, separated by the channel called the Minch, and Skye, Mull, Islay and Arran, in the inner group, are the largest. The Orkney group, separated from the north of Scotland by the turbulent Pentland Firth, consist of no fewer than fifty-nine rocky islets; and the Shetlands, forty miles farther north, comprise upwards of a hundred separate points. The high Isle of Man, in the middle of the Irish Sea; Anglesey, close to the Welsh coast; and now united to it by the famous railway tubes across the Menai Strait; and the Isle of Wight, “the garden of England,” in the English Channel, separated from the mainland by the busy Solent, are the others of importance. The Channel Islands, of which Jersey and Guernsey are the largest, belong politically to Britain, but are physically parts of France.

Surface: Mountains and Lowlands.—In the island of Great Britain the highest portions lie generally to north and west, the lowlands to south and east.

The heather-covered Highlands, which fill the north of Scotland, are divided by the great natural passage of Glen More, which runs in a straight line across the island from northeast to southwest into two chief groups, the northern and central.

The northern group consists of irregularly-distributed and often almost isolated masses, separated, it may be, by deep sea-fiords, and presenting every variety of contour, from that of the round mass of Ben Wyvis to the steep, wall-like sides of Suilvein or the sharp peak of Ben Stack. The Central Highlands or the Grampians, extending from the peninsula of Cantyre northeastward to the precipitous coast of Buchan on the North Sea, are far more massive and continuous.

Ben Nevis, a huge round mass ascending abruptly from the shores of Loch Eil at the mouth of the Great Glen, is the highest mountain of the British Isles.

The Southern Highlands of Scotland are more broken, and separated by river valleys. Mount Merrick, in the southwest, is their highest point; the Lowther Hills form their central group; the Pentlands, Moorfoot, and Lammermoor hills their more detached portions, on the northeast.

With the Cheviot Hills, the boundary range between Scotland and England, begins the long Pennine chain, which reaches due south into the heart of England. Cheviot Hill, in the north, Crossfell, and Whernside, and the Peak of Derby, in the south, mark the summits and direction of the chain. To the west of the Pennine chain rises the compact circular knob of slate mountains of Cumberland, of which Scawfell is the summit of England proper. And corresponding to this mass, near the opposite coast, are the eastern moorlands and wolds of Yorkshire.

Separated from the Pennine heights by the plain of Cheshire (west of England) rise the highlands of Wales, collectively called the Cambrian Mountains.

Across the Bristol Channel we come to the heights of the southwestern peninsula of England, with its three groups of Exmoor, Dartmoor, with its rugged granite tors, and the Cornish Heights. These are the more important mountain groups of Great Britain.

Over all the south and east of England the elevations are comparatively insignificant; broad, undulating, grassy uplands, called the South Downs and the Chiltern Hills, rarely attaining more than eight hundred feet of elevation, follow the chalk formation across Southern England as far as Beachy Head on the Channel and the Foreland Cliffs on the Strait of Dover. The limestone Cotswold Hills between these and the Welsh Highlands rise somewhat higher.

Almost all the lowlands of Great Britain lie to the east and south. Here we find the plain of the “New Forest” in Hampshire and the treeless Salisbury Plain, the broad open Valley of the Thames, the “Eastern Plain” of Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk, extending with rounded shores towards the North Sea; the low “Fen District” behind the shallow estuary of “The Wash,” from which many tracts have been reclaimed; the long “Plain of York” beyond; the valleys of the Tees and Tweed, the latter including the cultivated “Merse,” the march or border land of Berwickshire; the Scottish “Lowlands” between the Central and Southern Highlands; the “Carse” or alluvial plain of Gowrie, north of the Tay; “Strathmore,” the broad valley which extends between the Grampians and their southern outliers; the plain of Cromarty and the level moors of eastern Caithness farthest north of all. The only extensive lowlands on the western side of the island are the “Vale of Severn,” the “Plain of Cheshire,” between the Pennine chain and the Welsh Highlands, the lowlands round the estuary of the Solway, those of Ayrshire, and the Valley of the Clyde.

Crossing over to Ireland, though we find the lines of elevation running generally in the same direction as those of Great Britain, or from northeast to southwest, as shown in the peninsulas of the southwest coast, the mountains appear rather in detached clusters than in definite ranges, with shapes rather rounded than abrupt, forming a fringe round the coasts. The plateau of Antrim, which forms the precipice of Fair Head, the nearest point to the Scottish coast, contains the remarkable basaltic scenery of the Giants’ Causeway.

Giants’ Causeway.—This extensive and extraordinary assemblage of basaltic columns is in the county of Antrim, between Bengore Head and Port Rush. The name is sometimes given to the whole range of basalt cliffs along the coast, some of which reach the height of four or five hundred feet; but it is more properly restricted to a small portion of it where a platform of closely-ranged basalt columns from fifteen to thirty-six feet in height runs down into the sea in three divisions, known as the Little, the Middle, and the Grand Causeway. The last is from twenty to thirty feet wide, and stretches some nine hundred feet into the sea.

The Giants’ Causeway derives its name from the legend that it was built by giants as a road which was to stretch across the sea to Scotland. There are similar formations on the west coast of Scotland, on the island of Staffa.

In the southwest are the Mountains of Kerry, containing Cam Tual, the summit of all Ireland. The only important groups that lie centrally in the island are the mountains of western Tipperary.

Within the circle of these heights, and branching out between them at many points to the sea-coast, lies the Great Plain of Ireland, averaging perhaps two hundred feet in elevation above the sea. The highest point between Dublin and Galway, east to west across its center, is only three hundred and twenty feet above the sea-level. Many parts of it, such as that which surrounds Lough Neagh in the north, are scarcely fifty feet in elevation.

Rivers.—England and Ireland are very bountifully watered; Scotland rather less so, as the higher mountains of Great Britain rise in the west of the island, so the water-parting line following the greatest general height lies nearer the west than the east. The longer and gentler slope of the island is to the North Sea; the shorter and steeper to the Atlantic side. Hence most of the larger rivers belong to the North Sea drainage.

The Thames (Temz), the most important river of Great Britain, flows southeast by east across the southern portion of the country. It rises in the Cotswold Hills and follows a course of some one hundred and ninety miles to Gravesend, the head of the estuary, where it has a width of half a mile, gradually increasing then to ten miles at the Nore lightship about thirty miles farther. By the addition of its tributaries the Colne, Leach, and Churn, it becomes navigable for barge traffic at Lechlade, where the canal to the Severn leaves. Above Oxford the stream is frequently called the Isis. At Oxford the navigability improves, and river steamers ply between Oxford and points below it as far as London. Until the Tower Bridge, in London, was built, London Bridge was the lowest in the course, and ocean-going vessels still reach the latter.

Gravesend, twenty miles lower, grew up at the spot where vessels waited the turn of the tide; a little farther the Medway, by virtue of its estuary the most important tributary, enters; just inside this is Chatham, an important naval depot. Opposite Gravesend and on the north bank is Tilbury, the terminus of modern liners. The waters from the Tilbury docks to the Nore lightship are of great strategic importance, hence there is here a station for destroyers, torpedo-boats, and gun-boats. Sheerness and Shoreham as land defenses add to this.

From London Bridge downward the Thames is lined with docks and wharves, the former being now under the Port of London authority. At Woolwich, on the south bank, eight miles below London Bridge, is the arsenal, and a little farther up the river Greenwich Observatory.

Historically, the Thames is unsurpassed by any river of the world. A slight rise surrounded by marsh on the left bank formed the first point suitable for bridging a strategic site for London, the tide giving facilities to it as a port, while yet placed well up the river for defensive purposes. Still farther up, a dominating site in the lower valley was found at Windsor for the mediæval kings. In Anglo-Saxon times the kingdoms were divided by the river, and the break in the Chiltern Hills at Goring was a check in the line of aggression.

Above London the scenery is rich and beautiful, though not romantic, the numerous islands lending a peculiar charm. The Thames is the best beloved of English rivers for those who boat for pleasure. During the summer the Thames is a favorite holiday resort, house-boats being frequently the temporary homes of pleasure-seekers; [457] and regattas are held at Henley, Kingston, and other places. For boat-racing, it divides the honors with the Tyne. The Thames watermen are renowned in song and story. Since Spencer’s days “the silver-streaming Thames” has been sung by England’s poets; Herrick calls it “Silver-footed Thamesis;” Denham’s apostrophe is famous; and Pope has word-painted much of the scenery of its banks.

Other British Rivers.—The next longest river to northward is the Great Ouse, navigable from the west for ninety miles to Bedford; then we come to the group of rivers which water the long plain of York, and unite in the estuary of the Humber, including the Trent from the south, navigable one hundred and five miles to Burton; the Yorkshire Ouse, navigable forty-five miles to the city of York, with its main tributary the Derwent. Farther north are the Tees and Wear, and the busy Tyne. Passing into Scotland, we reach the Tweed, valuable for its fisheries, but unnavigable; the Forth, winding in links through the fertile lowland, navigable to Stirling; the Tay, navigable to Perth; the rapid Dee and Spey from the Grampians, and the Ness from the lakes of Glenmore.

On the western or Atlantic side of Britain, the largest river, the second in drainage area in the island, is the Severn, drawing its upper tributaries from the Welsh mountains, and its chief lower affluent, the navigable Avon, from England, curving round to the British Channel; it is navigable to Welshpool, one hundred and twenty miles from its mouth. The Mersey, though a short river, forms one of the most important estuaries of the island, the “Liverpool Channel.” Scarcely less valuable in this respect is the lower Clyde, the most important commercial river of Scotland, navigable to Glasgow, and forming in its upper valley the largest falls in the island.

Almost all the river estuaries of Britain are great highways of commerce; the Solway Firth, between England and Scotland on the west coast, is the most important exception, its swift and strong tides, rushing in over the sands so fast that a galloping horseman can scarcely escape from them, being exceedingly dangerous to shipping. Besides these estuaries many natural harbors lie round the coast. Such are the sheltered Solent and Portsmouth harbor behind the Isle of Wight, Plymouth Sound farther west, and Milford Haven on the south coast of Wales, unsurpassed perhaps in the world as a deep and spacious harbor thoroughly sheltered from all winds.

British Lakes.—The lakes of South Britain are comparatively few and small. Bala Lake, only four miles long, is the largest in the Welsh Highlands; in England the only considerable group is that which clusters round the knot of mountains in Cumberland, known through the rare interest that has been added to this district by the group of illustrious poets who made it their home about the beginning of the nineteenth century.

English Lake District.—Within this area are grouped as many as sixteen lakes or meres, besides innumerable mountain tarns and streams. The district extends about thirty miles from north to south by about twenty-five from east to west, and contains within its compass the utmost variety and wealth of natural scenery, soft and graceful beauty ever alternating closely with grandeur and sublimity.

Windermere, the largest of the lakes (ten and one-half miles by one mile), lies in the southeast corner of the district and is connected with Rydal Water, Grasmere, Elther Water, and Esthwaite. To the west rises the Scawfell range, terminating in the Old Man of Coniston, which rises above Coniston Water, and to the east of the Scawfell range lies Wastwater (three miles long), the deepest of all the lakes. In the northeast is Ullswater, with the sequestered Hawes Water to the southeast. To the west of Helvellyn is Thirlmere, which is the reservoir for the water supply of Manchester, dammed in 1890-1894. The river Derwent, rising in the Scawfell range, flows north through Borrowdale and forms Bassenthwaite and Derwentwater, the most beautiful of the lakes. Westward from Borrowdale opens a valley in which lie Buttermere and Crummock Water, and between these and the Derwent valley is Ennerdale Water. There are several waterfalls, the chief, perhaps, being Lodore, near Derwentwater. Near Derwentwater lies Keswick, the chief town of the district, while Ambleside and Bowness (Windermere) and Hawkshead (Esthwaite) are other places of importance.

Of the lake school of poets, Wordsworth was the acknowledged head and founder, and his home for sixty years was in the Lake District. Southey, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and De Quincey were the chief of the group, and Shelley, Scott, Carlyle, Mrs. Hemans, Matthew Arnold, Edward Fitzgerald, Tennyson, Gray, and Charles Lamb, although not directly associated with the school, were connected with the district.

Scotch Lakes.—Scotland abounds in lakes in all three Highland districts, and their number increases towards the north. Loch Lomond, twenty-four miles long, in the largest in Britain, Loch Awe, Loch Tay, Loch Rannoch, and Loch Ericht, may be mentioned as the largest of those in the Grampian valleys. Loch Ness, twenty-four miles long and eight hundred feet deep, with Loch Oich and Loch Lochy, fills the deep trench of the Great Glen between the Grampians and the Northern Highlands; Loch Shin, twenty miles long and only one mile broad, and Loch Maree, are the largest of the Northern Highland region. On the western watershed of the Northern Highlands, however, lakes are so thickly sown that hundreds may be counted from a mountain top, and the Outer Hebrides are covered with a perfect network of them.

Irish Rivers and Lakes.—In Ireland, in contrast to Britain, the watersheds are more evenly divided toward all points of the compass; the greatest drainage, however, is westward to the Atlantic. On this side we find the largest river, the Shannon, one hundred and sixty miles long, draining an area second only to that of the Thames in extent, and affording a navigable highway over the central plain almost up to its source. The Erne is another large river of the western drainage of Ireland. Flowing northward we find the Foyle, and the Bann passing through Lough Neagh, and navigable for fifty-five miles. On the eastern watershed the Liffey, from the Wicklow Mountains, is the most important stream; the Barrow, navigable to Athy, seventy miles from its fine estuary of Waterford Harbor, receiving near its mouth the almost equally important Nore and Suir, is the chief river of the southern drainage; the Blackwater, affording twenty-two miles of navigation, and the Lee, flowing to Cork (Queenstown) Harbor, are the other notable rivers of this slope.

The lakes of Ireland, in contrast to those of Britain, belong rather to the plain than to the mountain regions. Lough Neagh, in the basin of the Bann in the north, is the largest of all in the British Islands, one hundred and fifty-four square miles in area, twenty miles in length. The lakes of the Erne, upper and lower, stand next in size; Loughs Corrib and Mask in Connaught, joined by a subterranean channel, are the largest in the west. The Shannon has three large expansions, Loughs Allen, Ree, and Derg. Most famous for their scenery, however, are the much smaller highland Lakes of Killarney, embosomed [458] in the southwestern mountains of Kerry, and considered the finest in Great Britain.

Climate.—Their maritime situation has a favorable effect on the climate of the British Isles, making it milder and more equable than that of continental countries in the same latitude.

Peoples of the British Isles.—During the four centuries in which the Romans held the lowlands of South Britain, many of the native British tribes became Romanized, but the Celtic peoples of the mountain regions of Wales, the Scottish Highlands, and of the west of Ireland, have retained their language and more or less pure blood to the present day. After the fall of the Roman power the invading Anglo-Saxons and Jutes conquered the island, and to their strong Germanic element followed that of the brilliant Normans, or Northmen who had settled in Normandy, and who had there adopted the religion, language, and manners of the French.

Thus the population of these islands is a mixed Celtic, Germanic, and Romanic one, all its elements being more thoroughly amalgamated in the populous lowlands of Britain, the Celtic remaining purer in the highland regions, which are more difficult of access. In Ireland the Teutonic element prevails along the eastern margin; thence towards the western mountains the transition is gradual to the pure Celtic.

Religion.—In religion, rather more than half the population of England claims membership in the Church of England; the most prominent other bodies being the Wesleyan Methodists, the Independents, and Baptists. About a twentieth part of the population is Roman Catholic.

Cities.—The three largest cities in Wales are Cardiff, Rhondda, and Merthyr Tydfil. The capital of England and of the British Empire is London. The cities next in size (in order of population) are Liverpool, Manchester and Salford, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Bradford, Nottingham, and Hull.

The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh. Glasgow is the industrial metropolis, followed by Dundee, and Aberdeen. After these come, in order of population, Paisley, Leith, Greenock, Coatbridge, Kilmarnock, Kirkcaldy, Perth, Hamilton, Motherwell, and Falkirk.

The capital of Ireland is Dublin; the other chief towns are Belfast, Cork, Limerick, and Londonderry.

There are numerous other cities, towns, villages and districts notable for industrial, educational, historical, literary, or other associations.

THE VICTORIA EMBANKMENT, LONDON, WITH THE THAMES IN THE FOREGROUND

LONDON, the capital of the British Empire and the second largest city in the world, is situated in the southeast of England on both sides of the River Thames, which winds through it from west to east. The river is crossed by numerous bridges and is deep enough to allow large vessels to come up to London Bridge, the lowest of these (except the movable Tower Bridge), where it is two hundred and sixty-six yards wide. London may be said to stretch from east to west about fourteen miles, from north to south about ten.

The area embraced by the Metropolitan and City police districts, including all parishes within fifteen miles of Charing Cross, is spoken of as Greater London. The population of London roughly equals that of Scotland, Holland, Portugal or Sweden. Under the Act of 1899 London includes the municipal boroughs of Battersea, Bermondsey, Bethnal Green, Camberwell, Chelsea, Deptford, Finsbury, Fulham, Greenwich, Hackney, Hammersmith, Hampstead, Holborn, Islington, Kensington, Lambeth, Lewisham, Paddington, Poplar, St. Marylebone, St. Pancras, Shoreditch, Stoke Newington, Wandsworth, Westminster and Woolwich.

General Features.—The greater portion of London lies on the north side of the Thames, in the counties of Middlesex and Essex, mainly the former, on a site gradually rising from the river, and marked by several inequalities of no great height, except in the northern suburbs, where the elevation of four hundred and thirty feet is reached; on the opposite bank, in the county of Surrey and partly in Kent, the more densely built parts cover an extensive and nearly uniform flat, in some places below the level of the highest tides, while the outskirts are mostly elevated.

The nucleus of London was formed by what is still distinctively the City of London, situated in the heart of the metropolis on the north bank of the Thames. The City is a separate municipality, having a civic corporation of its own, at its head being the Lord-mayor of London. The City occupies only six hundred and seventy-one acres, and has a resident population of only twenty-seven thousand.

Westminster, another portion of old London, associated with the sovereigns, the parliaments, and the supreme courts of justice of England for over eight hundred years, borders with the City on the west; while across the river from the city lies the ancient quarter of Southwark, or “The Borough.” Besides these, London consists of a great number of well-defined quarters or districts, as well as many minor districts, the names of which are familiar to the outside world, such as Whitechapel, Spitalfields, Pimlico, Bloomsbury, Bermondsey, Belgravia, etc. Another loose division of London is into the West End or fashionable quarter, the residence of the wealthy, and the East End, the great seat of trade and manufactures.

PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, LONDON

The financial and business houses of the city are principally located to the east of St. Paul’s; the galleries, theaters, and places of amusement between St. Paul’s and St. James’s Park; the parks and residences of the nobility upon the western margin of the city. The railway stations are, with few exceptions, in the suburbs.

London, on the whole, may be called a well-built city, brick being the material generally employed, though many public and other edifices are built of stone. In some streets the brick fronts are made to imitate stone by being coated with cement. The streets are generally well kept and well paved and lighted, but, except in some of the more recent quarters, the general appearance of London is not attractive, much of the effect of the fine buildings being lost by overcrowding and the want of fitting sites.

What generally most strikes a stranger in London is its immense size, which can only be grasped by actually traveling about, or by obtaining a view from some elevation, as Primrose Hill in the northwest, or the dome of St. Paul’s Cathedral near the center, the most conspicuous building in the metropolis. Other striking and also attractive features of London are the parks, especially Hyde Park and Regent’s Park, so valuable as breathing spaces; and the handsome and massive stone embankments along the Thames, forming wide roadways and promenades bordered by trees for long distances.

As the capital of the British Empire, London is from time to time the residence of the sovereign and court. It contains the buildings for the accommodation of parliament and all the great government departments. It is the chief intellectual center of Britain, and is equally great as a center of commerce, banking and finance generally.

Main Streets.—Although in the different districts of London, with the exception of the parts most recently built, there are numerous narrow and crooked streets, yet the whole extent of the metropolis is well united by trunk lines of streets in the principal directions, which render it comparatively easy for a stranger to find his way from one district to another. Picadilly and Pall Mall; the Strand and its continuation Fleet Street, Oxford Street and its continuations, Holborn, Holborn Viaduct, and Cheapside eastward, and Bayswater Road, Notting Hill High Street, and Holland Park Avenue westward, are among noteworthy streets running east and west; while of those running north and south, Regent Street, perhaps the handsomest street in London, and the location of fashionable shops, is the chief. Edgware Road, with its continuations, is an important thoroughfare running northwest. Kings-way and Aldwych, connecting Holborn with the Strand, were opened in 1905.

Many of the streets are closely associated with special trades, industries, pursuits, etc. Thus Bond Street is associated with jewelers, Oxford Street and Regent Street with milliners, the Burlington Arcade with fashionable haberdashers, Fleet Street with newspapers, Northumberland Avenue and the Strand with hotels, Long Acre with carriage builders, Shaftesbury Avenue with theaters, while Pall Mall is the especial center of clubland. Booksellers’ Row and the Lowther Arcade in the Strand, famous respectively for second-hand book shops and for toy shops, have both disappeared quite recently. The Thames Embankment on the north or Middlesex side, known as the Victoria Embankment, also forms a magnificent thoroughfare, adorned by important buildings, and at different points with ornamental grounds and statues.

Bridges.—A number of magnificent bridges cross the Thames. The lowest is the Tower Bridge, a “bascule” bridge opening by machinery so as to let ships pass through. The others most remarkable in upward order (exclusive of railway bridges) are London Bridge, nine hundred feet long, and built of Aberdeen granite; Southwark Bridge, and Blackfriars’ Bridge, all connecting the city with Southwark; Waterloo Bridge, one thousand three hundred and eighty feet long, consisting of nine elliptical arches of Aberdeen granite; Westminster Bridge, an elegant structure of iron, one thousand two hundred feet long, crossing the river from Westminster to Lambeth; Vauxhall Bridge (rebuilding completed in 1906), carrying an electric railway; Putney Bridge, and Hammersmith Bridge. A great traffic passes under the river in tunnels, some for [460] electric railways. The old Thames Tunnel, two miles below London Bridge, now contains a railway. The great Blackwall Tunnel, farther down, is for general traffic.

Parks and Squares.—The chief parks are in the western portion of the metropolis, the largest being Hyde Park and Regent’s Park, which, together with St. James’s Park and the Green Parks, are royal parks. The most fashionable is Hyde Park, containing about four hundred acres. It is surrounded by a carriage-drive two and one-half miles long, has some fine old trees, large stretches of grass, and contains a handsome sheet of water sadly misnamed the Serpentine River. Kensington Gardens (three hundred and sixty acres), with which Hyde Park communicates at several points, are well wooded and finely laid out. St. James’s Park, eighty-three acres, and the Green Park, seventy-one acres in extent, adjoin Hyde Park on the southeast. Regent’s Park, in the northwest of London, north of Hyde Park, containing the gardens of the Zoological Society and those of the Royal Botanic Society, covers an area of four hundred and seventy acres. The Zoological Gardens contain the largest collection of living animals of all kinds in the world. Adjoining Regent’s Park to the north is Primrose Hill. There are, besides, Victoria Park in the northeast of London, Hampstead Heath in the northwest, the happy hunting-ground of the toilers of the city on “bank holidays.” Battersea Park in the southwest, West Ham Park in the extreme east, Greenwich Park at Greenwich, etc.

Of the squares the most central and noteworthy is Trafalgar Square, with Charing Cross adjoining. Most of the squares possess gardens, some public, such as Leicester Square, others private, as Grosvenor Square, Russell Square, Bedford Square, Tavistock Square, etc.

CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE, LONDON

Monuments.—Among the public monuments are “The Monument” on Fish Street Hill, London Bridge, a fluted Doric column two hundred and two feet high, erected in 1677 in commemoration of the great fire of London; the York Column, in Waterloo Place, one hundred and twenty-four feet high; the Guards’ Memorial (those who fell in Crimea), same place; the Nelson Column, in Trafalgar Square, one hundred and seventy-six and one-half feet high, with four colossal lions by Landseer at its base; the national memorial to Prince Albert in Hyde Park, probably one of the finest monuments in Europe, being a Gothic structure one hundred and seventy-six feet high, with a colossal statue of the prince seated under a lofty canopy; Cleopatra’s Needle on the Thames Embankment; a handsome modern “cross” at Charing Cross; and numerous statues of public men. The Queen Victoria Memorial at Buckingham Palace, on a grand scale, was designed by Sir Aston Webb, R.A.

Public Buildings.—Among the royal palaces are St. James’s, a brick building erected by Henry VIII.; Buckingham Palace, the King’s London residence, built by George IV.; Marlborough House, the residence of the Prince and Princess of Wales; Kensington Palace, a plain brick building, the birthplace of Queen Victoria. These are all in the west of London.

Lambeth Palace, the residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury, is situated on the Surrey side of the river, while Fulham Palace, the residence of the Bishop of London, is in Fulham, near Putney Bridge.

On the north bank of the Thames stand the Houses of Parliament, a magnificent structure in the Tudor Gothic style, with two lofty towers. The buildings cover about eight acres, and cost fifteen million dollars. Westminster Hall, adjacent to the Houses of Parliament, a noble old pile built by William Rufus, was formerly the place in which the Supreme Courts of Justice sat, but is now merely a promenade for members of parliament.

In and near Whitehall in the same quarter are the government offices, comprising the Foreign, Home, Colonial, and India Offices, the new War Office, Horse Guards and Admiralty.

Somerset House, which contains some of the public offices, is in the Strand. The Postoffice in the city occupies spacious and handsome buildings. New Postoffice buildings are on the former site of Christ’s Hospital, the king having laid the foundation stone in 1905.

Adjoining the city on the east is the Tower, the ancient citadel of London, which occupies an area of twelve acres on the banks of the Thames. The most ancient part is the White Tower, erected about 1078 for William the Conqueror.

Other noteworthy buildings are the new Law Courts, a Gothic building at the junction of the Strand and Fleet Street; the Bank of England; the Royal Exchange; the Mansion House, the official residence of the lord-mayor; the Guildhall, the seat of the municipal government of the city; and the four Inns of Court; and Inner and Middle Temple, Lincoln’s Inn; and Gray’s Inn.

Churches.—Among the churches the chief is St. Paul’s Cathedral, completed in 1710 by Sir Christopher Wren. It is situated in the City, occupies the summit of Ludgate Hill, and is a classic building, five hundred and ten feet in length, with a dome four hundred feet in height.

Westminster Abbey, one of the finest specimens of the pointed style in Great Britain, dates from the reign of Henry III. and Edward I. It adjoins the Houses of Parliament, is five hundred and thirty-one feet long, including Henry VII.’s chapel, and two hundred and three feet wide at the transepts. Here the kings and queens of England have been crowned, from Edward the Confessor to George V. In the south transept are the tombs and monuments of great poets from Chaucer downward, whence it is called “Poets’ Corner”; and in other parts are numerous sculptured monuments to sovereigns, statesmen, warriors, philosophers, divines, patriots, and others, many of whom are interred within its walls. Among many old churches are St. Bartholomew’s in West Smithfield; the Chapel Royal, Savoy; St. Andrew’s, Undershaft; St. [461] Giles, Cripplegate; St. Margaret’s, Westminster; St. Stephen’s, Walbrook; the Temple Church, Bow Church, St. Bride’s in Fleet Street. The Roman Catholic Cathedrals at Westminster and in Southwark should also be mentioned.

ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, LONDON

Places of Amusement.—These are naturally exceedingly numerous. Among the theaters may be mentioned: Covent Garden, the home of opera; Drury Lane, identified with melodrama and pantomime; His Majesty’s, famous for its efforts in the cause of the higher drama; the Haymarket, St. James’s, Criterion, Wyndham’s New, Duke of York’s, Garrick, Court, and others, for comedy; the Gaiety, Daly’s, Lyric, Prince of Wales’s, Savoy, and Vaudeville for musical comedy and comic opera. The “music-hall” is equally conspicuous among London’s places of amusement, variety entertainments being given at the Alhambra, Empire, Palace, Coliseum, Hippodrome, Lyceum, and a host of others. Among the more dignified concert halls may be mentioned the Royal Albert Hall (capable of holding an audience of eight thousand persons), Queen’s Hall, and Crystal Palace.

Museums.—The British Museum, the great national collection, in a very central position, is the principal one. It contains an immense collection of books, manuscripts, engravings, drawings, sculptures, coins, etc.

The South Kensington Museum is a capacious series of buildings containing valuable collections in science and the fine and decorative arts, and there is a branch museum from it in Bethnal Green, in the East End. The very extensive natural history department of the British Museum occupies a fine Romanesque building at South Kensington. The India and the Patent Museums are also at South Kensington, and here was built the Imperial Institute, partly intended as a museum of home and colonial products, but now also accommodating the University of London.

The Soane Museum contains many valuable objects of art. The chief picture-galleries are the National Gallery, in Trafalgar Square, the National Gallery of British Art (known as the Tate Gallery), the collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the National Portrait Gallery. Mention must also be made of the Wallace Collection, at Hertford House, Manchester Square, a magnificent collection of pictures, sculpture and objects of art, bequeathed to the nation by the widow of Sir Richard Wallace in 1897.

The chief libraries are the British Museum, Lambeth Palace library, the Guildhall library, Sion College library, the London library, London Institution library. Many free libraries have recently been established.

Shipping.—The port of London has been for many years the greatest in the world. The control and management of the business of the port was transferred in March, 1909, from the Thames Conservancy to the Port of London Authority. This new body controls the river from Teddington to Warden Point, fifty-one miles east of London Bridge. It also took over the India, Millwall, and Surrey Commercial docks. The total cost of the transfer was one hundred and twelve million dollars.

Its Cosmopolitan Population.—There are in London nearly 60,000 persons of Scottish birth and over 60,000 of Irish birth. Of 150,000 foreigners, 40,000 are Russians (including Jews), with 16,000 Russian Poles, 30,000 Germans, 12,000 French, 11,000 Italians, 6,000 Austrians, 6,000 Americans (U. S.), 4,500 Dutch, 45,000 Swiss, 2,500 Belgians, 1,800 Swedes, 1,000 Norwegians, and 1,000 Danes.

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CENTERS

In England and Wales.—Hull, the Tyne Ports (Newcastle, Gateshead, and Shields), and Sunderland, with London, form the great outlets of the east of England. Liverpool (with Birkenhead), ranking with London in maritime importance, and Bristol, are the great outlets and seats of commerce in the west of England, as Southhampton and Plymouth on the Channel are in the south.

The most important of all the textile industries of England is that of cotton, which has centered itself in Manchester and in its satellite cities on the coalfield of Lancashire and Cheshire (Preston, Blackburn, Oldham, Wigan, Bury, Rochdale, Bolton, Stockport, Macclesfield), drawing a dense population round these centers, with their thousands of factories, fed with raw material from abroad, and relieved of their manufactured products by Liverpool and the port of Manchester.

The woolen manufactories, next in importance, are on the opposite side of the Pennine chain, in the great towns of Leeds and Bradford, as well as in Halifax, Huddersfield, Wakefield, and Dewsbury, clustering round these. Linen manufactures center at Barnsley, farther south, also on this Yorkshire coalfield. Three outlying woolen manufacturing centers may be noted; these are Leicester, in a famous sheep-raising district, and Kidderminster, noted for its carpets, Stroud, Bradford, and other towns in the west of England, noted for the quality of their cloth. Newtown, in Montgomeryshire, is the center of the Welsh flannel trade.

Hardwares have two great points of production—the one round Sheffield, on the Yorkshire coal and iron field, the other round Birmingham and the towns on the South Stafford coal and iron field (Wolverhampton, Wednesbury, Bilston, Dudley, Walsall), called the “Black Country” because large parts of it are so completely cut up with collieries and ironworks that no cultivation exists.

In North Staffordshire, between the iron and the cotton manufacturing regions, lies the “Potteries,” a district which by supplying coal is able to maintain its staple industry. Stoke-upon-Trent is the center of the cluster of Pottery towns (Burslem, Longton, Hanley, Tunstall), all connected by lines of busy hamlets. Worcester, on the Severn, is also celebrated for its pottery.

English silk manufacturers give importance to three separate districts, those round Congleton and Macclesfield, in Cheshire; Derby; and Coventry, in Warwickshire. Nottingham town combines silk and cotton manufactures in hosiery and lace work. Stafford town supplies boots and shoes to all the manufacturing towns which lie round it.

The coal trade of North England centers in the Tyne Ports and Sunderland, which are also famous for their iron, ships and engines, and their chemical works. The South Wales iron and coal field has its heart in Merthyr Tydfil, one of the largest towns of Wales; Cardiff, with fine docks and iron shipbuilding yards, besides its large coal export trade; Swansea is the headquarters of copper and tin smelting, from ores brought thither from the most distant parts of the world; Milford Haven aspires to becoming the rival of Liverpool in the trade with America.

Among the few large towns besides London which lie outside the manufacturing and mining region of England, may be noted Norwich, in agricultural Norfolk, a seat of manufactures of the most various kind, introduced by about four thousand Flemings who fled thither in Queen Elizabeth’s reign.

In Scotland.—On the Scottish coal and iron field, Glasgow, favored by its position on the estuary of the Clyde, has risen to be at once the great commercial and manufacturing center of the country, carrying on a large trade with all parts of the world, in manufacturing cottons and machinery, and in building ships. A number of manufacturing towns (Paisley, noted for its shawls; Greenock, for its sugar-refining; Dumbarton, for its iron ships; Airdrie, in the midst of the collieries and iron works) have risen round Glasgow over the Scottish coalfield. Leith, the port of Edinburgh, is mainly engaged in the Baltic grain trade; Dundee, on the estuary of the Tay, owes much of its prosperity to its jute and hemp factories, and to its Greenland whaling and sealing trade.

In Ireland.—Owing to its poverty in coal and iron, the manufactures of Ireland have not attained an extent at all comparable with those of Britain. Its only extensive manufacturing district is that which lies round Belfast, in the northeast, where the flax, grown largely in the north of the country, is made into linen. The linen district extends to Armagh, on the west, and Coleraine, in the north.

Dublin, the capital, is noted for its poplins, stout, and whiskey; its quays afford excellent accommodation for shipping, and it takes the lead in the foreign trade of Ireland.

Cork, with its fine harbor the “Cove of Cork,” or Queenstown, in the south; Limerick, on the Shannon; Galway, the port of the west; Londonderry, in the north, are the other important centers of population in Ireland.

EDUCATIONAL, HISTORICAL AND LITERARY CENTERS

Edinburgh (ed-in-bo-ro; Edwin’s burgh), the metropolis of Scotland, grew up originally beneath the protecting walls of its castle, and is not a manufacturing town, but derives its importance mainly from the law courts, its university and schools, and its printing and publishing trade. It is situated upon two ridges of ground, divided by a deep, narrow valley, formerly a morass, now made into a public park, through which the railways pass. To the north of this park is the New Town, composed of modern and elegant buildings—the principal street, Princes Street, bordering upon and overlooking the park. The principal hotels are on the opposite of Princes Street. The railway stations are in the valley. To the south lies the ridge of the Old Town, terminating, to the west in a rocky bluff, upon which stands the Castle in the heart of the city. The Old Town is the historic part of the city, the New being quite modern. The first Scottish Parliament was convened here by Alex. II., 1215.

The principal places of interest are Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Abbey and Calton Hill. Among the objects of less interest are the house of John Knox, High Street; St. Giles Church; Allan Ramsay’s Theater, the favorite resort of Burns; the Black Turnpike, the prison of Queen Mary, near the Iron Church; and the Heart of Midlothian, the site of an old prison. Annie Laurie was married in Iron Church two hundred and fifty years ago. John Knox is buried in the paved court between the Parliament House and St. Giles; marked by the letters J. K. in the pavement.

The Castle, stands on a precipitous rock about three hundred feet above the valley, accessible only from the east side. It is an extensive mass, of which the oldest portion—and the oldest building in the city—is St. Margaret’s Chapel, the private oratory of the Saxon Princess Margaret, queen of Malcolm Canmore. Another portion is a lofty range of old buildings, in a small apartment of which Queen Mary gave birth to James VI. in 1566; while in an adjoining apartment are kept the ancient regalia of Scotland. Here, also, is the old Parliament Hall, restored in 1888-1889. The castle as a fortress contains accommodation for two thousand soldiers, and the armory space for thirty thousand stand of arms. An old piece of ordnance built of staves of malleable iron, cask fashion, and known as Mons Meg, stands conspicuous in an open area.

Holyrood Palace and Abbey was founded by King David I., who is said to have been saved from the horns of a stag, driven to bay near this spot, by a luminous cross in the sky. In the northwest angle of the building are the apartments which were occupied by Mary, Queen of Scots, nearly in the same state in which they were left by that unfortunate princess.

Calton Hill (call-ton) is at the eastern end of Princes Street and has an altitude of about three hundred and fifty feet. Upon the hill, adjacent to the stairs, is Dugald Stewart’s monument at the left; to the north is the Old Observatory, and the New Observatory with a small dome. To the south is Nelson’s monument, one [463] hundred and two feet high, surmounted by a time-ball. The unfinished colonnade is a part of a structure in honor of Waterloo, intended to be a copy of the Parthenon at Athens. The foundation was laid 1822, but, proving too costly, the project was abandoned.

The view from the summit of this hill is scarcely to be surpassed. To the north is what may be called New Edinburgh, extending toward Granton and the port of Leith. Across the Forth, is Fifeshire. Following down the Forth, is first, the islands of Inch Keith, Portobello, Bass Rock, and the Isle of May, farther at sea. Toward the south and west the Burns monument; Holyrood immediately below; Salisbury Craig and south, Arthur’s Seat, eight hundred and twenty feet high; thence to the north the Old Town, commanded by the frowning Castle.

VIEW OF EDINBURGH FROM THE CASTLE

Oxford, capital of Oxford county, and seat of one of the most celebrated universities in the world, is situated about fifty miles northwest of London, on a gentle acclivity between the Cherwell and the Thames, here called the Isis. Oxford, as a city of towers and spires, of fine collegiate buildings, old and new, of gardens, groves, and avenues of trees, is unique in England.

Of the university buildings the most remarkable are Christ’s Church, the largest and grandest of all the colleges, with a fine quadrangle and other buildings, and a noble avenue of trees. It was founded by Wolsey in 1525, and its magnificent chapel is the cathedral church of the see of Oxford. The hall is a noble room.

Merton College, founded about 1264, has a very beautiful chapel of the fifteenth century, and the library is the oldest in the kingdom.

New College, founded by William of Wykeham, in 1386, is one of the wealthiest of the colleges, and the chapel is very handsome.

The gardens of St. John’s College are much admired and the grounds of Magdalen College (perhaps the most beautiful college in Oxford) are no less attractive. The latter include “Addison’s Walk,” a shaded avenue that was his favorite resort when a student here. The Bodleian Library and Picture Gallery, the Theatre (built by Wren), the Ashmolean Museum (also by Wren), the Radcliffe Library and Observatory, the Divinity School (in the hall of which Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley were tried in 1555), St. Mary’s Church, the Taylor Institute, the University Galleries and Museum, the Botanical Gardens, and the Martyr’s Memorial are also among the noteworthy things in Oxford. The High Street is the subject of one of Wordsworth’s sonnets; and Hawthorne calls it “the noblest old street in England.” Oxford depends mostly on the university, and on its attractions as a place of residence.

Stratford-on-Avon, Shakespeare’s birthplace, is a pleasant town of Warwickshire, eight miles southwest of Warwick, twenty-two miles southeast of Birmingham, and one hundred and ten miles northeast of London. It stands on the right bank of the quiet Avon, which here is spanned by the “great and sumptuous bridge” of fourteen pointed arches, three hundred and seventy-six yards long, that was built by the Lord Mayor of London.

It is a quiet, old-fashioned place, with wide and well-kept streets, and many handsome mansions. The Town Hall was dedicated to the memory of the poet. Here is a statue of Shakespeare, presented by Garrick, on the pedestal of which are the lines from Hamlet; “Take him for all in all, we shall not look upon his like again.” Very interesting is the Shakespeare Memorial Building and Theater, in a charming situation by the Avon, the outgrowth of the feeling that the poet should have a suitable monument in his native town.

Shakespeare’s House, in Henley Street, became national property in 1847, and has been carefully restored. The room in which the poet is said to have been born seems to have undergone but little change since that day. In another room there is a small museum of Shakespearian curiosities.

Stratford Church, in which Shakespeare is buried, is on the bank of the Avon. It is a large and elegant structure, with a graceful stone spire [464] one hundred and sixty-three feet high, erected in 1764 to replace a wooden one that had been taken down. The building has been judiciously restored in recent years. There is an elegant window illustrating Shakespeare’s “Seven Ages,” the contribution of Americans.

The grave of Shakespeare is in the chancel, covered by a plain flagstone, while above, on the wall to the left, is the monumental bust which is the most trustworthy representation of the poet. His wife lies near him, with his favorite daughter, “good Mistris Hall,” and Dr. John Hall, her husband. In the chancel there is also an elegant marble monument to John Combe, the poet’s friend.

Shottery, where Anne Hathaway lived before she became the wife of Shakespeare, is about a mile from Stratford, and may be reached by a footpath through the fields. The cottage that was Anne’s home has a timber and plaster front, and a thatched roof. The interior contains the oaken seat on which Shakespeare and Anne were wont to sit; many bits of venerable furniture; and, upstairs, a vast bed, on which many a Hathaway has drawn the last breath of life.

Stratford also possesses a memorial fountain, presented by George W. Childs of Philadelphia, and Harvard House, the birthplace of the mother of John Harvard, founder of Harvard University. It is still an important agricultural center; but its chief prosperity depends on the thirty thousand or so pilgrims who visit it yearly.

Ayr, forty miles from Glasgow, Scotland, by railway, is noted especially as the birthplace of Burns, the poet; as also the place where Wm. Wallace was imprisoned. The town is divided by the river Ayr, over which are the “twa brigs” of Burns. The Burns Cottage, or birthplace, the scene of his “Cotter’s Saturday Night,” is two miles south of the town, and is now used as a public memorial. It contains few articles associated with Burns.

Alloway Kirk, mentioned in “Tam O’Shanter,” or what remains of it, is one-half mile south of the Cottage. Near the church are the Burns monument, a circular shaft sixty feet in height, erected 1820, and the Doon, immortalized in the “Banks and Braes of Bonny Doon.”

Burns died at Dumfries, where he had lived three years, and was buried in the churchyard there. Nineteen years later, upon the completion of the monument to his memory, his body was exhumed and placed within the Mausoleum at Dumfries.

Melrose, in the county of Roxburgh, thirty-one miles southeast of Edinburgh, is celebrated for the abbey founded by King David in 1136; destroyed by Edward II. in 1322; rebuilt by Bruce in 1326, and partly demolished by the English in 1545. Sir Walter Scott has given it an enduring description in his Lay of the Last Minstrel.

The material of which it is built is a very hard stone, and much of the carving is as perfect as when fresh from the sculptor’s hand. Within its walls are the graves of kings, and nobles and priests of the olden time; among them Alexander II. of Scotland, and more than one of the renowned Earls of Douglas. Before the high altar the heart of King Robert Bruce is said to have been deposited. Sir David Brewster’s grave is in the churchyard.

Dryburgh Abbey, four miles from Melrose, was founded about the same time as Melrose, and, like that, was destroyed in 1322 by Edward II. Robert I. restored it, at least in part; but it was again destroyed in 1544. St. Mary’s aisle, the most beautiful part of the ruins, contains the tomb of Scott, buried here September 26, 1832; also the graves of his wife and his eldest son, and of his son-in-law Lockhart.

ABBOTSFORD, HOME OF SIR WALTER SCOTT

Abbotsford, two miles from Melrose, was long the home of the “Great Enchanter of the North.” The author’s study is the most interesting room. There the old writing-table, the plain leathern armchair, the reference books, seem to indicate that Sir Walter has but just left them. The Library (twenty thousand volumes) contains a bust of Scott, by Chantrey, and many miniatures. The roof is of carved oak, designed from models taken from Roslin Chapel. The Drawing-room, where Sir Walter died, and the little octagonal dressing-room contain many precious relics. The Armory has a fine collection of Scotch weapons.

Windsor, is in Berkshire, England, on the Thames, twenty-one and one-quarter miles from London. It contains a town hall, built by Sir Christopher Wren in 1686, the church of St. John the Baptist, with fine examples of Grinling Gibbon’s wood-carving, and a fine Jubilee statue of Queen Victoria.

Windsor owes its chief importance to its castle, which stands east of the town on a height overlooking the River Thames, and is the principal royal residence in the kingdom. It was begun, or at least enlarged, by Henry I., and has been altered and added to by almost every sovereign since. The castle stands in the Home Park or “Little Park,” which is four miles in circumference, and this again is connected with the Great Park, which is eighteen miles in circuit, and contains an avenue of trees three miles in length.

STRATFORD-ON-AVON, IMMORTALIZED BY ITS ASSOCIATIONS WITH SHAKESPEARE

The chief features of interest in the castle are the old state apartments; St. George’s Chapel, where the Knights of the Garter are installed, and the vaults of which contain the remains of Henry VI., Edward IV., Henry VIII., Charles I., George III., George IV., and William IV.; the Round Tower or ancient keep; and the present state apartments.

Eton College is one-half mile from Windsor across the river. The stone chapel, one hundred and seventy-five feet long, is very handsome. There is also a bronze statue of Henry VI. The college was founded in 1440.

Stoke Pogis, the scene of Gray’s Elegy, and the burial-place of the poet, is near Windsor.

There is a fine monument to Gray in Stoke Park.

Cambridge, fifty-six miles from London, and on the Cam, a narrow stream that rambles all over the town. Tradition gives 630 as the date of the foundation of the University; but the oldest college, Peterhouse or St. Peter’s, can only be referred to 1257. The public buildings are the Shire Hall, Town Hall, University halls and library, and Fitzwilliam Museum.

There are seventeen colleges, inferior in architectural beauty to those of Oxford, though their associations are quite as interesting.

Trinity, was founded by Henry VIII. in 1546, and has three fine quadrangles; a splendid hall in the Tudor style; gardens; and an important library, with busts of Newton and Bacon, Thorwaldsen’s statue of Byron, Newton’s telescope and some of John Milton’s manuscripts.

Christ’s College, founded in 1442, was Milton’s college. In the gardens is Milton’s Mulberry-Tree. The quadrangle was rebuilt by Inigo Jones.

Jesus College (1496) and Chapel are very fine buildings, on the site of a Benedictine nunnery.

Caius (pronounced Kees) was founded in 1384, and enlarged in 1557 by Dr. Caius, physician to Queen Mary. Rebuilt lately, it is now one of the best.

Corpus Christi (1351) contains curious portraits, especially those of Sir Thomas More, Wolsey, Erasmus, and Foxe, the author of the Book of Martyrs.

Kings College (1441), founded by Henry VI., is the finest building in the University. The chapel is the finest specimen of perpendicular Gothic existing. The roof, unsupported by pillars, contains twelve divisions of exquisite lace-work tracery in stone. The twenty-four stained-glass windows, each fifty feet high, are beautiful.

The Fitzwilliam Museum, and some of the churches, especially the round chapel of St. Sepulchre, are of considerable interest. All Saints contains a monument, by Chantrey, to Henry Kirke White. Girton College, for women, founded in 1869, is about two miles northwest of the town. The walk along the Cam behind the colleges, with the view of the “Backs” and bridges, is the pride of Cambridge.

ENGLISH HISTORY

The island of Great Britain in the remotest times bore the name of Albion. From a very early period it was visited by Phœnicians, Carthaginians, and Greeks, for the purpose of obtaining tin.

Roman Period.—Cæsar’s two expeditions, 55 and 54 B. C., made it known to the Romans, by whom it was generally called Britannia; but it was not till the time of Claudius, nearly a hundred years after, that the Romans made a serious attempt to convert Britain into a Roman province. Some forty years later, under Agricola, the ablest of the Roman generals in Britain, they had extended the limits of the Provincia Romana as far as the line of the Forth and the Clyde.

Here the Roman armies came into contact with the Caledonians of the interior, described by Tacitus as large-limbed, red-haired men. After defeating the Caledonians, Agricola marched victoriously northward as far as the Moray Firth, establishing stations and camps, remains of which are still to be seen. But the Romans were unable to retain their conquests in the northern part of the island, and were finally forced to abandon their northern wall and forts between the Clyde and the Forth and retire behind their second wall, built in 120 A. D. by Hadrian, between the Solway and the Tyne. Thus the southern part of the island alone remained Roman, and became specially known as Britannia, while the northern portion was distinctly called Caledonia.

The capital of Roman Britain was York (Eboracum). Under the rule of the Romans many flourishing towns arose. Great roads were made, traversing the whole country and helping very much to develop its industries. Christianity was also introduced, and took the place of the Druidism of the native British. Under the tuition of the Romans the useful arts and even many of the refinements of life found their way into the southern part of the island.

Creation of England and Scotland.—From the time of the Roman conquest, and still more decidedly after the Saxon invasions in the fifth century, the history of Britain branches off into a history of the southern part of the island, afterwards known as England, and a history of the northern part of the island, afterwards named Scotland. It was not till the union of the crowns in 1603 that the destinies of England and Scotland began again to unite; and it was not till the final union of the parliaments in 1707 that the histories of the two countries may be said to merge into one.

The Anglo-Saxon Period.—In 411 Honorius abandoned Britain, whose inhabitants, finding it impossible to defend themselves against the Picts, called to their aid the Saxons, who, in 449, assisted them so effectually that they took possession of the country and founded the four kingdoms of Essex, Wessex, Sussex, and Kent. The Angles, who followed them, established three other kingdoms, viz., East Anglia, Deira, and Mercia, 540-584. All these kingdoms ended by being reduced to one, under Egbert, the Saxon king of Wessex, in 827.

After 835 the Danes ravaged England from time to time, but in 871 Alfred the Great forced them to desist, and from thence till near the end of his reign in 900, the Danes left the island in peace. Returning in 981, the Danes succeeded, in 1013, in putting their king, Sweyn, on the throne, which was not recovered by the Saxon dynasty till 1041.

Norman Conquest.—When William of Normandy landed in England to claim the crown which Edward the Confessor had bequeathed [467] to him, he found that the people had raised to the throne Harold, the son of a popular nobleman. The resources of the Saxons, however, had been wasted in domestic conflicts before the attack of William; and the battle of Hastings, in 1066 A. D., gave England with comparative ease to the Normans. The next twenty years saw the conquest completed, and nearly all the large landed estates of the Saxons pass, on every pretext except the true one, into the hands of the Normans. In the course of time the Normans were absorbed among the Saxons, their very language disappearing, though leaving many traces. From this union arose the English people and the English language as they now exist. The union of the Normans with the Saxons was not fully effected so long as the Normans retained their foreign possessions. In King John’s reign the whole of these were lost excepting Guienne and Poitou.

In the reign of Stephen occurred the civil war between the Empress Maud, daughter of Henry I., and Stephen; she finally retired to France, and concluded a peace with her adversary. The great struggles of the successors of William were with the ecclesiastics and with the barons. Sometimes in these the popular sympathies were with, and sometimes against, the crown. The Conqueror himself and his immediate successors had no difficulty in maintaining the superiority of the courts of justice over the ecclesiastics; but even a sovereign so bold and skillful as Henry II. was forced, after the outcry occasioned by the murder of Thomas à Becket (1170 A. D.) to yield the point. The right to nominate the higher ecclesiastics was also secured by the popes.

The Plantagenets.—Under the Plantagenets an era of progress, generally, opened for England. The reign of Henry II. gave to the country the constitution of Clarendon; Ireland was conquered, 1172; England was divided into six circuits for the better administration of justice, and a digest of the laws was made by Glanville about 1181. Richard I. did little for the internal good of the land, his chief exploits occurring on the field of battle in foreign lands.

Magna Charta.—Under John two important events occurred: Magna Charta was obtained, and the French possessions were nearly all lost—both unmitigated blessings; but otherwise John’s influence was cast against progress and reform. The degradation of the English monarchy was at its lowest when he consented (1213 A. D.) to hold the crown as a gift from Rome. From Henry II. something similar to the Great Charter had already been gained; but it was the Magna Charta of John which firmly established two great English principles—that no man should suffer arbitrary imprisonment, and that no tax should be imposed without the consent of the council of the nation.

During the reign of Henry III., England obtained her first regular parliament, and gold money was first coined in 1257. Edward I. was crowned 1272, and almost the first event of his reign was the conquest of Wales; Scotland also was subdued, but revolted again in 1297.

The reign of Edward II. was disastrous to himself and to England. The barons rose against his favorites, and Edward was murdered by the connivance of his wife. A new and vigorous era began with the reign of Edward III. The Scots were defeated at Halidon Hill; important victories were gained in France; the Order of the Garter was instituted, and, most important of all, law pleadings were ordered to be in English, instead of in the Norman-French tongue which had hitherto prevailed. Richard II. was crowned in 1377, and with his death in 1385, ended the line of the Plantagenets.

House of Lancaster.—Henry IV. was the first sovereign under this ill-fated house. His reign was disturbed by an insurrection of the Welsh under the Percies, but was otherwise peaceful. Henry V. invaded France and won the famous battle of Agincourt, and gained the French crown, 1420; but during the reign of his successor, Henry VI., all the French possessions were lost save Calais. He was deposed by Warwick the kingmaker, and the first representative of the House of York, Edward IV., was placed on the throne. The Wars of the Roses ensued, which continued through the two succeeding reigns of Edward V. and Richard III, ending with the death of Richard on Bosworth field, the coronation of Henry VII., 1485, and his marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV.

The Tudors.—The union of the houses of York and Lancaster under Henry VII. begins a new period in English history. Under him England entered on her career of maritime discovery. He died, 1599, and was succeeded by his second son, Henry VIII. Henry VIII. succeeded under the most favorable auspices. He found the alliance of his now important country courted by both of his contemporaries, Francis I., of France, and Charles V., of Germany. But the interest of the foreign complications of the reign merges in the courts of England and of Rome. Henry was frequently engaged in hostilities with foreign countries, and the great victory of Flodden was won by one of his generals over James IV. of Scotland, husband of his sister Margaret. He threw off his allegiance to the pope, and became head of the church in England. He was six times married, and two of his wives were beheaded and two were repudiated. In his reign the scaffold was occupied by victims from every class of society. He died January 28, 1547, and was succeeded by his only son, Edward VI., whose mother was Jane Seymour, Henry’s third wife.

Edward was in his tenth year, and the government was vested in a regency. In this reign the church of England was established, and the nation placed on the Protestant side in the struggle then going on in Europe. When Edward VI. died, July 6, 1553, Lady Jane Grey, to whom Edward had bequeathed the crown, was queen for ten days, when her party was dispersed, and Mary, eldest daughter of Henry VIII., ascended the throne.

The marriage of Mary with Philip II. of Spain led to war between England and France, [468] and an English army joined the Spanish force that invaded France. Mary was a devout Catholic, and caused Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, and about three hundred other Protestants to be burned. Her death, November 17, 1558, left the throne to Elizabeth, who sided with the Protestants.

Elizabethan Period.—The reign of Elizabeth, which lasted nearly forty-five years, is one of the most brilliant in English history. She triumphed over her enemies, and raised her kingdom to the first place in Europe. She ruled over Scotland in fact, and put the queen of that country, the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots, to death, after having held her in captivity nearly nineteen years. The Huguenots of France and Henry IV. received aid from her, and but for the assistance which she gave the Dutch they would have sunk under the power of Spain. She invited the Turks to join her in attacking the pope and Phillip II.; and over both those potentates she achieved a great triumph in 1588, when the Spanish armada was destroyed. The enterprise of Englishmen led them to circumnavigate the globe, to attempt colonization, to extend commerce, and to inaugurate trade relations with India. Elizabeth died March 24, 1603, and with her terminated the Tudor dynasty, after an existence of nearly one hundred and eighteen years.

House of Stuart.—Elizabeth was succeeded by James VI. of Scotland, the son of her victim, Mary Stuart, and first king of England of the Stuart line, who inherited the English crown in virtue of his descent from Margaret Tudor, eldest daughter of Henry VII., who had married his great-grandfather, James IV. The new king, under the title James I., was hailed with much satisfaction by the English; but he was a pedant and a tyrant, and soon lost his popularity. His first parliament, 1604, in reply to his assertion that all their privileges were derived from him, asserted all those principles for which the English constitutionalists contended as facts not to be questioned.

Then began that civil contest which lasted down to 1689 in full force, and which was not utterly at an end till 1746. The foreign policy of James was as vicious as his home policy, and England sank in the estimation of Europe. He died in 1625, and was succeeded by his son Charles I.

For eleven years (1629-1640) this ruler called no parliament, and England was ruled as despotically as France. His chief instruments were Wentworth, afterward earl of Strafford, and Laud, archbishop of Canterbury. Laud sought to fasten the English church policy on Scotland. War between the Scotch people and the English government followed, and Charles was compelled to call a parliament April, 1640, which was dissolved in a few days, and became known as the “short parliament.” Six months later assembled the famous “long parliament,” which proceeded to divest the king of much of his power.

Period of the Commonwealth.—The contest between the king and parliament under the lead of Vane, Cromwell and others, led to the great English Civil war, which began in the latter part of 1642. Cromwell was everywhere victorious in the field. The army became the source of all power. The king was tried, condemned and executed. Ireland was conquered by Cromwell, who was almost equally successful in Scotland. The battle of Worcester, September 3, 1651, crushed the royalists for nearly nine years. In 1653 Cromwell dissolved the parliament by force, and was master of England for five years, as Lord Protector. After his death, in 1658, the military and civil republicans quarreled.

Restoration of the House of Stuart.—Richard, the son and successor of the great Protector, resigned, and the restoration of the Stuarts was effected in the person of Charles II., 1660, whose reign in law dates from the time of his father’s execution, January 30, 1649. The king’s popularity soon declined, mainly on account of his foreign policy. An unnecessary war with the Dutch produced much disgrace. The triple alliance with Sweden and Holland for a brief interval stayed the course of Louis XIV., but the king’s forces assisted in the war on Holland made by Louis, and afterward assistance was sent to the Dutch.

The peace of 1678 was followed by the excitement caused by the alleged popish plot. Parliament after parliament was elected, met, set itself in decided opposition to the government, and was dissolved. The leading object of the opposition was the exclusion of the duke of York, Charles’ brother, from the line of succession. Charles II. died in February, 1685, and his brother James II., an avowed Roman Catholic, came to the throne.

James II. was bent on the establishment of a despotism, by the destruction of the constitution in church and state. He punished Monmouth’s rebellion with excessive vindictiveness. The king prorogued parliament in November, 1685, and that body never met again. For three years he governed despotically, and a perpetual contest was waged between him and his people.

In June, 1688, it was announced that the king’s second wife had given birth to a prince, who was afterwards known as the pretender. It was generally believed that a supposititious child had been placed in the position of heir apparent.

In November, William, prince of Orange, who was the king’s nephew and had married his eldest daughter Mary, heir apparent to the British crown, landed in England at the head of an army. James fled, and William and Mary were proclaimed sovereigns.

War was declared against France in 1689, and was ended in 1697. Ireland was subdued. Mary died in 1694, and left William III. sole monarch till his death in March, 1702, when the succession passed to Anne, second daughter of James II.

In May war was declared against France, and after splendid victories achieved by Marlborough, it was ended by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The union of England and Scotland was effected in 1707. Anne died August 1, 1714, and the crown passed to the house of Hanover in the person of George I.

House of Hanover under the Four Georges.—The rebellion of 1715 in behalf of the Stuarts proved a failure. The bursting of the “South sea bubble” in 1720 placed Robert Walpole in control of the government, which he retained under George II. (who ascended the throne in 1727) till 1742. His fall was occasioned by a war with Spain, to which one with France was soon added, growing out of the question of the Austrian succession. In 1746 the contest between the reigning dynasty and the remains of the Stuart party was brought to an end at Culloden where the duke of Cumberland defeated Charles Edward. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 restored peace to Europe for a few years.

The Whigs continued to rule, headed by Henry Pelham, and after his death in 1754 by his brother, the duke of Newcastle. The renewal of the war with France in 1755 was followed by the formation in 1757 of the celebrated Pitt-Newcastle ministry, which carried on the contest with great vigor; so that when George II. died, October 25, 1760, his fleets and armies were everywhere triumphant. The foundation of the East Indian empire of England was laid at Plassey June 23, 1757. French America was conquered at Quebec, September 13, 1759.

The new king, George III. (the first English-born king of his house), grandson of George II., was by nature and education as despotic as the worst of the Stuarts. The attempt to tax the American colonies led to the American revolution. The English in the last years of the war had to fight the Americans, the French, the Spaniards, and the Dutch. The peace of 1783 left England in a low condition.

When France became convulsed by the revolution, England engaged in the war against her that soon followed, which lasted, with two brief intervals, till 1815, ending in the complete triumph of England and her allies. The legislative union between Ireland and Great Britain went into effect January 1, 1801. The exertions made by England, beginning with the administration of Pitt, were vast. Her fleets, chiefly under Nelson, achieved splendid victories over the French and Spaniards, and in the last years of the war her armies were greatly distinguished under the lead of Wellington, who, at Waterloo, inflicted the final defeat on Napoleon in 1815.

In 1810 George III. lost his reason finally, and his eldest son was prince regent till 1820 when he became king as George IV.

In 1812 England became involved in a war with the United States, growing out of the impressment and right of search questions. The contest was virtually terminated by the treaty of Ghent, December 24, 1814. In 1829 the Catholic emancipation act was passed, under a ministry headed by Wellington and Peel. George IV. died in 1830, and was succeeded by his brother, the duke of Clarence, as William IV.

In March, 1831, a bill for parliamentary reform was introduced into the house of commons by Lord John Russell, and after long debates in parliament and intense excitement in the country, caused by the opposition of the house of lords, a bill making extensive changes in the constitution of the house of commons finally passed in June, 1832, under the ministry of Earl Grey.

The first reformed parliament, which met January 29, 1833, contained an overwhelming majority of reformers. Lord Grey retired from office in 1834, and was succeeded by Lord Melbourne. Toward the close of the same year the government was committed to Sir Robert Peel, who formed a conservative ministry. Peel continued in office until April 8, 1835, when he retired, having been repeatedly beaten on Irish church questions. Lord Melbourne returned to office, with many of his old colleagues. The king died on June 20, 1837, and was succeeded by his niece Victoria, the only child of Edward, duke of Kent, fourth son of George III.

The Victorian Period.—The accession of Victoria led to the separation of the crowns of England and Hanover, which had been worn by the same persons since 1714. In 1841 Melbourne resigned, and the conservatives under Peel came into power. In 1846 the Peel ministry brought forward an act to protect life in Ireland, but it was defeated in the commons on the same day that the Corn Laws were repealed, and the ministry came to an end, being succeeded by one at the head of which was Lord John Russell. The Russell ministry went out of office in 1852, and for several months the tories, led by Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli, were at the head of affairs. This ministry was followed by one composed of the coalesced Whigs and Peelites, headed by Lord Aberdeen.

Crimean War.—In 1853 the troubles on the Turkish question began, and war was declared against Russia by France and England in March, 1854. Large fleets and armies were sent to the East, and fleets to the Baltic. The Crimea was invaded, the victory of the Alma won by the allies, and Sebastopol partially invested. On September 8 Sebastopol was reduced, the French storming the Malakhoff, and peace was restored by a congress of the powers at Paris in March, 1856.

Indian Mutiny and Final Absorption of the Indian Empire.—Early in 1857 a formidable revolt broke out in England’s great Bengal army of sepoys. Delhi fell into the hands of the rebels, and the nominal Mogul emperor found himself once more a sovereign in reality. The mutiny spread rapidly, and in a short time the whole Bengal army had become hostile to the English. The military reputation of England was greatly raised by the successes of her armies in India, achieved under the lead of Sir Henry Havelock, Sir Colin Campbell, and others. In eight months after the breaking out of the mutiny there were nearly seventy thousand effective English troops there, and new native corps had replaced the sepoys. By the end of 1858 the revolt was totally suppressed. The rebellion resulted in the transfer of the immediate government of India from the East India company to the crown, the old directory sitting for the last time September 1, 1858.

In February, 1858, the Palmerston ministry was driven from office, and a new conservative ministry was formed, with the earl of Derby as premier, and Mr. Disraeli as Chancellor of the Exchequer. This ministry soon resigned and Lord Palmerston resumed office in June, 1859. On May 13, 1861, Great Britain recognized the belligerency of the Confederacy during the American Civil war and the blockade of their ports, and proclaimed neutrality.

In 1868 Disraeli became Prime Minister in succession to Lord Derby, but was defeated in the general election of that year and resigned before the end of the year.

Disraeli was succeeded by Gladstone, who, during the five years of his ministry passed more measures than almost any previous one. Education became compulsory. Trade unions were legalized, the Ballot Act was passed. The Irish Church Act and a Land Act for Ireland were passed, and the state of Ireland at the time also necessitated Coercion Acts.

In 1874 Gladstone resigned, and the Conservatives were returned to power, having for the first time since 1841 a real majority in the House of Commons. The ministry formed by Disraeli was a brilliant one, and the Opposition was for a time weakened by the withdrawal into private life of Gladstone. The great question of Home Rule was gradually forcing itself to the front, and the Irish tactics in the House became obstructive. It was at this time that Disraeli put forward his imperial policy, and the ministry is chiefly noticeable for its attitude on foreign and imperial affairs.

From 1879 to the present time Irish agitation has been for Great Britain a source of serious disquiet. In 1882 Mr. Gladstone adopted a policy of conciliation, but the murder of Lord Frederick Cavendish and of Mr. Burke caused its abandonment and the immediate passing of a coercion law which virtually placed Ireland under martial law. In 1882 the Egyptian army, under the leadership of Arabi Bey, having revolted from the khedive’s authority, Great Britain sent a large naval expedition to Egypt, bombarded Alexandria, and defeated the rebellious forces. Since that date the Egyptian government has been under British suzerainty, and in 1896, a British expedition was sent up the Nile with the purpose of regaining the provinces of Egypt held by the mahdist forces.

Within the past quarter of a century Great Britain has largely extended its territory in Africa, bringing great areas in the south and east of the continent under its protection. During the same interval several subjects of dispute have arisen with the United States, which have all been peacefully settled. An imposing festival took place in London in June, 1897, on the occasion of the sixtieth anniversary of Queen Victoria’s accession, in which all sections of the empire took part.

Boer War.—October 11, 1899, war was declared by the Boers of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, the aim being the destruction of the British paramountcy in South Africa. This led to the annexation of those states by the British, after a fierce contest, in 1900. In 1900, a new parliament was elected, which again supported the Conservative ministry, with a slightly increased majority.

House of Saxe-Coburg.—Victoria died January 22, 1901, and was succeeded by her eldest son, Edward VII., who proved himself to be an active promoter of peaceful relations with other countries.

The Boer war was concluded in the middle of 1902 by the treaty of Vereeniging, and almost immediately afterward Lord Salisbury retired from office, being succeeded in the premiership by his nephew, Mr. A. J. Balfour. The education act of 1902 did away with school boards where they existed, bringing the voluntary and former board schools alike under education committees in England and Wales, and the same change was made in London in 1903. The Irish land act of 1903 was a measure of the first importance, its object, being to transfer practically all the agricultural land of Ireland to farmers or peasant proprietors. In the autumn of 1903 Mr. Chamberlain resigned office in order to be free to advocate a change in the country’s fiscal policy, intended to unite the colonies more closely with the mother country—a change which many have regarded as meaning a return to protection.

In 1905 the Liberal party returned to power under the leadership of Sir Henry Campbell Bannerman, who was succeeded after his death in 1908 by H. H. Asquith.

On May 5, 1910, the illness of King Edward was announced, followed by that of his death the next day. His son, George V., succeeded to the throne May 6, 1910.

A lengthy battle had begun to be waged against the hereditary prerogatives of the House of Lords, to which the death of the king caused a temporary cessation, but, in August, 1911, the Upper House was finally shorn of its permanent veto. In September, 1910, the fisheries dispute with the United States, which had remained unsettled for more than a hundred years, was decided at the Hague.

Early in 1913 the Irish home rule question became the dominant issue and a bill favoring it was passed by the House of Commons by a large majority, only to be overwhelmingly rejected in the House of Lords. In February, 1914, King George urged mutual concessions in the controversy, and in the same year the Home Rule bill became a law without the approval of the Lords, but practically non-operative. Today (1917) home rule for Ireland is still the great unsolved problem of British domestic policy.

The year 1914 also marked the entrance of Great Britain into the great European war that has since engulfed practically the whole of Europe and one-third of the civilized world. England’s history since has been almost wholly bound up with the diplomatic, economic, and military aspects of that titanic struggle, the real facts of which it will require more than a generation of dispassionate minds to verify, sift and assess at their true values. An attempt is made to give the leading features of this war, and the parts played in it by the various nations involved, under a [separate heading].

IMPORTANT FACTS CONCERNING THE BRITISH EMPIRE

This title is usually given to the total territory governed or administered in the name of the British government centralized in London. It includes the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the self-governing Dominions, Dependencies, Crown colonies and Protectorates whose inhabitants look to the king as their ultimate head. Of the whole area of the lands of the globe, the British Empire occupies nearly one-quarter, extending to every continent.

THE UNITED KINGDOM
CountriesArea in Square MilesPopulation, 1911How and When Acquired by EnglandCharacter of Government
EUROPE:
England50,83934,043,076... -Constitutional Monarchy.
Constitute the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
Wales7,4702,032,183 Conquest, 1282
Scotland29,7854,759,445 Union, 1603
Ireland32,5834,381,951 Conquest, 1172
Islands302148,934...
DEPENDENCIES AND COLONIES
EUROPE:
Gibraltar223,553 Conquest, 1704 Military Governor.
Malta, etc.122215,879 Treaty cession, 1814 Governor; Councils.
ASIA:
India (including Burma)1,800,258314,955,000- Conquest, begun 1757
Transfer from East India Co., 1858		 -Viceroy; Council; Departments. Native rulers under Political Supervision.
Ceylon25,3654,038,456 Treaty cession, 1801 -Governor; Executive and Legislative Councils.
Cyprus3,584261,587 Convention with Turkey, 1878
Aden and Socotra3,07053,222 (Aden) Conquest, 1839
Straits Settlements1,500620,127 Treaty cession, 1785-1824
Hongkong30.5428,888 Treaty cession, 1841
Labuan318,411 Treaty cession, 1846
British North Borneo31,000204,000 Cession to company, 1877 - Governor (British North Borneo Company).
AFRICA:
Union of South Africa (including Cape of Good Hope, Natal, The Transvaal, and Orange River Colony) -473,1845,938,499- Treaty, conquest, and cession, 1588-1900 - The Union of South Africa—Governor-General; Executive Council; Senate; House of Assembly.
St. Helena473,553 Conquest, 1673 - Governor and Executive Council.
Ascension38266 Annexation, 1815 Under the Admiralty.
Mauritius, etc.1,063373,336- Conquest and cession, 1810, 1814 - Governor; Executive and Legislative Councils.
British East Africa (including the Protectorate of Nyasaland, East Africa, Uganda, Zanzibar and Somaliland) -420,4668,728,276- Conquest and cession, 1870-1890 - Governor, Executive and Legislative Councils.
British West Africa (including Gambia, Gold Coast Colony, Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria, andSierra Leone) -495,49017,442,772- Conquest, annexation, cession, 1673-1872 - Governor; Executive and Legislative Councils.
AMERICA:
Dominion of Canada3,745,574...- Conquest and settlement, 1670-1858 -Governor General; Parliament.
Ontario260,8622,519,902 Conquest, 1759-1760
Quebec347,3502,000,697 Conquest, 1759-1760
New Brunswick27,985351,815 Treaty cession, 1763
Nova Scotia21,428461,847 Conquest, 1627
Manitoba73,732454,691 Settlement, 1813
British Columbia312,363362,768 Transfer to crown, 1858
Alberta253,540372,919 Settlement
Saskatchewan (including Mackenzie, Ungava, and Franklin) -250,650453,508 Settlement
Northwest Territories1,418,00019,330 Charter, 1670
Yukon Territory196,9767,000 Charter, 1670
Prince Edward Island2,18493,722 Conquest, 1745
Newfoundland (and Labrador) - 42,734 -230,000 Treaty cession, 1713 Governor; Parliament.
120,000
British Guiana104,000305,090- Conquest and cession, 1803-1814 -Governor; Executive and Legislative Councils.
British Honduras8,59844,000 Conquest, 1798
Jamaica4,207831,123 Conquest, 1655
Trinidad and Tobago1,868358,641...
Barbadoes166196,287 Settlement, 1605
Bahamas5,79455,872 Settlement, 1629
Bermuda1919,289 Settlement, 1612
Other Islands8,742255,000...
AUSTRALASIA:
Commonwealth of Australia (including Australia, Tasmania, and Papua) -3,091,4965,140,393 Settlement - Separate State Legislatures and Governments (Governors); Federal Parliament and Government; Governor-General andExecutive Council.
Dominion of New Zealand104,471982,926 Purchase, 1845 - Governor and Houses of Parliament.
Fiji7,435128,404 Cession from the natives, 1874 - Governor and Legislative Council.

TABLE OF THE SOVEREIGNS OF ENGLAND
Names and Lineage of SovereignsBegan to ReignYears of AgeL’gth of ReignDeathCharacterPrincipal StatesmenChief WarriorsEvents of Reign
ANGLO-SAXON KINGS
EGBERT (775?-837)—Son of Alcmund, descended from Inigisil, brother to Ina, king of West Saxons.801...37Natural causes.Possessed all the qualities required in a warrior....The king.—Ethelwolf.—Kenneth.The kingdoms of the Heptarchy united, and take the name of England.
ETHELWOLF (—— -358)—Son of Egbert.838...20Natural causes.Pious, wise, valiant and clement. A lover of peace, and zealous for religion.Athelstan.Wolfhere.—Ethelhelm.—Ceorle.Tithes instituted; London plundered by the Danes; England becomes tributary to the Holy See.
ETHELBALD—Son of Ethelwolf.858...2Natural causes.Neither pious nor valiant.Swithun, Bishop of Winchester.Osric.Scots defeated by the Britons.
ETHELBERT—Son of Ethelwolf.860...6Natural causes.Sweet-tempered, wise, pious and valiant....The king.Winchester burnt by the Danes.
ETHELRED I. (871).—Brother to Ethelbert.866...6Killed in the battle of Wittingham.Pious, valiant, prudent, and just....Young Alfred.Battles of Aston and Basing—York taken.
ALFRED The Great (849-901).—Brother to Ethelred, and son of Ethelwolf.8722228By a contraction of the nerves.A great sovereign, warrior, legislator, politician and scholar....The king.—Oddune, earl of Devonshire.University of Oxford founded. Juries instituted. England divided into shires, tithings and hundreds.
EDWARD the Elder (870?-924).—Second son of Alfred the Great.9001725Natural causes.Equal to his father—his love for learning and lenity excepted....The king.Northumberland and East Anglia united to the crown. University of Cambridge founded. Battles of Temsford andMalden.
ATHELSTAN (895?-941).—Natural son of Edward the Elder.9252016Natural causes.Possessed uncommon virtues; wise, valiant, and just.Turketul, Chancellor.Guy of Warwick.Constantine III. of Scotland and six Irish and Welsh kings killed at battle of Brunanburh.
EDMUND the Pious (923-946).—Eldest legitimate son of Edward the Elder.941257Assassinated by Leolf, while feasting at Puckle-kirk.Pious, valiant and just, and much respected by his people....The king.Cumberland and Westmoreland given up to Malcolm, king of Scotland.
EDRED (—— -955?).—Second legitimate son of Edward the Elder.948297Natural causes.Pious and valiant, but too obsequious to his council.Aldheim, Archbishop of Canterbury.The king.Northumbrian Danes reduced.
EDWY (939?-959).—Eldest son of Edmund the Pious.955174Died of grief on brother being set up in his stead.Hated the monks, and persecuted them, which caused a rebellion.Odo, Archbishop of Canterbury.Prince Edgar.Rebellion of the Mercians.
EDGAR (943?-975).—Brother to Edwy.9591316Natural causes.Pacific, active, wise, and industrious.Ethelwold....King of Wales, Ireland and the Isle of Man, recognize Edgar for their sovereign.
EDWARD the Martyr (961?-978).—Eldest son of Edgar.975153Assassinated by order of his step-mother Elfrida.Amiable and sweet-tempered.Dustan.......
ETHELRED II. (Sweyn) (—— -1016).—Brother to Edward the Martyr, and son of thebeautiful Elfrida.9791237Natural causes.Cowardly, indolent, and avaricious.Siricius, Archbishop of Canterbury.Prince Edmund. Alfric.Arabic figures introduced. Sweyn, king of Denmark, conquers England.
EDMUND, Ironside (989-1017).—Eldest son of Ethelred II.1016261Assassinated by order of Edric.Valiant and prudent.Edric, Earl of Wilts....Massacre of the Danes. England divided between Edward and Canute I.
DANISH KINGS
CANUTE I. (995-1035).—Son of Sweyn, King of Denmark.1017...19Natural causes.A great king; humble, just, and truly religious.Thurkell, Duke of East Anglia.—Urick, Duke of Northumberland.Godwin, Earl of Kent.Parents prohibited selling their children. End of the Danish war of two hundred years.
HAROLD I. (1040- ——)—Second son of Canute I., by Queen Alfwen.1036303Occasioned by intemperance.Impious, unjust, dissolute and mean.Earl Godwin.Godwin, Earl of Kent.Paper first used in England.
CANUTE II. (1019-1042).—Third son of Canute I., by Emma of Normandy.1039292By excessive eating.To the vices of Harold I., he added that of cruelty.Earl Godwin.Leofric, Duke of Mercia....
SAXON KINGS
EDWARD the Confessor (1004-1066).—Son of Edmund Ironside.10414024Natural causes.Honored as a great saint; of a mild and peaceful temper; was charitable, but had no great genius.Robert, Archbishop of Canterbury—Harold.Siward, Duke of Northumberland.Common law of England established. Westminster Abbey founded.
HAROLD II. (1022-1066).—Son of Earl Godwin, by the eldest daughter of Canute I.1065...1Killed in the battle of Hastings.A valiant warrior.Morcar, Earl of Northumberland.Gurth and Leofwin, the king’s brothers.Battle of Hastings, Norman conquest.
NORMAN KINGS
WILLIAM the Conqueror (1027-1087).—Son of Robert, Duke of Normandy, by hismistress Harlotte.10664021Death occasioned by heat at the burning of Mantes.Possessed great bodily strength, a great soul and an elevated mind, and a prodigious genius; and governed theEnglish with a heavy hand.Odo, Bishop of Bayeaux. Fitzosborne, Earl of Hereford.Malcolm, King of Scotland.Tower of London built. Doomsday book. Bishoprics created.
WILLIAM Rufus (1056-1100).—Second son of William the Conqueror.10873113Accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrrell, in New Forest.Courageous and vicious to a high degree.Herbert—Lozinga.Earl of Northumberland—Duke of Normandy.First Holy War. Westminster Hall built. Reduction of the Welsh.
HENRY I. (1068-1135).—Brother of William Rufus.11003235Death occasioned by eating too many lampreys.Handsome, brave, sober, cruel, avaricious, and unclean.Archbishop Anselm. Bishop of Salisbury.Earl of Flanders.Normandy conquered. First Parliament.
STEPHEN (1105-1154).—Son of Stephen, Earl of Blois, and Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror.11353119Natural causes.In person majestic; his air placid and insinuating. Possessed great courage, an elevated genius, and soundjudgment.William of Ypres.Earl of Gloucester.Canon law introduced.
PLANTAGENETS
HENRY II. (1133-1189).—Eldest son of Geoffrey, Earl of Anjou, and of the Empress Maud. Heir toHenry I.11542135Natural, before the High Altar at Chinon.Brave, generous, magnificent, clement, just, prudent, ambitious, lustful, and violent in anger.Thomas à Becket, Lord Chancellor.Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke.King takes possession of Ireland. Judicial circuits established.
RICHARD I. (1157-1199).—Second son of Henry II.11893310Killed by a cross-bowman, at the siege of Chalus.Brave to a high degree; but possessed no other virtue.Bishop of Durham—Longchamp, Bishop of Ely.The king, surnamed Cœur de Lion.London divided into companies. King joins the Crusade.
King JOHN (1166-1216).—Brother to Richard I.11993317Died of grief for having lost his rich baggage.Witty, hot-headed and hasty. After his first transports, soft, indolent, fearful and wavering.Archbishop of Hubert, Chancellor.Prince Arthur.Phillip II. of France takes possession of Normandy. War with the barons. Magna Charta signed.
HENRY III. (1207-1272).—King John’s eldest son.1216956Natural causes.Inconstant, capricious and prodigal of his money; continent and averse to cruelty.William, Earl of Pembroke, Hugh de Burgh, Bishop of Winchester.Simon, Earl of Leicester. Prince Edward.Intestine wars. Westminster Abbey rebuilt.
EDWARD I. (1239-1307).—Eldest son of Henry III.12723335Natural causes.A good king and father, a formidable enemy, and a great captain; chaste, just, prudent and moderate.Giffard Archbishop of York.Llewellyn, Prince of Wales.Wales united to England. Mariner’s compass invented.
EDWARD II. (1284-1327).—Eldest son of Edward I.13072320Murdered by Gourney and Maltravers at Berkley Castle.Handsome shaped, but had neither the capacity of warrior, statesman, or man of genius.Pierce Gaveston—Hugh de Spencer.Guy, Earl of Warwick.King abdicates the throne. Courts of Nisi Prius established.
EDWARD III. (1312-1377).—Son of Edward II.13271450Died of the St. Anthony’s fire at Sheen.An excellent prince; gentle, beneficent, and valiant.Mortimer, Earl of March.Edward, the Black Prince—Sir Richard Knowles.Battles of Cressy and Poictiers. Order of the Garter instituted.
RICHARD II. (1366-1400).—Son of Edward the Black Prince, and grandson of Edward III.13771122Murdered by Exton, at Pontefract Castle, by order of Henry IV.Handsomest monarch in the world. Kind, magnificent, soft, timid, of little genius, and a slave to hisfavorites.Richard de Vere, Duke of Ireland. A. Neville, Archbishop of York.H. Percy, surnamed Hotspur—John of Gaunt.Wat Tyler’s insurrection. King deposed.
HOUSE OF LANCASTER
HENRY IV. (1366?-1413).—Son of John of Gaunt, and grandson of Edward III.13993214Died of a dropsy.Courageous, prudent, vigilant, and extremely jealous of his throne, which he obtained by unwarrantablemeans.R. Neville, Earl of Westmoreland.Sir John Oldcastle.Battle of Shrewsbury.
HENRY V. (1388-1422).—Eldest son of Henry IV.1413249Natural causes.A good soldier and politician; had an elevated genius; was extremely ambitious, and inclined to cruelty.Beaufort, Duke of Exeter.Duke of Gloucester, Wodehouse Gam.Battle of Agincourt. Siege of Rouen.
HENRY VI. (1421-1471).—Son of Henry V.14229 m.39Dethroned. Afterwards killed, by order of Edward IV.Just, chaste, temperate, pious and patient; but had a weak mind.Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, Duke of Suffolk, Duke of Somerset.Joan of Arc, Duke of Bedford, Lord Talbot, R. Neville, Earl of Warwick.Battles of Crevant, Verneuil, St. Albans, and Towton. Siege of Orleans.
HOUSE OF YORK
EDWARD IV. (1441-1483).—Son of Richard, Duke of York; descendant of Edward III.14611922Death occasioned by excessive eating.One of the handsomest men in England, but after crowned was a voluptuary.Earl Rivers.Admiral Coulon.Printing first in use.
EDWARD V. (1470-1483).—Eldest son of Edward IV.1483122 m.Smothered by order of Richard, Duke of Gloucester....Richard, Duke of Gloucester.Lord Hastings.Richard’s usurpation.
RICHARD III. (1452-1485).—Brother to Edward IV.1483302Killed in the battle of Bosworth Field.Small, ugly and crooked backed; dissembling and cruel, yet sagacious and brave.Lord Stanley.Henry, Earl of Richmond. Duke of Buckingham.Battle of Bosworth Field.
HOUSE OF TUDOR
HENRY VII. (1457-1509).—Son of Margaret, Countess of Richmond; descendant of John of Gaunt.14852824By consumption.A wise and able prince; pious, chaste, temperate and just; but insatiably covetous.Cardinal Morton, Sir Edward Poynings.Lord Lovell.Discovery of America.
HENRY VIII. (1491-1547).—Second son of Henry VII.15091838Natural causes.Comely, but very corpulent; brave, candid and liberal; versed in music, philosophy, and divinity; yet wascruel and presumptuous.Cardinal Wolsey, Sir Thomas More, Fox, Cromwell.Duke of Norfolk—Earl of Surrey. Lord Maxwell.The Reformation. Monasteries dissolved.
EDWARD VI. (1537-1553).—Son of Henry VIII., by Jane Seymour.154796Of a consumption.Sweet tempered, and had a great genius.Seymour, Duke of Somerset—Dudley, Earl of Warwick.Lord Russell.Religious insurrection.
Queen MARY (1516-1558).—Daughter of Henry VIII., by Catharine ofAragon.1553385Of a dropsy.Small capacity, bigoted, revengeful and cruel.Gardiner, Chancellor.Duke of Savoy.Catholic religion restored.
Queen ELIZABETH (1533-1603).—Daughter of Henry VIII., by Anne Boleyn.15582545Natural causes.Tolerably handsome; had a noble air, and great affability; celebrated for her wit, judgment, economy, policy,sincerity, justice, liberality, and magnificence.Robert Dudley, Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Burleigh.Admiral Howard—Sir Francis Drake. Sir F. Vere. Sir P. Sidney.Mary Queen of Scots executed. Spanish Armada destroyed. Protestant religion restored.
HOUSE OF STUART
JAMES I. (1566-1625).—Son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley; and great-grandsonof Margaret, daughter of Henry VII.16033722Of an ague.Learned and pacific, but wavering and undetermined.Robert Car, Earl of Somerset. George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham. Earl of Salisbury.Sir Horace Vere.Union of the crowns of England and Scotland. Gunpowder plot.
CHARLES I. (1600-1649).—Third son of James I.16252524Beheaded near the windows of the banqueting house, Whitehall.Religious, sober, chaste, affable and courageous; had great penetration and judgment, but too fond ofprerogative.Earls of Portland and Strafford—Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury.Earl of Essex. Sir T. Fairfax, Earl of Manchester.Battles of Edge Hill, Tadcaster and Gisborough.
COMMONWEALTH declared May 19.1649...11......Oliver Cromwell.Admiral Blake, General Monk.Charles I. beheaded. Royal power usurped. Battle of Dunbar.
HOUSE OF STUART
CHARLES II. (1630-1685).—Eldest son of Charles I.16602925Supposed to have been poisoned.Extremely liberal and affable; had a sprightly and witty genius, and a wonderful conception.Earl of Clarendon.Duke of York. Earl of Sandwich.Restoration of monarchy. Plague and fire in London. Royal Society founded.
JAMES II. (1633-1701).—Brother to Charles II.1685523Natural, having abdicated the throne.A kind father, husband and master; more pious than resolute, and too submissive to his ministers.Chancellor Jeffries.Duke of Monmouth.King abdicates the throne. Revolution.
WILLIAM (1650-1702) and MARY (1662-1694).—William, Prince of Orange, (Holland). Mary, eldest daughterof James II., by Anne Hyde.1688W. 37 M. 26W. 14 M. 6Mary died of the smallpox; William, by a fall from his horse.Mary, pious and amiable; had an air of grandeur, without pride or affectation. William, not comely in person,had a great genius, was a good statesman and warrior.Earl of Sunderland. Earl of Tankerville.Russell, Shovel, Ginkle.Bank of England established. Siege of Namur. Battles of Boyne and La Hogue. Treaty of Ryswick.
Queen ANNE (1685-1714).—Second daughter of King James II., and consort ofGeorge, Prince of Denmark.17023712Natural causes.In private life, virtuous, charitable and pious; as a sovereign, easy, kind and generous.Lords Godolphin and Cowper—Earl of Oxford. Harcourt. Bollingbroke.Duke of Marlboro’—Sir G. Rook, Ormund—Benbow.Battles of Blenheim and Ramilles. Scotch union.
HOUSE OF HANOVER
GEORGE I. (1660-1727).—Eldest son of Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick, and Princess Sophia,daughter of Frederick V., of Bohemia.17145413Died of a lethargic disorder, at Osnaburg.Unostentatious and familiar; a circumspect general; a wise and virtuous prince.Dukes of Newcastle and Devonshire. Lords Townsend and Carteret.Earl of Mar. Duke of Argyle. Lord Cobham.Insurrection in favor of the Pretender. Septennial parliament.
GEORGE II. (1683-1760).—Only son of George I., by Dorothy, daughter and heiress of the Duke ofZell.17274434Died instantly, by a sudden rupture of the heart, while in good health.Well-shaped, fair complexion; hasty, of moderate abilities, humane, liberal, temperate, and a scientificwarrior.Sir R. Walpole. Mr. Sandys. Earl of Huntington. Duke of Bedford.Duke of Cumberland. Lord Anson. Earl of Stair. Gen. Wolfe.New style introduced. Battles of Dettingen, Culloden, and Minden. Peace of Aix La Chapelle.
GEORGE III. (1738-1820).—Eldest son of Frederick and Augusta, Prince and Princess of Wales, andgrandson of George II.17602259By the gradual exhaustion of nature, having been in state of continual mental derangement for nine years.His figure uniting strength and comeliness; his manners unassuming and liberal; hair light flaxen, eyes grey,eyebrows white, of moderate genius, and very pious.Chatham. North, Pitt, Fox.Rodney, Howe, Abercrombie—Nelson, Wellington.French and American Revolutions. Union with Ireland. Battles of Leipsic and Waterloo.
GEORGE IV. (1762-1830).—Eldest son of George III., by his consort, Charlotte of Mecklenburg.1820589...............
WILLIAM IV. (1765-1837).—Third son of George III.1830657Natural causes.A man of homely talents, immoral, tactless, but good hearted.Lord John Russell, Robert Peel, Lord Melbourne....Reform Bill passed by Parliament. Municipal Corporations Act. Establishment of the University of London.
Queen VICTORIA (1819-1901).—Daughter of Edward, fourth son of GeorgeIII., and Victoria Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg.18371864Natural causes.A sagacious ruler, jealous of her royal prerogative, persistent, self-devoted, but greatly beloved.Lord Palmerston, Lord Derby, Disraeli, Gladstone, Rosebury, Salisbury.Generals Gordon, Roberts, Kitchener.Crimean war, Indian Mutiny, Zulu war, Boer war, Home Rule agitation. Australian Commonwealth bill.Imperialism strengthened. Marked literary achievements.
HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG
EDWARD VII. (1841-1910).—Son of Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.1901609Natural causes.Lacked political training, but cultivated the arts of peace. Popular, but lacking in moral force....Lord Roberts, General Kitchener.King Edward and his Ministers were influential in establishing the Triple Entente, including England, Franceand Russia.
GEORGE V. (1865- ——).—Son of Edward VII. and Queen Alexandra, daughter of Christian IX.of Denmark.191045......Without political training; like his father, his foreign policy almost wholly in the hands of a powerfulministry. Personally a notable sportsman and popular.Asquith, Lloyd-George, Cecil.Kitchener, French, Haig.England the leading and directing power of the Entente in the Great European war against the GermanicAllies.
Names and Lineage of SovereignsBegan to ReignYears of AgeL’gth of ReignDeathCharacter
ANGLO-SAXON KINGS
EGBERT (775?-837)—Son of Alcmund, descended from Inigisil, brother to Ina, king of West Saxons.801...37Natural causes.Possessed all the qualities required in a warrior.
ETHELWOLF (—— -358)—Son of Egbert.838...20Natural causes.Pious, wise, valiant and clement. A lover of peace, and zealous for religion.
ETHELBALD—Son of Ethelwolf.858...2Natural causes.Neither pious nor valiant.
ETHELBERT—Son of Ethelwolf.860...6Natural causes.Sweet-tempered, wise, pious and valiant.
ETHELRED I. (871).—Brother to Ethelbert.866...6Killed in the battle of Wittingham.Pious, valiant, prudent, and just.
ALFRED The Great (849-901).—Brother to Ethelred, and son of Ethelwolf.8722228By a contraction of the nerves.A great sovereign, warrior, legislator, politician and scholar.
EDWARD the Elder (870?-924).—Second son of Alfred the Great.9001725Natural causes.Equal to his father—his love for learning and lenity excepted.
ATHELSTAN (895?-941).—Natural son of Edward the Elder.9252016Natural causes.Possessed uncommon virtues; wise, valiant, and just.
EDMUND the Pious (923-946).—Eldest legitimate son of Edward the Elder.941257Assassinated by Leolf, while feasting at Puckle-kirk.Pious, valiant and just, and much respected by his people.
EDRED (—— -955?).—Second legitimate son of Edward the Elder.948297Natural causes.Pious and valiant, but too obsequious to his council.
EDWY (939?-959).—Eldest son of Edmund the Pious.955174Died of grief on brother being set up in his stead.Hated the monks, and persecuted them, which caused a rebellion.
EDGAR (943?-975).—Brother to Edwy.9591316Natural causes.Pacific, active, wise, and industrious.
EDWARD the Martyr (961?-978).—Eldest son of Edgar.975153Assassinated by order of his step-mother Elfrida.Amiable and sweet-tempered.
ETHELRED II. (Sweyn) (—— -1016).—Brother to Edward the Martyr, and son of thebeautiful Elfrida.9791237Natural causes.Cowardly, indolent, and avaricious.
EDMUND, Ironside (989-1017).—Eldest son of Ethelred II.1016261Assassinated by order of Edric.Valiant and prudent.
DANISH KINGS
CANUTE I. (995-1035).—Son of Sweyn, King of Denmark.1017...19Natural causes.A great king; humble, just, and truly religious.
HAROLD I. (1040- ——)—Second son of Canute I., by Queen Alfwen.1036303Occasioned by intemperance.Impious, unjust, dissolute and mean.
CANUTE II. (1019-1042).—Third son of Canute I., by Emma of Normandy.1039292By excessive eating.To the vices of Harold I., he added that of cruelty.
SAXON KINGS
EDWARD the Confessor (1004-1066).—Son of Edmund Ironside.10414024Natural causes.Honored as a great saint; of a mild and peaceful temper; was charitable, but had no great genius.
HAROLD II. (1022-1066).—Son of Earl Godwin, by the eldest daughter of Canute I.1065...1Killed in the battle of Hastings.A valiant warrior.
NORMAN KINGS
WILLIAM the Conqueror (1027-1087).—Son of Robert, Duke of Normandy, by hismistress Harlotte.10664021Death occasioned by heat at the burning of Mantes.Possessed great bodily strength, a great soul and an elevated mind, and a prodigious genius; and governed theEnglish with a heavy hand.
WILLIAM Rufus (1056-1100).—Second son of William the Conqueror.10873113Accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrrell, in New Forest.Courageous and vicious to a high degree.
HENRY I. (1068-1135).—Brother of William Rufus.11003235Death occasioned by eating too many lampreys.Handsome, brave, sober, cruel, avaricious, and unclean.
STEPHEN (1105-1154).—Son of Stephen, Earl of Blois, and Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror.11353119Natural causes.In person majestic; his air placid and insinuating. Possessed great courage, an elevated genius, and soundjudgment.
PLANTAGENETS
HENRY II. (1133-1189).—Eldest son of Geoffrey, Earl of Anjou, and of the Empress Maud. Heir toHenry I.11542135Natural, before the High Altar at Chinon.Brave, generous, magnificent, clement, just, prudent, ambitious, lustful, and violent in anger.
RICHARD I. (1157-1199).—Second son of Henry II.11893310Killed by a cross-bowman, at the siege of Chalus.Brave to a high degree; but possessed no other virtue.
King JOHN (1166-1216).—Brother to Richard I.11993317Died of grief for having lost his rich baggage.Witty, hot-headed and hasty. After his first transports, soft, indolent, fearful and wavering.
HENRY III. (1207-1272).—King John’s eldest son.1216956Natural causes.Inconstant, capricious and prodigal of his money; continent and averse to cruelty.
EDWARD I. (1239-1307).—Eldest son of Henry III.12723335Natural causes.A good king and father, a formidable enemy, and a great captain; chaste, just, prudent and moderate.
EDWARD II. (1284-1327).—Eldest son of Edward I.13072320Murdered by Gourney and Maltravers at Berkley Castle.Handsome shaped, but had neither the capacity of warrior, statesman, or man of genius.
EDWARD III. (1312-1377).—Son of Edward II.13271450Died of the St. Anthony’s fire at Sheen.An excellent prince; gentle, beneficent, and valiant.
RICHARD II. (1366-1400).—Son of Edward the Black Prince, and grandson of Edward III.13771122Murdered by Exton, at Pontefract Castle, by order of Henry IV.Handsomest monarch in the world. Kind, magnificent, soft, timid, of little genius, and a slave to hisfavorites.
HOUSE OF LANCASTER
HENRY IV. (1366?-1413).—Son of John of Gaunt, and grandson of Edward III.13993214Died of a dropsy.Courageous, prudent, vigilant, and extremely jealous of his throne, which he obtained by unwarrantablemeans.
HENRY V. (1388-1422).—Eldest son of Henry IV.1413249Natural causes.A good soldier and politician; had an elevated genius; was extremely ambitious, and inclined to cruelty.
HENRY VI. (1421-1471).—Son of Henry V.14229 m39Dethroned. Afterwards killed, by order of Edward IV.Just, chaste, temperate, pious and patient; but had a weak mind.
HOUSE OF YORK
EDWARD IV. (1441-1483).—Son of Richard, Duke of York; descendant of Edward III.14611922Death occasioned by excessive eating.One of the handsomest men in England, but after crowned was a voluptuary.
EDWARD V. (1470-1483).—Eldest son of Edward IV.1483122 m.Smothered by order of Richard, Duke of Gloucester....
RICHARD III. (1452-1485).—Brother to Edward IV.1483302Killed in the battle of Bosworth Field.Small, ugly and crooked backed; dissembling and cruel, yet sagacious and brave.
HOUSE OF TUDOR
HENRY VII. (1457-1509).—Son of Margaret, Countess of Richmond; descendant of John of Gaunt.14852824By consumption.A wise and able prince; pious, chaste, temperate and just; but insatiably covetous.
HENRY VIII. (1491-1547).—Second son of Henry VII.15091838Natural causes.Comely, but very corpulent; brave, candid and liberal; versed in music, philosophy, and divinity; yet wascruel and presumptuous.
EDWARD VI. (1537-1553).—Son of Henry VIII., by Jane Seymour.154796Of a consumption.Sweet tempered, and had a great genius.
Queen MARY (1516-1558).—Daughter of Henry VIII., by Catharine ofAragon.1553385Of a dropsy.Small capacity, bigoted, revengeful and cruel.
Queen ELIZABETH (1533-1603).—Daughter of Henry VIII., by Anne Boleyn.15582545Natural causes.Tolerably handsome; had a noble air, and great affability; celebrated for her wit, judgment, economy, policy,sincerity, justice, liberality, and magnificence.
HOUSE OF STUART
JAMES I. (1566-1625).—Son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley; and great-grandsonof Margaret, daughter of Henry VII.16033722Of an ague.Learned and pacific, but wavering and undetermined.
CHARLES I. (1600-1649).—Third son of James I.16252524Beheaded near the windows of the banqueting house, Whitehall.Religious, sober, chaste, affable and courageous; had great penetration and judgment, but too fond ofprerogative.
COMMONWEALTH declared May 19.1649...11......
HOUSE OF STUART
CHARLES II. (1630-1685).—Eldest son of Charles I.16602925Supposed to have been poisoned.Extremely liberal and affable; had a sprightly and witty genius, and a wonderful conception.
JAMES II. (1633-1701).—Brother to Charles II.1685523Natural, having abdicated the throne.A kind father, husband and master; more pious than resolute, and too submissive to his ministers.
WILLIAM (1650-1702) and MARY (1662-1694).—William, Prince of Orange, (Holland). Mary, eldest daughterof James II., by Anne Hyde.1688W. 37 M. 26W. 14 M. 6Mary died of the smallpox; William, by a fall from his horse.Mary, pious and amiable; had an air of grandeur, without pride or affectation. William, not comely in person,had a great genius, was a good statesman and warrior.
Queen ANNE (1685-1714).—Second daughter of King James II., and consort ofGeorge, Prince of Denmark.17023712Natural causes.In private life, virtuous, charitable and pious; as a sovereign, easy, kind and generous.
HOUSE OF HANOVER
GEORGE I. (1660-1727).—Eldest son of Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick, and Princess Sophia,daughter of Frederick V., of Bohemia.17145413Died of a lethargic disorder, at Osnaburg.Unostentatious and familiar; a circumspect general; a wise and virtuous prince.
GEORGE II. (1683-1760).—Only son of George I., by Dorothy, daughter and heiress of the Duke ofZell.17274434Died instantly, by a sudden rupture of the heart, while in good health.Well-shaped, fair complexion; hasty, of moderate abilities, humane, liberal, temperate, and a scientificwarrior.
GEORGE III. (1738-1820).—Eldest son of Frederick and Augusta, Prince and Princess of Wales, andgrandson of George II.17602259By the gradual exhaustion of nature, having been in state of continual mental derangement for nine years.His figure uniting strength and comeliness; his manners unassuming and liberal; hair light flaxen, eyes grey,eyebrows white, of moderate genius, and very pious.
GEORGE IV. (1762-1830).—Eldest son of George III., by his consort, Charlotte of Mecklenburg.1820589......
WILLIAM IV. (1765-1837).—Third son of George III.1830657Natural causes.A man of homely talents, immoral, tactless, but good hearted.
Queen VICTORIA (1819-1901).—Daughter of Edward, fourth son of GeorgeIII., and Victoria Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg.18371864Natural causes.A sagacious ruler, jealous of her royal prerogative, persistent, self-devoted, but greatly beloved.
HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG
EDWARD VII. (1841-1910).—Son of Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.1901609Natural causes.Lacked political training, but cultivated the arts of peace. Popular, but lacking in moral force.
GEORGE V. (1865- ——).—Son of Edward VII. and Queen Alexandra, daughter of Christian IX.of Denmark.191045......Without political training; like his father, his foreign policy almost wholly in the hands of a powerfulministry. Personally a notable sportsman and popular.
Names and Lineage of SovereignsPrincipal StatesmenChief WarriorsEvents of Reign
ANGLO-SAXON KINGS
EGBERT (775?-837)—Son of Alcmund, descended from Inigisil, brother to Ina, king of West Saxons....The king.—Ethelwolf.—Kenneth.The kingdoms of the Heptarchy united, and take the name of England.
ETHELWOLF (—— -358)—Son of Egbert.Athelstan.Wolfhere.—Ethelhelm.—Ceorle.Tithes instituted; London plundered by the Danes; England becomes tributary to the Holy See.
ETHELBALD—Son of Ethelwolf.Swithun, Bishop of Winchester.Osric.Scots defeated by the Britons.
ETHELBERT—Son of Ethelwolf....The king.Winchester burnt by the Danes.
ETHELRED I. (871).—Brother to Ethelbert....Young Alfred.Battles of Aston and Basing—York taken.
ALFRED The Great (849-901).—Brother to Ethelred, and son of Ethelwolf....The king.—Oddune, earl of Devonshire.University of Oxford founded. Juries instituted. England divided into shires, tithings and hundreds.
EDWARD the Elder (870?-924).—Second son of Alfred the Great....The king.Northumberland and East Anglia united to the crown. University of Cambridge founded. Battles of Temsford andMalden.
ATHELSTAN (895?-941).—Natural son of Edward the Elder.Turketul, Chancellor.Guy of Warwick.Constantine III. of Scotland and six Irish and Welsh kings killed at battle of Brunanburh.
EDMUND the Pious (923-946).—Eldest legitimate son of Edward the Elder....The king.Cumberland and Westmoreland given up to Malcolm, king of Scotland.
EDRED (—— -955?).—Second legitimate son of Edward the Elder.Aldheim, Archbishop of Canterbury.The king.Northumbrian Danes reduced.
EDWY (939?-959).—Eldest son of Edmund the Pious.Odo, Archbishop of Canterbury.Prince Edgar.Rebellion of the Mercians.
EDGAR (943?-975).—Brother to Edwy.Ethelwold....King of Wales, Ireland and the Isle of Man, recognize Edgar for their sovereign.
EDWARD the Martyr (961?-978).—Eldest son of Edgar.Dustan.......
ETHELRED II. (Sweyn) (—— -1016).—Brother to Edward the Martyr, and son of thebeautiful Elfrida.Siricius, Archbishop of Canterbury.Prince Edmund. Alfric.Arabic figures introduced. Sweyn, king of Denmark, conquers England.
EDMUND, Ironside (989-1017).—Eldest son of Ethelred II.Edric, Earl of Wilts....Massacre of the Danes. England divided between Edward and Canute I.
DANISH KINGS
CANUTE I. (995-1035).—Son of Sweyn, King of Denmark.Thurkell, Duke of East Anglia.—Urick, Duke of Northumberland.Godwin, Earl of Kent.Parents prohibited selling their children. End of the Danish war of two hundred years.
HAROLD I. (1040- ——)—Second son of Canute I., by Queen Alfwen.Earl Godwin.Godwin, Earl of Kent.Paper first used in England.
CANUTE II. (1019-1042).—Third son of Canute I., by Emma of Normandy.Earl Godwin.Leofric, Duke of Mercia....
SAXON KINGS
EDWARD the Confessor (1004-1066).—Son of Edmund Ironside.Robert, Archbishop of Canterbury—Harold.Siward, Duke of Northumberland.Common law of England established. Westminster Abbey founded.
HAROLD II. (1022-1066).—Son of Earl Godwin, by the eldest daughter of Canute I.Morcar, Earl of Northumberland.Gurth and Leofwin, the king’s brothers.Battle of Hastings, Norman conquest.
NORMAN KINGS
WILLIAM the Conqueror (1027-1087).—Son of Robert, Duke of Normandy, by hismistress Harlotte.Odo, Bishop of Bayeaux. Fitzosborne, Earl of Hereford.Malcolm, King of Scotland.Tower of London built. Doomsday book. Bishoprics created.
WILLIAM Rufus (1056-1100).—Second son of William the Conqueror.Herbert—Lozinga.Earl of Northumberland—Duke of Normandy.First Holy War. Westminster Hall built. Reduction of the Welsh.
HENRY I. (1068-1135).—Brother of William Rufus.Archbishop Anselm. Bishop of Salisbury.Earl of Flanders.Normandy conquered. First Parliament.
STEPHEN (1105-1154).—Son of Stephen, Earl of Blois, and Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror.William of Ypres.Earl of Gloucester.Canon law introduced.
PLANTAGENETS
HENRY II. (1133-1189).—Eldest son of Geoffrey, Earl of Anjou, and of the Empress Maud. Heir toHenry I.Thomas à Becket, Lord Chancellor.Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke.King takes possession of Ireland. Judicial circuits established.
RICHARD I. (1157-1199).—Second son of Henry II.Bishop of Durham—Longchamp, Bishop of Ely.The king, surnamed Cœur de Lion.London divided into companies. King joins the Crusade.
King JOHN (1166-1216).—Brother to Richard I.Archbishop of Hubert, Chancellor.Prince Arthur.Phillip II. of France takes possession of Normandy. War with the barons. Magna Charta signed.
HENRY III. (1207-1272).—King John’s eldest son.William, Earl of Pembroke, Hugh de Burgh, Bishop of Winchester.Simon, Earl of Leicester. Prince Edward.Intestine wars. Westminster Abbey rebuilt.
EDWARD I. (1239-1307).—Eldest son of Henry III.Giffard, Archbishop of York.Llewellyn, Prince of Wales.Wales united to England. Mariner’s compass invented.
EDWARD II. (1284-1327).—Eldest son of Edward I.Pierce Gaveston—Hugh de Spencer.Guy, Earl of Warwick.King abdicates the throne. Courts of Nisi Prius established.
EDWARD III. (1312-1377).—Son of Edward II.Mortimer, Earl of March.Edward, the Black Prince—Sir Richard Knowles.Battles of Cressy and Poictiers. Order of the Garter instituted.
RICHARD II. (1366-1400).—Son of Edward the Black Prince, and grandson of Edward III.Richard de Vere, Duke of Ireland. A. Neville, Archbishop of York.H. Percy, surnamed Hotspur—John of Gaunt.Wat Tyler’s insurrection. King deposed.
HOUSE OF LANCASTER
HENRY IV. (1366?-1413).—Son of John of Gaunt, and grandson of Edward III.R. Neville, Earl of Westmoreland.Sir John Oldcastle.Battle of Shrewsbury.
HENRY V. (1388-1422).—Eldest son of Henry IV.Beaufort, Duke of Exeter.Duke of Gloucester, Wodehouse Gam.Battle of Agincourt. Siege of Rouen.
HENRY VI. (1421-1471).—Son of Henry V.Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, Duke of Suffolk, Duke of Somerset.Joan of Arc, Duke of Bedford, Lord Talbot, R. Neville, Earl of Warwick.Battles of Crevant, Verneuil, St. Albans, and Towton. Siege of Orleans.
HOUSE OF YORK
EDWARD IV. (1441-1483).—Son of Richard, Duke of York; descendant of Edward III.Earl Rivers.Admiral Coulon.Printing first in use.
EDWARD V. (1470-1483).—Eldest son of Edward IV.Richard, Duke of Gloucester.Lord Hastings.Richard’s usurpation.
RICHARD III. (1452-1485).—Brother to Edward IV.Lord Stanley.Henry, Earl of Richmond. Duke of Buckingham.Battle of Bosworth Field.
HOUSE OF TUDOR
HENRY VII. (1457-1509).—Son of Margaret, Countess of Richmond; descendant of John of Gaunt.Cardinal Morton, Sir Edward Poynings.Lord Lovell.Discovery of America.
HENRY VIII. (1491-1547).—Second son of Henry VII.Cardinal Wolsey, Sir Thomas More, Fox, Cromwell.Duke of Norfolk—Earl of Surrey. Lord Maxwell.The Reformation. Monasteries dissolved.
EDWARD VI. (1537-1553).—Son of Henry VIII., by Jane Seymour.Seymour, Duke of Somerset—Dudley, Earl of Warwick.Lord Russell.Religious insurrection.
Queen MARY (1516-1558).—Daughter of Henry VIII., by Catharine ofAragon.Gardiner, Chancellor.Duke of Savoy.Catholic religion restored.
Queen ELIZABETH (1533-1603).—Daughter of Henry VIII., by Anne Boleyn.Robert Dudley, Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Burleigh.Admiral Howard—Sir Francis Drake. Sir F. Vere. Sir P. Sidney.Mary Queen of Scots executed. Spanish Armada destroyed. Protestant religion restored.
HOUSE OF STUART
JAMES I. (1566-1625).—Son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley; and great-grandsonof Margaret, daughter of Henry VII.Robert Car, Earl of Somerset. George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham. Earl of Salisbury.Sir Horace Vere.Union of the crowns of England and Scotland. Gunpowder plot.
CHARLES I. (1600-1649).—Third son of James I.Earls of Portland and Strafford—Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury.Earl of Essex. Sir T. Fairfax, Earl of Manchester.Battles of Edge Hill, Tadcaster and Gisborough.
COMMONWEALTH declared May 19.Oliver Cromwell.Admiral Blake, General Monk.Charles I. beheaded. Royal power usurped. Battle of Dunbar.
HOUSE OF STUART
CHARLES II. (1630-1685).—Eldest son of Charles I.Earl of Clarendon.Duke of York. Earl of Sandwich.Restoration of monarchy. Plague and fire in London. Royal Society founded.
JAMES II. (1633-1701).—Brother to Charles II.Chancellor Jeffries.Duke of Monmouth.King abdicates the throne. Revolution.
WILLIAM (1650-1702) and MARY (1662-1694).—William, Prince of Orange, (Holland). Mary, eldest daughterof James II., by Anne Hyde.Earl of Sunderland. Earl of Tankerville.Russell, Shovel, Ginkle.Bank of England established. Siege of Namur. Battles of Boyne and La Hogue. Treaty of Ryswick.
Queen ANNE (1685-1714).—Second daughter of King James II., and consort ofGeorge, Prince of Denmark.Lords Godolphin and Cowper—Earl of Oxford. Harcourt. Bollingbroke.Duke of Marlboro’—Sir G. Rook, Ormund—Benbow.Battles of Blenheim and Ramilles. Scotch union.
HOUSE OF HANOVER
GEORGE I. (1660-1727).—Eldest son of Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick, and Princess Sophia,daughter of Frederick V., of Bohemia.Dukes of Newcastle and Devonshire. Lords Townsend and Carteret.Earl of Mar. Duke of Argyle. Lord Cobham.Insurrection in favor of the Pretender. Septennial parliament.
GEORGE II. (1683-1760).—Only son of George I., by Dorothy, daughter and heiress of the Duke ofZell.Sir R. Walpole. Mr. Sandys. Earl of Huntington. Duke of Bedford.Duke of Cumberland. Lord Anson. Earl of Stair. Gen. Wolfe.New style introduced. Battles of Dettingen, Culloden, and Minden. Peace of Aix La Chapelle.
GEORGE III. (1738-1820).—Eldest son of Frederick and Augusta, Prince and Princess of Wales, andgrandson of George II.Chatham. North, Pitt, Fox.Rodney, Howe, Abercrombie—Nelson, Wellington.French and American Revolutions. Union with Ireland. Battles of Leipsic and Waterloo.
GEORGE IV. (1762-1830).—Eldest son of George III., by his consort, Charlotte of Mecklenburg..........
WILLIAM IV. (1765-1837).—Third son of George III.Lord John Russell, Robert Peel, Lord Melbourne....Reform Bill passed by Parliament. Municipal Corporations Act. Establishment of the University of London.
Queen VICTORIA (1819-1901).—Daughter of Edward, fourth son of GeorgeIII., and Victoria Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg.Lord Palmerston, Lord Derby, Disraeli, Gladstone, Rosebury, Salisbury.Generals Gordon, Roberts, Kitchener.Crimean war, Indian Mutiny, Zulu war, Boer war, Home Rule agitation. Australian Commonwealth bill.Imperialism strengthened. Marked literary achievements.
HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG
EDWARD VII. (1841-1910).—Son of Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha....Lord Roberts, General Kitchener.King Edward and his Ministers were influential in establishing the Triple Entente, including England, Franceand Russia.
GEORGE V. (1865- ——).—Son of Edward VII. and Queen Alexandra, daughter of Christian IX.of Denmark.Asquith, Lloyd-George, Cecil.Kitchener, French, Haig.England the leading and directing power of the Entente in the Great European war against the GermanicAllies.
FRANCE

Location and Extent.—France occupies the narrowest part of the great western peninsula of the European continent between the Mediterranean on the one side, and the Bay of Biscay and the English Channel on the other. As both coasts have many harbors, the situation between two seas is a very advantageous one. In extent it is fully three and a half times larger than England, measuring about six hundred miles each way across it.

Most of its frontiers are natural. On the south the high barrier of the Pyrenees rises between it and Spain; on the east the Alps and Jura separate it from Italy and Switzerland and part of the Vosges mountains forms the boundary towards Germany. On the northeast alone the political limit towards Germany and Belgium is artificially drawn, and has to be guarded by a line of fortresses.

Since 1768, France had held the Mediterranean island of Corsica, a rugged pyramid of forest-covered mountains.

Divisions of the Country.—Previous to the French Revolution, France was divided into provinces, which bore the names of the separate territories out of which the state had been gradually built up. These are accordingly of much greater historical interest than the present division into eighty-seven departments, which are almost universally named after the river basins in which they lie. The provincial names are also those which are still most in use in ordinary life in France.

The following are the provinces, with the dates of their incorporation as parts of France, and the departments they include:

Ile de France, the original kernel of the state round Paris (Departments—Seine, Seine et Oise, Seine et Marne, Oise, Aisne).

Champagne (part of France since 1285) to the east of the former (Ardennes, Marne, Haute-Marne, Aube).

Lorraine (since 1766), east of Champagne (Meuse, Meurthe et Moselle, Vosges, and territory of Belfort).

Flanders (since 1677), on the border of Belgium (Nord).

Artois (since 1640), on the Channel (Pas de Calais).

Picardy (original), adjoining Ile de France on N. (Somme).

Normandy (since 1203), along the Channel (Seine-inferieure, Eure, Calvados, La Manche, Orne).

Brittany (since 1532), the western peninsula (Finistere, Morbihan, Cotes-du-Nord, Ille et Vilaine, Loire-inferieure).

Poitou (since 1375), southeast of Brittany (Vendee, Deux-Sevres, Vienne).

Anjou (since 1202) north of Poitou, across the Loire (Maine et Loire).

Maine (since 1202), between Anjou and Normandy (Mayenne, Sarthe).

Angoumois, Aunis and Saintonge (since 1242), south of Poitou, along the Bay of Biscay (Charente and Charente-inferieure).

Touraine (since 1256), across the Loire, east of Anjou (Indre et Loire).

Orleans (original), south of Ile de France (Loire et Cher, Eure et Loire, Loiret).

Nivernais (since 1707), southeast of Orleans (Nievre).

Bourbonnais (since 1559), south of Nivernais (Allier).

Marche (since 1531), southwest of Bourbonnais (Creuse).

Berri (since 1100), between Marche and Orleans (Cher, Indre).

Limousin (since 1369), southwest of Marche (Haute-Vienne and Correze).

Auvergne (since 1531), west of Limousin (Cantal, Puy-de-Dome).

Lyonnais (since 1307), northeast of Auvergne (Loire, Rhone).

Burgundy (since 1476), south of Champagne (Ain, Saone et Loire, Cote d’or, Yonne).

Franche Comte (since 1674), nearest Switzerland (Haute-Saone, Jura, Doubs).

Dauphine (since 1349), between the Alps and the Rhone Channel (Isere, Drome, Hautes, Alpes).

Savoie (since 1860), south of Lake of Geneva (Savoie, Haute-Savoie).

Languedoc (since 1271), along the Mediterranean, west of the Rhone (Ardeche, Haute-Loire, Lozere, Gard, Herault, Tarn, Haute-Garonne, Aude).

Guyenne (since 1453), in the basin of the Garonne, southwest (Aveyron, Lot, Dordogne, Tarn et Garonne, Lot et Garonne, Gironde).

Gascogne (since 1453), in the southwest, old Aquitaine (Landes, Gers, Hautes-Pyrenees).

Bearn and Navarre (since 1607) (Basses Pyrenees).

Foix (since 1607) next Spain, in the south (Ariege).

Roussillon (since 1642), in the southeast (Pyrenees-Orientales).

Avignon, Vennaissin, and Orange (since 1791), near the Rhone delta (Vaucluse).

Provence, Roman Provincia (since 1245), in the southeast along the Mediterranean (Bouches-Du-Rhone, Basses-Alpes, Var, Alpes-Maritimes).

Corsica (since 1768), in the Mediterranean (Corse).

Surface and Mountains.—Within France the long curve of the Cevennes Mountains in the southeast, prolonged northward by the Cote d’or, the Plateau of Langres, and the Vosges, determines the slope of the country. Between them and the Alps lies the deep valley of the Rhone, with a southward fall to the Mediterranean. But these high lands, ramifying outward with gentler descent to north and west, give direction to the drainage of the longer slope to the Atlantic coast, the Bay of Biscay, the Channel, and the North Sea.

Mont Blanc, the highest point in Europe, rises within France, near the point of union of its boundary with that of Italy and Switzerland; the Pic de Nethou, the highest point of the Pyrenean barrier, stands just outside the boundary on the Spanish side; centrally in the country, the highest point is Mont Dore, in the volcanic group of the mountains of Auvergne, embraced by the curve of the Cevennes. The lowlands of France are not level plains like those of Belgium and Holland, but for the most part undulating districts; they lie along the Atlantic border (excepting where the heights of Normandy and Brittany run out into the ocean) and in the Mediterranean valley of the Rhone.

Chief Rivers.—The main direction of the drainage of France is from southeast to northwest over the long slope of land. The Garonne, receiving the numerous gaves, as the streams from the Pyrenees are called, and its tributary the Dordogne, from the mountains of Auvergne, forming the estuary of the Gironde in the south; the Loire, curving through the center of the country from the Cevennes to the Atlantic,—the longest river of France; the Seine, from the Cote d’or, flowing northwest to the English Channel; and the Meuse, from the Vosges, passing out to join the Rhine in the Netherlands. All are navigable, forming with their tributaries the natural waterways of France, which possesses a river navigation of about five thousand five hundred miles. The great southern river, the Rhone, from the mountains of Switzerland, receiving its chief tributary, the Saone, from the southern Vosges, is comparatively valueless to navigation from the rapidity of its current.

Climate and Soil.—Occupying a middle position between northern and southern Europe, France enjoys one of the finest climates of the continent. Toward the northeast it becomes more continental, toward the northwest more maritime and like that of southern England; in the warm south the hot winds from the African deserts may occasionally be felt, and in contrast to these, in the Rhone valley, the chilly northeast wind known as the Mistral at times descends from the Alpine Heights with great violence; but the greater part of the country is within the area of the westerly winds.

Products of Soil.—Very few parts of the country are unadapted for cultivation; only some parts of the Pyrenees, the Landes, and of the Vosges, can be thus characterized.

The destruction of natural timber in France within the past two centuries has been enormous. About a sixth part of the surface is wooded, the most extensive remaining forests being those of Orleans and Fontainebleau, between the northern curve of the Loire and Paris; of the hills of Var in the extreme southeast; and of the Jura and the Vosges. Much of the department of Vaucluse, in the lower valley of the Rhone, is covered with Truffle oaks, from about the roots of which enormous quantities of this fungus are obtained. The western promontory of Brittany is now barest of all, but here, as in the mountains of Auvergne, the Cevennes, the Pyrenees, and the Alps, replanting has begun.

The vine is grown in all parts of France excepting the northwestern departments; more than one thousand four hundred varieties of grapes are recognized; the finest growths being those of Champagne and Burgundy in the east, and of the basin of the Gironde (Bordeaux) in the southwest. Wheat, flax and beet-root for sugar, are the staple products of the north; olives of the extreme southeast. Apples and pears are widely grown in Normandy for cider and perry; oranges, citrons, and pomegranates come from the Mediterranean departments.

In pastoral wealth, in cattle and sheep rearing, France is far behind England and Germany in proportion to its extent.

Industries and Trade.—Agricultural and pastoral pursuits occupy the larger share of the people of France. The trade of the Champagne [478] wine district centers at Reims and Chalons-sur-Marne, east of Paris; that of the Burgundy wines at Dijon, in the Saone valley, on the east; that of the Gironde wines, or claret, at Bordeaux, on the southwest. The subsidiary products of vinegar and brandy are made most largely, the one at Orleans, on the Loire, the other at Cognac, a small town on the Charente, north of Bordeaux.

The French People.—To the aboriginal Iberian and Celtic peoples of France came the Romans chiefly in the south and east; the descendants of this intermixture being the small dark and lively Frenchman of the south; in the north, in some degree, the Germanic element became interwoven; hence the Frenchman of the northern parts of the land partakes more of the character of his neighbors, is taller, blonde, blue-eyed, and less volatile than the southerner. Hence also the old division of the Romanized French language into the Langue d’oc (or Provençal) of the south; and the Langue d’oil (or Roman Walloon) of the north, from which the many dialects now spoken have descended.

The Celtic element remains almost pure in Brittany, and the Iberian in the Basques of the western Pyrenees. Italians appear in the southeast and in Corsica, Flemings on the Belgian frontier, and Germans toward Lorraine and Alsace, though, in this direction, the boundary drawn long the Vosges and round Lorraine since the war of 1871 follows as nearly as possible the meeting points of the German and French inhabitants of the northeast.

Religion and Education.—France is a Roman Catholic country. Protestants form but a small proportion, and the most numerous in the southwest between the Loire and the Pyrenees. Public education is entirely under the supervision of the Government, and no longer in the hands of the clergy. The percentage of illiterates is least in the districts which lie nearest to Germany, and greatest in the Atlantic coast-lands of the west and southwest.

There are state universities at Aix, Algiers, Angers, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Marseilles, Montauban, Montpelier, Nancy, Nantes, Paris, Poitiers, Rennes, and Toulouse.

Cities and Towns.—More than 8,000,000 people live in the seventy-one chief cities. Fifteen cities have populations of more than 100,000:

Paris2,888,110
Marseilles550,619
Lyon523,796
Bordeaux261,678
Lille217,807
Nantes170,535
Toulouse149,576
St. Etienne148,656
Nice142,940
Le Havre136,159
Rouen124,987
Roubaix122,723
Nancy119,949
Rheims115,178
Toulon104,582

There are besides twenty others of over 50,000 inhabitants.

PLACE DE LA CONCORDE, PARIS, UNDER GIANT SEARCHLIGHTS

Paris (Fr. pron. Par-ee´), capital of France, and the largest city in Europe after London, is situated on the river Seine, about one hundred and ten miles from its mouth. It lies in the midst of the fertile plain of the Île-de-France, at a point to which converge the chief tributaries of the river, the Yonne, the Marne, and the Oise; and is the center of a great network of rivers, canals, roads, and railways.

France has long been the most highly centralized country in Europe, and Paris as its heart contains a great population of government functionaries. It is a metropolis of pleasure, and attracts the wealthy from all parts of the world; hence it is a city of capitalists and a great financial center.

The Seine and its Bridges.—The Seine divides the city into two parts, and forms the islands of La Cite and St. Louis, both covered with buildings. This river is navigable by small steamers. The quays or embankments, which extend along its banks on both sides, are built of solid masonry, protect the city from inundation and form excellent promenades. The Seine, within the city, is fully five hundred [479] and thirty feet in width, and is crossed by numerous bridges, the more important being Pont Neuf, Pont de la Concorde, Pont Alexandre III., Pont d’Iena, and the Pont de l’Alma.

THE MADELEINE, PARIS

This splendid edifice, begun in 1764, is modeled after the Parthenon at Athens. In 1806, Napoleon decreed its completion for a Temple of Glory. Louis XVIII. proposed converting it into an expiatory chapel to Louis XVI. and XVII. and Marie Antoinette. It was completed, 1842, at a cost of nearly $3,000,000.

Environs and Fortifications.—Paris is surrounded by a line of fortifications twenty-five miles long; outside of this is a chain of fortresses, while beyond that again are the detached forts. These form the two main lines of defense. The inner line consists of sixteen forts, the outer line of eighteen forts besides redoubts; the area thus inclosed measuring four hundred and thirty square miles, with an encircling line of seventy-seven miles.

Montmartre, within the fortifications is four hundred feet high; the city is encircled at a distance of from two to five miles by an outer range of heights, including Villejuif, Meudon, St. Cloud, and Mont-Valerien (six hundred and fifty feet), some of which are crowned by the detached forts which now form the main defenses of the city. At the fifty-six gates in the walls of Paris are paid the octroi dues.

Streets and Boulevards.—The houses of Paris are almost all built of white calcareous stone, and their general height is from five to six stories, arranged in separate tenements. Many of the modern street buildings have mansard roofs, and are highly enriched in the renaissance manner. In the older parts of the city the streets are narrow and irregular, but in the newer districts the avenues are straight, wide, and well-paved.

The central point of the city is Place Royal, along which passes the great thoroughfare of the city from southeast to northwest. Beginning at the Place de la Nation, at the southeast margin of the city, this grand avenue, from Place de la Nation to Place de la Bastille, is called Rue du Faubourg St. Antoine; from Place Bastille to near Hotel de Ville it is called Rue St. Antoine; from Hotel de Ville, past the Louvre, to Place de la Concorde, Rue de Rivoli; from Place de la Concorde to the Arc de Triomphe, Avenue des Champs Elysees; and beyond the Arch, Ave. de la Grande Armée.

The Center of Parisian Life.—That which is specifically called The Boulevard extends in an irregular arc on the north side of the Seine, from the Place de la Bastille in the east to the Place de la Madeleine in the west and it includes the Boulevards du Temple, St. Martin, St. Denis, des Italiens, Capuchins, and Madeleine, and its length is nearly three miles. Here may be noted also the triumphal arches of the Porte St. Denis and the Porte St. Martin, the former of which is seventy-two feet in height.

On the south side of the Seine the boulevards are neither so numerous nor so extensive, the best-known being the Boulevard St. Germain, which extends from the Pont Sully to the Pont de la Concorde.

After the boulevards among the best streets are the great new streets formed in the time of Napoleon III. are the Rue de Rivoli, two miles in length, the Rue de la Paix, the Rue du Faubourg St. Honore, the Rue Royale and twelve fine avenues radiating from the Place de l’Etoile.

Squares and Parks.—The most notable public squares or places are the Place de la Concorde, one of the largest and most elegant squares in Europe, adorned by an Egyptian obelisk, fountains, and statues; Place de l’Etoile, in which is situated the Arc de Triomphe, a splendid structure one hundred and fifty-two feet in height; the Place Vendôme with column to Napoleon I.; Place des Victoires, with equestrian statue of Louis XIV.; Place de la Bastille, with the Column of July; Place de la République, with colossal statue of the Republic.

A REMARKABLY INFORMING PANORAMA OF PARIS AND IMMEDIATE SUBURBS, SHOWING THE PLAN OF THE CITY, THE COURSE OF THE RIVER SEINE, CHIEF BOULEVARDS AND STREETS, AS WELL AS THE LOCATION AND ARCHITECTURAL OUTLINES OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDINGS AND MONUMENTS.

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ARC DE TRIOMPHE (ARCH OF TRIUMPH), PARIS

Within the city also are situated the gardens of the Tuileries, which are adorned with numerous statues and fountains; the gardens of the Luxembourg, in which are fine conservatories of rare plants; the Jardin des Plantes, in which are the botanical and zoological gardens, hothouses and museums, which have made this scientific institution famous; the Buttes-Chaumont Gardens, in which an extensive old quarry has been turned to good account in enhancing the beauty of the situation; the Parc Monceaux; and the Champs Elysees, the latter being a favorite promenade of all classes.

TROCADERO PALACE, PARIS

Built for the Exhibition of 1878, the Trocadero contains a fine collection of architectural and monumental casts. The building affords some of the finest views of Paris.

But the most extensive parks are outside the city. Of these the Bois de Boulogne, on the west, covers an area of two thousand one hundred and fifty acres, gives an extensive view toward St. Cloud and Mont Valérien, comprises the racecourses of Longchamps and Auteuil, and in it are lakes, cascades, ornamental cafes, and the Jardin d’Acclimatation.

The Bois de Vincennes, on the east, even larger, is similarly adorned with artificial lakes and streams, and its high plateau offers a fine view over the surrounding country.

The most celebrated and extensive cemetery in Paris is Père la Chaise (one hundred and six and one-half acres), finely situated and containing the tombs of many celebrities. The Catacombs are ancient quarries which extend under a portion of the southern part of the city, and in them are deposited the bones removed from old cemeteries now built over.

Cathedrals and Churches.—Of the churches of Paris the most celebrated is the Cathedral of Notre Dame, situated on one of the islands of the Seine, called the Île de la Cité. It is a vast cruciform structure, with a lofty west front flanked by two square towers, the walls sustained by many flying-buttresses, and the eastern end octagonal.

The church of La Madeleine, a modern structure in the style of a great Roman temple, with a peristyle of lofty Corinthian columns, stands on an elevated basement fronting the north end of the Rue Royale. It is considered by many to be the most beautiful edifice in Paris.

The Pantheon, or church of St. Geneviève, patron saint of Paris (1764) was begun as a church, but converted by the Constituent Assembly into a temple dedicated to the great men of the nation. Napoleon III. restored it to the church and rededicated it to St. Geneviève, but once more, on the occasion of the funeral of Victor Hugo (1885), it was reconverted into a valhalla. There are the tombs also of Voltaire, Rousseau, Marat and Victor Hugo.

PALACE OF JUSTICE, PARIS

The Sainte Chapelle, in the south court of the Palais of Justice is the most beautiful example of Gothic in Paris.

St. Eustache (1532-1637) is an interesting example of French Renaissance architecture; and others worthy of note are: St. Germain l’Auxerrois; St. Gervais; St. Roch; St. Sulpice; Notre Dame de Lorette; and St. Vincent de Paul. On the very summit of Montmartre is the Church of the Sacred Heart, a vast new structure in the Byzantine style which cost over five million dollars. The chief French Protestant churches are the Oratoire and Rédemption. There are several English, Scotch, and American churches, a Russian Greek church, and several synagogues.

THE PANTHEON, PARIS

It occupies a most commanding position near the Luxembourg Palace, and is one of the finest architectural structures of the city.

Palaces and Public Buildings.—Notable among the public buildings of Paris are its palaces.

The Louvre, a great series of buildings within which are two large courts, is now devoted to a museum which comprises splendid collections of sculpture, paintings, engravings, bronzes, pottery, Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities. The Venus de Milo, the Fettered Slaves of Michael Angelo, the Mona Lisa of Leonardo da Vinci, and a noble group of the works of Raphael, Titian, and Veronese are the chief treasures. In one gallery there are twenty-one large pictures by Rubens. The Salon Carré contains the most striking works of art.

The palace of the Tuileries was set on fire in 1871 by the Communists. The ruins have been removed, but a few of the architectural details have been preserved.

The Palace of the Luxembourg, south of the Seine, since 1879 the meeting-place of the French senate, was built by Marie de Médicis in the Florentine style. Close to it a gallery has been [484] constructed for the reception of the works of living artists acquired by the state.

The Palais de l’Élysée, situated in the Rue St. Honoré, with a large garden, is now the residence of the president of the republic. The Chambre des Députés—known under the Empire as the Palais du Corps Législatif—is the building in which the deputies meet.

The Hôtel de Ville, or municipal building, is situated in the Place de l’Hôtel de Ville, formerly Place de Grève, on the right bank of the river. It was destroyed by the communists in 1871, but has now been re-erected on the same site with even greater magnificence. It is a very rich example of Renaissance architecture.

HOTEL DES INVALIDES, PARIS

Prepared as a tomb for Napoleon by Louis Philippe.

The Hôtel des Invalides, built in 1670, is now used as a retreat for disabled soldiers, and is capable of accommodating five thousand. The church attached has a lofty and finely-proportioned dome. It contains the burial-place of the first Napoleon.

The Palais de Justice is an irregular mass of buildings occupying the greater part of the western extremity of the Île de la Cité. Opposite the Palais de Justice is the Tribunal de Commerce, a quadrangular building inclosing a large court roofed with glass. The mint (Hôtel des Monnaies) fronts the Quai Conti, on the south side of the Seine, and contains an immense collection of coins and medals.

GRAND OPERA HOUSE, PARIS

This is the finest building of its class in the world.

Theaters and Places of Amusement.—Paris has numerous theaters. The leading houses are the Opéra, the Théâtre Français—chiefly devoted to classical French drama—the Opéra Comique and the Odéon, which receive a subvention from government. The new opera house, completed in 1875, cost, exclusive of the site, five million, six hundred thousand dollars.

Montmartre is the center of the bohemian life of Paris, and contains many cafés and places of amusement. It has upwards of forty theaters.

Latin Quarter and Its Institutions.—The chief institutions connected with the University of France, and with education generally, are still situated in the Quatier Latin.

The Sorbonne, the seat of the Paris faculties of letters, science, and Protestant theology, has been rebuilt and increased in size. The Sorbonne contains lecture-halls and class-rooms, and an extensive library open to the public. There gratuitous lectures are given and degrees are granted by the University of France.

Near the Sorbonne is the Collège de France, where gratuitous lectures are also delivered by eminent scholars and men of letters, as well as a large number of colleges and lycées, the great public schools of France for secondary instruction.

The Ecole Polytechnique, the School of Medicine and the School of Law, the Observatory, and the Jardin des Plantes, with its great museums of natural history, are situated in the same quarter of Paris.

The principal public library is Bibliothèque Nationale, which originated in a small collection of the books placed by Louis XI. in the Louvre.

Industries of Paris.—Paris cannot be described as a manufacturing town. Its chief and peculiar industries produce articles which derive their value not from the cost of the material, but from the skill and taste bestowed on them by individual workmen. They include jewelry, bronzes, artistic furniture, and decorative articles known as articles de Paris. In consequence of [485] the intelligence and taste required in their trades the Paris workmen are in many respects superior to the machine hands of manufacturing cities.

STAIRWAY OF HONOR, GRAND OPERA HOUSE

Versailles (vér-sālz´ Fr. pron. ver-säy´), is situated eleven miles west-southwest of Paris. It contains a famous royal palace, a great part of which is now occupied by the Museum of French History, consisting of paintings; but some of the apartments are still preserved with the fittings of a royal residence. The chapel is well proportioned and sumptuous. The great gallery, called the Galerie des Glaces, is one of the finest rooms existing; it is two hundred and forty by thirty-five feet, and forty-two feet high, adorned with mirrors and gilding, and with ceiling-paintings by Lebrun representing the triumphs of Louis XIV.

Here King William of Prussia was proclaimed German emperor in 1871. The council-chamber, the bedroom of Louis XIV., the antechamber of the Mil de Boeuf, the Petits Apartements of the queen, and the theater are all historic and highly interesting.

The gardens are the finest of their kind. They abound with monumental fountains profusely adorned with groups of sculpture, and supplied the model for those of half the palaces of Europe.

St. Denis (saṅ-dė-nē´), two and one-half miles north of the fortifications of Paris, is chiefly notable for its abbey church, the historic burial-place of the kings of France. Dagobert built the church, which was the nucleus of one begun by Pepin, finished by Charlemagne in 775, and demolished and a larger one built on its ruins four hundred years later. During the Revolution the church was pillaged. It was restored by Viollet-le-Duc. Here Charlemagne was anointed; the Oriflamme was kept; Abélard dwelt; Joan of Arc hung up her arms; Henri IV. abjured Protestantism; and Napoleon I. was married to Marie Louise. The bones of the kings of France from Dagobert (630) to Louis XV. (1774) were buried here; and the mad Revolutionists tore them from their tombs, and buried them in a common ditch. They are now in the crypt, and superb royal monuments adorn the church, whose interior is lighted by splendid stained windows, and enriched with mosaics and statuary.

Among the monuments of greatest interest are those of Frédégonde, Dagobert, Pepin, Charlemagne, Clovis II., Charles Martel, Henry II., Catherine de Médicis, Francis I., Louis XVI., Marie Antoinette, Henry IV., Louis XII., and Louis XIV.

Of the 167 sepulchral monuments, 53 are new or were brought from other churches. In 1817, Louis XVIII. caused the remains of Louis XVI. to be removed from the Madeline cemetery to St. Denis.

THE EIFFEL TOWER

Contains three stories, reached by a series of elevators. The platform at the summit is nine hundred and eighty-five feet above the ground. It cost about one million dollars.

Fontainebleau (Fong´tehn-blȯ´), near the Seine’s left bank, thirty-seven miles southwest of Paris, is chiefly famous for its royal château, and the beautiful forest that surrounds it. The château, said to have been founded by Robert the Good toward the end of the tenth century, was rebuilt in 1169 by Louis VII., and enlarged by Louis XI. and his successors. After being allowed to fall into decay, it was repaired and embellished by Francis I., Henry IV., Napoleon I., and Louis-Philippe.

PETIT TRIANON, VERSAILLES

This beautiful little palace was the favorite residence of the unfortunate Marie Antoinette, after Louis XVI. came to the throne of France. It is now a museum of the personal relics of this beautiful and ill-fated Queen.

Barbizon (Bar-bee-song´), is close to the Forest of Fontainebleau. It is a great artists’ resort, and was the home and death-place of Millet. Corot, Diaz, Daubigny, and Rousseau were other members of the “Barbizon School” of painters.

Chief Industrial Centers.—Textile manufactures are the most important of the mechanical industries of France.

Lyons, the third city of France, at the junction of the Saône with the Rhone, is the center of the silk-growing region and the metropolis of the silk manufactures, in which the country stands unrivalled. St. Etienne (146,000), southwest of Lyons, comes second to it in this manufacture, after which come Nimes, near the delta of the Rhone, Tours, on the Loire, and Paris. Inland trade and manufactures in the south are most active at ancient Toulouse, on the Garonne, and at Montpellier, near the Rhone delta.

Woolen, linen, and cotton manufactures are almost entirely confined to the northern region. Foremost among these manufacturing towns of the north stands Lille, with its neighbor towns of Roubaix and Tourcoing, still nearer the Belgian manufacturing region; and Cambrai, Douai, Valenciennes, and St. Quentin, southeast of it. Rouen, on the Seine in Normandy, and Amiens, on the Sommer, between Rouen and Lille, Reims, in the Champagne district, Sedan, on the Ardennes and Nancy, in French Lorraine, still farther east, are the other chief manufacturing towns of the northern region.

At Sèvres, southwest of Paris, are the chief porcelain factories, which give the models and take the lead in this industry. Limoges is also a noted center of porcelain manufacture.

Glass is very extensively made in the northern departments. Paris itself excels in every kind of luxurious and fanciful manufacture. Besançon, the largest town near the frontier of Switzerland, is a great depot for the produce of the French half of that country, and manufactures watches largely.

The mining industries of France are comparatively limited. Coal is drawn chiefly from the basin of Valenciennes, which continues the Belgian coalfield on the north, from the basin of the Loire and Rhone, and from that of Creuzot, on the south of the heights of the Côte d’or. Iron occurs in eleven districts and is of excellent quality, but generally lies distant from the fuel necessary to smelt it, so that this metal must also be imported in large quantity. St. Etienne, southwest of Lyons, is the most noted center of the French hardware manufactures, especially of guns and machinery; Le Creuzot, in the midst of its coal basin, has also noted ironworks.

The trade of France is only inferior to that of Britain, Germany, and the United States; the position of the country, with coasts on three of the most frequented seas, is exceedingly favorable to its commerce. The great seats of maritime traffic with all the world are Marseilles, on the Mediterranean coast; Bordeaux and Nantes, with St. Nazaire, on the coast of the Bay of Biscay; Le Havre (at the mouth of the Seine), Boulogne, Calais, and Dunkerque, on the English Channel. All of these may in a sense be called the harbors of the central point of the life of the state, luxurious Paris.

Naval and Military Centers.—The naval arsenals of France, dockyards, and stations of the fleet, are at Cherbourg and Brest, on the northwest coast; L’Orient and Rochefort (south of La Rochelle) on the Bay of Biscay; and Toulon, on the Mediterranean. Nice and Cannes, on the Riviera, are favorite winter resorts.

France has more than one hundred fortified places; indeed almost every town along the northern and northeastern border is a fortress. Briançon, the highest town in the country, in the Alps, south of the pass of Mont Cenis into Italy, is the chief arsenal and depot of this mountain barrier, and is considered impregnable.

HISTORY

The name France first appears in history about the ninth century. Prior to that time the country which constitutes the greater part of modern France was occupied successively by Celts, Gauls and Franks.

Under the Romans.—When first known this country was called Gallia, and was the center whence swarms of plunderers poured over the mountains into Italy; but the Phœnicians and Greeks had a few trading cities on the Mediterranean coast—especially Marseilles—where in the seaport towns traces of descent from the Greeks are said still to be found.

In 125 B. C. the Romans formed in the east of the Rhone a settlement ever since called Provincia or “the Province,” whose capital was Aquae Sextiae (now Aix), and where corrupted Latin has never ceased to be the dialect, and their power and influence gradually spread. Between 58 and 51 B. C. Julius Caesar subdued the whole of Gaul, except the granite peninsula of the northwest. Later, refugees from Britain caused it to be called Brittany; and there to the present day the Celtic tongue has prevailed, and the habits have been peculiar. The Iberian or Basque tribes of the Pyrenees have likewise preserved their entirely different tongue, which is not even Aryan.

The Impress of Roman Rule.—Roman habits, civilization and speech were adopted all over the country, and Christianity became nearly universal. Many cities were founded as centers of government from the conquered population, and most of the great cities such as Arles and Lyons and many others date from this time. Nimes and Vienne show splendid monuments of Roman architecture. The Romans also made magnificent roads, and are said to have introduced the olive and the vine, to both of which the climate is eminently suitable.

Under Teutonic Invaders.—Continual warfare on the open frontier soon began between the Roman legions and the advancing Teutonic nations, of whom the Belgians, a mixed race, were the van. The city of Lutetia Parisiorum, now known by its tribal name, Paris, was the headquarters of Emperor Julian before his accession in A.D. 361, while he was struggling with these invaders. After his death, Gaul became a prey to the Teutons. They did not destroy the old population, but quartered themselves as guests on the proprietors of land; while the Roman cities kept up their self-government, and paid ransoms to escape pillage. Chief of these Teutonic tribes were the Goths, Burgundians and Franks.

Merovingians.—The Franks, whose dominion swallowed up those of both the foregoing tribes, had been long settled in the north; and Pharamond, their chief in 420, is considered the founder of the French monarchy, as he was of the first or Merovingian race of Frankish kings. In 485 Clovis defeated Syagrius, the Roman general, at Soissons, and finally extinguished the Roman power in the west, and in 507, by his victory over the Visigoths, he rendered himself master of the country between the Loire and Garonne, but was checked at Arles by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. He then settled in Paris, where he died. His chief aim was a united Frankish kingdom.

AMIENS CATHEDRAL

The most perfect specimen of Gothic architecture in France, dating from the thirteenth century. This splendid structure is embellished with a wealth of magnificent mediæval sculpture. Viollet-le-Duc happily calls this cathedral “the Parthenon of Gothic architecture.”

Clovis in 493 married Clotilda, a Christian Burgundian princess, and in 496 embraced her faith.

Though nominally Christians, the Franks brought their old hereditary Teuton customs of inheritance and chieftainship, which, as they had last come from the banks of the Yssel, were known as Salic laws—i.e. of the Salian Franks. Their German dominions were called Austreich (the eastern kingdom); their Gaulish Neaustreich (not Eastern) or Neustria; and both were Frankland. Their dynasty soon exhausted itself, and latterly their kings were called Fainéants or “Do-nothing” kings while the mayors of the palace really governed.

Carlovingians.—One of the mayors, a Teuton wholly in blood, Charles Martel, in 721 checked the tide of Saracen invasion, and saved Gaul by the great battle of Soissons. His son, Pepin, in 753 was elected king, and thence descended the line known as Carlovingians. Under Pepin and Charles the Great, called by the French “Charlemagne,” the country was relatively peaceful and prosperous; but after the latter’s death things returned to their original state of confusion.

Charlemagne was one of the really great monarchs of the world. His dominions reached from the Ebro to the Channel, from the Elbe, to the Atlantic, and included North Italy, and in 800 he was crowned by the Pope Emperor of the West. His power was too vast for a single hand of less power, and fell to pieces after his son’s death. The Western Franks fell to Charles the Bald, and it was then (about 870) that France became a recognized term for the country between the Channel and the Pyrenees.

The king had, however, very little power; his lands were cut up into divisions under dukes, marquises, and counts, who simply paid him a nominal homage, and were bound to follow him in war, but who ruled quite independently. Moreover, the Northmen or Normans were horribly ravaging the whole country; Paris was fortified against them under Robert the Strong, but, in 911, Charles the Simple found himself obliged to make to Rolla, the chief of the Northmen invaders, a grant of the Neustrian lands, which took the name of Normandy. The Carlovingians finally were deposed in 987, and their last sovereign, Louis V., retired to Lotharingia or Lorraine as duke.

Capetians.—The grandson of Robert the Strong, Hugh, became king. He was called Capet, apparently from the hood which marked him as guardian of the Abbey of St. Denis; and the name is used for his dynasty, which reigned for eight hundred years.

The German influences had passed away, though the king and nobility were of Frankish blood. The whole realm was parcelled out into feudal holdings, the great chiefs of which hardly owned the royal power, and the only place where the king really ruled directly was the county of Paris. There was much confusion and private warfare, and after the conquest of England in 1066, the Dukes of Normandy overshadowed the French kings.

Louis IV. (“the Fat”), in 1108, was the first king of any ability. He judicially overcame a robber count, and in his time (though not on any fixed principles) cities began to be allowed to purchase their power of self-government, such as the southern one had preserved from Roman times. This was called the right of commune. Except in these cities, the lot of the people of Gallo-Roman blood was wretched. They were called villeins, and, except that they were attached to the soil, were almost slaves, cruelly oppressed and downtrodden by their irresponsible lords, mostly Franks, who covered the land with fortified castles. There was, however, much religious zeal, which found its outlet in the Crusades, first proclaimed at Clermont, in Auvergne, in 1095, and in the religious orders, whose beautiful monasteries and splendid cathedrals still exist.

France was at its weakest under Louis VII., when Henry II. of England, by inheritance Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou, had married the heiress of the great Duchy of Aquitaine, and obtained the heiress of Brittany for his son. Philip II., called Augustus, spent his life in undermining the power of the English kings, and when King John murdered his nephew Arthur of Brittany, Philip held a court of justice, cited him thither, and, on his non-appearance, adjudged him to have forfeited Normandy and Anjou, which easily were conquered, leaving only Aquitaine as the possession of John’s mother, and these lands, being held direct of the crown, much added to the royal power.

Under Louis IX.—The king, Louis IX., was the best and most blameless of French sovereigns. It was he who, in 1258, established the Parliament of Paris. In every Teuton nation the king was supposed to take counsel and do justice among the other nobles and freemen; but to attend courts of law in a large territory was a great vexation to the nobles, who would not come, and yet resented decisions made in their absence. Louis arranged that though every immediate vassal of the crown had a right to sit in it, yet in its working state it should only consist of men trained in the law, with just nobles enough to give authority. In this parliament the wills and edicts of the king, and the taxes he imposed, were registered. The provinces, likewise, had parliaments to serve as courts of law. Louis’s devotion led him to attempt two unfortunate crusades, and he died in the second, in 1270.

His grandson Philip IV. (“the Fair”), had a desperate quarrel with the Papacy, and by underhand means succeeded in forcing Pope Clement V. to reside in his dominions. The Popes fixed their residence at Avignon, in Provence, a province belonging to the Empire, and held at the time by Philip’s uncle, Charles, Count of Anjou, but near enough for French influence. Here the Papal court continued for seventy years. Philip V. was a violent and unscrupulous man, and the three sons who reigned in succession after him had not his force of character.

Philip was succeeded in turn by Louis X., Philip V., and Charles IV. The rivalry between France and England, consequent upon the accession of Duke William of Normandy to the throne of the latter, came to a decisive crisis during the first half of the fourteenth century.

House of Valois and the “Hundred Years’ War.”—On the death of Charles IV. (1328) Philip of Valois succeeded to the throne, beginning the Valois dynasty; but Edward III. of England, by virtue of hereditary right derived from his mother’s side, claimed not only such provinces as had been taken from his ancestors, but the whole kingdom. In this way began the protracted conflict which French historians call the “hundred years’ war” (1337-1453), a period covering the reigns of John II. (1350-1364), Charles V. (1364-1380), Charles VI. (1380-1422), and the greater part of the reign of Charles VII. (1422-1461). In 1340 an English fleet destroyed the naval force of France at Sluis, on the coast of Flanders; in 1346, at Crécy, the English archers overcame the flower of French chivalry; and at Poitiers (1356) the Black Prince defeated King John and made him prisoner.

The States-General were also the scene of a deadly struggle between the regent and the third estate, and the peasantry of several districts broke out into a fearful insurrection, which was named the Jacquerie, and marked by all the horrors of a servile war. Charles V., with the help of his great constable, Du Guesclin, regained in a few campaigns almost all the English acquisitions in France. On his death, in 1380, his son Charles VI., surnamed the Well-Beloved, ascended the throne.

The reign of this sovereign was signally unfortunate. He fell into a state of insanity, which rendered him incapable of attending to the administration of the government, and in consequence regents were appointed, whose misconduct threw the kingdom into a civil war. During these calamities which afflicted France, Henry V. of England invaded the country, and gained the memorable battle of Agincourt. The consequence of this victory, and other advantages gained by Henry, enabled him to conclude a treaty by which his succession to the throne of France was acknowledged on the death of Charles. Henry and Charles both died shortly after this event, A. D. 1422.

Charles VII. and Joan of Arc.—Charles VII., surnamed the Victorious, asserted his right to the throne of his father, while at the same time the infant Henry VI. of England was proclaimed King of France under the regency of his uncle, the Duke of Bedford. The English laid siege to Orleans, a place of the greatest importance, and so successful were they in their operations against this and other places that the affairs of France began to wear a most gloomy aspect. The tide of misfortune, however, was successfully turned by one of the most extraordinary events recorded in history.

When the hope of saving Orleans was almost abandoned, a young girl named Joan of Arc, about seventeen years of age, who had lived an humble life in a village on the borders of Lorraine, presented herself to the Governor of Vaucouleur, and maintained with much earnestness that she had been sent by Divine commission to raise the siege of that city, and procure the coronation of Charles in the city of Rheims.

After undergoing a most rigid examination before a committee of persons appointed for that purpose, and also before the court and the king himself, she was intrusted with the liberation of Orleans. As she approached the city her presence inspired the inhabitants with confidence, while it spread dismay and consternation among the English, who hastily raised the siege and retired with precipitation, but being pursued by the heroine at the head of the French army, they were entirely defeated at Patay, with a loss of nearly five thousand men, while the French lost only one of their number. From this event Joan was called the Maid of Orleans.

The second part of her mission, which yet remained to be accomplished, was equally arduous and dangerous. The city of Rheims and the intermediate country being in possession of the English or their allies, presented apparently insurmountable difficulties. Charles, however, placing full confidence in her guidance, commenced his march, and as he advanced every obstacle disappeared; the citizens of Rheims, having expelled the garrison, received him with every demonstration of joy. After the coronation was performed, Joan threw herself at the feet of Charles, declaring that her commission was accomplished, and solicited leave to return to her former humble station; but the king, unwilling to part with her services so soon, requested her to remain for some time with the army, with which at length she complied. She afterwards attempted to raise the siege of the city of Campiegne; but her good fortune seemed to have deserted her; she fell into the hands of the English, who, to gratify their revenge for the many losses they sustained through her valour, condemned her, under a charge of various pretended crimes, and caused her to be burned in the public square at Rouen.

By this cruel measure the English hoped to check the success that had attended the operations of Charles. In this they were disappointed; such was the impulse which the heroine had given to the affairs of France, that the English in a few years were expelled from all their possession in the country, with the exception of Calais.

Charles passed the remainder of his reign in improving the internal condition of his kingdom. The close of his life was embittered by the unnatural conduct of his son, who attempted to poison his father. He died in 1464, a prince of acknowledged virtue, justice and discretion.

Louis XI. (1461-1483), the son and successor of Charles VII., annexed Burgundy and Picardy, and acquired Anjou, Maine, Provence, and the counties of Rousillon and Cerdagne; and France thus became one of the great powers on the Mediterranean. On the northwest, by the marriage of Charles VIII. with Anne of Brittany, she gained possession of that large province. Charles VIII. invaded Italy in 1494, and this was the first of a long series of Italian wars in which France was engaged for more than half a century. With Charles VIII., who died in 1498, the direct line of Valois ended, and Louis, duke of [490] Orleans, grandson to a brother of Charles VI., became king under the title of Louis XII. He met at first with some success in Italy, but was at last driven out.

Wars of Francis I. and Charles V. of Germany.—Francis I. (1515-1547), his successor, being opposed by the emperor Charles V., of Germany, suffered a disastrous defeat at Pavia in 1525, and was carried a prisoner to Madrid, where in 1526 he agreed to a treaty by which he forfeited Burgundy, and all claims to Naples, Milan, Tournay, and Arras. No sooner was he set at liberty than he secured from the pope a release from his oaths, and renewed the struggle, but again with unfavorable results, and was compelled to make another disastrous peace at Cambrai (1529).

The Reformation had now begun, and Charles V. was obliged to turn his attention to Germany. Francis encouraged the Protestant princes in their opposition to the emperor, and in 1536 the war again broke out. It was ended in 1544 by the peace of Crespy, when the emperor was threatening Paris.

Francis I. died in 1546, and was succeeded by his son, Henry II., and the struggle soon began again. Henry recovered Calais for France. Under Francis II. (1559-1560) the Roman Catholic House of Guise obtained possession of the effective power in the state. Their adversaries, the House of Bourbon, headed the movement of the reformers. Under the weak kings Charles IX. (1560-1574) and Henry III. (1574-1589), who were under the influence of their mother, Catherine de’ Medici, this division in the French nobility resulted in the war of the League and wars of religion. The massacre of the Protestants on the night of St. Bartholomew (1572) raised to such a pitch the pride of the House of Guise that Henry III. fled to the camp of the Bourbon leader, where he was murdered by a fanatical monk. The name of Charles IX. remains associated with the horrors of the St. Bartholomew’s night, which witnesses the striking of a blow at the very heart of the nation.

The Bourbon Line.—The accession of the Bourbon prince, Henry IV. of Navarre (1589-1610), allayed the fury of religious wars, but his recantation of Protestantism in favor of Catholicism disappointed his own party, to which, however, he granted the free exercise of their religion by the edict of Nantes (1598).

Henry, however, meditated the humiliation of the house of Austria, and was on the eve of his departure for the army when he was assassinated by Ravaillac, May 14, 1610.

Under the regency of his widow, Maria de’ Medici, mother of Louis XIII., the kingdom was distracted by war between the queen mother and the young king. Cardinal Richelieu, who took the reins of government in 1624, consolidated the power of the monarch at home, and, while annihilating the power of the French Protestants, energetically supported the German Protestants against the house of Austria.

His successor, Cardinal Mazarin, pursued the same policy; and the treaty of Westphalia (1648) asserted the triumph of religious and political liberty in Germany, and the victory of France, which added to her territory the province of Alsace.

The troubles of the Fronde, a faint image of the old civil wars, detracted nothing from the influence gained abroad by the French government, and Mazarin concluded with Spain, in 1659, the treaty of the Pyrenees, which secured two other provinces to France—Artois and Roussillon.

Age of Louis XIV.—Under the personal rule of Louis XIV. France rose to the height of glory, while he himself was placed above all control. From the day of Mazarin’s death (1661) he assumed the direction of public affairs. In the first years of his administration the national wealth, promoted by the admirable efforts of Colbert, increased with unusual rapidity. Intellectual progress kept pace with material, and everything conspired to create a literary period of great magnificence.

The king’s military successes, too, achieved through Condé, Turenne, Luxembourg, and others, were brilliant; and he added to his kingdom Flanders, Franche-Comté, the imperial city of Strasburg, and several other important territories.

But the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 drove from the kingdom a large number of its best citizens, and crippled many branches of industry. The war of 1689-1697 against the league of Augsburg greatly exhausted the country, and that of the Spanish succession nearly reduced it to extremities; but after a contest of twelve years Louis succeeded, and by the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt (1713 and 1714) the house of Bourbon, in the person of Louis’s grandson, Philip V., inherited the best part of the Castilian monarchy.

Louis XIV. died in 1715, after an unparalleled reign of seventy-two years. The burden which he had borne was far too heavy for his weak successors; and toward the end of Louis XV.’s reign France could scarcely be ranked among the great European powers. The four wars in which she then participated, against Spain (1717-1719), during the regency of Philip of Orleans, for the succession of Poland (1733-1735), for the succession of Austria (1740-1748), and finally the seven years’ war (1756-1763), were productive only of disgrace and disaster, including the loss of Canada.

Prelude to the Revolution.—Louis XV. died in 1774, and his grandson Louis XVI. ascended the throne at a period which was perhaps the most inglorious of French history. The kingdom was on the verge of financial as well as political ruin, and it seemed evident that a disastrous crisis was approaching.

An attempt to conciliate the people was made by the restoration of the parliament of Paris; but instead of promoting reform, this body proved a hindrance to it. Turgot and Malesherbes, associated with Maurepas in the ministry, acted with considerable efficiency in the endeavor to improve the state of affairs, but were deposed through the influence of the court party. Necker, who became minister of finance in 1777, at first seemed to improve matters slightly; but the opposition of the [491] nobles and clergy to any scheme of general taxation, with other causes, led to his deposition.

His successor, Calonne, recklessly plunged the finances into a more hopeless condition than ever, and in 1786 the king was induced to call together the States-General, the really popular assembly of representatives, which had not met since 1614, and then in vain. Thenceforward there was a succession of barriers thrown down; madness set in upon the long-oppressed people, who wreaked the vengeance of a thousand years. Frightful mobs rose upon all whom they connected with their past misery. Nobles and clergy fell; the king was dethroned, and in 1793 was executed. A reign of terror set in, during which Robespierre and other fanatics, who thought they must destroy in order to build up, sent to the beheading machine, the guillotine, thousands of victims, and hoped to have swept away even the Christian religion, together with all the old abuses of power.

The Advent of Napoleon and the Directory.—When they fell in 1794, less sanguinary counsels prevailed, and, after sundry attempts at forms of government, Napoleon Bonaparte, of Corsican birth, climbed to supreme power. His course had been through victories. Belgium had been overrun, the Austrians forced back across the Rhine, the allied armies of England and Holland gradually pushed back, and Prussia and Spain forced to conclude peace. The new government began on October 28, the convention having been dissolved on the 26th. England, Russia, and Austria, in a new coalition, now began to carry on a more vigorous warfare; but Carnot’s strategic direction soon baffled it. Bonaparte was put in command of the army which was not to advance against the Austrians from Italy, and in 1796 and 1797 completely changed the condition of affairs. At the truce of Leoben (April 18, 1797) France controlled all Italy; Austria surrendered all rights in Belgium and recognized those republics which France established; and the history of France became almost wholly identified for nearly eighteen years with that of a single man, Napoleon Bonaparte.

The Consulate.—Bonaparte was chosen first consul for ten years, December 13, 1799; consul for life, August 2, 1802; then hereditary emperor, May 18, 1804. He reformed and reorganized legislation at home by the formation of the civil code, the organization of public instruction, and the improvements he introduced in all the branches of public service; while he added to his military and political glory by a new succession of triumphs, resulting in the treaties of peace signed at Presburg (1805), Tilsit (1807), and Vienna (1809).

He had now reached the height of his glory; he had placed his brothers on the thrones of Holland, Westphalia, and Spain, and his brother-in-law on that of Naples; but his power was shaken by the resistance which he met with in the Spanish peninsula (1808-1813); and his prestige was ruined by his expedition to Russia in 1812. The European nations united against him, and inflicted upon him at Leipsic, October 16-19, 1813, a blow from which he never recovered.

The Restoration.—Napoleon was dethroned in April, 1814, exiled to the island of Elba, and the brother of Louis XVI. received from the conquerors the sceptre of France, now restricted to her old limits. The sudden return of Napoleon from Elba, however, overthrew this new power; and for one hundred days, from March 20 to June 28, 1815, he was again the sovereign of France; but the battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815) destroyed his power forever, and the Bourbons once more ruled the kingdom.

Louis XVIII. granted a charter to his subjects, and died in 1824 in undisturbed possession of his throne. His brother and successor, Charles X., sought popularity by supporting the Greek insurrection against Turkey and conquering Algiers; but having attempted to suspend some of the most important guarantees secured by the charter, a formidable insurrection broke out, July 27, 1830, and he was obliged to abdicate.

House of Orleans.—After a few days’ interval the head of the younger branch of the house of Bourbon, Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, was appointed “king of the French” (August 9) by the chamber of deputies. The choice, being acceptable to the middle classes or bourgeoisie, was maintained; and notwithstanding some occasional outbursts of republicanism among the people, the July monarchy, as it was called, lasted for nearly eighteen years.

Revolution of 1848.—A political manifestation in favor of parliamentary reform brought on another revolution, February 24, 1848, and France became a republic, with a provisional government in which Lamartine played the most conspicuous part; but within a few months the majority of the constituent assembly, frightened by socialistic movements and a terrible civil struggle in the capital (June 23-26), became hostile to the new form of government. On December 10, 1848, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I., was elected president, for a term of four years. On December 2, 1851, the president dissolved the assembly, assumed dictatorial powers, and appealed to the people to sanction his act by their votes. He was reëlected president for a term of ten years; a new constitution was promulgated; and finally, on November 7, 1852, the senate proposed the reëstablishment of the empire.

Second Empire.—The empire was proclaimed, December 2, 1852, and Louis Napoleon ascended the throne with the title of Napoleon III. The chief event of the early portion of this reign was the Crimean war, which largely increased the military prestige of the nation, as well as the popularity and strength of Napoleon’s rule. The war with Austria (1859) left France in a position of even greater authority than before in European politics. In 1860 Savoy and Nice were ceded to France by Italy. The emperor’s schemes for establishing the Hapsburg prince Maximilian on the throne of Mexico proved so ignominious a [492] failure as to do much toward undermining the opinion of his power that had been held in Europe.

The course which Napoleon pursued during the Prusso-Austrian war in 1866 did not tend to restore confidence in him. In 1867 he aided in defending the power of the pope against the Garibaldians. In 1868 the growth of public opinion against the emperor was conspicuous; in 1869 much excitement was caused by the exposure of the confusion in financial affairs; and in 1870 popular disturbances, fomented by Rochefort, broke out on the acquittal of Pierre Bonaparte for the shooting of Victor Noir.

The demand for reforms was answered by a new constitution, which was finally confirmed by a plebiscite on May 8.

Franco-Prussian War.—In the spring of 1870 there were unmistakable manifestations of a hostile spirit on the part of the government against Prussia. The declaration of the candidature of the Hohenzollern prince Leopold for the throne of Spain furnished an immediate cause of war. The voluntary withdrawal of Prince Leopold followed the remonstrances of France, but the latter demanded also of the king of Prussia an explicit promise that no prince of Hohenzollern should ever be a candidate for the Spanish crown. This demand was refused, and war was declared by France, July 19.

On the 28th Napoleon went to Metz, where he personally took command of his forces; and on August 2 the king of Prussia, accompanied by Bismarck and Moltke, joined his army. On the latter day the French bombarded and took Saarbruck. On August 4 the German advance, under the crown prince, defeated the French at Weissenburg, and on the 6th totally defeated MacMahon at Worth.

On the 11th the three German armies under Steinmetz, Prince Frederick Charles, and the crown prince effected a junction on French territory, with headquarters at Saarbruck. By the 14th Steinmetz had advanced to near Metz, where the French army was concentrated under Bazaine, and on the afternoon of the same day won a victory at Courcelles; on the 16th Frederick Charles won a second battle at Mars-la-Tour; and on the 18th the combined forces under King William again defeated the French at Gravelotte.

Bazaine now drew within the fortifications, and the Germans, leaving a portion of their forces to invest the city, marched against MacMahon at Chalons. News reaching them of the advance of MacMahon to relieve Bazaine, they turned northward to intercept him. On the 30th they surprised a corps of General Failly near Beaumont, and fought a battle which resulted in the retreat of the French beyond the Meuse and their final withdrawal to Sedan.

The battle of Sedan was begun by the Germans September 1. After severe fighting they drove the French from all sides to that fortress, where, almost surrounded and without provisions or defenses, they were compelled to capitulate. The emperor surrendered to King William in person, September 2, and was carried a prisoner to Wilhelmshohe. In dead, wounded, and prisoners, the French thus lost in the last few days an army of nearly one hundred and fifty thousand men.

The Third Republic.—The news of Sedan created intense excitement at Paris, and the popular indignation against Napoleon and his party was without bounds. Gambetta proclaimed the republic; and a provisional government of national defense was at once formed, with General Trochu for president and Jules Favre for vice-president. The empress took refuge in England.

The German army entered Rheims on the 5th, and on the 15th they had closely approached Paris. A sortie by General Ducrot on the 19th was repulsed, and a few days later the actual investment of the city was begun. The German headquarters were established at Versailles. A portion of the French government of national defense remained in the capital; another portion, in order to be in communication with the provinces, was established at Tours. Toul surrendered on the 23rd. Strasburg capitulated in the night of September 27-28. Soissons and Schlettstadt capitulated respectively on October 16 and 24, and on the 27th Metz also yielded, Bazaine surrendering one hundred and seventy-three thousand men.

In the meantime the situation of Paris had become hopeless; and on January 28 arrangements for its capitulation had been concluded and provision made for a general armistice. On February 17, 1871, Thiers was chosen chief executive of the republic. On the 26th the preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Versailles, by which France ceded to Germany the greater part of Alsace and Lorraine, and agreed to pay as war indemnity five milliards of francs. The definitive treaty with Germany had been signed at Frankfort on the 10th of May.

In 1873 the Thiers administration was overthrown and replaced by one under Marshal MacMahon. In 1875 a Parliamentary Republic was established, and still remains under the guarantees of the constitution. In 1877 MacMahon was succeeded by Grevy. By this time the republic was fairly firmly established and withstood many attacks. A policy of colonial expansion was adopted, particularly in Egypt, but in spite of the dual control France and England established in 1879, France, in 1882, refused to help England in Egypt, and lost any control she had there.

The Triple Alliance of 1883 isolated France, but in 1890 she confronted the Triple Alliance with the Dual Alliance—between France and Russia—and made great attempts to establish colonial power.

The outstanding events of 1914, 1915 and 1916 were those connected with France’s participation in the European war as the leading military power of the Entente Allies. (See further under [Great Wars of History].)

Books of Reference.—The chief histories are those of Henri Martin, Michelet, Dareste, Lavalee, Sismondi, Kitchin Lavisse, and Durny. These works cover the general history of France. See, in addition, Tocqueville’s The Ancient Regime; Taine’s French Revolution; Carlyle’s History of the French Revolution; Fyffe’s History of Europe; Hazlitt’s Life of Napoleon Bonaparte.

COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES

The colonies and dependencies of France (including Algeria and Tunis) have an area roughly estimated at about 4,000,000 square miles with a population of about 41,600,000. Algeria, however, is not regarded as a colony but as a part of France, and Tunis is attached to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

The area and population of the colonial domain of France at the beginning of the European war was as follows:

Colonies and
Year of Acquisition		Area in
Sq. Mi.		Population
In Asia:
India (1679)196277,000
Annam (1884) -309,98016,317,000
Cambodia (1862)
Cochin-China (1861)
Tonking (1884)
Laos (1892)
Total Asia310,17616,594,000
In Africa:
Algeria (1830-1902)343,5005,231,850
Sahara (——)1,544,000800,000
Tunis (1881)45,7791,500,000
Senegal (1637-1880) -1,585,810- 915,000
Upper Senegal & Niger (1893)4,415,000
Guinea (1843)1,498,000
Ivory Coast (1843)890,000
Dahomey (1893)749,000
Mauritania (1893)400,000
Congo (1884)669,2805,000,000
Reunion (1649)970201,000
Madagascar (1643-1896)226,0152,701,000
Mayotte (1843)84096,000
Somali Coast (1864)5,790180,000
Total Africa4,421,93424,576,850
In America:
St. Pierre and Miquelon (1635)966,000
Guadeloupe (1634)688182,000
Martinique (1635)378182,000
Guiana (1626)34,00027,000
Total America35,222397,000
In Oceania:
New Caledonia (1854-1887)7,20055,800
Tahiti, etc. (1841-1881)1,54430,000
Total Oceania8,74485,000
Grand Total4,776,12641,653,650
SOVEREIGNS AND PRESIDENTS OF FRANCE

Giving, in order, the Royal Houses to which the French sovereigns belonged; Period of Rule in Chronological order; names of kings, emperors, regents and presidents; dates of birth and death of each; their genealogy or lineage; and other important personal facts.

THE MEROVINGIANS

420-428.—Pharamond (?-?); life obscure.

428-448.—Clodion (?-?); son of Pharamond; king of the Salic Franks.

448-457.—Merovaeus (411?-457); founder of the Merovingian Dynasty.

458-481.—Childeric (?-481); son of Merovaeus, king of the Franks.

481-511.—Clovis I. (465-511); son of Childeric; real founder of the Frankish monarchy. At his death his four sons divided the empire.

Childebert; Paris.

Clodomir; Orleans.

Thierry; Metz; and

Clotaire; Soissons.

558-561.—Clotaire I.; sole ruler (497-561); fourth son of Clovis. Upon his death the kingdom was divided between four sons: viz.

Charibert, ruled at Paris.

Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy.

Sigebert, at Metz and Chilperic, at Soissons; both assassinated by Fredegonde.

575-596.—Childebert II. (570-596); son of Sigebert and Princess Brunehaut; ruled under the regency of his mother; poisoned.

613-628.—Clotaire II. (584-628); son of Chilperic I.

628-638.—Dagobert I., the Great (602-638); son of Clotaire II.; divided the kingdom between his two sons:

Clovis II., Burgundy and Neustria.

Sigebert II., Austrasia.

670-673.—Childeric II. (649-673); son of Clovis II.; assassinated, with his queen and his son Dagobert, in the forest of Livri.

687-714.—Pepin II., of Heristal (?-714); ruled the whole kingdom of the Franks during the reigns of Dagobert II., Clovis III., Childebert III., and Dagobert III.

715-720.—Chilperic II. (?-720); deposed by Charles Martel, mayor of the palace in 717, restored in 720, but soon dies at Noyon.

720-737.—Thierry IV. (712-737); son of Dagobert III.; reigned under the influence of Charles Martel who took the title “duke of the Franks.”

737-741.—Interregnum, till death of Charles Martel, 741.

742-752.—Childeric III. (?-755); son of Childeric II.; last of the Merovingians; made king by Pepin, 742; deposed by him, 752.

THE CARLOVINGIANS

751-768.—Pepin the Little (714-768); son of Charles Martel.

768-814.—Charlemagne, or Charles the Great (742-814); son of Pepin the Short; Charles crowned Emperor of the West, by Leo III., 800. Carloman reigned with him three years.

814-840.—Louis I., le Debonnaire (778-840); son of Charles the Great; emperor; dethroned, but restored.

843-877.—Charles the Bald (823-877); younger son of Louis le Debonnaire, king; emperor in 875; poisoned by Zedechias, a Jewish physician.

877-879.—Louis II. (846-879); son of Charles the Bald.

879-884.—Louis III. (863-882) and Carloman (?-?); sons of Louis II.; the former died 882, and Carloman reigned two years alone.

884-888.—Charles the Fat (839-888); son of Louis the German; usurps right of Charles the Simple.

888-898.—Count Eudes (?-898); Eudes, or Hugh, count of Paris.

898-922.—Charles the Simple (879-929); son of Louis the Stammerer; Charles III. (or IV.) was deposed, and died in prison in 929; he married Edgiva, daughter of Edward the Elder, of England, by whom he had a son, King Louis IV.

922-936.—Raoul (Rudolph of Burgundy) (?-?); Rudolph, or Raoul, duke of Burgundy; elected king, but never acknowledged by the southern provinces.

936-954.—Louis IV. (921-954); son of Charles the Simple; taken by his mother into England, died by fall from his horse.

954-986.—Lothaire (941-986); son of Louis IV.; ruled with his father from 952, succeeds him at fifteen years of age, protected by Hugh the Great; poisoned.

986-987.—Louis V. (966-987); son of Lothaire; poisoned (supposed by his queen, Blanche); last of race of Charlemagne.

HOUSE OF CAPET

987-996.—Hugh Capet, the Great (?-996); eldest son of Hugh the Abbot; usurps the rights of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis IV. From him this race of kings is called Capetians.

996-1031.—Robert II. (971-1031); son of Hugh Capet; surnamed the Sage; died lamented.

1031-1060.—Henry I. (1011?-1060); son of Robert II.

1060-1108.—Philip I., the Fair (1052-1108); son of Henry I.; succeeded at eight years of age; ruled at fourteen.

1108-1137.—Louis VI. (le Gros) (1078-1137); son of Philip I.

1137-1180.—Louis VII. (1120-1180); son of Louis VI.; surnamed the Young; reigned with his father for some years.

1180-1223.—Philip II., Augustus (1165-1223); son of Louis VII.; succeeds at fifteen; crowned at Rheims in his father’s lifetime.

1223-1226.—Louis VIII. (1187-1226); son of Philip Augustus.

1226-1270.—Louis IX., or St. Louis (1215-1270); son of Louis VIII.; succeeded at fifteen, under his mother as guardian and regent; died in camp before Tunis.

1270-1285.—Philip III., the Bold (1245-1285); son of Louis IX.

1285-1314.—Philip IV., the Fair (1268-1314); son of Philip III.; king in his seventeenth year.

1314-1316.—Louis X. (1239-1316); son of Philip IV.; surnamed Hutin, an old word for headstrong, or mutinous.

1316-1321.—Philip the Hardy (1294-1322) second son of Philip IV.

1322-1328.—Charles IV., the Fair (1294-1328); youngest son of Philip the Fair.

HOUSE OF VALOIS

1328-1350.—Philip VI., of Valois (1293-1350); son of Charles of Valois.

1350-1364.—John II., the Good (1319-1364); son of Philip VI.; died suddenly in the Savoy in London.

1364-1380.—Charles V., the Wise (1337-1380); son of John II.

1380-1422.—Charles VI. (1368-1422); son of Charles V.

1422-1461.—Charles the Victorious (1403-1461); son of Charles VI.

1461-1483.—Louis XI. (1423-1483); son of Charles VII.; able but cruel.

1483-1498.—Charles VIII. (1470-1498); son of Louis XI.; the Father of his People; great-grandson of Charles V.

1498-1515.—Louis XII. (1462-1515); a descendant of the younger son of Charles V.

1515-1547.—Francis I. (1494-1547); son of Charles, Count of Angoulême; called the Father of Letters; great-great-grandson of Charles V.

1547-1559.—Henry II. (1519-1559); son of Francis I.; died of accidental wound by comte de Montmorency at the tournament for nuptials of his sister with the duke of Savoy.

1559-1560.—Francis II. (1543-1560); eldest son of Henry II.; married Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots.

1560-1574.—Charles IX. (1550-1574); second son of Henry II.; Catherine de’ Medici, his mother, regent.

1574-1589.—Henry III. (1551-1589); third son of Henry II.; elected king of Poland; last of the house of Valois; stabbed by Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar.

HOUSE OF BOURBON

1589-1610.—Henry IV., the Great (1553-1610); son of Antoine de Bourbon, King of Navarre; son-in-law of Henry II.; assassinated by Francis Ravaillac.

1610-1643.—Louis XIII., the Just (1601-1643); son of Henry IV.

1643-1715.—Louis XIV., the Great (1638-1715); son of Louis XIII. and Anne of Austria.

1715-1774.—Louis XV. (1710-1774); great-grandson of Louis XIV.

1774-1793.—Louis XVI. (1754-1793); grandson of Louis XV.; ascended the throne in his twentieth year; married the archduchess Marie Antoinette, of Austria, May, 1770; dethroned, July, 1789; guillotined, January, 1793, and his queen, October following.

.........—Louis XVII., son of Louis XVI., never reigned; and died in prison, supposed by poison, June, 1795, aged ten years two months.

THE FIRST REPUBLIC

1792-1795.—National convention; first sat September 21, 1792; it consisted of seven hundred and fifty members.

1795-1799.—Directory nominated. November 1, 1795; the Directory (Lareveillère Lepaux, Letourneur, Rewbell, Barras, and Carnot) nominated November; abolished, and Bonaparte, Ducos, and Siéyès appointed an executive commission, November, 1799.

THE CONSULATE

1799-1804.—Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821); Cambacérès (1753-1824); and Lebrun (1739-1824), appointed consuls, December, 1799. Napoleon appointed consul for ten years, May, 1802; for life, August, 1802.

THE EMPIRE

(Established by the Senate, May 18, 1804.)

1804-1814.—Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. (1769-1821), decreed Emperor, May 18, 1804. He renounced the thrones of France and Italy, and accepted the Isle of Elba for his retreat, April 5, 1814. Again appeared in France, March 1, 1815. Was defeated at Waterloo, June 18, 1815. Abdicated in favor of his infant son, June 22, 1815. Banished to St. Helena, where he died, May 5, 1821.

.........—Napoleon II. (1811-1832); never reigned; he was Napoleon’s son by his second wife, Maria Louisa of Austria, and later created Duke of Reichstadt, and King of Rome.

RESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS

1814-1824.—Louis XVIII. (1755-1824); brother of Louis XVI.; married Marie-Josephine-Louise of Savoy; entered Paris, and took possession of the throne, May, 1814; obliged to flee, March, 1815; returned July, same year; died without issue.

1824-1830.—Charles X. (1757-1836); younger brother of Louis XVIII.; married Marie-Thérèse of Savoy; deposed July, 1830. He resided in Great Britain till 1832, and died at Gratz, in Hungary.

HOUSE OF ORLEANS

1830-1848.—Louis Philippe (1773-1850); son of Louis-Philippe, duke of Orleans, called Egalité, descended from Philippe, duke of Orleans, son of Louis XIII.; married, 1809, Maria-Amelia, daughter of Ferdinand I., king of the Two Sicilies; raised to the throne as king of the French, 1830; abdicated, 1848; died in exile, in England.

THE SECOND REPUBLIC, 1848

February 22 to December 19, 1848.—The revolution commenced in a popular insurrection at Paris, February, 1848. The royal family escaped by flight to England; a provisional government was established, monarchy abolished, and France declared a republic.

1848-1852.—Charles Louis Napoleon (1808-1873); declared by the National Assembly President of the Republic of France; and proclaimed next day, December 20, 1848; elected for ten years, December, 1851.

THE SECOND EMPIRE

1852-1870.—Napoleon III. (1808-1873); nephew of Napoleon I.; formerly president of the French Republic as Charles Louis Napoleon; elected Emperor, November, 1852; proclaimed, December, 1852; surrendered himself a prisoner to the King of Prussia at Sedan, September, 1870; deposed at Paris, September 4; died at Chislehurst, England, and buried there.

THE THIRD REPUBLIC

1870-1871.—Committee of Public Defense.

1871-1873.—I. Louis Adolphe Thiers (1797-1877); appointed President of the French Republic by the National Assembly, 1871; resigned, 1873.

1873-1879.—II. Marshal M. E. Patrice Maurice MacMahon (1808-1893); elected president, 1873.

1879-1887.—III. François Paul Jules Grévy (1807-1891); elected president, January, 1879; reelected, 1885; resigned, December, 1887.

1887-1894.—IV. Marie-François Sadi-Carnot (1837-1894); elected president, December, 1887; assassinated, June, 1894.

1895-1899.—V. Jean Pierre Paul Casimir-Perier (1847-1907); elected president, June, 1894; resigned, January, 1895.

1899-1906.—VI. François Felix Faure (1841-1899); elected president, January, 1895; died, February, 1899.

1906-1913.—VII. Emile François Loubet (1838- ——); elected president, February, 1899.

1913- ——.— VIII. Raymond Poincaré (1860- ——); elected president, 1906.

GERMAN EMPIRE.

GERMANY (from Lat. Germania) is the English name of the country which the natives call Deutschland, and the French L’Allemagne; while internationally it is known as the German Empire (Das Deutsches Reich), especially since 1871.

The German Empire is composed of a federation of twenty-five states, with one common imperial province, the names of which, with their areas and populations, are given on a subsequent page. Heligoland was ceded by Britain to Germany in 1890.

Divisions of the Empire.—The political divisions or states of the German Empire, together with their areas and population at the last census, are given in the subjoined table:

StatesArea in
Sq. Miles		Population
at Last
Census
Kingdoms
1.Prussia134,61640,163,333
2.Bavaria29,2926,876,497
3.Saxony5,7894,802,485
4.Württemburg7,5342,435,611
Grand-Duchies
5.Baden5,8232,141,832
6.Hesse2,9661,282,219
7.Mecklenburg-Schwerin5,068639,879
8.Saxe-Weimar1,397417,166
9.Mecklenburg-Strelitz1,131106,347
10.Oldenburg2,482482,430
Duchies
11.Brunswick1,418494,387
12.Saxe-Meiningen953278,792
13.Saxe-Altenburg511216,313
14.Saxe-Coburg-Gotha764257,208
15.Anhalt888331,047
Principalities
16.Schwarzburg-Sondershausen33389,984
17.Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt363100,712
18.Waldeck-Pyrmont43361,723
19.Reuss, Junior Branch122152,765
20.Reuss, Elder Branch31972,616
21.Schaumburg-Lippe13146,650
22.Lippe-Detmold469150,749
Free-Towns
23.Lübeck115116,533
24.Bremen99298,736
25.Hamburg1601,015,707
Reichsland
26.Alsace-Lorraine5,6041,871,702
TOTAL208,78064,903,423

Location and Extent.—This combination of Germanic States extends now from the Alps and the Bohemian mountains on the south to the Baltic on the north; and from the borders of France, Belgium, and Holland, on the west, to those of Russia on the east; the greatest distance across it from east to west and from north to south being about five hundred miles. The coast-line measures about nine hundred and fifty miles. The most remarkable features of the coast are the expansions of the river mouths in the Baltic; the lagoons called the Kurische Haff, Frische Haff, and Stettiner Haff; the estuaries of the Elbe and Weser; and the rounded inlets of Jade Bay and the Ems mouth, on the North Sea.

The mountains on the south and the sea on the north give natural frontiers for the most part, but west and east artificial boundaries are marked out, which correspond only in a few parts with the ethnographic limits of Germanic and Romanic peoples on the one side, and Germanic and Slavonic on the other.

Surface Characteristics.—The surface of the empire falls naturally into three divisions: the lowlands in the north, the table-land of the south, and the basin of the Middle Rhine.

The Lowlands are part of the Great European plain, and are largely occupied with sandy tracts, with here and there deposits of peat. They are well watered, and in certain districts fertile, while the monotony of their level is broken by two lines of hills whose heights vary from five hundred to eight hundred feet, and which may be said to extend roughly from the Mecklenberg to the Vistula, and from the moors of Lüneburg in Hanover to Silesia.

Table-lands.—In the southern plateau of Bavaria, the Fichtelgebirge is clearly the pivot round which the other mountain systems revolve. Thus, to its northwest there rises the Thuringian Forest and the Harz Mountains, and to the northeast the Erzgebirge, the Riesengebirge, and the Sudetic Mountains. Southwest radiate the Franconian and Swabian Juras and the Schwarzwald or Black Forest heights. Westward stretch the Taunus Mountains, while beyond these, and divided only by the Rhine, are the ridges of the Vosges. In the extreme southeast of Bavaria the Tyrolese or Noric Alps follow the northern bank of the Inn, and from this range rises the Zugspitze (nine thousand seven hundred feet), which is the highest summit in the whole empire. Between Basle and Mannheim, the Middle Rhine is splendidly sheltered by the Vosges and the Black Forest, which guard its course to left and right. (See further under [the Rhine].)

Rivers.—By far the greater part of the country is drained northwards to the Baltic and the North Sea by its navigable highways, the Vistula, Oder, Elbe, Weser, and Rhine. The southeastern corner alone belongs to the upper basin of the Danube, flowing towards the Black Sea. (See [Danube].)

The Vistula and the Oder are Baltic waterways, but more important from a commercial point of view are the Elbe, with its chief [496] affluents the Mulde, Havel, and the Saale, and the great Rhine, which both empty into the North Sea, along with the smaller Ems and the Weser, which latter is the only purely German stream. This fact is worth noticing, as the sources of the Oder, Elbe, and Vistula must be traced in Austria, and sections only of the Rhine and Danube traverse the empire.

Climate.—Broadly speaking, the general contours are not favorable to climate; for the level exposed flats, north and east offer no resistance to the passage in winter of the dry, piercing winds from Siberia and the Arctic, while to the south and west the mountainous tracts form effectual barriers against the moist Anti-trades. Extremes of temperature increase eastward in proportion to the distance from the Atlantic. In the warmer latitudes of the south, the elevations counteract the natural tendency to grow hotter, so that Ratisbon has the same temperature as Hamburg. In the Upper Harz the rainfall reaches sixty-six inches, but the mean annual precipitation is only about twenty inches. On the whole the climate may briefly be described as continental. It should be noted that the general slope of the country is from the southeast to northwest, that is, away from the sun, and also that the Rhine valley is so delightfully sheltered that it reaps the full benefit of its warm latitude, and thus enjoys excellent weather conditions.

Internal Communications.—The commercial prosperity of the empire may in some measure be traced to the excellence of the railways, the majority of which are managed by the state. Berlin is splendidly provided with communications by rail, and it may with truth be said that it is within twenty-four hours’ reach of almost every point in the empire. Further, the trunk systems have many of them an international importance; for the great Oriental express from Paris to Constantinople traverses the line from Strassburg to Vienna through Munich, while Paris is linked with the remote Siberia by means of the lines from Cologne to Berlin and from Berlin to Warsaw. Berlin is also directly connected with Breslau, Hamburg, Danzig, and Königsberg. From Frankfort-on-Main, which is the trading center between north and south Germany, lines radiate to Cologne, Ostend, Antwerp, Flushing, Rotterdam, and Berlin northward, and in a southerly direction to Strassburg, Basle, Munich, and Vienna, while east and west it is joined up with Dresden, Breslau and Metz.

Domestic commerce has been further facilitated by an elaborate network of canals. By far the most important of these is the Kaiser-Wilhelm Canal (sixty-one miles long), which unites the North Sea and the Baltic. The Dortmund-Ems (one hundred and fifty miles long) and the Elbe-Trave (forty-three miles long) have only recently been completed. Since the building of the Rhine and Rhone canal through Mulhaüsen, it has been possible for a barge to pass from Rotterdam to Marseilles without unloading.

The union of the Danube and Rhine is effected by the Ludwigs canal, and that of the Seine and Rhine by the Rhine and Marne Canal. A number of canals, including the Teltow (opened in 1906), serve to connect the Spree, and therefore Berlin, with the Oder and the Elbe, the Oder and Vistula being joined by what is known as the Bromberger Canal.

Productions and Industries.—Following this distribution of climate, the forests which still cover a great part of Germany, and form a feature of its landscapes, are chiefly of the hardier pines in the north and east, and of deciduous trees in the south and west. About sixty-one per cent of the surface of the empire is suitable for cultivation, the forests occupy twenty-five per cent, and the uncultivable moors and mountain tracts only eight per cent.

Agriculture.—There are sixty-five million acres of cultivated soil, and over twenty-one million acres of grass and pasture lands. Rye and oats are the chief grains, the former flourishing in the north despite the drawbacks of poor climate and soil. Almost as much land is devoted to potatoes as to rye; for the sandy plains of western Prussia and Pomerania seem to suit this crop equally well. Flax, hemp, and the beet—the last for the sugar industry—are grown in Saxony and in the Baltic provinces, especially in Hanover. The vine covers the dry, sunny slopes of the Vosges, and is also extensively grown along the Rhine. The rich alluvial soils of the sheltered valleys in the southwest are also favorable to the production of tobacco and hops, which are accordingly cultivated with success in Baden, Hesse, and Bavaria.

Minerals.—Germany is rich in minerals, especially in coal and iron. The great industrial activity of the country very largely depends on the fact that these two minerals are found together, and moreover in proximity to navigable water-courses. In the Rhine basin the coal beds follow the courses of the Ruhr, Saar, and Ill, and excellent iron ore is found in both the Ruhr and Saar coal fields. Coal is also found in Silesia, while the Saxon mines in the Elbe basin yield chiefly the lignite variety.

Almost one half of the zinc produced in the world is mined in Germany, the chief centers being at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), in Rhenish Prussia, and Königshütte, on the Oder coal fields, while nearly half the silver of Europe is produced from the silver, lead, and copper ores found in the Harz Mountains, Silesia, and the mines of Freiberg (Saxony). Most of the German copper comes from the Harz and Erzgebirge Mountains. Large quantities of rock and potassium salts are produced in Hanover, Saxony, Thuringia, and Anhalt. The mineral springs of Baden-Baden, Wiesbaden, Ems, etc., are world famous.

Manufactures.—The industrial development of the empire proceeded at an almost unprecedented rate throughout the last century. The following catalogue will give some idea of the local distribution of the various industries: Iron goods and machinery are manufactured in Prussia, Saxony, Alsace-Lorraine, and Bavaria; steel goods in Rhenish Prussia. Woolens and worsteds are produced in Saxony and the Rhine province; cotton [497] goods in Prussia, Saxony, Baden, Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine; silk at Elberfeld (Rhenish Prussia) and in Baden; and linen goods in Westphalia, Silesia, and Saxony. The Rhine and Moselle districts are important centers for light wines; Bavaria is famous for its toys, like Nuremberg for its watches and pencils, and Meissen, Dresden, and Berlin, etc., for their porcelain. Finally there are manufactories up and down the country of chemicals, beer, sugar, tobacco, leather (in Hesse-Darmstadt), and paper.

People and Language.—The German-speaking inhabitants of the empire are about ninety-three per cent of the total population; but a considerable proportion of these are not of the Germanic stock. Among the peoples retaining their own language (about four and one-fourth millions) are Poles (exclusively in eastern and northeastern Prussia), Wends (in Silesia, Brandenburg, and Saxony), Czechs (in Silesia), Lithuanians (in eastern Prussia), Danes (in Sleswick), French (in Rhenish Prussia, Alsace and Lorraine) and Walloons (about Aix-la-Chapelle in Rhenish Prussia). The Germans are divided into High and Low Germans; the language of the former is the cultivated language of all the German states; that of the latter, known as Platt-Deutsch, is spoken in the north and northwest. (See further, [Teutonic peoples], in [Book of Races].)

Education and General Culture.—Germany stands conspicuously foremost in the field of state education, and so far is without rival for the admirable systemization and for the variety and thoroughness of the technical trainings provided. It is established by law that every child from the age of six to fourteen must attend one of the elementary schools (“Volkschulen”), or some other recognized scholastic institution.

There are also a number of fully-equipped Technical High Schools, with the power of granting degrees, and some one thousand four hundred secondary schools (gymnasia, realschulen, oberrealschulen, etc.); numerous special schools of technology, agriculture, forestry, mining, commerce, military science, etc. There are twenty-one universities in the empire: at Königsberg, Berlin, Breslau, Greifswald (in Pomerania, southeast of Stralsund), Kiel, Halle, Göttingen, Münster, Bonn, Marburg, Rostock, Giessen, Jena, Leipzig, Heidelberg, Freiburg, Strassburg, Tübingen, Munich, Erlangen, and Würzburg. All of these have the four faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, and many are some of the oldest foundations of their kind in Europe.

Outside the country the best known are probably Berlin, Munich, Leipzig, and Bonn, which also have the largest numbers of undergraduates, and Göttingen, Strassburg, Heidelberg, and Jena. Four teach theology according to the Roman Catholic doctrine, while in four others the theological faculty is open to both Protestants and Roman Catholics; the remaining universities are Protestant.

Culture is further stimulated in the large towns by public libraries, learned societies, museums, art galleries, and observatories, whilst musical knowledge and appreciation diffuses itself from the highly-reputed conservatories at Leipzig, Dresden, Munich, Frankfort, and Berlin.

Religion.—The Constitution provides for entire liberty of conscience and for complete social equality among all religious confessions. The relation between Church and State varies in different parts of the empire. The Jesuit order is interdicted in all parts of Germany, and all convents and religious orders have been suppressed.

Protestantism predominates in the north and middle, and Roman Catholicism in the southeast and west, although very few states exhibit exclusively either form of faith. The Protestants belong chiefly either to the Lutheran confession, which prevails in Saxony, Thuringia, Hanover, and Bavaria east of the Rhine, or to the Reformed or Calvinistic Church, which prevails in Hesse, Anhalt, and the Palatinate. A union between these two churches has taken place in Prussia. There are five Roman Catholic archbishoprics and fourteen Roman Catholic suffragan bishoprics and six bishoprics immediately subject to Rome.

Defense.—Military service in Germany is compulsory and universal, with the usual exemptions.

Army.—By the regulations in force, every German who is capable of bearing arms must be in the standing army for seven years (generally his twentieth to his twenty-seventh year). Two years must be spent in active service and the remainder in the army of reserve. He then spends five years in the first class of the Landwehr, after which he belongs to the second class till his thirty-ninth year. Besides this, every German, from seventeen to twenty-one and from thirty-nine to forty-five is a member of the Landsturm, a force only to be called out in the last necessity. Those who pass certain examinations require to serve only one year with the colors, and are known as “volunteers.”

The wide stretches of unprotected borderlands have obliged the Germans to consider very carefully the question of frontier defenses. Thus the empire is at present divided into ten “fortress districts,” in which the following are the chief fortified cities: Danzig, Königsberg Posen, Neisse, Spandau, Magdeburg, Küstrin, Mainz, Ulm, Metz, Cologne, Koblenz, Kiel, and Strassburg.

Navy.—Rapid progress has been made in recent years in the formation of a German navy. Prussia took the initiative in gathering together a fleet, but by 1851 it had grown only to fifty-one vessels, thirty-six of which were small gunboats. However, an advance was made in 1867, when every vessel in the navy flew the national colors (black, white, and red), and during the last twenty-five years the measure of progress has been phenomenal. (See further, Armies and Navies of the World.)

Kiel is the chief naval station on the Baltic, and Wilhelmshaven on the North Sea, these two bases being connected by the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal across the Schleswig-Holstein peninsula. Other naval establishments are Danzig, Cuxhaven, and Sonderburg.

Museum of
Fine Arts		CathedralRoyal PalaceNational
Monument

PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE HEART OF BERLIN, SHOWING THE MUSEUM OF ART, LUSTGARTEN, NEW CATHEDRAL, ROYAL PALACE, AND NATIONAL MONUMENT.

Large [left-hand side] of panorama (85 kB)
Large [right-hand side] of panorama (82 kB)

Chief Cities.—German cities and towns are officially distinguished as large cities (with one hundred thousand inhabitants and upwards); medium cities (twenty thousand to one hundred thousand inhabitants); small cities (five thousand to twenty thousand inhabitants); and country towns (two thousand to five thousand inhabitants). According to the latest census, the population of cities over fifty thousand was as follows:

CitiesStateLatest
Population
BerlinPrussia2,070,695
HamburgHamburg932,166
MunichBavaria595,053
LeipzigSaxony587,635
DresdenSaxony, K.546,882
ColognePrussia516,167
BreslauPrussia511,891
Frankfort-on-MainPrussia414,598
DusseldorfPrussia357,702
NürnbergBavaria332,651
CharlottenburgPrussia305,181
HanoverPrussia302,384
EssenPrussia294,629
ChemnitzSaxony, K.287,340
StuttgartWürttemberg285,589
MagdeburgPrussia279,685
BremenBremen246,827
KönigsbergPrussia245,853
RixdorfPrussia237,378
StettinPrussia236,145
DuisburgPrussia229,478
DortmundPrussia214,333
KielPrussia211,044
MannheimBaden193,379
Halle-on-SaalePrussia180,551
StrassburgAlsace-Lorraine178,913
SchoenebergPrussia172,902
AltonaPrussia172,533
DanzigPrussia170,347
ElberfeldPrussia170,118
GelsenkirchenPrussia169,530
BarmenPrussia169,201
PosenPrussia156,696
AachenPrussia156,044
CasselPrussia153,078
BrunswickBrunswick143,534
BochumPrussia136,916
KarlsruheBaden134,161
CrefeldSaxony, K.129,412
PlauenPrussia121,104
Mülheim-on-RuhrPrussia112,602
ErfurtPrussia111,461
MainzHesse110,634
WiesbadenPrussia109,033
AugsburgBavaria102,293
LübeckLübeck98,620
MülhausenAlsace-Lorraine95,041
MünsterPrussia90,283
OberhausenPrussia89,897
HagenPrussia88,625
BonnPrussia87,967
DarmstadtHesse87,085
GörlitzPrussia85,790
SpandauPrussia84,919
WürzburgBavaria84,387
FreiburgBaden83,328
Ludwigshafen-on-RhineBavaria83,297
BielefeldPrussia78,334
OffenbachHesse75,593
LindenPrussia73,352
ZwickauSaxony, K.73,538
KönigshüttePrussia72,642
RemscheidPrussia72,176
PforzheimBaden69,084
MetzAlsace-Lorraine68,445
Frankfort on O.Prussia68,230
BeuthenPrussia67,718
HarburgPrussia67,024
GleiwitzPrussia66,983
LiegnitzPrussia66,620
FürthBavaria66,535
München GladbachPrussia66,410
OsnabrückPrussia65,956
RostockMeckl.-Sch.65,377
PotsdamPrussia62,224
FlensburgPrussia60,931
ElbingPrussia58,631
BrombergPrussia57,585
DessauAnhalt56,606
KoblenzPrussia56,478
UlmWürttemberg55,817
KaiserslauternBavaria53,803
Brandenburg-on-HavelPrussia53,595
Mülheim-on-RheinPrussia53,428
CITIES OF PRUSSIA

Berlin, capital both of the Empire and of the Kingdom of Prussia, is by far the most important center of population in Germany. It lies on both sides of the Spree, and by the Spandau and Tetlow canals to the Havel it is linked with the systems of the Oder and the Elbe. It is eighty-four miles from Stettin and one hundred and eighty miles from Hamburg, and is the center of the great Prussian state railway system. (See [Internal Communications].)

The city itself is served by an Outer Circle (Ringbahn) and by the Stadtbahn, running east and west through the city. There are electric surface lines, an overhead, or elevated, electric railway, and a shallow underground railway.

On an island in the center of the city stands the Royal Palace, a foursquare pile built at different times between 1451 and the present day. It stands in the Schloss-platz, and is one of the few old buildings in Berlin, dating from the sixteenth century. It contains over six hundred rooms, including the great White Salon, and halls of the Black and Red Eagle orders.

Unter den Linden.—From this island stretches westward the noblest street in Berlin, Unter den Linden (“under the lime trees”). The triumphal arch at the west end of the street, the Brandenburg Gate (a copy, made in 1789-93, of the Propylæa at Athens), forms the entrance to the large park (six hundred and thirty acres) of the Thiergarten. In the east is the magnificent avenue of the Siegesallee or Avenue of Victory, adorned with thirty-two marble groups of the rulers of Prussia and Brandenburg. In the Unter den Linden are many splendid public edifices, among which are the Armory, the Opera House, the Royal Library, the new Town Hall, the University, the palaces of William I. and of Frederick III., and the monument to Frederick the Great by Rauch.

In the northeast of the Thiergarten stands the most imposing building of the city, the Imperial Diet or Parliament, erected from designs by Wallot, in 1884-94, at a cost of over five million dollars.

Business Quarter.—The Friedrichs-Stadt is the business center of Berlin, and the streets in this section are interesting. The banking street, Behrenstrasse, and the Wilhelmstrasse, the official quarter, where is the imperial chancellor’s palace, lie to the south. Fine shops and restaurants line the Friedrichstrasse, while Viktoriastrasse is one of the many thoroughfares of the fashionable district, southwest. Königstrasse and Kaiser Wilhelmstrasse [500] are the business streets of the city proper.

The Tempelhofn Feld, also to the south, is the parade and review ground of the Berlin garrison.

The most striking bridge is the Schloss-brücke, or Palace bridge, by F. Schinkel, with colossal marble figures. It leads from Unter den Linden, to the Lustgarten, a park in which stands an equestrian statue of Frederick William III.

DRAMATIC THEATER, GENSDARMEN MARKT

The Opera Platz contains statues of five generals, by Rauch, and is bounded by the Palace, University, Opera House, and St. Hedwig’s Church, an imitation of the Roman Pantheon. The Schauspielhaus, the leading dramatic theater, is in Gensdarmen Markt. The Schauspielhaus, with the church on each side, is considered one of the finest architectural groups in Berlin.

Statues and Art Museums, etc.—No city has so many statues and monuments to the national heroes, kingly or military, or to those famed in literature, science and art.

GERMAN CATHEDRAL, GENSDARMEN MARKT

The Royal Library, once in the palace, is now in the new building, built in 1909 on Unter den Linden; it contains nearly five million printed books. The University Library is housed in the same building. There is a large public library and twenty-eight municipal libraries.

The Royal Museum, in the Lustgarten, north of the Schlossplatz, is divided into the Old and the New Museums, containing the treasures of classical and mediæval sculpture, the Egyptian collection, etc. The Old Museum is the finest building in the city, with a grand Ionic portico, adorned with colossal bronze groups, and richly frescoed halls. It has vast collections of antiquities; the halls of Greek, Roman, mediæval, and modern sculptures; and the Hall of the Heroes.

The New Museum is entered from the Old, and contains Kaulbach’s famous mural paintings, the Egyptian museum, an immense collection of casts, twelve cabinets of Northern antiquities four rooms of objects of art, and five hundred thousand engravings. It has a renaissance façade to the east. Opposite is the new Corinthian temple of the National [501] Gallery, which contains a magnificent and world-renowned collection of ancient and modern paintings.

Berlin Suburbs.—In recent years there has been a remarkable expansion of the suburban districts of Berlin, residential sites have sprung up in the pine woods and by the lakes of the Havel to the northwest, and Spandau, Charlottenburg, and Potsdam may almost be regarded as suburbs.

THE BOURSE, OR EXCHANGE, BERLIN

Potsdam, “the Versailles of Prussia,” with its palaces and parks, is sixteen miles from Berlin, among wooded hills and the lakelike expanses of the Havel. Here is the Sans Souci Palace, built by Frederick the Great, and full of reminiscences of him. Near by are the Picture-Gallery, the Orangery (adorned with fine statuary), and the Sicilian Garden. The New Palace has two hundred richly adorned rooms, with fine paintings, and a noteworthy Marble Saloon.

The Marble Palace is north of Potsdam, and has many paintings. Babelsberg is a new Gothic palace, with rich art-treasures. The Royal Palace (1660) is full of relics of the Great Frederick. The Garrison Church contains his tomb and military trophies. The Church of Peace is a noble Ionic basilica, with masterpieces of sculpture. The famous Sans Souci fountains play on summer Sunday afternoons.

Industries of Berlin.—In its industries Berlin is almost as varied as London, but machinery, especially locomotive and electrical, woolens, dyeing, furniture and metal work are the chief. It is beginning to rival Leipzig in book production, and its breweries are large. Besides being the center of the great trade in corn and other cereals of Eastern Europe, its great banks exercise increasing international influence.

A Center of Education and Culture.—The famous Freidrich Wilhelm University, founded in 1810, now the largest in numbers in Germany, the splendid technical institution at Charlottenburg, and its numerous schools of all ranks, make Berlin one of the greatest intellectual and educational centers of the world. As the seat of the Imperial Court, and of the Imperial Parliament and administration, it is also the social center of the empire, and its modern wealth and luxury have made it a growing rival to Paris as a city of pleasure.

Since 1878 the city has been practically rebuilt; the sudden growth of population has resulted in much overcrowding and crushingly high rentals. Once deplorable, the sanitation, water supply, and public hygiene are now of the highest standard, and German scientific thoroughness has made it the most highly organized and best administered city in the world.

ST. HEDWIG’S CHURCH, BERLIN

THE NEW HOHENZOLLERN CATHEDRAL, BERLIN

Other Prussian Cities.—Breslau on the Oder, the capital of the mining districts of Silesia, has grown to be the second town of the kingdom, carrying on very extensive manufactures and a great trade by river and railway. It is also the emporium of the flax-growing district of Silesia. About the Rhenish coal fields, which yield half the supply of the kingdom, stand the manufacturing and trading towns of Cologne, Aachen or Aix, Barmen, Düsseldorf, Elberfeld, Crefeld and Dortmund, spinning cotton, wool, linen, and silk; and the famous iron and steel works of Solingen and Essen, where Krupp’s steel guns are made.

Magdeburg, on the Elbe, and Cassel, on the Fulda, are the great manufacturing and trading towns of central Prussia. Much of the internal trade of Germany is still carried on at great annual fairs, and in this respect the two Frankforts (on the Main to the west, and on the Oder to the east) hold the most important place. Hanover, on the Leine, is the point of exchange of the mineral products of the Harz for the goods which come in by Bremen on the Weser, and has important manufactures of its own.

The chief ports belonging to Prussia are the Baltic ones—Königsberg, Danzig, Stettin, Stralsund, Memel, Rostock, Wismar, and Kiel, on the Baltic; Altona, on the Elbe, next Hamburg. Posen, on the Warthe, was the ancient capital of Poland, and is the most important fortress towards the Russian frontier. Wiesbaden is the most important and the oldest of the watering-places which have grown up round the mineral springs of Nassau. Eisleben, where Luther was born, and Erfurt, where he resided, both in Prussian Saxony, are notable points in connection with the history of the Reformation in Germany.

THE NEW PALACE AT POTSDAM

Erected by Frederick the Great, at a cost of $2,250,000. The principal rooms are the Shell Saloon, the rooms of Frederick the Great, the Marble (concert) room, and ball room.

Dresden and Other Cities of Saxony.—Dresden, its capital, finely placed on both banks of the Elbe, famous for its art treasures, has also many varied manufactures. Its architecture and its art collections have given it the name of “the German Florence.”

The old bridge, Augustusbrücke (Augustus Bridge), may be taken as the center of the most interesting part of Dresden. Immediately to the east of the Augustusbrücke, on the Alstadt side, stretches the beautiful Brühl Terrasse, whence are fine views over the river. There are high-class concerts in the Belvedere on the Brühl Terrace. Near the flight of steps to the terrace, facing the Royal Palace and Catholic Church, is the Rathaus (Town Hall) with an equestrian statue of King Albert in front.

THE ZWINGER, DRESDEN, CONTAINING THE WORLD-RENOWNED GALLERY OF PAINTINGS

The Royal Palace, just south of the Augustusbrücke, will be discovered by its lofty tower, three hundred and thirty-one feet high.

The Zwinger, to the west of the Schloss, is a range of buildings of seven pavilions, with the Museum at one corner. In the Museum are the picture gallery, with collections of engravings and drawings, and mineralogical collections, with scientific instruments.

The Picture Gallery is of world renown, containing more than two thousand four hundred paintings, mostly by Italian and Flemish masters. The gem of the collection is Raphael’s “Sistine Madonna;” other masterpieces being Titian’s “Tribute Money,” and Correggio’s “Magdalene” and “La Notte.”

The Green Vault in the Royal Palace contains an unrivaled collection of precious stones, articles wrought in gold, silver, and ivory, etc. The new Hoftheater is one of the finest theaters in Europe. Of the churches the most noted are the Frauenkirche, with its lofty dome (three hundred and ten feet high).

The so-called “Dresden china” is made for the most part at Meissen, fifteen miles from Dresden.

Leipzig is not only the seat of a famous university and the great book market of Germany, but has one of the largest annual fairs in the world, to which merchants come from all parts of the earth, even from America and China.

Chemnitz and Zwickau, beside the Saxon coal field, are the great woolen and machine-manufacturing towns of the kingdom. Freiberg is famed for its school of mines.

Cities of Bavaria.—Munich (München), the capital, stands in the midst of a bare elevated plain on the left bank of the Isar, one thousand seven hundred feet above sea-level, but has risen to importance as the central point of the great grain-growing plateau of southern Bavaria. It is the great corn depot of the country, and the place of manufacture of its favorite beer. In recent times it has become celebrated as a seat of the fine arts and for its splendid buildings.

Ancient Nürnburg, with its double line of walls, where watches, first called Nürnberg eggs, were invented, is the great seat of industry and commerce in the north of Bavaria, exporting toys which go to all parts of the world. It stands on the Ludwigs Canal, the most important one in the kingdom, uniting the navigable tributaries of the Rhine and Danube.

Augsburg, on the Lech, northwest of Munich, where the Protestants presented the Confession of Faith to Charles V., is a chief center of Bavarian trade and exchange. Würzburg, on the Main, is the old capital of Franconia, the district which was peopled by colonies of Franks in the sixth century.

Speyer or Spire and the fortress of Landau are also important places in the palatinate.

Cities of Württemberg.—Stuttgart, where Hegel was born, and where Schiller spent his youth, is the capital, and stands next to Leipzig and Berlin in the printing arts and book trade. The fortress of Ulm, on the Danube, where it leaves Württemberg, has a large transit trade. Heilbronn [504] is another important trading place. Tübingen is the university town.

THE PINAKOTHEK, MUNICH, FAMOUS GERMAN MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS

The little territory belonging to the house of Hohenzollern, which runs into Württemberg on the south, fell by inheritance to the king of Prussia in 1849.

Cities of Baden, and Elsass-Lothringen (Alsace-Lorraine).—Carlsruhe, the capital, and Mannheim, at the confluence of the Neckar and Rhine, are its largest towns. Heidelberg (north) and Freiburg (south) are the seats of universities. Baden-Baden in the center, the famous watering-place, gives its name to the Duchy.

The fortress of Strassburg, on the Rhine, in central Elsass, anciently a free imperial city of Germany, is the chief place in the Reichsland and its university town, noted also for its manufacture of leather-work and of beer. The cotton, wool and silk factories and machine works of the province center at Mülhausen in southern Elsass.

The fortresses of Metz and Diedenhofen or Thionville, memorable in the war of 1871, are the chief places in Lothringen.

Cities of the Smaller States.—Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck, the remaining free Hanse[6] towns, are republics, each governed by a senate and house of burgesses. Each of them has a small territory besides that occupied by the city.

[6] The Hansa or League of the North German towns was the first trade union of Europe, and dates from the thirteenth century. At one time it included eighty-five towns, and had several foreign factories.

They are the great gates of the external commerce of Germany, and from this have also become important centers for the preparation of foreign products, and of the necessaries of trading (tobacco, sugar-refining, cotton-spinning, shipbuilding). Besides the traffic brought to Hamburg and Bremen by their rivers, all the railways of the northwest converge toward them.

German Colonies.—At the commencement of the war these had a total area of 1,134,239 square miles, with a population of about 14,890,000, of whom 24,170 (including garrison and police) were whites. Of these whites about 18,500 were settled Germans.

The following is a list of the principal colonies and regions under the protection or influence of Germany, with approximate estimates of area and population:

Colonies
and
Dependencies		Date
of
Acquisition		Method of
Government		Estimated
Area
Sq. Miles		Estimated
Population
In Africa
Togoland1884 Imperial Governor 33,700 1,000,000
Kamerun1884Imperial Governor191,1303,000,000
German South West Africa1884-1890Imperial Governor322,450120,000
German East Africa1885-1890Imperial Governor384,18010,000,000
Total African Possessions1884-1890 931,460 14,120,000
In Asia
Kiauchau Bay1897 Imperial Governor 200 33,000
In the Pacific
German New Guinea
Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land1885-1886 -Imperial Governor- 70,000 -300,000
Bismarck Archipelago188520,000
Caroline Islands1899...
Palau or Pelew Islands1899560 -56,000
Marianne Islands1899250
Solomon Islands18864,200
Marshall Islands, etc.1886150
Samoan Islands
Savii1899 -Imperial Governor- 660 -37,000
Upolu1899340
Total Pacific Possessions1884-1899 96,160 393,000

PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, BERLIN

HISTORY OF GERMANY

The earliest information we have of the Germans, the peoples and the tribes who dwelt among the dense forests that stretched from the Rhine to the Vistula and from the Danube to the Baltic Sea, comes to us from the Romans.

First Contact with Romans.—The first tribes of Germanic race to come into collision with the arms of Rome were the Cimbri and Teutones, who in 113 B. C. had invaded Styria, and there met with defeat from the troops of the consul Papirius. When in 58 B. C. Cæsar began his campaigns in Gaul, he found several hordes of Germans, mostly Marcomanni and Suevi, settled between the Rhine and the Vosges, and even on the western side of these hills.

Appealed to by the Gauls of those regions to free them from their German oppressors, Cæsar inflicted a crushing defeat upon their ambitious chieftain, Ariovistus, and chased him and his followers across the Rhine. In the period 166-74 Aurelius was engaged in beating back a formidable incursion of the Marcomanni and Quadi into Roman territory. From the third century we no longer read of single tribes, but of great confederations of tribes, as the Goths, Alemanni, Franks, Frisians, Saxons, Thuringians, and others. Of the history of Germany itself we learn little more that is authentic until we come down to the times of the Franks, by whom the kingdoms of France and Germany were subsequently formed.

Henceforward, till the time of Charlemagne, Germany was occupied by a number of chieftains, who were perpetually at war with one another, except when invasions from without forced them into transitory alliance.

Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, the Frankish king, was crowned emperor of Rome by the pope in 800, and after his death his empire was partitioned among his four sons, and the result of the family struggles which followed was the separation of Germany from Gaul and of both from Burgundy and Italy by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. (See [history of France]; also [Empire of Charlemagne].)

A separate kingdom of Germany was then formed under Lewis the German. A temporary reunion of the dominions of Charlemagne—with the exception of Burgundy—was effected under Charles the Fat in 884, but he was deposed in 887 and the final separation into the East and West Frankish kingdoms was accomplished.

The inroads of the Norsemen were checked in 891 by Arnulf, but they were followed by the savage attacks of the Hungarians during the reign of Louis the Child, with whom ended the race of Charlemagne in 911.

Under Feudal System.—The royal power had now almost vanished, and the system of granting fiefs had resulted in the formation of a class of powerful local rulers—the dukes of the great groups or confederations of tribes. The maintenance of central authority at all was probably due only to external danger from Slavs, Norsemen, and Magyars, and even this could not prevent constant warfare between the great feudal lords. Conrad of Franconia, elected by the leading nobles, was unable to enforce his authority, and was, at his own suggestion, succeeded by his great enemy, Henry, Duke of Saxony.

THE BRANDENBURG GATE

at the western terminus of the Unter den Linden, was erected 1789, at a cost of three hundred and seventy thousand dollars, after the Propylæa of Athens, and is regarded as the finest archway in Europe next to the Arc de Triomphe at Paris. The Quadriga or four-horse car of Victory, by Schadow, was taken to Paris by the French in 1806, and returned 1814.

Henry I. Establishes Order.—A born leader of men, statesman and general, Henry I. (919-936) introduced a new civil and military organization. He created the burgher class by the foundation of towns, compelling every tenth freeman to labor on buildings, and these towns he made the centers for judicial administration, ceremonies and festivals, markets, and trade. He broke the power of the Magyars, subdued Danes and Slavs, and before his death private war had ceased.

Otto the Great Revives the Holy Roman Empire.—His son, Otto the Great (936-973), consolidated the royal power, and reduced the great Duchies to submission, keeping them in his own hands or in those of members of his family. In 951 he entered Italy to settle the affairs of the Lombard kingdom, but returned to cope with a revolt terminated only by the vital danger of an invasion by the Magyars, whose power was finally crushed in 955. Crowned Emperor by the Pope in 962, he set an example to subsequent German kings, who claimed the Imperial and Lombard crowns as of right; but the precedent led also to the continued absences of the German rulers in Italy and the severance of their interests from those of their own proper dominions. The sense of German nationality grew in his reign, yet this was accompanied by a weakening of central authority and the development of the power of the great vassals, dukes, and princes, ecclesiastical and secular.

Under the House of Franconia.—After his death constant civil war increased their power until their growing independence was checked by Conrad II. (1024-1039), the first of the Franconian Emperors, who rendered the mediate nobles, vassals of the great lords, less dependent on their feudal superiors, and formed a close alliance with the towns. His son, Henry III. (1039-1056), further strengthened the royal power, put down private war, and in 1043 proclaimed a general peace.

Struggle with the Papacy.—His attempted reformation of the Papacy and appointment of four German popes in succession commenced the long and fierce struggle between the Emperors and the Popes. During the minority of his son, Henry IV., the great nobles recovered much of their power. His opposition to the famous decree of Pope Gregory VII. in 1075 against the marriage of the clergy and their investiture by laymen was followed by his summons to Rome, his deposition of the Pope through a synod of German bishops, his excommunication and complete humiliation at Canossa in 1077. The dispute was only settled under his son, Henry V., by a compromise, the “Concordat of Worms,” in 1122, but the power of the Papacy had been enormously strengthened. It had attempted to dispose of the Imperial Crown, and Innocent II. even claimed to have granted it to Lothar of Saxony (1125-1137) in 1133 as to a vassal.

Famous Hohenstaufen Line.—With Conrad III. of Franconia (1137-1152) commences the line of the famous Hohenstaufen Emperors. The two great parties supporting the Pope and the Emperor now first became known as Guelfs and Ghibelines (Welfs and Waiblings). His successor, the great Frederick Barbarossa (1152-1190), was occupied in Italy during long years with the now permanent struggle against the Popes and the Italian cities supporting them. In Germany Teutonic power was extended over the Slavonic countries along the Baltic by Henry the Lion of Saxony and Albert the Bear, to whom was granted the Mark of Brandenburg. Under Frederick II. (1212-1250) the struggle with the Papacy was continued. Sentence of excommunication was [507] launched against him, and a rival king was elected, and his continued absence in Italy led to the utmost anarchy in Germany. Meanwhile the conquest of the Slavonic lands now forming a great part of Prussia progressed steadily under the Knights of the Teutonic Order and of the Order of the Sword.

The period of the Hohenstaufens was one of great brilliancy. Chivalry was promoted in the Crusades, literature was in full bloom in the works of the Minnesänger, Gothic architecture received its finest developments, the towns increased in prosperity, many serfs were freed, and codes of local customs and usages were compiled, such as the Sachsenspiegel and the Schwabenspiegel. On the other hand, the greater vassals became practically independent, and the principle of inheritance was applied to their lands and offices. The privileges usurped by the ecclesiastical and secular princes were confirmed by Frederick II. in the “Pragmatic Sanctions” of 1220 and 1232, and the right of electing the Emperor was confined to the Seven Electors.

The Interregnum.—The period of anarchy culminating in the “Great Interregnum” (1250-1273) is marked by the formation of the Rhenish Confederation of some seventy leading cities for mutual defense, and of the powerful Hanseatic League.

Beginning of the Hapsburg Line.—Rudolf of Hapsburg, elected in 1273, revived the royal authority and strictly enforced justice, but his rule was unfavorable to the growing privileges of the towns. In this respect his policy was reversed by his successor, Adolf of Nassau (1291-1298), and by his son, Albert I. (1298-1308), who even befriended the serfs and the Jews. The long struggle between the Empire and the Papacy practically ended under Louis IV. (1314-1347), by the formal declaration of the Electors in 1338 that the Papal sanction was not needed to the election of the emperor. Public peace was encouraged under Louis IV., and his friendship to the towns was constant. Industry and trade flourished more and more in the cities, and their government was now becoming more democratic through the victory of the craft-guilds over the old patrician families.

House of Luxemburg.—Charles IV. (1347-1378), the first emperor who retained his hereditary lands on election, by the “Golden Bull” in 1356 regulated the method of election and confirmed the complete sovereignty of the Electors in their own territories. In 1396 the foundations of Swiss independence were laid in the victory of the “Eidgenossen” over Duke Leopold of Austria at Sempach.

Reformation Foreshadowed.—In the reign of Sigismund (1410-1437), who united the dignities of King of Hungary, King of Bohemia, and Margrave of Brandenburg, and who was the last Emperor crowned at Rome, the Hussite war, consequent on the burning of John Huss by the Council of Constance in 1415, foreshadowed the Reformation. The Mark of Brandenburg now passed to the Hohenzollerns, under whom it was to grow into the kingdom of Prussia.

The reigns of Frederick IV. (1440-1493), and Maximilian I. (1493-1519), the husband of Mary, the heiress of Charles the Bold, last Duke of Burgundy, bring the Middle Ages to a close. The age of chivalry was ended by the invention of gunpowder and the use of mercenary troops; the realities of feudalism had passed away, the Imperial authority had dwindled to nominal control, and princes and cities had attained independence. But the Imperial dignity was now permanently connected with the House of Hapsburg and combined with great territorial possessions. The semblance and, to some extent, the reality of unity were established by the growing use of Roman law, by the constitution in 1495 of an Imperial Tribunal or Court of Appeal (the “Aulic Council”), and by the division of Germany in 1501 and 1512 into “Circles,” each with its own “States” charged to carry out the decisions of the Imperial Chamber.

Period of Charles V.—Luther’s denunciation of indulgences was made in 1517, but the full storm of the Reformation burst after the accession of Charles V. (1519-1555), who united to the Empire the entire possessions of the kingdom of Spain. At the Diet of Worms in 1521 he took up the defense of the Church, and condemned Luther as a heretic. At the same Diet an Imperial Administrative Council was established, and a “Matricula” drawn up, settling the contingents of troops to be raised by the States, both of which existed until the fall of the Empire. The Reformation now made irresistible progress; a common name, “Protestants,” was acquired by the Reformers at the Diet of Speyer in 1529, and in common statement of doctrines, the “Augsburg Confession,” was drawn up in 1530.

Thirty Years’ War.—The new and the old religions were put upon an equality by the Religious Peace of Augsburg in 1555, in which, however, the Calvinistic or Reformed Faith was not included. In the fearful struggle which followed the Reformation the Imperial authority was completely ruined. The reaction against the new doctrines, due mainly to the zeal of the Jesuits, gave fresh strength to the Catholic party, the Reformation was stamped out in Bohemia, and complete toleration was not acquired by Protestants (including both Lutherans and Calvinists) until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

This was at the close of the disastrous and merciless struggle known as the Thirty Years’ war. The result of the confused period commencing with the abdication of Charles V. in 1555 must be briefly summed up. The Empire in Germany was practically ended and was now attached to the hereditary dominions of the house of Hapsburg in Austria. The population of Germany was reduced by more than one-half; industry and trade had almost ceased to exist; enormous territorial losses had been suffered, and France and Sweden had made great acquisitions. Switzerland and the United Provinces were severed from the Empire, and had acquired complete independence. Germany emerged from the war a mere lax confederation of states, whose rulers—a race of absolute and, in most cases, coarse and selfish despots—were recognized by the Peace of Westphalia as independent. Even in the cities government had passed into the [508] hands of local oligarchies. The only bond of union was the nominal authority remaining to the emperor, and now transferred to the Diet, of passing laws, concluding treaties, and making war and peace. One completely good result of the war was that amid the prevailing anarchy were laid, by Grotius, the foundations of a system of International Law.

Rise of Prussia to Power.—The Thirty Years’ war was followed by the rise of Prussia. Brandenburg had in 1611 become united to the Duchy of Prussia, part of the possessions of the Teutonic Order, which was in 1657 declared independent of Poland, of which it had been a fief, and received further accessions under the Great Elector, Frederick William. It grew steadily in power during the long struggle against the unscrupulous aggressions of Louis XIV., and in 1701 the son of the Great Elector, Frederick I., obtained from the Emperor the recognition of the Prussian Duchy as a kingdom. In 1713 a “Pragmatic Sanction” was drawn up by the Emperor Charles VI. (1711-1740), providing for the inheritance of the Austrian dominions by his daughter, Maria Theresa, and this was ultimately guaranteed by the leading powers.

Frederick the Great and the Seven Years’ War.—But his death in 1740 was the opportunity of Prussia, where Frederick II., better known as Frederick the Great, had just ascended the throne. He immediately occupied Silesia. Maria Theresa met with enthusiastic support in Hungary, and in 1745 her husband was elected emperor as Francis I. (1745-1765). An interval of peace was followed by the Seven Years’ war, at the conclusion of which, in 1763, Prussia was confirmed in the possession of Silesia, took rank as a great Power, and became definitely the rival of Austria in German politics.

In 1765 Joseph II. succeeded to the imperial crown, becoming at the same time co-regent with his mother of the Austrian hereditary dominions. He joined with Russia and Prussia in the first partition of Poland (1772). He was succeeded by his brother Leopold, who, having died in 1792, was succeeded by his son, Francis II., who joined in 1793 in the second partition of Poland. He took the command of his army against the French in 1794, concluded the peace of Campo Formio with Bonaparte (1797); joined the second coalition against France in 1799, and concluded the treaty of Lunéville (1801).

In 1804 Francis took the title of hereditary emperor of Austria, renouncing two years later that of head of the German Empire, which, indeed, had ceased to exist, owing to the conquests of Napoleon. The latter’s secularization of the ecclesiastical states, overthrow of Austria at Austerlitz (1805) and of Prussia at Jena and Auerstädt (1806), and formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, completed the extinction of the Holy Roman Empire.

The German Confederation.—The states of Germany were again united by the treaty of Vienna (1815), in a confederation called the German Confederation (der Deutsche Bund). In 1818 a general commercial league, called the Zollverein was projected by Prussia, and was gradually joined by most of the German states, exclusive of Austria. Revolutionary outbreaks caused great disturbances in various German states in 1830 and 1848, particularly the latter. The German Diet was restored in 1851 by the efforts of Prussia and Austria, who were latterly rivals for the supremacy in the confederation.

Beginning of Bismarck’s Power.—In 1861 William I. succeeded to the throne of Prussia, and the conflicts between the liberals and his ultra-reactionary government led in 1863 to the entrance into the ministry of Otto von Bismarck, who soon after became its president and the minister of foreign affairs. On the death of Frederick VII. of Denmark, Prussia and Austria disputed the claims of Christian IX., his successor, to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, and the war which followed (1864) resulted in the cession of Schleswig-Holstein, and Lauenburg to those powers jointly.

By the treaty of Gastein, Austria and Prussia agreed to a joint occupation of the Elbe duchies; but to prevent collision it was judged prudent that Austria should occupy Holstein, and Prussia Sleswick.

Contest Between Prussia and Austria.—Already a difference of policy had begun to show itself. Prussia was believed to have the intention of annexing the duchies; while Austria began to favor the claims of Prince Frederick of Augustemburg. In the meantime, both nations were making ready for the struggle; and Italy, looking upon the quarrel as a precious opportunity to strike a blow for the liberation of Venetia, had secretly entered into an alliance with Prussia.

On July 3, 1866, was fought the decisive battle of Sadowa, in which the Austrians were routed. Not till the victorious Prussians had pushed forward towards Vienna was a truce obtained through the agency of the Emperor of the French, the Peace of Prague (August 20). Italy, though more than half-inclined to stand out for the cession by Austria of the Trentino, as well as Venetia, reluctantly agreed to the armistice (August 12).

A brief campaign sufficed for the defeat of the minor states of Germany that had joined Austria, viz.: Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt; and, after peace had at last been arranged, some of them were forced to submit to a certain loss of territory.

Independence of Austria and Union of Germany.—The war completed the dissolution of the Confederation, and secured the reconstruction of Germany on an entirely new basis. Austria was excluded from Germany, and a new confederation, the North German, was formed of the states north of the Main, under the headship of the king of Prussia. Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort were incorporated with that kingdom. Efforts to secure a further consolidation were opposed by the South German states, but the final solution of the question was at length brought about by France, whose demands resulted in the War of 1870. (See under [France].)

In this war Germany acquired Alsace and a part of Lorraine, and south Germany now [509] waived any further opposition to a consolidation of all the German states under the leadership of Prussia.

Restoration of the German Empire.—On December 3 the king of Bavaria invited the king of Prussia to restore the dignity of German emperor. Most of the other states gave their assent and the North German Reichstag on December 10 adopted a motion for the establishment of the German empire under the king of Prussia. On January 18, 1871, the restoration of the imperial dignity was solemnly proclaimed by William I. at Versailles.

Subsequently the empire was largely organized under the vigorous administration of Prince Bismarck. The parliament of the new empire soon met at Berlin, and adopted the new constitution. The main result of his foreign policy was a cordial alliance with Austro-Hungary; an alliance, in 1872, between the emperors of Germany, Austria and Russia, in which, subsequently, Italy took the place of Russia, forming what is known in European politics as the Triple Alliance.

In domestic affairs many difficulties were encountered. With the birth of the new Empire commenced the long struggle of Prince Bismarck with the Papacy. The Jesuits were expelled in 1872, and in 1873 the famous “Falk Laws” imposed secular restrictions on all ecclesiastical appointments. The strict enforcement of these laws led to intense discontent and ill-feeling among Catholics. The contest ended with the grant of many concessions and the confession by Prince Bismarck in 1887 that his policy was practically changed. The democratic movement known as Socialism, aiming at the regulation and organization by the State of labor and production, grew rapidly in strength and importance, and inaugurated an era of “labor policy” by legislation compelling employers to institute a system of insurance in favor of their work-people, since followed by the adoption of an important state-aided scheme of insurance against death and old age.

In 1888 Emperor William I. died, and the premature death, after a reign of three months, of the beloved Crown Prince, who succeeded him as Frederick III., disappointed the hopes of those who had anticipated a Liberal policy on the part of the Crown.

Accession of William II.—His son and successor, William II., took a strong view of his functions as emperor and king. His reign was immediately characterized by the further development of the labor policy inaugurated by Prince Bismarck. The emperor was not, however, generally in accord with the views of the great Chancellor, whose resignation was accepted in 1891.

Caprivi now became chancellor, and managed to negotiate a series of commercial treaties, in 1892-1894, with the countries of Central Europe (Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy), and later with Servia and Roumania, the purpose of which was to lower the import-duty on corn on condition that the foreign states favored German manufactures. These treaties at once induced the peasants to combine and in 1893 a great agricultural union was formed, called the Bund der Landwirte, with which an older association, the Deutsche Bauernbund, almost immediately coalesced.

Commercial and Colonial Expansion.—But the great features of recent German history have been the growth of German trade and commerce, the great colonial expansion in Africa and Polynesia, and the rapid increase of her navy.

MONUMENT OF VICTORY, BERLIN

Erected in the Königs Platz at the conclusion of the Franco-Prussian war of 1871. It consists of a circular temple surrounded with a colonnade of sixteen pillars, standing upon a square base or pedestal, and surmounted by a cylindrical shaft bearing a colossal gilt bronze Victory, winged and holding a wreath. The total height is one hundred and ninety-four feet. It may be ascended by an interior staircase. Upon the base are elaborate reliefs of the various campaigns commemorated.

In 1905 Germany intervened to disturb the French policy in Morocco, resulting in a conference of the powers interested at Algeciras. In 1911 Germany again intervened by sending a warship to Agadir for the protection of German property and German subjects. The action occasioned a complication of the European situation, and all but resulted in war. Germany’s claim for territorial compensation was not entertained by France, and Great Britain, as ally of France, claimed the right to be consulted if territory were to be conceded. The net result, after months of diplomatic intercommunication, was a readjustment of frontiers. (See [German Colonial Possessions].)

The history of the German Empire since 1914 is chiefly that of the leading Teutonic power in the great European war of 1914-1917.

ST. PETER’S, ROME

St. Peter’s is the largest church in the world, covering two hundred and forty thousand square feet. It cost over sixty million dollars, took one hundred and seventy-six years to build; contains many vast and beautiful chapels, tombs of the popes, many paintings by great masters, and sculptures by Bernini, Michaelangelo, Canova and Thorwaldsen.

KINGDOM OF ITALY

Modern Italy occupies the central of the three great peninsulas of southern Europe, together with Sicily, Sardinia, and some smaller islands. The peninsula, which at the Strait of Otranto approaches within less than fifty miles of Albania, is bounded west and south by that portion of the Mediterranean known as the Tyrrhenian Sea, east by the Adriatic, and north by the Alps, separating it from France, Switzerland and Austro-Hungary. The frontier with France is estimated at three hundred and seven miles; with Switzerland at four hundred and seven miles; and with Austria at four hundred and sixty-six miles. Its greatest length is seven hundred and ten miles; the breadth ranges from three hundred and fifty-one miles in the north to about twenty between the Gulfs of St. Eufemia and Squillace, but in most places is about ninety or one hundred miles. The seaboard of the peninsula extends to two thousand two hundred and seventy-two miles.

Mountains and General Configuration.—On the northern frontier the Alps sweep round in a mighty arc from Nice to Trieste, running out in places into Piedmont, Lombardy, and Venice. For the most part they rise steep and abrupt, except where their wall is pierced by long, deep valleys; and some of the loftiest peaks in the system, including Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa, belong to this mountain-girdle.

The highest mountain entirely within the kingdom is Gran Paradiso, the culminating point of the Graian Alps, in Piedmont. Between the Alps and the Apennines spreads the broad fertile Lombardo-Venetian plain, a nearly level country, which differs altogether in character from the peninsula to the south, and for a long period was politically distinct from it. Most of this great alluvial tract, which fills nearly the whole of northern Italy, belongs to the basin of the Po; it is irrigated by numerous streams and canals, and is one of the most fruitful and flourishing districts of Italy.

This great northern plain—generally but a few feet above sea-level—round which the Alps rise like a wall, is believed to have been at one period an extension of the Adriatic Gulf, which has been gradually filled up with rich alluvial soil worn down from the steep sides of the mountains by the snow-fed torrents.

The Apennines.—The form of all the more strictly peninsular part of Italy is given by the central range of the Apennines, which extends continuously through its length from the maritime Alps of France, round the head of the Gulf of Genoa, down to Cape Spartivento in the extreme south. The Apennines have their highest part, called the Gran Sasso d’Italia, “the great rock of Italy,” near the center of the long range. The slopes of these heights to the sea, northeast and southwest, are so short as to allow of only small rivers.

Nearly parallel with the southern part of the Apennine range, and westward of it, there appears a more recent chain of isolated volcanic heights. Chief of these, on the peninsula, is the cone of Vesuvius, which rises abruptly from the Campagna of Naples, above the old cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, buried by its lava streams and ashes. North of Rome, in this volcanic region, the round lakes of Bolsena and Bracciano occupy the craters of old volcanoes. Carrying the line southward, across the Tyrrhenian Sea, we come to the volcanic group of the Lipari Islands, with the ever-active volcano of Stromboli; and farther on to Mount Etna, in Sicily, the highest of European volcanoes. Almost all the rest of Sicily, not volcanic, is covered with mountains of moderate elevation, the main line of which extends along the northern side of the island from east to west as if in continuation of the course of the Apennines across the narrow Straight of Messina.

Islands and their Surface.—The island of Sardinia, separated from Corsica by the Strait of Bonifacio, one hundred and fifty miles long from north to south, is for the most part mountainous, especially along the eastern side, in the middle of which rises the granitic Mount Gennargentu.

The island of Elba, famous as the place of Napoleon’s exile, between Corsica and the peninsula, eighteen miles long, is high, its western part being formed by Mount Capanne, which rises to three thousand three hundred and twenty-three feet. Capri, south of the Bay of Naples, where the Emperor Tiberius passed the last ten years of his life, and Caprera, Garibaldi’s home, on the north coast of Sardinia, are other noteworthy islands.

Rivers and Coast Waters.—The principal rivers are fed from the Alpine lakes. The Po, which descends from Monte Viso, on the western frontier, and, as it sweeps across the plain, receives the contributions of numerous important streams, ranks for its volume of water among the notable rivers of Europe. It is navigable for three hundred and twenty out of its four hundred and twenty miles, and several of its tributaries are also navigable. Many of the Po’s tributaries spread out at the foot of the Alps.

The province of Venice, to the north and east of the Po, is traversed by the Adige, Brenta, Piave and Tagliamento.

Along the coast of the Adriatic, north and south of the Po delta, there exist large tracts of salt water, known as lagoons, in a flat and marshy district. They are separated from the sea by narrow banks of sand in which are inlets, so that the lagoons serve as harbors. The chief of these is that in which Venice is situated. It extends over nearly forty miles from Torcello in the north to Chioggia and Brondolo in the south. The other coast-line of northern Italy is formed by a narrow strip of land, closed in by the steep, abrupt rocks of the Apennines, and known as the Italian Riviera.

The Arno, next to the Tiber the most considerable river of central Italy, rises on Mount Falterona, an offset of the Apennines, at four thousand four hundred and forty-four feet above sea-level, and twenty-five miles north of Arezzo. It flows one hundred and forty miles westward to the sea, eleven miles below [512] Pisa. At Florence it is four hundred feet wide, but is fordable in summer.

The Tiber, the chief river of central Italy, and the most famous in the peninsula, rises in a dell of the Tuscan Apennines, eleven miles north of the village of Santo Stefano, whence it winds two hundred and sixty miles, and enters the Mediterranean by two branches, which enclose the Isola Sacra. Towns on or near its banks are Perugia, Orvieto, Rome and Ostia. It is navigable for boats of fifty tons to the confluence of the Nera, one hundred miles from its mouth. The Tiber is supplied mainly by turbid mountain-torrents, whence its liability to sudden overflowings. Its waters, too, are still discolored with yellow mud, as when the poet Horace described it.

Lakes.—To the south of the Alps, in the north of Lombardy and Venice, lie the beautiful Italian lakes, Lago di Garda, Maggiore, Como, Lugano, and Orto.

Lake of Como, the Lacus Larius of the Romans, is generally considered the most beautiful of the group. It is about thirty-six miles long, and its greatest width is three miles. Its shores are studded with picturesque villages and charming villas, with a background of forest and mountains, some of which are seven thousand feet high. The loveliest point is Bellagio, where the lake divides into two arms. Cadenabbia, on the western shore opposite Bellagio, is also a pleasant place.

Como, at the other extremity, is a thriving town of twenty-five thousand inhabitants, the birthplace of Pliny the Younger and of Volta. The cathedral is one of the best in Northern Italy.

Lake of Lugano, between Como and Maggiore, though much smaller than either, is scarcely their inferior in the loveliness of its scenery. It lies at the southern foot of the Alps, eight hundred and eighty-nine feet above sea-level. Its length is fourteen and one-half miles; average breadth one and one-quarter miles; area nineteen and one-half square miles; maximum depth nine hundred and fifteen feet, and average depth two hundred and forty-six feet.

Lake Maggiore (Madjō´ray), the largest of the Italian lakes, is about forty-five miles in length, averages three miles in breadth, lies six hundred and forty-six feet above sea-level, and has a maximum depth of one thousand two hundred and fifty feet. The river Ticino flows through it. In a southwestern expansion of the lake are the Borromean Isles. On the Isola Bella is the large palace built by Count Vitaleo Borromeo about a century ago, with terraced gardens, fountains, grottoes, etc., all very elaborate and artificial.

Lake Garda, a beautiful, clear lake, lies between Lombardy and Venetia, its northern end extending into the Austrian Tyrol. Situated two hundred and twenty-six feet above sea-level, it has an area of one hundred and fifteen square miles, a greatest length of thirty-five miles, a breadth of two to eleven miles, and a maximum depth of nine hundred and sixty-seven feet. The surface is studded with many islands. It is drained by the Mincio, a tributary of the Po. The mild climate and the beauty of the vicinity have caused its shores to be lined with villas.

Climatic and Landscape Features.—The north of Italy has the excessive climate of the temperate region of continental Europe; in the central parts of the peninsula the climate becomes more genial and sunny, and to the south almost tropical. The plain of Lombardy, with an average temperature of fifty-five degrees Fahrenheit, has winters which are as cold as those of the Scottish lowlands, and the lagoons of Venice have been frozen over; but its summers are as hot as those of Rome or Nice. The changes are few; rain lasts for weeks together in autumn, but in summer the blue sky is never clouded except when a violent thunder and hailstorm occurs.

About Florence the winters are much milder, with the same summer heat, and this difference between the seasons decreases still more to southward.

The summer of the Campagna of Rome, when a heat mist rises over the plain, is almost unbearable; in January the sky is blue, the mornings may be frosty, and fresh spring air blows over the land; in March the trees are already leafy, and in June the harvest begins; in July everything withers under the excessive heat, till the autumn rains revive the land.

In Naples and South Italy the sky is cloudless for months together, and the air is so pure that distant plains appear to be close at hand.

The chief faults of the Italian climate are the cold mountain winds called the Tramontana, like the mistral of south France, and the Bora of the north Adriatic, and, in contrast, the hot Sirocco, which occasionally blows from the African deserts, besides the malaria of the western coast marshes and of the Venetian lagoons.

Round the lakes at the base of the steep southern slope of the Alps, Mediterranean forms of vegetation appear; the chestnut reaches up to two thousand five hundred feet; above that comes the belt of beeches and oaks, still higher the pine woods, then the pretty alpine plants and high pastures. Scarcely any part of the world is so covered with irrigating canals as the highly cultivated plain of Lombardy, so that the whole of it appears like a great garden. At the northern base of the Apennines the Mediterranean flora of laurels and myrtles, cork oak and cypress, covers the first slopes; above that groups of oaks appear, then beech woods and the extensive summer pastures which reach all over the Apennine range. The Apennines have no permanent snows, but their highest summits are frequently snow-clad between October and May, and send down cold breezes into the warm valleys.

In Sicily the vegetation takes an African character, and many tropical forms flourish; it is not a well-wooded island, but forests occur here and there.

Riviera (Ree-vee-ay´ra “seashore”), is a term applied to the narrow strip of coast-land bordering the Gulf of Genoa, strictly from Nice to Spezzia, but generally understood to include the whole coast of the Alps Maritimes, and the Italian coast as far as Leghorn.

West of Genoa, and extending into France, it is called the Riviera di Ponente, or western coast, and beyond Genoa the Riviera di Levante, or eastern coast. From Hyères to Genoa is two hundred and three miles; from Genoa to Leghorn one hundred and twelve miles. Sheltered on the north by mountains, the district enjoys an exceptionally favored [513] climate, no other region north of Palermo and Valencia being so mild in winter.

The western section is the mildest and most frequented. It abounds in the most striking and beautiful scenery, and is planted with numerous health and fashion resorts—Nice, Monaco, Mentone, Ventimiglia, San Remo, Bordighera, etc.; and west of Nice are Hyères, Fréjus, Cannes, Gresse, Antibes.

The famous Corniche (Ital. Cornice) road, widened by Napoleon I., leads along the Mediterranean coast from Nice to Genoa, and commands magnificent views.

Products and Industries.—Of the whole surface of Italy it is estimated that eighty-three per cent is suitable for cultivation. The greatest proportion of agricultural land, however, lies in the great plain of Lombardy and the Campagna Felice of Naples. Notwithstanding this, the supply of corn grown in Italy is not sufficient for its wants, and more is imported from Russia, Egypt and North America. Maize and wheat afford the staple food of the lower classes, as polenta and macaroni.

Agriculture and Stock-Raising.—A sixth of the area of the kingdom is covered with wood or bush, the island of Sardinia having the largest forests of all the kingdom—the districts of Lake Como, of southern Tuscany, and Genoa, being the best wooded parts of the mainland. The olive grows all over peninsular Italy, and enormous quantities of oil are produced, much being exported.

All parts of the country are suited to vine-growing. Most wine, however, is made in south Italy and Sicily. Most horses are bred in Lombardy, where cattle are also numerous on the dairy farms, which supply enormous quantities of cheese. Tuscany has most sheep; Sicily the finest mules and asses; Umbria the greatest number of swine. Coral fishers go out from Naples, Leghorn (Livorno), and Genoa to the coasts of the Balearic Isles and of Algeria and Tunis in large numbers.

Minerals.—The most important mineral product of Italy is the sulphur of Sicily; iron is widely distributed, but is obtained in most considerable quantity in Lombardy and Liguria; lead is an important product of Tuscany; sea salt of the vicinity of Cagliari, the chief town of the island of Sardinia. Famous pure white marble is quarried at Carrara and Massa, on the northwest coast-land of Tuscany.

Manufactures.—The zenith period of Italian manufactures, when Milan was famous for its wool-workers, Venice for its dyes, Florence for its cloth, has long since passed away, and in this respect Italy now occupies a low position.

Silk-growing, spinning, and weaving it, is now the most important branch, and in this the towns of Lombardy—Bergamo, Como, Milan, Turin—take the lead, followed by those in the plain round Naples, and by Catania and Palermo in Sicily. Glass-making has also fallen from its old position; the works at Intra, on Lake Maggiore, and the manufacture of beads and mosaics at Venice, are, however, still very important. Porcelain is made chiefly at Milan and Florence; straw hats at Vicenza, in Venetia, and in Tuscany, whence they come to us as Leghorn hats, from the port at which they are shipped.

People and Language.—The present Italian people have arisen from a perfect chaos of races. The ancient Ligurians of Iberian race and the Umbrians of the north were joined, from an unknown quarter, by the strange people called Etruscans or Tuscans by the Romans, who exercised such an immense influence on European civilization. The Greeks peopled the south, and held Sicily along with the Phœnicians; the Romans spread out from the center of the peninsula to extend their conquests far beyond its limits; then the Goths and Franks poured in from the north, and after them the Longobards, who gave their name to Lombardy. The Savoyards and Waldenses of the valleys of Piedmont along the French border appear to be of Gallic descent. Insular Sardinia was free from the irruptions of the northern people, but came under the influence of the Greeks, the Arabs, and then of the Spaniards.

Here, as in France and Spain, the Roman language endured and prevailed over all others, and now the people of Italy have one language and literature, the Italian, descended from the Latin. Its dialects show traces of the mixture of nationalities, but the Tuscan has now become classic, for the great writers, like Dante and Boccassio were Tuscans.

Religion.—The Roman Catholic Church is reorganized as the state church, but toleration is granted to all creeds. Over ninety-seven per cent of the population is Roman Catholic. By the Act of 1871 the rank of the Pope as a sovereign prince is recognized, the Vatican and Lateran palaces and the papal villa at Castel Gandolfo having the privilege of exterritoriality. Protestants number about sixty-six thousand, which include some twenty-two thousand Waldensians; and there are about thirty-eight thousand Jews, and about two thousand five hundred members of the Greek Orthodox Church.

Education is controlled by the state under a minister of public instruction, assisted by a council. Primary education is free and compulsory, and the state also maintains, partly or wholly, secondary, technical schools, and the universities. There are thirteen universities. Private schools may not be opened without state authorization.

Cities.—The largest city is Naples. Rome is the capital. Milan, Turin, Palermo, Genoa, Florence, rank next. There are four others with about one hundred and fifty thousand, and twenty-three towns over fifty thousand.

ROME, the “city of the seven hills,” contains more objects of interest than any other city in the world. It is situated mainly on the left or east bank of the Tiber, about fifteen miles from its mouth. The river, which has here an average breadth of two hundred feet, is spanned by eleven bridges in its course from north to south through the city.

The Seven Hills.—On the left bank rise the famous seven hills of ancient Rome, which, from north to south, are the Aventine, Cœlian, Palatine, Capitoline, Esquiline, Viminal, and Quirinal. These hills rise from eighty to one hundred and twenty feet above the river and the intervening valleys.

VIEW OF ROME FROM ST. PETER’S

The Royal Palace and chief public offices are upon, or adjoin, the Quirinal Hill. The Aventine and the Cœlian are, in large part, not built upon. The Esquiline and Viminal are modern industrial quarters. The Palatine, with the Forum below it on the east, are covered with important ancient ruins. The Capitoline, crowned by the Capitol, the most imposing of the hills, the center of ancient life and worships, has, apart from the new monument of Victor Emmanuel, suffered little change since the sixteenth century.

Mediæval and Rome occupies chiefly the plain, known as the Campus Martius of ancient times, nearer the river, and on the slopes of the Pincian Hill, to the north, extending thence eastward to the Quirinal and Viminal. The smaller part of Rome, on the right or west bank, comprises the Borgo, or district, containing St. Peter’s, the Vatican, the Castle of St. Angelo, and the Janiculum Hill, to the north, with the Trastevere quarter, to the south.

The entire city is surrounded by a wall fourteen miles in circuit, with thirteen gates, the wall on the left bank being substantially identical with Aurelian’s Wall, built in the third century; while the Leonine Wall round the Borgo was extended in the early sixteenth century.

Modern Features and Districts.—The business part of the city occupies the plain on the bank between the hills and river, traversed by the Via del Corso, the principal thoroughfare in Rome, about a mile in length, leading from the Porto del Popolo to the foot of the Capitoline Hill, where is situated the great National Monument to Victor Emmanuel. From the Piazza del Popolo two great streets diverge on either side of the Corso, the Via di Ripetta to the right, skirting the Tiber, and to the left the Via del Babuino, leading to the Piazza di Spagna, whence the Scala di Spagna, the resort of artists’ models, ascends to the Pincian Gardens, on the site of the gardens of Lucullus, which command a splendid view of the city, and form the fashionable drive and promenade.

Of the new streets the most important are the Via Venti Settembre, the Via Cavour, and the Via Nazionale. The older foreign quarter lay at the foot of the Pincian, around the Piazza di Spagna, but the healthier sites on the slopes and summits of the Quirinal and Esquiline are now more frequented.

Rome abounds in open Squares (Piazzas) adorned with fountains, obelisks, or statues. Eleven Egyptian obelisks still ornament the gardens and piazzas of Rome, brought by Augustus and others. That in the Piazza of St. John Lateran, one hundred and four feet in height, is the largest in existence. It was erected at Thebes by Thothmes III., and removed by Constantine to the Circus Maximus. The triumphal arches of Septimius Severus, of Titus, and of Constantine are still conspicuous. Of the bridges over the Tiber, three are ancient.

The antiquities are legion, some of the most interesting are clustered within the area from the Colosseum to the crest of the Capitoline Hill.

SITE OF THE FORUM OF TRAJAN

The Forum consisted of three parts: the forum proper, the huge Basilica Ulpie, and the temple of Trajan, with it colonnaded inclosure. It was once the grandest building in Rome. Trajan’s Column, still standing, is a Roman Doric column of marble, on a square basement, the total height, exclusive of the present statue of St. Peter, being one hundred and twenty-seven and one-half feet. The entire shaft is occupied by vigorous and lifelike reliefs ascending in a spiral, representing Trajan’s campaigns. The reliefs contain about two thousand five hundred human figures, besides those of animals and inanimate objects.

Famous Architectural Edifices, Ancient and Modern.—The remains of ancient Rome have suffered severely from the vandalism and the neglect of past centuries, but they are now carefully preserved. The Forum, in some places nearly forty feet below the present street level, has been in great part excavated, and near it are many vestiges of by-gone Roman splendor, including columns, arches and ruins of temples.

Roman Forum.—In remote times, the marshy ground which later became the site of this famous Forum served as neutral territory whereon both the Romans (who occupied the Palatine Hill), and the Sabines (who occupied the Capitoline Hill) could meet. Gradually it became a market-place and an exchange, till, at length, all the important business of Rome and of the Empire came to be concentrated in and about the Forum.

A portico was built around the Forum, the first story being devoted to shops and the second to offices for the collection of taxes. After some centuries, these were destroyed by fire, when various basilicas and temples were erected in their places. The Forum existed as such till the eleventh century, A. D., when it was totally destroyed by Robert Guiscard. Becoming then a waste, the rubbish of the city was thrown there until the entire space was filled to the depth of twenty-four feet and the location and names of the ancient buildings lost. In the revival of learning, in the sixteenth century, interest began to be awakened in the ruins of ancient Rome, and, in 1547, excavations of the Forum were commenced, under Paul III., which, with much irregularity have continued to the present day.

ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS

An arch in the Roman Forum, dedicated 203 A. D., in commemoration of victories over the Parthians. It is of Pentelic marble, with a central arch and two side arches, flanked by four Corinthian columns on each face. There are panels over the side arches and a frieze above all with reliefs of Roman triumphs.

ARCH OF CONSTANTINE

Built in 312 A. D. in honor of Constantine’s triumph over Maxentius. Much of its abundant sculpture was taken from the destroyed church of Trajan.

The most conspicuous remains of the Forum are the columns of the Temple of Saturn, the temples of Castor and Pollux and of Vesta, and on its northern side the arch of Septimius Severus, the Curia, the Basilica Æmilia, and the temples of Antoninus and Faustina and of Romulus. In the middle of the eastern part rose the temple and forum of Julius Cæsar. The more ancient and famous forum from which Cicero spoke was at the western end.

The latest excavations in the Roman Forum, including the stele and black stone of Romulus, the Basilica Æmilia, the Chapel of Santa Maria Antiqua, and the House of the Vestal Virgins, are of extraordinary interest.

It was traversed by the Via Sacra, a winding road which led from the southern gate of Rome to the Capitol, and was the route by which triumphal processions passed to the Temple of Jupiter. The Arch of Titus was at its summit. The great blocks of lava with which this road was paved still, for the most part, remain.

Beyond it stands the great Column of Trajan, one hundred and twenty-four feet in height, with spiral bas-reliefs representing [516] scenes from Trajan’s campaigns against the Dacians, forming the most instructive historical monument in Rome.

Palaces and Art Collections.—The Vatican Palace, the residence of the pope, adjoining St. Peter’s, enjoys along with the Lateran the privilege of “exterritoriality.” The massive building, said to include eleven thousand apartments, contains the finest extant collection of ancient sculpture, with many celebrated statues, a rich gallery of paintings, a famous library, and other collections, besides the Sistine Chapel, adorned with frescoes by Michaelangelo and other masters, and the Stanze and Loggie, with paintings by Raphael and his contemporaries.

VATICAN PALACE AND GARDENS

THRONE ROOM OF THE POPE, VATICAN PALACE

The Quirinal Palace, another huge pile on the hill of that name, is occupied by the king. In the Piazza del Quirinale are two famous marble groups of Horse-Tamers.

The Villa Umberto Primo, formerly Borghese, outside the Porta del Popolo, is noted for its beautiful grounds, which are a favorite promenade connecting with that on the Pincian Hill by an embankment and bridge opened in 1908. The Casino contains the picture-gallery formerly in the Palazzo Borghese. It is now an important National Museum, and is arranged according to schools. Among the masterpieces are Titian’s Sacred and Profane Love, Raphael’s Entombment, Correggio’s Danaë, etc.

The Palazzo Barberini, built by Urban VIII., is a large and magnificent structure, but chiefly notable for a small picture-gallery, the gems of which are Raphael’s Fornarina, and Guido’s Beatrice Cenci. The library contains seven thousand manuscripts, many of which are rare.

Villa Medici (ma´de-che), was built in 1540, south of the Pincio, for Cardinal Ricci. About 1600 it came into the possession of the Medici family, and afterward into that of the grand dukes of Tuscany. Galileo was confined there 1630-1633. The French Academy of Art, founded by Louis XIV., was transferred to it in 1801, and it has a fine collection of casts.

Palaces of the Emperors.—On the western side of the Forum Romanum rises the Palatine Hill, its summit covered with the substructures of the Palaces of the Emperors, the Houses of Augustus, of Tiberius, of Livia, of Caligula, of Domitian, and of Hadrian. Most magnificent of all is the Palace of Septimius Severus, rising in seven stages of massive masonry, which form a southern extension of the Palatine Hill.

Besides these imperial palaces, the Palatine included a magnificent Stadium, the most perfect in existence, imperial reception halls, several temples, with gardens, baths, barracks for soldiers, and a basilica or hall of justice, in which St. Paul must have pleaded before the emperor.

The Golden House of Nero, built on the opposite side of the Forum, and occupying the greater portion of the Oppian Hill, was demolished to make room for the Colosseum and the Baths of Titus.

The Coliseum (or Colosseum), originally called the Flavian Amphitheatre, was begun by Vespasian in A. D. 72, and dedicated by Titus eight years later. It was built for gladiatorial exhibitions and for the combats of wild beasts. It is the largest structure of the kind ever built, being capable of seating from forty to fifty thousand spectators. Though scarcely a third of the [517] original edifice remains, it is by far the most imposing monument of antiquity that the Imperial City has to show.

The Pantheon is the most perfect of the ancient buildings in Rome. It was built B. C. 27 by M. Agrippa, and restored by Septimius Severus and Caracalla about A. D. 202, and has suffered much since. The vast round walls of brick, twenty feet thick, were once covered with marble. The portico (now below, but once above, the square) has sixteen huge monolithic columns of Oriental granite, thirty-nine feet high, with Corinthian capitals of famed beauty. Statues of Augustus and Agrippa once stood here. The circular interior is very impressive, and is lighted from a place twenty-eight feet across in the center of the dome, open to the sky.

This unrivalled dome is one hundred and forty feet high and one hundred and forty feet across. The gilded bronze roof-tiles were carried to Constantinople in 655; and all the other bronzes were used in making cannon for the citadel and the canopy in St. Peter’s. The seven niches in which statues of the gods stood are now occupied by altars. Raphael is buried here, near his betrothed, Cardinal Bibiena’s niece; and here is the tomb of King Victor Emmanuel of Italy.

The Capitol, which is one hundred and sixty feet above the sea level and is best approached by the grand staircase known as La Cordonnata. At its foot are two lions of Egyptian porphyry; at its head the ancient colossal statues of Castor and Pollux. Beyond these on either side are the sculptures misnamed “the Trophies of Marius” and the statues of Constantine and his son from the Baths of Constantine on the Quirinal. The open space here is the Piazza del Campidoglio, the ancient Intermontium, where Brutus harangued the people after the murder of Cæsar. In the center is the celebrated statue of Marcus Aurelius, “the only perfect ancient equestrian statue in existence.” It owes its preservation to the fact that it was long supposed to be a statue of Constantine. On the right is the Palace of the Conservatori, on the left the Museum of the Capitol, both designed by Michaelangelo; between the two, occupying the third side of the square, is the Palace of the Senator, on the site of the ancient Tabularium. The fountain at the foot of the stairs is adorned with statues of river-gods, the Tiber and the Nile. The tower contains the great bell which is rung only to announce the opening of the carnival or the death of a pope.

The Capitoline Museum contains some of the most famous sculptures extant, as the Dying Gladiator, the Venus of the Capitol, the Faun of Praxiteles, the Antinous, etc. There is also the rich collection of busts and statues of Roman emperors and empresses, statesmen, philosophers, etc., “perhaps the most interesting portrait gallery in the world.”

VILLA UMBERTO PRIMO (FORMERLY VILLA BORGHESE), ROME

Has art collections considered only second in importance to that of the Vatican, and, despite the removal of many works, the number of really great paintings retains for the collection its old pre-eminence.

THE MAGNIFICENT VILLA MEDICI, ROME

Famous Churches.—Ancient Rome contained about three hundred temples, and modern Rome has about as many churches, eighty of which are dedicated to the Virgin. St. Peter’s, St. John Lateran, S. Maria Maggiore on the top of the Esquiline, S. Paolo fuori le Mura (“outside the walls”), perhaps the most gorgeously decorated church in Rome, and S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura are the five Patriarchal churches, to one or other of which all believers throughout the world are supposed to belong. With Santa Croce in Gerusalemme and S. Sebastiano, they make up the famous “Seven Churches of Rome” frequented by pilgrims. They are also unsurpassed in their rich architectural and art interests.

St. Peter’s, adjoining the Vatican, perhaps the most famous and certainly the largest church in the world, has an area nearly twice that of St. Paul’s in London, while its dome rises to the height of four hundred and three feet.

Many architects were concerned in the building of the Cathedral of St. Peter, but the principal credit is assigned to Bramante, the creator of the design, and to Michaelangelo, whose chief work is the dome. To the spectator, approaching from the Piazza di San Pietro, the majesty of the dome is lost behind the façade, erected at the instance of Pope Paul V. at the end of the nave lengthened by him in order to work out the idea of a Latin cross; the design of Bramante was a Greek cross.

CHURCH OF ST. JOHN LATERAN, ROME, THE MOTHER CHURCH OF CHRISTENDOM

The building was commenced in 1506, but was not completed until 1626; the total cost of erection was about fifty million dollars, and its maintenance absorbs annually about forty thousand dollars.

It covers about eighteen thousand square yards; the length is two hundred and thirty-two yards, of the transept one hundred and fifty yards; height of the nave one hundred and fifty-one feet; height of the dome from the pavement to the summit of the lantern four hundred and four feet; to the summit of the cross four hundred and thirty-four feet.

Besides the high altar there are twenty-nine other altars; the high altar being immediately over the Tomb of St. Peter. Round the Confessio are ninety-five lamps, always lighted. The bronze statue of St. Peter, on white marble, under a canopy, is by a pillar; the right foot of which is worn smooth by the kisses of worshipers.

St. John Lateran. (It. San Giovanni in Laterano), adjoining the papal palace of the Lateran, claims to be the mother-church of all Christendom. It was originally named from the Roman family Lateranus. Beside it are its ancient Baptistery and a building enclosing the Scala Santa, brought from Pilate’s palace in Jerusalem in 326.

Many other of the Roman churches contain treasures of art or are interesting for their structure or history. S. Maria Sopra Minerva is the only ancient Gothic church in the city. S. Pietro in Vincoli contains Michaelangelo’s famous statue of Moses; and S. Maria delle Pace Raphael’s beautiful frescoes of the Sibyls. The Gesù is the chief church of the Jesuits. San Carlo al Corso is the fashionable church.

Roads.—The roads leading out of Rome beyond the Servian Walls were bordered by tombs, many of which, on the erection of the Aurelian Wall, were included within the city. The most famous of these celebrated roads was the:

Appian Way (called Regina Viarum) was begun B. C. 312 by Appius Claudius, and ran to Capua, and afterwards to Brindisi, forming main route to southern Italy, Greece and Egypt. There are beautiful views all along, of Campagna, aqueducts, and Alban Mountains.

APPIAN WAY

A famous Roman military road, the skill with which it is taken through difficult country, over hills, ravines, and marshes, is remarkable. Horace, in his first satire, describes a journey along it, and St. Paul came this way into Rome (Acts xxviii. 15).

On Via Appia are Catacombs of S. Calixtus, with tombs of St. Cecilia and many second and third century popes and martyrs, and seventh-century Byzantine paintings. A quarter of a mile beyond is very ancient S. Sebastiano Church under which are extensive catacombs. On a hill still beyond stands the famous Tomb of Cæcilia Metella, round, sixty-five feet in diameter, and in thirteenth century a tower of now vanished castle of the Gaetani. Beyond, the Way is bordered by ancient tombs on either side, and the old Latin pavement is the road-bed.

At Trivoli is Hadrian’s Villa (Villa Adriana) an extensive ruin, with the gardens covering about 170 acres.

POPE PIUS X. IN THE BED IN WHICH HE DIED

(Picture by Cav. G. Felici)

PROCLAMATION OF POPE BENEDICT XV. (Cardinal della Chiesa) IN FRONT OF ST. PETER’S, ROME

(From a Painting)

Florence (Lat. Florentia Ital. Firenze), one of the most famous of Italian cities, is situated fifty miles from the sea, in the valley of the Arno, and is built on both sides of the river, but chiefly on the north. The outlying suburbs are singularly beautiful, and are surrounded by finely wooded hills, bright with gay villas and charming gardens. The old city itself is characterized by a somber grandness, and is full of fine buildings of historic and artistic interest.

The chief building in the city is the Duomo, or Cathedral, the foundations of which were laid with great solemnity in 1298; but not until 1887 was the completed façade uncovered. The church [520] contains sculptures by Ghiberti, Luca della Robbia, Michælangelo, Sansovino, Bandinelli, and other famous artists.

At the side of the cathedral springs up the light and elegant Campanile, detached, according to the custom of the times. In front is the Baptistery in the form of an octagon, supporting a cupola and lantern. Three bronze gates in basso rilievo are a great additional adornment of the Baptistery; the two by Ghiberti have been immortalized by Michælangelo, with the name of Gates of Paradise.

The church of the Santa Croce, the Pantheon of Florence (built in 1294), contains monuments to Galileo, Dante, Macchiavelli, Michælangelo, Alfieri and others.

Among the numerous palaces Il Bargello, long a prison, but now restored and opened as a national museum, is one of the most ancient.

The Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of the republican government from its establishment till its abolition in 1530, is an imposing mass of building. Adjoining the palace is the Piazza della Signoria, a square containing a fine collection of statues, and a noble arcade, the Loggia dei Lanzi.

The Uffizi Palace is a handsome building adjoining the Palazzo Vecchio, founded by Cosmo I. On the second floor is contained the famous Florentine gallery of art. A splendid apartment, known as the Tribuna, contains the rarest treasures of the collection.

The Pitti Palace, formerly the grand-ducal residence, boasts of a superb gallery of paintings. Behind it are the beautiful Boboli Gardens royal. The Strozzi Palace is a fine type of Tuscan architecture.

Florence is the city of Dante, Petrarch, Michaelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Boccaccio, Machiavelli, Galileo and many more of Italy’s great men, and has a history of exceptional interest. It is an educational center, and carries on a trade in straw-plaiting and silk, sculptures, jewelry, and exquisite mosaics in rare stones.

Genoa (Ital. Genova), is situated on the Mediterranean gulf of the same name, at the foot of the Apennines, and is an important seaport. By rail it is eight hundred and one miles southeast of Paris, one hundred and seventy-one miles northeast of Marseilles, and ninety-three miles southwest of Milan. The slopes of the hills behind the city down to the shore are covered with buildings, terraced gardens, and orange and pomegranate groves; while the bleak summits of the loftier ranges, rising still farther back, are capped with strong forts, batteries, and outworks.

While strikingly grand as viewed from the sea, and so far worthy of being entitled “Genoa the Superb,” is in reality built awkwardly on irregular rising ground, and consists of a labyrinth of narrow and intricate lanes. Of the palaces the most famous are the former palace of the doges, now the meeting-place of the senate; and the Doria, presented in 1529 to the great Genoese citizen Andrea Doria. Foremost among the churches stands the Cathedral, a grand twelfth-century pile in the Italian Gothic style. The marble Municipal Palace and the palace of the Dogana must also be mentioned.

To Columbus and Mazzini, Genoa’s most famous sons, there are fine monuments.

It is the commercial outlet for a wide extent of country, of which the chief exports are rice, wine, olive-oil, silk goods, coral, paper, macaroni and marble. The principal industrial establishments of the city embrace ironworks, cotton and cloth mills, macaroni-works, tanneries, sugar-refineries, and vesta-match, filigree, and paper factories. Genoa benefited greatly by the opening of the St. Gothard Railway.

Milan (me-lan´, mil´an. Ital. Milano, mee-lah´no), the capital of Lombardy, is one of the largest and wealthiest cities of Italy. It was an important town under the Romans, was sacked by Attila in 452, totally destroyed by Frederic Barbarossa in 1162, and has figured prominently in more recent history.

The city, nearly circular in shape, is surrounded on three sides by walls, has a circuit of nearly eight miles, and is entered by fourteen gates.

Of the numerous churches the magnificent Gothic Cathedral is the most famous. It is second only to St. Peter’s and Seville Cathedrals in size and was built principally during the period 1386-1500. After many delays and interruptions, work was resumed under Napoleon I. in 1805, but is not yet fully completed. The façade has recently been restored. It is cruciform, with double aisles and transept-aisles, separated by fifty-two pillars, each twelve feet in diameter, with niches crowded with statues. Interior four hundred and seventy-seven feet long, one hundred and eighty-three feet wide and one hundred and fifty-five feet high. It contains six thousand statues, a pavement of marble mosaic, vast granite monoliths, superb stained windows, many tombs of magnates, St. Carlo Borromeo’s wooden crucifix and gorgeous tomb, and life-size silver statues of saints. The wonderful marble roof is studded with ninety-eight Gothic turrets, hundreds of pinnacles, and over two thousand life-size marble statues.

Of the other churches S. Maria delle Grazie (fifteenth century), partly the work of Bremante, was originally an abbey church, and the refectory in the rear contains Leonardo da Vinci’s celebrated fresco of the Last Supper, which, in 1909, was successfully restored.

The Brera Palace (twelfth century), formerly a Jesuit college, has now a great gallery of paintings by Raphael, Da Vinci, Luini, Mantegna, the Bellinis, Titian, Vandyck, and others, an academy of art, a collection of casts, the magnificent monument of Gaston de Foix, the National Library, an archaeological museum, and an observatory.

The colonnade of Victor Emmanuel Gallery is the finest arcade in the world, and was built in 1865-1867 at a cost of one million six hundred thousand dollars. It is nine hundred and sixty feet long, forty-eight feet wide, ninety-four feet high, surrounded by handsome shops, richly frescoed, and adorned with statues of Raphael, Galileo, Dante, Cavour, and twenty other famous Italians. The octagon under the dome (one hundred and eighty feet high) is brilliantly lighted at night, when it forms a favorite promenade.

On the adjacent Piazza della Scala is Leonardo da Vinci’s monument, and the massive Municipal Palace. The Arch of Peace, built of white marble, commemorates the exploits of Napoleon. The Della Scala Opera House is the second in size (after San Carlo at Naples) in Italy; and the Milan conservatoire is the most famous school of music in Europe.

Beccaria, Manzoni, the popes Pius IV. and Gregory XIV. were natives of Milan. The city now carries on a vast trade, much increased since the opening of the Gothard railroad, in raw silk, cotton, grain, rice, and cheese, and manufactures silks, velvets, gold, silver, and iron wares, railroad carriages, tobacco, porcelain, electrical apparatus, and is an active center of the printing trade.

Naples (Ital. Napoli nä´pō-lē´).—The capital of the province of Naples has a lovely situation within the bend of Naples Bay, spreading from the foreshore back upon wooded hills and rising terraces, behind which lie the snow-clad Apennines. To the east lies the old town with its historic Via di Roma and narrow crowded thoroughfares; the newer portion to the west is more spaciously laid out, and much has been done in recent years over the whole city to improve the sanitation and water supply. The [521] National Museum, rich in Pompeii relics, the University, the National Library, the Cathedral and the four mediæval gateways are the chief architectural features.

Large quantities of wine, olive-oil, chemicals, perfumery, etc., are exported, while woolen, silk, linen, glove and other factories carry on a good home trade.

Naples became incorporated in the kingdom of Italy in 1861 after the Bourbon dynasty had been swept away by Garibaldi.

RUINS OF POMPEII, ITALY

Pompeii (pron. Pom-pay’yee), once a Greek seaport at the mouth of the Sarnus, is fifteen miles south of Naples; it fell into the possession of Rome about 80 B. C., and was converted into a watering-place, “the pleasure haunt of paganism.” The Romans erected many handsome public buildings, and their villas and theaters and baths were models of classic architecture and the scenes of unbounded luxury. The streets were narrow, provided with sidewalks, the walls often decorated with paintings, and the number of shops witnesses to the fashion and gaiety of the town. A terrible earthquake ruined it and drove out the inhabitants in A. D. 63; they returned and rebuilt it, however, in a tawdry and decadent style, and luxury and pleasure reigned as before till in A. D. 79 an eruption of Vesuvius buried everything in lava and ashes. The ruins were forgotten till accidentally discovered in 1748; since 1860 the city has been disinterred under the auspices of the Italian Government, and is now a favorite resort of tourists and archæologists.

BEAUTIFUL SORRENTO, ITALY

Herculaneum, so called from the local worship of Hercules, was situated at the northwestern base of Mount Vesuvius, five miles east of Naples. In 63 A. D. it was seriously injured by a violent earthquake, and, in 79 A. D., buried, along with Pompeii and Stabiæ, by the memorable eruption of Vesuvius. In 1738 systematic excavations were commenced, the chief building explored being the theater, which has eighteen rows of stone seats, and could accommodate eight thousand persons; part of the Forum with a colonnade, two small temples, and a villa have also been discovered, and from these buildings many beautiful statues and remarkable paintings have been obtained.

In 1880 ruins of extensive baths were brought to light. Among the art-relics of Herculaneum, which far exceed in value and interest those found at Pompeii, are the statues of Eschines, Agrippina, the Sleeping Faun, the Six Actresses, [522] Mercury, the group of the Satyr and the Goat, the busts of Plato, Scipio Africanus, Augustus, Seneca and Demosthenes—mostly now in the National Museum at Naples.

VIEW OF THE CAMPANILE AND PALACE, VENICE, FROM THE GRAND CANAL

Palermo (pä-ler’mō), capital of the province of Palermo, Sicily, a seaport on the Bay of Palermo, at the foot of Monte Pellegrino, is picturesquely situated in the midst of a beautiful and fertile valley called the Golden Shell. It is a handsome town, with many public buildings and nearly three hundred churches in Moorish and Byzantine architecture, a university, art school, museum, and libraries.

The industries are unimportant, but a busy trade is done with Britain, France and the United States, exporting fruits, wine, sulphur, etc., and importing textiles, coal, machinery and grain.

VISTA ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE

Sorrento (sōr-ren’tō), a town in the province of Naples, beautifully situated on the Bay of Naples, sixteen miles south-southeast of Naples, is a favorite watering-place; was noted in antiquity for its wines; and was the birthplace of Tasso.

Turin (Ital. Torino tō-re’nō).—Capital of the province of Turin, Italy, is situated on the Po, near its junction with the Dora Riparia. It is regularly built, with many squares and broad streets; is the seat of important trade for northern Italy; has varied manufactures; and is rapidly growing. It contains a university, cathedral, castle (Palazzo Madama), royal palace (with the royal armory and library), Palazzo Carignano (former seat of Parliament, now containing collections in natural history), palace of the Academy of Sciences (with a museum of antiquities and picture-gallery), monument of Cavour, etc. Victor Emmanuel and Cavour were born there.

ST. MARK’S CATHEDRAL AND CAMPANILE FROM THE PLAZA

Turin was the ancient capital of the Taurini (whence the name); was captured by Hannibal in 218 B. C.; and has played an important part in the history of Europe. It figured prominently in the national movements of the nineteenth century, and was the capital of the kingdom of Italy 1859-1865.

Venice (ven’is Ital. Venezia), capital of the province of Venice, is situated in the Laguns (lagoons) in a bay of the Adriatic. Now Venice covers more than seventy-two islets, or rather mud-banks, its foundations being piles (“time-petrified”) and stone. Through its two unequal portions winds for over two miles the Grand Canal, spanned by the Rialto Bridge (of stone) and two others (of iron), and into it flow one hundred and forty-six lesser canals, all bridged at frequent intervals. This vast network of waterway is patrolled by countless gondolas, while the pedestrian has his choice of innumerable lanes (calli). A railway viaduct, two and one-eighth miles long, connects Venice with the mainland.

The Piazza di San Marco, a square five hundred and seventy-six feet long and one hundred and eighty-five to two hundred and seventy feet wide, [524] paved with gray trachyte and white Istrian marble, surrounded by time-stained marble palaces and St. Mark’s Church is the picturesque center of Venetian life, especially at evening, when the bands play, and the cafés are crowded by thousands. Flocks of fat pigeons have been fed here by the city daily for seven hundred years. Palaces enclose three sides and the palace arcades are occupied by cafés and bric-à-brac shops.

Of its public buildings the following are the principal: the Ducal Palace, standing on the site of a former official residence of the Doges, which was burned in 976. Besides its painted ceilings and walls there are many pictures by the Italian masters; the Academy of Fine Arts whose twenty rooms are filled with some of the finest works of the Old Masters. Its principal churches are St. Marco, St. Giorgio Maggiore, and Sta. Maria della Salute, are all most highly decorated with frescoes, mosaics, and carvings, besides containing many world-famed pictures. The Campanile of St. Marco has been rebuilt since its fall, on July 14, 1902, after standing a thousand years. The palaces of the nobility on the Grand Canal and other canals contain priceless collections of pictures. The Arsenal contains many models of the old Venetian ships, armor, collections of weapons, and spoils of war.

Venice was noted for its textile manufactures as early as the fifteenth century; the principal manufactures at the present time are tapestry, brocades, Venetian laces, wood carving, artistic wrought-iron work, jewelry, bronzes, machinery, and clocks, and at Murano glass and glass beads.

Italian Seaports.—The chief seaports of Italy after Genoa, “the Superb,” which is the busiest of all, are in order round the coast—Livorno, or Leghorn, the port of Tuscany and Florence; Civita Vecchia, the port of Latium; Naples, with Castellamare on the south side of its bay; Messina, on the Sicilian side of the Strait named after it, with one of the finest harbors in Europe, beside the eddy which was feared as the whirlpool of Charybdis in ancient times; Palermo, “la Felice,” in the vale of the Golden Shell, on the north coast of Sicily; Catania, on the east coast of the island. Coming round to the Adriatic coasts we reach the port of Brindisi, a notable point in the most direct route from western Europe to Egypt and the East. The most important line of railway in Italy, that leads from the plain of Lombardy all down the east side of the peninsula, has the port of Brindisi as its objective point. Farther north in the middle of this coast is Ancona, the port of the Marches. Lastly we come to Chioggia and Venice, the city of canals and bridges, described above.

HISTORY OF ITALY

The ancient history of Italy will be found under [Rome]. The modern history begins with 476 A. D., when Odoacer, chief of the Herulians, a German tribe who had invaded the country, was proclaimed king of Italy. After a reign of twelve years he and his followers were overpowered by the Ostrogoths under Theodoric the Great. The Ostrogoths were in turn subdued by Byzantine troops, and Italy came under the dominion of the Eastern emperors, who ruled through an exarch residing at Ravenna.

The Lombards.—In 568 the Lombards (Langobardi), a German people originally from the Elbe, led by their king, Alboin, conquered the Po basin, and founded a kingdom which had its capital at Pavia. The kingdom of the Lombards included Upper Italy, Tuscany and Umbria, with some outlying districts. But on the northeast coast, the inhabitants of the lagoons still retained their independence, and in 697 elected their first doge, and founded the republic of Venice.

Ravenna, the seat of the exarch, with Romagna, Rimini, Ancona, and other maritime cities on the Adriatic, and almost all the coasts of Lower Italy, remained unconquered, together with Sicily and Rome. The slight dependence of this part of Italy on the court of Byzantium disappeared almost entirely in the beginning of the eighth century.

Rise of Papal Power.—The power of the pope, though at first recognized only as a kind of paternal authority of the bishop, grew steadily in these troubled times, especially in the struggle against the Lombard kings. In consideration of the aid expected against King Astolphus, Pope Stephen III. (754) not only anointed the king of the Franks, Pepin, but appointed him patrician or governor of Rome. In return Pepin presented the exarchate of Ravenna, with the five maritime cities, to the pope, thus laying the foundation of the temporal power of the Holy See. At the invitation of Pope Hadrian I. Charlemagne made war upon Desiderius, the king of the Lombards, took him prisoner in his capital, Pavia (774), and united his empire with the Frankish monarchy. Italy, with the exception of the duchy of Benevento and the republics of Lower Italy, thus became a constituent part of the Frankish monarchy, and the imperial crown of the West was bestowed on Charlemagne (800).

Port of the Holy Roman Empire.—On the breaking up of the Carlovingian empire, Italy became a separate kingdom, and the scene of strife between Teutonic invaders. At length Otto the Great was crowned emperor at Rome (961), and the year after became emperor of what was henceforth known as the Holy Roman Empire.

During the following centuries the towns and districts of North and Middle Italy gradually made themselves independent of the empire, and either formed themselves into separate republics or fell under the power of princes bearing various titles. A large part of Middle Italy at the same time was under the dominion of the popes, including the territory granted by Pepin, which was afterwards enlarged on several occasions.

Vicissitudes of Southern Italy.—In southern Italy there were in the time of Charlemagne several independent states. In the ninth century this part of the peninsula, as well as Sicily, was overrun by Saracens, and in the eleventh century by Normans, who ultimately founded a kingdom which embraced both Lower Italy and Sicily, and which though it more than once changed masters, continued to exist as an undivided kingdom till 1282. In that year Sicily freed herself from the oppression of the then rulers, the French, by the aid of Pedro of Aragon, and remained separate till 1435. It was again separate from 1458 to 1504, when both divisions were united with the crown of Spain. With Spain the kingdom remained till 1713, when Naples and Sicily were divided by the Treaty of Utrecht, the former being given to Austria, the latter to the Duke of Savoy. In 1720 they were again [525] united under Austria, but in 1734 were conquered from Austria and passed under the dominion of a separate dynasty belonging to the Spanish house of Bourbon.

Mediæval Italy.—The history of mediæval Italy is much taken up with the party quarrels of the Guelfs and Ghibellines, and the quarrels and rivalries of the free republics of Middle and Upper Italy. In Tuscany the party of the Guelfs formed themselves into a league for the maintenance of the national freedom under the leadership of Florence; only Pisa and Arezzo remained attached to the Ghibelline cause. In Lombardy it was different, Milan, Novara, Lodi, Vercelli, Asti, and Cremona formed a Guelf confederacy, while the Ghibelline league comprised Verona, Mantua, Treviso, Parma, Piacenza, Reggio, Modena, and Brescia. Commercial rivalry impelled the maritime republics to mutual wars. At Meloria the Genoese annihilated (1284) the navy of the Pisans, and completed their dominion of the sea by a victory over the Venetians at Curzola (1298.)

Influences of Napoleon.—Up till the time of the Napoleonic wars Italy remained subject to foreign domination, or split up into separate republics and principalities. The different states were bandied to and fro by the changes and intrigues of war and diplomacy between Austria, Spain and the House of Savoy. During the career of Napoleon numerous changes took place in the map of Italy, and according to an act of the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the country was parcelled out among the following states:—(1) The Kingdom of Sardinia, consisting of the island of Sardinia, Savoy, and Piedmont, to which the Genoese territory was now added. (2) Austria, which received the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia, these having already been acquired by her either before or during the time of Napoleon. (3) The Duchy of Modena. (4) The Duchy of Parma. (5) The Grandduchy of Tuscany. (6) The Duchy of Lucca. (7) The States of the Church. (8) The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. (9) The Republic of San Marino. (10) The Principality of Monaco.

Struggle for Independent Nationality.—The desire for union and independence had long existed in the hearts of the Italian people, and the governments at Naples, Rome, Lombardy, and other centers of tyranny were in continual conflict with secret political societies. The leading spirit in these agitations in the second quarter was Giuseppe Mazzini.

The year of revolutions, 1848, opened with a street massacre by the Austrians in Milan, on January 2. In February, 1849, the French Republic was declared, and then in Italy the party of Mazzini was for a moment supreme, when Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel. Meanwhile the pope had been driven from Rome, and a Roman republic had been established under Mazzini and Garibaldi, the leader of the volunteer bands of Italian patriots. Rome was, however, captured by the French, who came to the aid of the pope (July, 1849), who resumed his power in April, 1850, under the protection of the French, and the old absolutism was restored. Similar attempts at revolution in Sicily and Naples were also crushed, but the secret societies of the patriots continued their operations.

Establishment of the Present Kingdom.—In 1859, after the war of the French and Sardinians against Austria, the latter power was compelled to cede Lombardy to Sardinia, and in the same year Romagna, Modena, Parma, and Piacenza were annexed to that kingdom, which was, however, obliged to cede the provinces of Savoy and Nice to France. In the south the Sicilians revolted, and supported by a thousand volunteers, with whom Garibaldi sailed from Genoa to their aid, overthrew the Bourbon government in Sicily. Garibaldi was proclaimed dictator in the name of Victor Emmanuel. In August Garibaldi crossed to Naples, defeated the royal army there, drove Francis II. to Gaeta, and entered the capital on the 7th September. Sardinia intervened and completed the revolution, when Garibaldi, handing over his conquests to the royal troops, retired to Caprera. A plebiscite confirmed the union with Piedmont, and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed king of Italy, thus suddenly united almost in Mazzini’s phrase, “from the Alps to the sea.”

Only Venice and the Papal State now remained to be joined to the new kingdom. To obtain Venice, Italy joined Prussia in her war against Austria in 1866; and though the Italians were beaten on land at Custozza and on sea at Lissa, the triumph of Prussia was so complete that, by the peace of Prague, Venice was surrendered to Italy.

Conquest of the Papal States.—Rome was less easy to secure, because of the opposition of Roman Catholic opinion throughout Europe. French soldiers had protected the pope ever since 1849. In 1862 Garibaldi prepared to make a dash on the Papal States, but the government felt obliged to stop him. He was surrounded on Mount Aspromonte and taken prisoner. The withdrawal of the French troops from Rome (1864) was only procured by a promise to respect the Papal States, and by the transference of the capital from Turin to Florence.

In spite of the prohibition of the government, Garibaldi made another attempt on Rome in 1867; but Napoleon sent more French troops, and Garibaldi was defeated at Mentana, and had to withdraw. It was not till the fall of the French Empire in 1871 that the Italian government could act freely. As Pius IX. refused to give up the temporal power, the Italian government took the capital by force, and Pius withdrew to the Vatican, where he remained in voluntary confinement, a course followed by his successor, Leo XIII. (1878-1903), and by the present Pope, Pius X.

Difficulties of Consolidation.—The consolidation of Italy, since the formation of the kingdom, has been slow and difficult owing to the great social differences between northern and southern Italy. The nation, too, has been ambitious to be recognized as one of the great powers of Europe, which involves a vast outlay in expenditure.

MONUMENT TO VICTOR EMMANUEL II., AT ROME. THIS MEMORIAL IS EMBLEMATIC OF ITALIAN UNITY AND WAS ERECTED AT AN EXPENDITURE OF $10,000,000.—THE COSTLIEST MEMORIAL IN THE WORLD, AND POSSIBLY THE MOST MAGNIFICENT

In 1878 Victor Emmanuel died, and was succeeded by Humbert I.; Pius IX. being succeeded by Leo XIII. in the same year. Humbert’s reign was marked by electoral reform and foreign colonization. Somaliland, along the northeast coast of Africa, was acquired between 1880 and 1890, and the dependency of Eritrea was founded in 1882. Italy’s claims to a protectorate over Abyssinia led to war, which ended in an Italian defeat at Adowa, 1896, and the restoration of all land to Abyssinia by the treaty of Adis Abeba.

In 1883 Italy entered the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria, largely owing to her distrust of France. In 1900 King Humbert was assassinated by an anarchist, and was succeeded by his only son, Victor Emmanuel III. At the beginning of the new century more friendly relations were secured with France, the Triple Alliance being still maintained.

In the recent dissensions in Morocco (1906-1911) the government gave its support to France against Germany, while France acquiesced in Italian ambitions in Tripoli.

In September, 1911, war broke out between Italy and Turkey in connection with the rights and privileges of Italian subjects in Tripoli. In November of the same year the Italian government formally proclaimed the annexation of Tripoli and Cyrenaica, which was ratified by Turkey in the treaty of Ouchy in October, 1912. In the Balkan war (1912-1913) Italy’s sympathies were naturally with the allies against her recent enemies; the royal family, moreover, is connected with that of Montenegro, Queen Elena of Italy being the daughter of King Nicholas of Montenegro.

In May, 1915, Italy renounced the Triple Alliance and entered the European war on the side of Great Britain and France. War was declared upon Austria-Hungary, and Italian forces dispatched to the Trentino. No formal declaration of war was made against Germany until Aug. 27, 1916, subsequently, Italy requisitioned the German steamers interned in Italian ports.

Early in 1917, an important war conference was held in Rome by representatives of the Entente allies.

Books of Reference.—Gregorovius’s History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages; Sismondi’s History of the Italian Republics; Symonds’ Age of the Despots; Burckhardt’s Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy; Creighton’s History of the Papacy During the Reformation; Ranke’s History of the Popes and his Latin and Teutonic Nations; King’s A History of Italian Unity; Stillman’s The Union of Italy; Orsi’s Modern Italy.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Austria-Hungary belongs to the Germanic group of European states, because the dominant race is German. The Germans, however, do not form so much as a third of its varied population.

The usual name given to this great empire is Austria, a Latinized form of the German Oesterreich, meaning “Eastern Kingdom.”

Since 1867 the empire is composed of a union of two states under one emperor, but administratively distinct. The one is Austria, or Cisleithania (“on this side the Leitha,” a tributary of the Danube); the other, Hungary and the lands of the Hungarian crown, or Transleithania. The present article deals with the empire as a whole.

Location and Extent.—The Austrian dominions form geographically a compact territory with a circumference of about five thousand three hundred and fifty miles. The total area is greater than that of any other European state save Russia, and is nearly twice the area of Great Britain. The body of the empire lies in the interior of Europe, though it has about one thousand miles of sea-coast on the Adriatic. Austria borders on Italy, Switzerland, Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia, Russia, Roumania, Servia and Montenegro. With the sanction of the Berlin Congress of 1878, the small territory of Spizza, on the Montenegrin frontier and formerly Turkish, was incorporated with Dalmatia. The Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, thenceforward occupied and administered by Austria, were annexed by proclamation in 1908, and are now a part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy.

Surface Features.—Austria-Hungary has been termed the “Empire of the Danube,” since it lies for the most part within the basin of that river, and embraces the whole of its upper plain, which lies at an elevation of about three hundred feet above the sea. But it is also, next to Switzerland, by far the most mountainous land in Europe, no less than four-fifths of its area being more than six thousand feet above the sea-level.

On the west, Austria embraces nearly half of the great mass of the Alps between the plateau of Bavaria and the plain of Lombardy, the mountain and valley scenery of Tyrol and Salzburg resembling that of Switzerland on a lesser scale. The highest point of all here is the Ortler Spitze. An eastern spur of these heights, the Bakony Wäld, runs into Hungary, compelling the Danube to form a sharp east-to-south bend or knee in its course. In the northwest the Bohmer Wäld, the Erz, and Riesen Gebirge, the Sudetic Mountains, and the Moravian heights, enclose the high basin of the Upper Elbe in Bohemia. Farther east the wooded Carpathians, with the high outlying granite mass of the Tatra rise round the north of the Hungarian plain. These are continued by the Transylvanian Alps, which form the southeastern frontier, next Roumania, and which, with their northern branch, the Biharia Mountains, enclose the highland of Transylvania or Siebenbürgen on the east of the Hungarian plain.

Rivers and Lakes.—The Danube, entering Austria from Bavaria as a considerable river, and flowing southeastward over the plain of Hungary, grows to more than half a mile in width before it leaves the Hungarian border to descend by the gorge of the Iron Gates into its lower plains. It is the great highway of the kingdom, and the great outlet to the Black Sea on the east. (See further under [Danube].)

The Save, the southern boundary river of Hungary, and the Drave join the Danube in the south from the Eastern Alps, up to the base of which both are navigable.

The Theiss, winding south through the plain of Hungary from its source in the Carpathians, is its great northern tributary, also navigable, and so full of fish as to be popularly described as “two-thirds water and one-third fish.”

The March, from the Sudetic Mountains, corresponds to the Leitha from the south, forming part of the boundary between Austria and Hungary. The high basin of Bohemia, as before said, forms the upper basin of the Elbe, which escapes thence into Saxony.

The head stream of the Oder passes through Austrian Silesia; and the Vistula, draining like these to the Baltic, has its head streams in the northern slopes of the Carpathians in Galicia, the eastern portion of which province, however, drains to the Black Sea by the Dniester.

Lakes.—The two large lake basins of the country, which seem to be remnants of much more extensive inland waters, lie in Hungary between the Danube and the Drave. The larger, the Platten See or Balaton Lake, fifty miles long, shallow and stagnant, overflows into the surrounding marshes only in spring. The Lake of Constance, on the northern margin of the Alps, and Lake Garda, on the southern, touch upon Austrian territory.

Climate and Landscape.—Though from the variations of elevation the climates of different parts of Austria-Hungary are very diverse, three broad divisions may be recognized—(1) the climate of the countries which lie north of the Carpathian heights, in which the winters are long and cold, and in which the vine does not flourish; (2) that of the central plains and slopes of Hungary, favorable to wheat and vines; and (3) the Mediterranean climate of the Adriatic shores, which yield oil and silk.

Generally speaking, all the mountainous borders of Austria-Hungary are forest-covered, the woods occupying a third of the whole surface of those regions; the great plain of Hungary, on the other hand, is an open, treeless steppe.

Peoples and Races.—Austria-Hungary extends over the area in which many different races of Europe meet and interlace. Its population includes Germanic, Slavonic, Magyar, and Romanic elements, with their various tongues and dialects. The Germanic prevails in the Alpine regions and in the valley of the Danube in the west, and is widely mingled with the Slavonic and Magyar in the northern and central parts of the country.

The Slavs, the most numerous branch, forming about forty-five per cent of the whole population, appear in two divisions, a northern and southern; to the northern Slavs belong the Czechs of Bohemia, the Moravians and Slovaks, Poles and Ruthenians, or Russniaks of Galicia and Bukowina; to the southern Slavs belong the Slovenes, Croats and Servians, who occupy the southern border lands of Hungary, between the Drave and Save, westward to the peninsula of Istria and the Dalmatian coasts of the Adriatic. The Romanic element appears in the southeast on the Danube frontier, in southern Transylvania and eastern Bukowina (Wallachians), and in the southwest, where the Italians prevail in numbers on the borders of Venetia. The Magyars occupy the central plains of Hungary. The Szeklers of eastern Transylvania are a branch of the same family, by some believed to be the descendants of the once formidable Huns. Among minor elements of population, Jews are numerous in the northern provinces, Gypsies in Hungary, and Armenians in Transylvania and Galicia.

Religion and Education.—The state religion is the Roman Catholic, and this is professed by two-thirds of the population; a large proportion on the eastern borders next to Russia adhere to the Greek Church; Protestants are most numerous in Hungary and Transylvania, but form only a tenth part. General education, excepting in German Austria, where the compulsory system is enforced, is in a very backward state. There are, however, eleven universities in Austria-Hungary: Vienna, Prague (two), Budapest, Graz, Innsbruck, Cracow, Lemberg, Czernowitz, Klausenburg, and Agram.

Industries and National Resources.—The occupations of the country naturally divide themselves between the mining and pastoral industries of the mountains, and the agricultural and pastoral of the plains.

Agriculture employs by far the largest share of the population; and the lower lands of Austria-Hungary are among the most fertile portions of Europe. Oats, rye, barley, wheat, and maize, are the commonest grains; flax and hemp are widely grown; wines and tobacco chiefly in Hungary; hops in Bohemia.

Horticulture is carried to great perfection; and the orchards of Bohemia, Austria proper, Tyrol, and many parts of Hungary produce a profusion of fruit. Great quantities of cider are made in Upper Austria and Carinthia, and of plum-brandy in Slavonia. In Dalmatia, oranges, lemons and a few olives are produced.

In the production of wine, Austria is second only to France. With the exception of Galicia, Silesia, and Upper Austria, the vine is cultivated in all the provinces; but Hungary stands first, yielding not only the finest quality of wine, but four-fifths the total amount produced in the empire.

Animal Products.—The central Hungarian steppes are full of cattle, and those of the Alpine regions are an exceedingly fine breed. Merino sheep are carefully reared, especially in Moravia, Bohemia and Hungary. The river fisheries are important all over the land. The coast fisheries are of the utmost importance in rocky Dalmatia, where there is little cultivable land.

Minerals.—Its mineral wealth is not surpassed in any European country; it is only lately that Russia has exceeded it in the production of gold and silver. Mining has been an important pursuit in Austria for centuries, and has been encouraged and promoted by the government. Gold is found chiefly in Hungary and Transylvania, and in smaller quantity in Salzburg and Tyrol. The same countries, along with Bohemia, yield silver. Quicksilver is found in Hungary, Transylvania, Styria, and Carinthia. Copper is found in many districts, tin in Bohemia alone. Zinc [529] is mined chiefly in Cracow and Carinthia. The most productive lead mines are in Carinthia. Iron is found in almost every province of the monarchy, though Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola are chief seats. Antimony is confined to Hungary; arsenic, cobalt, sulphur, and graphite are produced in various parts of the empire.

The useful earths and building-stones are to be had in great profusion; likewise marble, gypsum, chalk, etc. Rock-salt exists in immense beds on both sides of the Carpathians, chiefly at Wieliczka and Bochnia in Galicia, and in the county of Marmaros in Hungary, and in Transylvania. Salt is also made at state salt-works by evaporating the water of salt-springs. There are inexhaustible deposits of coal. Austria has abundance of valuable mineral springs; about sixteen hundred are enumerated, some of them of European reputation, as the sulphur baths of Baden in Lower Austria, the saline waters of Carlsbad, Marienbad, Franzensbad, Teplitz, etc., all in Bohemia.

Manufactures are most developed in the German portion of Bohemia, in the districts round Vienna, in Moravia and Austrian Silesia, and in Styria. The Magyar countries are far behind in this respect and Dalmatia and Bukowina have scarcely any manufactures at all. Weaving employs the largest number of hands; next in number come the metal, stone, glass and wood workers, then the workers in leather. Iron and steel goods are made in the Alps of Styria. Bohemia has a world-wide reputation for the manufacture of various kinds of glass, and the Tyrol has long been noted for the production of carved woodwork. Paper is made chiefly in Bohemia and in or near Vienna.

Cities and Towns.—The most important cities are the capital, Vienna, and eight other towns above one hundred thousand (Budapest, Trieste, Prague, Lemberg, Gratz, Cracow, Brün, Szegedin), and twenty-two others above fifty thousand.

Vienna (Ger. Wien, pron. Veen), the capital of the Austrian Empire, and (jointly with Budapest) of the dual monarchy, is situated in Lower Austria, on the Danube Canal, a south branch of the Danube, here joined by the small river Wien.

Chief Divisions.—Vienna proper consists of the Inner City and ten suburban districts surrounding it, formerly encircled by fortifications known as the Lines, which in 1892 were replaced by a boulevard, known as the Ringstrasse. The central point of the city is the Graben, a short street in the center of the inner city, a pleasant, well-built avenue, of greater width than usual for streets within the Ring. The Stadt is the fashionable quarter, where are the imperial palace, the residences of many of the nobility, the leading churches, museums, galleries, etc., and the most elegant shops.

PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, VIENNA

The Ringstrasse is perhaps not surpassed in its architectural magnificence by any other street in Europe. Among the most conspicuous of the public buildings upon it are the Bourse; the University, founded in 1365 and renowned throughout the world as a medical school, has a teaching staff of five hundred and some ten thousand students; the new Rathhaus in the Gothic style, with a tower three hundred and twenty-eight feet high; the new Court Theater, the extensive and splendid Houses of Parliament; the Palace of Justice; the twin Imperial Museums of natural history and of art; the Imperial Opera House, sumptuous without and within; the Commercial Academy; the Palace of Archduke William; the Austrian Museum of Art and Industry, and the School for Art Industry.

Other institutions and buildings of interest are the Polytechnic Institute (with a Technological Museum); the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, founded by Maria Theresa; the splendid Public Hospital, the largest in Europe, and the Josephinum, a medical college founded in 1784, containing a large collection of anatomical models, etc.

Monuments and Parks.—Of the public monuments the most noteworthy are the equestrian statues of Joseph II., in the Josephsplatz, those of Archduke Charles and Prince Eugene, and that of Francis I. in the Hofgarten; the monument of Francis II., in the inner court of the Hofburg; the grand Maria Theresa monument; the Beethoven and the Schiller monuments; the Grill-parzer monument, etc. Of the many beautiful fountains the finest is that by Schwanthaler representing Austria, with the four rivers, Danube, Elbe, Vistula, and Po.

In the Volksgarten (bordering on the Ringstrasse) is the Temple of Theseus, modeled after that at Athens, and formerly containing Canova’s marble Theseus and the Minotaur, which is now in the Imperial Museum of Art.

IMPERIAL ART MUSEUM, VIENNA

The great park of Vienna is the Prater (four thousand two hundred and seventy acres), extending for nearly four miles between the Donau Canal (a narrow arm of the Danube) and the main stream of the river. It was the site of the Great Exhibition of 1873, some of the buildings of which are now used for exhibitions, concerts, etc.

GRAND OPERA HOUSE, VIENNA

Churches and Museums.—The ecclesiastical center and the historic church of the city, is St. Stephen’s Cathedral, adjacent to the Graben.

St. Stephen’s is one of the noblest Gothic edifices in Europe. It was founded in 1147, but was burned in 1258. The present edifice was begun soon after, but the tower was not finished until 1433. It has recently undergone extensive restorations, both without and within. The tower is four hundred and forty-nine feet high. The interior is rich in sculpture and in monuments; and the carved stalls in the choir and the stone pulpit are specially to be noted.

The Capuchin Church contains the burial-vault of the imperial family. The Duke of Reichstadt, son of Napoleon I., lies here among his maternal ancestors.

In the Minorite Church there is a fine mosaic [531] copy of Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper; also the monument of the poet Metastasio.

THE IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY, VIENNA

The Augustine Church contains Canova’s monument of the Archduchess Maria Christina, one of his noblest works; and in the Loretto Chapel are the silver urns that hold the hearts of many members of the imperial family.

The Church of Maria-Stiegen is a Gothic structure of the fourteenth century restored in 1820, and second in beauty only to St. Stephen’s.

The elegant Karlskirche, or Church of St. Charles Borromeo, was erected in 1737 in fulfilment of a vow of Charles VI., when the plague raged in Vienna; it is in Italian style, with two slender spires, one hundred and forty-five feet high, near the porch.

The Imperial Museums now contain the Picture Gallery, arranged in schools. It is second only to the Dresden collection, is specially famous for its unrivaled examples of the Venetian school, Rubens, and Dürer, the Antiquities, comprising statuary, mosaics, inscriptions, etc., mostly Austrian; and the Ambras Collection, remarkable for its ancient armor, ivories and other carvings, etc.

Industries.—Vienna is the chief industrial city in the empire. Machinery, scientific and musical instruments, artistic goods in bronze, leather, terracotta, porcelain, furniture, meerschaum pipes, etc., are among the noted manufactures. As a center of trade and finance Vienna is no less important.

Schönbrunn, two miles from Vienna, is the seat of the magnificent Summer Palace of the Emperor, with extensive gardens and pleasure-grounds. From the marble colonnade of the Gloriette there is a fine view of the city and its suburbs. In the churchyard is Canova’s monument of Baroness Pillersdorf.

Prague (Ger. Prag; Czech Praha), the capital of Bohemia, is situated at the base and on the slope of the hills which skirt both sides of the isleted Moldau, two hundred and seventeen miles from Vienna and one hundred and eighteen miles from Dresden. It offers a highly picturesque appearance from the beauty of its site, and the numerous lofty towers (more than seventy in number) which rise above the palaces, public buildings, and bridges of the city.

STATUE OF THE POET GRILLPARZER IN VIENNA

The royal Burg, on the Hradschin (two hundred and forty feet), the ancient residence of the Dukes of Bohemia, dates mainly now from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and has four hundred and forty rooms. The neighboring Cathedral of St. Vitus is still unfinished, though building was resumed in 1867. Here are the splendid royal mausoleum and the shrine of St. John of Nepomuk, containing one and one-half tons of silver. Of forty-seven other Catholic Churches the chief are the domed Jesuit Church of St. [532] Nicolas, and the Teyn Church (1407; the old Hussite Church), with Tycho Brahé’s grave, and its marble statue of the Slavonic martyrs, Cyril and Methodius.

ROYAL PALACE, SCHÖNBRUNN, NEAR VIENNA

Of five bridges and two railway viaducts the most striking is the Karlsbrücke, five hundred and forty-three yards long, with gate-towers at either end, and statues of John of Nepomuk and other saints. Other noteworthy objects are the town hall, the Pulverturm, the new Czech Theatre, the old Jewish graveyard, the vast Czerni Palace and the Picture Gallery.

Prague has numerous public gardens and walks, with several noble parks close by. The manufactures include machinery, chemicals, leather, cotton, linen, gloves, beer and spirits.

SALZBURG, AUSTRIA, ONE OF THE MOST CHARMING TOWNS IN EUROPE, AND BIRTHPLACE OF MOZART AND HAYDN

Salzburg (sälts’börg), is in Upper Austria, twenty-eight miles from Linz, near the Bavarian frontier, one thousand three hundred and fifty feet above sea, under some fine hills on the Salzach. It is considered one of the most beautifully situated towns of Europe. At this point the river passes between two extensive but isolated masses of rock, one of which, the Mönchsberg (Monk’s Hill), is crowned by the old citadel, dating originally from Roman times, but frequently rebuilt. This portion of the city contains the fine cathedral, with a white marble façade, and built in imitation of St. Peter’s at Rome.

Its industries are confined chiefly to the manufacture of musical instruments, marble ornaments.

Budapest (boo´da-pest; Hung. pron. boo´do-pesht´) is the capital of Hungary, and the second city of the Austrian Empire, consisting of Buda on the west bank of the Danube, and Pest on the opposite bank.

ROYAL PALACE AND SUSPENSION BRIDGE, BUDAPEST

These twin cities are joined by five bridges: a chain bridge between the two commercial quarters; the Queen Elizabeth Bridge; the Franz Josef Bridge; the Margaret Bridge; and a railway bridge.

Buda, the older and formerly the more important of the two parts, stands on and around two hills. On one stands the royal castle, erected by Maria Theresa, and a fortress, rebuilt after being destroyed by the Hungarians in 1849. The palace chapel of St. Sigismund contains the Hungarian regalia and the hand of St. Stephen. On the Blocksberg, to the south of this hill, stands the old citadel, while on a lower mound to the north is the Turkish mosque, built over the tomb of the saint Sheik Gül-Babas.

Other prominent buildings are the palace of Archduke Joseph, the residence of the Premier, and of the Minister of National Defense, all standing in the Georgsplatz, where is also a monument to General Hentzi, and the thirteenth-century parish church of St. John.

Pest, the more modern city, stands upon a sandy plain with fine quays along the Danube. The main streets radiate from the Belvaros, which is enclosed by boulevards replacing the old city walls.

The most notable buildings are the Houses of Parliament and Palaces of Justice, the Academy of Sciences, containing valuable art collections, and a fine library, the Bourse, and the Redoute buildings, all on the Franz Josef Quay; the National Museum Theatre and University on Museum Street; the Industrial Art Museum, on Ulloi Street; the Royal Military Academy, in the Orczy Gardens; and the Leopold Basilica on Andrassy Street, one of the most handsome thoroughfares in Europe. There are a parish Church, a Greek Church, and a Jewish synagogue, and numerous parks, including one on Margaret Island in the Danube.

Both towns have valuable baths and sulphur springs, and the united cities form a large manufacturing center for machinery, spirits, and tobacco, cutlery and metal-work, glass, etc. The most important industry is milling, the trade in grain and flour being enormous, and there is considerable commerce in cattle and swine, honey, wax, bacon and hides, timber, and coal.

Salzkammergut (Sahltzkammergoot´), called the Austrian Switzerland, one of the most picturesque regions of Europe, lies in a district famous for its salt mines and brine springs, and hence known as the Salzkammergut (“Estate of the Salt Office”). The scenery combines in rare beauty the features of valley, mountain and lake. The highest peak is the Dachstein (nine thousand eight hundred and thirty feet); of its lakes the most famous are Hallstatt, Traun or Gmünden, Atter, St. Wolfgang, Aber, Mond, and Zell. The chief seats of the salt-works are Ischl, Hallstatt, and Ebensee.

THE GOTHIC POWDER TOWER, PRAGUE

Other Important Places.—Trieste, the only great seaport of the Empire, is at [534] the head of its gulf, on the North Adriatic. Pola, near the southern extremity of the peninsula of Istria, is the chief naval station of Austria.

Linz, on the Danube, is the seat of a considerable trade. Steyr, on the river Enns, is noted for its steel and iron industry.

Northern Styria is the center of the Austrian steel and iron industry, carried on more especially around Leoben. The capital, Graz, is a staple place for the manufacture of machinery, and one of the most agreeable of Austrian capitals, and a favorite place of residence.

Semmering, an Austrian Alpine pass (three thousand two hundred and nineteen feet) connecting Vienna with Graz, though the lowest of the Alpine passes, is traversed by the first railway (1854) to be carried across the Alps. The viaducts of the Semmering railway, some of them with several tiers of arches, are among the grandest works of engineering. The Semmering road begins at Gloggnitz, at an elevation of one thousand four hundred and twenty-six feet, and is carried along the face of abrupt precipices over bridges and through tunnels, affording views of the grandest and wildest scenery en route. This part of the road is twenty-five miles long, and cost more than seven millions of dollars.

Innsbruck, on the Inn, is the capital of the Tyrol, the most alpine part of the monarchy. Its principal rivers are the Inn, in the north, and the Etsch or Adige, in the south, the mountain range separating them being crossed by the Pass of the Brenner (five thousand eight hundred and sixty feet). On the Adige are Botzen, Trent, and Roveredo, the two last inhabited by Italians.

Reichenberg, in the north, is the center of the textile trades; Teplitz and Karlsbad, at the foot of the Erzgebirge, are famous watering-places; Pilsen, in the west, is noted for its beer. Königgrätz and Sadowa, where the battle was fought which decided the Seven Weeks’ war in 1866, are in the east.

Brünn is the great center of the Austrian woolen trade; near it is the old state prison, Spielberg. Olmütz is a strong fortress on the March.

Lemberg and Cracow (the ancient capital of Poland) are the centers of trade, and the marts for the agricultural produce.

Bukowina is a small duchy at the head of the Sereth and other rivers falling into the Black Sea, with Czernowitz for its capital. About forty per cent of the inhabitants are Roumanians.

Pressburg, near the eastern frontier, is the old coronation city; Komorn, lower down on the Danube, is famous as a fortress; Szegedin, the chief town on the Theiss, was almost wholly destroyed by floods in the year 1878.

Fiume, at the head of the Quarnero Gulf, is the chief seaport of Hungary.

HISTORY OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

The empire of Austria arose from the smallest beginnings at the end of the eighth century. In 796 a Margraviate, called the Eastern Mark (i. e. “March” or frontier-land), was founded as an outpost of the empire of Charlemagne, in the country between the Enns and the Raab. The name Oesterreich appears first in 996.

Rise Under the Hapsburgs.—In 1156 the mark was raised to a duchy; and after coming into the possession of the House of Hapsburg in 1282, it began its period of growth toward a powerful state. The princes of that house extended their dominion by marriage, by purchase, and otherwise, over a number of other states, including the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary; and from 1438 down to the nineteenth century they held almost without interruption the throne of the German empire (nominally “the Holy Roman Empire”)—the emperor being the most conspicuous, if not always the most powerful personage among the crowned heads of Europe.

Hapsburg Power Through Marriage.—The most pronounced rise of Austria and of the House of Hapsburg to historical eminence may be said to date from the reign of Maximilian I. (1493-1519). By marrying Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold (1477), he acquired possession of the Netherlands. Through the marriage of their son Philip with Joanna of Spain, the Houses of Austria and Spain were united.

Passes to Charles V. of Germany.—As Philip died in 1506, his elder son, the celebrated Charles V., became heir to the united monarchies, and was elected emperor of Germany in 1519. Thus, by a succession of fortunate marriages, the House of Hapsburg became the most powerful dynasty in the world.

Charles V., however, resigned all his German territories to his younger brother, Ferdinand I., who was thus the continuation of the Austrian branch of the line. Under Ferdinand the power of Austria greatly increased.

Division of the Empire.—In the partition of the inheritance that took place among Ferdinand’s three sons, the eldest, Maximilian II., received the imperial crown along with Austria, Hungary and Bohemia; the second, Ferdinand, Tyrol and Upper Austria; the third, Charles, got Styria, Carinthia, etc. Maximilian II. was fond of peace, tolerant in religion, and a just ruler. He died in 1576; and of his five sons, the eldest, Rudolf II., became emperor.

Rudolf II. was negligent, leaving everything to his ministers and the Jesuits. His war with the Porte and Transylvania brought him little credit; and the Protestants of Bohemia, oppressed by the Jesuits, extorted from him a charter of religious liberty. In 1608 he was obliged to cede Hungary, and in 1611 Bohemia and Austria, to his brother Matthias.

Matthias, who became emperor in 1612, ceded Bohemia and Hungary to his cousin Ferdinand, son of the Archduke Charles of Styria, third son of Maximilian II. Matthias lived to see the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ war, and died in 1619.

Ferdinand II. and the Thirty Years’ War.—Bohemia refused to acknowledge his successor, Ferdinand II., to whom all the Austrian possessions had again reverted, and chose the Elector Palatine, Frederick V., the head of the Protestant Union, as king. This election gave the signal for the Thirty Years’ war, in which the House of Austria took the lead, both as the champion of Catholicism, and the head of a power which aimed at universal domination in Germany and in the Christian world. The battle of Prague (1620) subjected Bohemia to Ferdinand, who formally set about rooting out Protestantism in that country and in Moravia. The emperor also succeeded in extorting acknowledgment of his sovereignty from the states of Austria; and here, too, Protestantism, which had made great progress since the time of Luther, was mercilessly suppressed.

Under Ferdinand’s successor, the Emperor Ferdinand III. (1637-1657), Austria continued to be a theater of war; and at the peace of Westphalia (1648) had to cede Alsace to France.

Leopold I. and the War of the Spanish Succession.—Ferdinand III.’s son and successor, Leopold I., provoked the Hungarians to rebellion by his severity. The struggle between Leopold and Louis XIV. of France for the heirship to the king of Spain led to the War of the Spanish Succession, during which Leopold died, in 1705.

His eldest son and successor, the enlightened Joseph I., continued the war. He died childless in 1711, and was succeeded by his brother, Charles VI.

Hapsburg-Lorraine Line of Rulers.—With the death of Charles VI., in 1740, the male line of the Hapsburgs became extinct, and his daughter, Maria Theresa, who was married to the duke of Lorraine, assumed the government. For many years it had been the aim of Charles to secure the adhesion of the European powers to the Pragmatic Sanction, by which the possessions of the Austrian crown should pass to Maria Theresa. Those powers during his lifetime had promised to second his wishes, but he was no sooner in his grave than nearly all of them sought to profit by the accession of a female sovereign.

War of the Austrian Succession.—A great war arose, in which England alone sided with Maria. Frederick II. of Prussia conquered Silesia. The Elector of Bavaria was crowned king of Bohemia, and elected emperor as Charles VII. in 1742. The Hungarians, however, stood by their heroic queen, who was soon able to wage a fairly successful war against her numerous foes. At the death of the empress in 1780, the monarchy had an extent of two hundred and thirty-four thousand square miles, with a population of twenty-four millions. The administration of Maria Theresa was distinguished by unwonted unity and vigor, both in home and foreign affairs.

Her successor, Joseph II., was an active reformer in the spirit of the enlightened despotism of the times, though often rash and violent in his mode of proceeding. He was succeeded in the government by his brother, the grandduke of Tuscany—as German emperor, Leopold II.—who succeeded in pacifying the Netherlands and Hungary.

Austria and the French Revolution.—At the outbreak of the revolution in France the fate of Leopold’s sister, Marie Antoinette, and her husband, Louis XVI. of France, led him to an alliance with Prussia against France; but he died in 1792 before the war broke out. War was declared by France on his son, Francis II., the same year, and by the treaty of Campo Formio, 1797, Austria lost Lombardy and the Netherlands, receiving in lieu the Venetian territory.

In 1795, at the second partition of Poland, it had been augmented by western Galicia.

Francis, in alliance with Russia, renewed the war with France in 1799, which was ended by the peace of Lunéville. It is needless to follow all the alterations of boundary that the Austrian dominions underwent during these wars. The most serious was at the peace of Vienna (1809), which cost Austria forty-two thousand square miles of territory. It was in 1804, when Napoleon had been proclaimed emperor of France, that Francis declared himself hereditary emperor of Austria as Francis I. On the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine, he laid down the dignity of German emperor, which his family had held for nearly four hundred years.

The humiliating peace of Vienna was followed (1809) by the marriage of Napoleon with the Archduchess Maria Louisa, and in 1812 Austria figured as the ally of Napoleon in his great campaign against Russia, but she did not give much active assistance. In August of the following year Austria joined the grand alliance against France and the Austrian general, Schwarzenberg, was entrusted with the chief command of the allied forces, which at the battle of Leipzig and in the campaign of 1814 broke the power of Napoleon.

Congress of Vienna and Subsequent Period of Metternich.—The sacrifices and great services rendered by Austria in the gigantic struggle received full consideration at the treaty of Vienna (1815). As recompense for the loss of the Netherlands she received Venice and Dalmatia, which afforded an outlet for her foreign trade.

After that time Austria, under the diplomatic guidance of Prince Metternich, exerted a powerful influence in European politics generally, and more especially in the German Confederation, of which her emperor was president. The death of Francis I. in 1835 made little alteration in the policy of Austria; Ferdinand I. trod in his father’s footsteps. The political alliance with Russia and Prussia was drawn closer by a personal conference of the emperor with Nicholas I. and Frederick-William III. at Teplitz in 1835.

Revolution of 1848.—In Austria, after the fall of Metternich from power, the revolutionary period of 1848-1849 was one of exceptional severity, the movement for constitutional freedom being complicated by the revival of the national spirit in Hungary, Italy and Bohemia. The time was everywhere ripe for revolt, when the fall of Louis-Philippe of France (February 24, 1848), gave the signal for the outbreak of the revolutionary elements all over Europe. Nowhere was the spirit of change stronger than in Vienna, which for many months became a scene of confusion.

The leaders of the popular movement in Vienna were in sympathy with Hungary, and when the imperial troops were ordered to suppress the national rising there, the citizens again rose in insurrection. In the meantime the military forces had withdrawn from the capital in order to prevent the Hungarians coming to the aid of the Viennese. Vienna was now besieged, and surrendered at the end of October, after a resistance of eight days.

Francis Joseph Emperor.—The reaction was triumphant, and the leaders of revolt severely punished; but as Ferdinand had not shown sufficient vigor in the great crisis, he was persuaded to abdicate, and Francis Joseph was declared emperor at the age of eighteen. Thus restored, the central authority had now to [536] assert itself in Hungary and to complete the reconquest of northern Italy. With the surrender of Venice, which took place in August, the subjugation of Italy was complete.

Conquest of Hungary.—In Hungary, the Magyars, though the Germans and Slavs within the country itself were hostile to them, began the campaign of 1849 with decided success. But the government had already solicited the aid of Russia, whose armies, entering Transylvania and Hungary, added to the imperial cause the irresistible weight of numbers. Surrounded on every side by superior forces, the Hungarians were completely beaten. It was in vain that Kossuth transferred the dictatorship to General Görgei. Görgei, whether from treachery, as the other Magyar leaders maintained, or from necessity, as he himself averred, laid down his arms to the Russians at Vilagos (August 13). The surrender of Komorn, in September, completed the subjugation of Hungary, which was treated as a conquered country.

The ten years which followed on the revolutionary troubles of 1848 were a period of reaction and of absolutism. A constitution which had been granted in 1849 was soon annulled. The policy pursued was one of strong centralization under a bureaucratic government, by which the claims of nationality and of freedom were alike disregarded. Liberty of the press and trial by jury were set aside. A rigorous system of police was maintained. The aim was to Germanize the whole empire and to crush the aspirations of both Slavs and Hungarians. The Church pronounced against national freedom, and supported the central authority and received great privileges by the Concordat of 1855. The result of all these proceedings was only to irritate the national feeling in Hungary, Italy and Bohemia.

Struggle Between Austria and Prussia.—On the confused arena of German politics, the struggle for ascendancy was kept up between Austria and Prussia. In 1850 the two powers were armed and ready to come to blows with reference to the affairs of Hesse-Cassel; but the bold and determined policy of Schwarzenberg prevailed, and by the humiliating arrangement of Olmütz, Prussia gave way. For a few years longer the preponderance of Austria in the German Confederation was secured.

The rule of Austria in Italy had always been unsatisfactory. From her own provinces in Venice and Lombardy she controlled the policy of the courts of central and southern Italy, and her influence tended invariably towards the suppression of national feeling and popular liberty.

Loss of Italian Possessions.—Sardinia was the only state that worthily represented the spirit of the Italian people. In the spring of 1859 it began to arm against Austrian supremacy. Austria demanded immediate disarmament, on pain of war; but Sardinia refused. Austria accordingly commenced hostilities by crossing the Ticino at the end of April, 1859. Sardinia having secured the aid of France, the Austrians were defeated at Magenta, Solferino and elsewhere, and their emperor was fain to seek an armistice from Napoleon. On July 11 the two potentates met at Villafranca, and concluded a peace, ceding Lombardy to Sardinia. Venice was all that still remained of the Italian possessions of Austria.

Austro-Prussian War.—The rivalry of Prussia and Austria for influence in the Germanic body of states dated from the rise of Prussia to be a leading power. The arrangement of Olmütz in 1850 had left a painful feeling of humiliation in the minds of the Prussian statesmen. The long rivalry was now to be brought to a decisive issue. In 1864 the combined Prussian and Austrian forces drove the Danes out of Sleswick-Holstein, but the two victors quarreled about the subsequent arrangements. War was declared, and in 1866 the Austrian armies in Bohemia were completely beaten by the Prussians, in a campaign of seven days, which closed with the great defeat of Königgrätz or Sadowa.

Period of Reforms.—After the great war of 1866 the history of Austria has been concerned chiefly with two important interests. In the first place, the government had to attempt an arrangement of the conflicting claims and rights of the peoples constituting the empire; in the second place, it has had to establish working relations with the great neighboring powers, Germany and Russia, and especially with the latter, on the Eastern Question.

Union of Austria and Hungary.—Hungary’s claims to be recognized as a separate and distinct country were now, with great advantage, pressed forward. In 1867 its political rights were successful in being regarded as justified. This agreement was the famous Ausgleich, which has since been in force, and which has to a sufficient degree justified its adoption.

At the end of 1867 the first parliamentary ministry was formed. The Concordat was set aside. Education was freed from the control of the Church. Marriage was placed under the jurisdiction of the civil power. The press laws were relaxed. Finally, the Prussian system of military organization was introduced.

In the foreign affairs of Austria the chief aim was to arrive at a satisfactory understanding with Germany and Russia. After 1871 Bismarck arranged as between Germany, Austria and Russia a “Three Emperors’ Alliance,” which after the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878 was superseded by an alliance between Germany and Austria. This, by the inclusion of Italy, in 1882, became the Triple Alliance, which remained in full force down to the great European war of 1914.

During the Turkish revolution of 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which the Treaty of Berlin had placed under Austro-Hungarian administration and military occupation in 1878.

Racial Difficulties Bearing Upon the European War, 1914-1917.—The multiplicity of races and their mutual jealousies rendered the task of the central government in Austria-Hungary both delicate and difficult. (See [Peoples and Races].) Russia, as a Slav nation and a great power, had long exercised a predominant influence in the Balkans. Acting under this influence, Servia secretly fostered aspirations in the direction of a Pan-Slavic [537] propaganda with the apparent object of not only lessening Austrian influence in the Balkans but of breaking up, through internal defections, the Austrian Empire; from the accomplishment of this Servia hoped to profit.

The Slavs are closely allied with Russia. The spread of Pan-Slavism constituted a menace to the very existence of the Dual Monarchy. The growth of German and Russian aspirations directed at expansion through the Balkan States had, therefore, a direct connection with the racial element of which Pan-Slavism was but one manifestation. As an evidence of the spread of the doctrine of “Pan-Slavic Unity” and of the bitterness of the racial antipathy which it engendered, the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated on June 28, 1914, at Sarajevo, the capital of the Austrian province of Bosnia. This act led directly to a declaration of war against Servia on July 28th, followed by an Austrian invasion on July 30th. (Further causes and details of the war will be found under the [European War].)

SOVEREIGNS OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

The following is a list of the Hapsburg rulers of Austria (Dukes and, from 1453, Archdukes of Austria, from 1526, also Kings of Hungary and Bohemia, from 1804 Emperors of Austria).

HOUSE OF HAPSBURG
Albert I.1282
*Rudolf II.1282
*Rudolf III.1293
Frederick (III. as rival Imperial claimant)1307
*Leopold I.1314
*Albert II.1314
*Rudolf IV.1358
*Albert III.1365
*Albert IV.1395
Albert V. (II. as Emperor, King of Hungary and Bohemia)1404
*Ladislaus (King of Hungary and Bohemia)1439
Fredrick V. (III. as Emperor)1457
Maximilian I.1493
Charles I. (V. as Emperor)1519
Ferdinand I.1520
Maximilian II.1564
Rudolf V. (II. as Emperor)1576
Matthias1611
Ferdinand II.1619
Ferdinand III.1637
Leopold I.1658
Joseph I.1705
Charles II. (VI. as Emperor, III. of Hungary)1711
*Maria Theresa.1740
HOUSE OF HAPSBURG-LORRAINE
Joseph II.1780
Leopold II.1790
Francis I. (II. as Emperor)1792
*Ferdinand I. (V. of Hungary)1835
*Francis Joseph I.1848
Charles Francis Joseph1916
* All except those marked with an asterisk likewise
filled the throne of the Holy Roman Empire.
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

Russia extends over eastern Europe, the whole of northern Asia, and a part of central Asia. This area, which is more than twice as large as Europe, and embraces one-sixth of the land-surface of the globe, has a population estimated at near one hundred and seventy-four millions. The Russian Empire consists of two well-defined parts: European Russia less than one-fourth of the whole but including nearly three-fourths of its population; and Asiatic Russia. The inhabitants of European Russia mostly belong to the Slavic branch of the human race.

The subdivisions are indicated in the following table:

Governments
and
Provinces		Area
English
Square
Miles		Population
Jan. 1912
European Russia:
Russia proper (50 Provs.)1,862,524122,550,700
Poland (10 Provs.)49,01812,776,100
Finland (Grand Duchy)144,1783,140,100
Asiatic Russia:
Caucasia (11 Provs.)180,70312,288,100
Central Asia (10 Provs. and Regions)1,325,53010,727,000
Siberia (8 Provs. and Regions)4,786,7309,577,900
Dependencies:
Khiva26,028800,000
Bokhara78,5241,500,000
Inland Lakes317,468...
8,770,703173,359,900

The various sections of European Russia differ greatly from one another, and have thereby given rise to certain popular divisions that are even better known generally than the strictly governmental provinces. These, with their distinguishing features, may be indicated as follows:

Great Russia (Muscovy).—All the central and northern regions to the Arctic shores. Chief towns: Moscow, Tula.

Except on its outskirts, this region presents everywhere the same aspects, wide, undulating plains covered with cornfields and dotted with small deciduous forests. The soil is of very moderate fertility in the north, but very fertile in the black earth belt of the south.

The Great Russians, numbering about fifty-five millions, are a vigorous and manly stock, usually rather light-haired, with blue or brown eyes, well-formed hands and feet, and a serious, kindly, but somewhat crafty, temperament, an inborn disposition for a wandering life, a very small regard to the value of time, and (especially in the peasantry) an extreme carelessness and slovenliness in all details of daily life.

Little Russia, or the Ukraine.—In the southwest. Chief town: Kieff.

The little Russians, over twenty-two millions in all, are settled in the Ukraine, which contains also in the borderlands some twelve per cent of Jews and six per cent of Poles. Their religion, like their love for music and poetry and their passion for country life, they share with their relations on the north and northeast, but in their developments of folklore and popular song, and in the more feminine character both of their physique and their intellect, they offer marked peculiarities. The Little Russians of the Dnieper basin are closely allied to the Ruthenians of Austria-Hungary.

The Ukraine comprises the governments of Tchernigoff, Kieff, Poltava, and part of Kharkoff, as well as Volhynia and Podolia on the spurs of the Carpathians, the richest and most populous parts of Russia. The soil is mostly a rich black earth, and assumes farther south the aspect of fine grassy steppes, or prairies, yielding rich crops of wheat.

PETER THE GREAT IN HOLLAND

The practical ambition of Peter the Great has probably never been surpassed by any sovereign in history. He began empire building with his travels in 1697. It was an unparalleled step for a young sovereign of twenty-five to take: to withdraw from his kingdom and journey abroad in order to learn the art of government. He was deeply interested in all branches of engineering, especially ship-building, which he first studied in Holland, working as an ordinary laborer in a dockyard. In 1698 Peter went to England to pursue his studies in the theory and practice of ship construction, which he did by visiting the dockyards of Woolwich, Chatham, and Deptford.

Eastern Russia.—Chief towns: Astrakhan, Kazan, Samara, Saratoff.

This part of the country is more elevated, but less effectively drained; and vast forests stretch from the upper Volga to the Urals.

The peoples are of Turkish origin and include the Tartars of Kazan; the Nogai Tartars of the Crimea in the south, and the Kirgiz on the Caspian. The Bashkirs, Chuvash, and others, in the Ural and Volga, are Tartarized Finns. The Kalmucks may be taken as the purest type of the Mongols; they are short, swarthy, broad-shouldered horsemen, black-haired and black-eyed, the eyes slanting down toward the flat nose.

South Russia.—Along the Black Sea. Chief towns: Odessa, Nikolayeff, Kisheneff.

This is chiefly the steppe-region, a belt more than two hundred miles wide along the littoral of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, and extends east through the region of the lower Volga and Ural till it meets the steppes of central Asia.

Here are gently undulating plains, clothed with rich grass and coated with a thick layer of fertile black earth.

In order to people Bessarabia after its conquest in the eighteenth century without depriving the Russian landowners of their serfs, several races of foreigners, as Moldavians, Wallachians (Vlachs), Servians, Greeks, Germans, and even Scotch, were freely invited to settle there. The population of the steppe-region exceeds thirteen millions.

Western Russia.—Including the Lithuanian provinces of Kovno, Vilna, and part of Grodno and Vitebsk, drained by the Niemen and the upper Dwina, and other portions of the former kingdom of Poland. Chief town: Vilna.

Here dwell the White Russians, who number about six millions, but they are more mixed with Poles, Jews and Little Russians. In all essentials they are merely “poor relations” of the Great Russian family, living, on the whole, in a more degraded and undeveloped state than any other Russians.

The Baltic Provinces.—The coast-lands of the Gulfs of Finland and Riga. Chief towns: Petrograd (St. Petersburg), Revel, Riga.

These are four Russian governments bordering on the Baltic—viz., Courland, Livonia, Esthonia, and Petrograd; or in a restricted sense, often the first three. The Baltic provinces once belonged to Sweden, except Courland, which was a dependency of Poland. They came into the possession of Russia partly in the beginning of the eighteenth century through the conquests of Peter the Great, partly under Alexander in 1809.

They occupy an undulating plain three hundred to eight hundred feet above the sea. Owing to the influence of the sea, this region enjoys a milder climate than the rest of Russia, and has maintained its excellent forests, chiefly of oak. The soil is of moderate fertility.

The more important non-Slavic peoples of this region are the Lithuanians (one million two hundred and fifty thousand) and Letts (one million five hundred thousand), chiefly in Kovno, Vilna, Grodno, Vitebsk, Courland, and S. Livonia. The Germans (one million five hundred thousand) are mainly descendants of the mediæval conquerors of the east Baltic coasts (Teutonic Knights, Knights of the Sword, and their followers) and of the agricultural colonists brought by Catherine II.

The Grand-Duchy of Finland.—In the northwest, next Scandinavia. Chief towns: Viborg, Helsingfors, Abo.

Finland was ceded by the Swedes in 1809, but still retains an independent administration. The interior, chiefly elevated plateau, consists largely of forest land, and is well supplied with lakes, many of which are united by canals. (See also under Europe.)

Education is highly advanced; Swedish and Finnish are the two languages of the country, Russian being practically unknown. There is an excellent Saga literature, and the beginnings of a modern literature. The Finns came under the dominion of the Swedes in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and were by them Christianized.

The Finnish race includes the Finns and the Karelians (two million four hundred thousand in Finland and three hundred and fifty thousand in European Russia); the Esthonians, the people of Livonia, and other Western Finns in the Baltic Provinces (about one million); the Lapps and the Samoyedes in the far north; and the Volga Finns and the Ugrians (one million seven hundred and fifty thousand in European Russia and fifty thousand in Siberia). The Eastern Finns are being rapidly absorbed by the Russians; but the Western Finns warmly cherish their nationality.

[7]Poland.—In the west, next Germany. Chief town: Warsaw.

[7] Russian Poland was created into an independent kingdom by a joint edict of Germany and Austria-Hungary promulgated at Warsaw November 5, 1916. What its future status may be when the map of Europe is re-adjusted after the close of the European War is uncertain. For the present it is given a place among the independent nations.

Surface Features.—In general these embody the plains of European Russia and the lowlands and plains that extend to the north of the two great plateaus of Asia—the high plateau of East Asia and the western plateau of Persia and Armenia.

In European Russia, apart from the Caucasus, the Urals, and the Crimea, the only districts rising above one thousand feet are the Valdai hills at head of the Volga, the Timan range (over three thousand feet) in the Pechora basin, several heights in Russian Lapland (over one thousand five hundred), and some in Ukraine (over one thousand). The main divisions of its landscape are the treeless northern tundras, frozen in winter, grassy in summer; the rock and lake plateau of Finland; the immense central forest region, the cultivated parts of which supply Europe with grain; and the treeless steppes, which lie across the south of the plain from the saline borders of the northern Caspian toward Roumania on the west.

In Western Asia, the Caucasus is a single chain, so narrow that the same summits may be seen from the steppes which reach out from its northern base, and from the deep valleys which separate it from the heights of Armenia on the south. It has thus no great valleys in the direction of its length. The spurs descending from the main chain have deep gorges or troughs between. The culminating points are the Elbruz peak and Koshtan Tau, towards the western end of the chain; and Mount Kazbek, near the middle of it—all rising grandly from deep valleys.

The two most important passes over it were called in ancient times the Caucasian and Albanian gates. The former, now called the Dariel Pass, lies close to the eastern base of the Kazbek, and is a narrow cleft eight thousand two hundred and fifteen feet above the sea, available for carriages in the summer. The latter skirts the eastern termination of the range on the shores of the Caspian.

Over the whole chain vegetation is vigorous, but more luxuriant on the warmer southern slopes. The valleys opening in that direction are highly fertile, producing rice and cotton and silk, indigo, tobacco, and vines, and luxuriant woods. The northern slopes, exposed to the keen winds of the steppes, are characterized by bare pasture-lands and scattered firwoods.

All Western Siberia, nearest the Ural belt and European Russia, is a vast plain rising almost imperceptibly from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the Kirghiz steppes and the base of the Altai mountains, which spring up from it like a [540] wall, forming the northern buttress of the great tableland of Central Asia. The northern border of this plain is occupied by the marshy frozen tundras; the broad central belt is covered with forest, in the cleared spaces of which the soil is fertile and well suited to agriculture; all the southern portion of it is occupied by treeless steppes which reach away south towards the Caspian and Aral Seas.

The chief elevation in eastern Siberia is a chain of volcanic mountains running down the center of the peninsula of Kamchatka, some of whose peaks reach an elevation of seventeen thousand feet.

Rivers.—The chief rivers of Russia are the Niemen, the Dwina, the Lovat (continued by the Volkhov and the Neva), the Onega, the Dnieper, the Don and the Volga. By means of three lines of canals and canalized rivers, which connect the upper tributaries of the Volga with the streams that flow into Lakes Onega and Ladoga, the real mouth of the Volga has been transferred from the Caspian to the Gulf of Finland—Petrograd being the chief port of the Volga basin. The upper Volga and the upper Kama are also connected by canals with the North Dwina, and the Dnieper with the Düna, the Niemen, and the Vistula.

The rainfall of Russia is small, and as part of it falls in the shape of snow, the rivers are flooded in spring and in early summer. During the winter navigation of course ceases.

The Lake District.—This region lies in the north, and includes the governments of Petrograd, Novgorod, and Finland. The lakes in the district are well-nigh innumerable, the government of Novgorod alone containing more than three thousand lakes. The chief lakes of Finland are the Enare and Saima. Lake Ladoga is the largest lake in Russian Europe. For a third of the year its surface is frozen. The lake abounds with fish, and has a peculiar species of seal. The Neva flows from the lake into the Gulf of Finland.

Lake Onega is joined up to the White Sea by means of a series of lakes and streams.

Lake Ilmen is formed by the meeting of a number of rivers in a shallow depression; the average depth does not exceed thirty feet.

Lake Peipus, a part of which is called the Lake of Pskov, connects with the Gulf of Riga and with the Gulf of Finland. This lake also is very shallow and does not in any part exceed a depth of ninety feet.

Seaboard and Islands.—The ports on the Arctic coast are of little importance, since for nearly three-quarters of the year the outlets are frozen.

The White Sea with its port, Archangel, had lost much of the importance which it formerly possessed until brought into use during the European war in 1916-1917.

The Bering Sea and the coasts which border on the Sea of Japan lose much of their value because they are bleak and inhospitable. The great gulf which has the town of Vladivostok at its head is separated by miles of waste land from the interior, and the value of one of the most magnificent harbors in the world suffers much from this fact.

The sea which is of most importance to Russia is the Baltic, with its gulfs of Bothnia, Riga, and Finland. The chief Russian ports are to be found situated on its banks, and yet it can in no respect be regarded as a purely Russian sea.

The chief islands of the Baltic are: the Aland Archipelago, Dago, Oesel, Mohn, Hochland, and Kotlin, which contains the fortress of Cronstadt.

The Black Sea is becoming of more and more importance every year. The coast lands are being developed, and as the produce of the interior becomes greater so the importance of the Black Sea increases.

The Sea of Azov is the greatest inlet of this sea, but on the whole the importance of the Black Sea is lessened by the fact that it has so few good ports. The best are those of the peninsula of the Crimea, but these are too remote to be of any great importance.

Odessa is the second port of Russia and the greatest port of the Black Sea. Sebastopol is the great naval station, and Batum owes its importance to the fact that it is the port of the oil fields of the Caucasus.

The great inland sea of Russia, the Caspian, lacks importance chiefly because of the fact that it is an inland sea. It forms a good means of communication from the Transcaucasian provinces to Central Asia, and also between Central Asia and Persia; but although attempts have been made to unite it with the Black Sea, the fact that it lies seventy feet below sea-level prevents any real good from being done. It is, however, of vast importance as a fishing center, and supplies almost the whole of Russia with fish.

Climate.—In European Russia, except in the Baltic provinces, the south of the Crimea, and a narrow strip of land on the Black Sea, the climate is continental. A very cold winter, followed by a spring which sets in rapidly; a hot summer; an autumn cooler than spring; early frosts; and a small rainfall, chiefly during the summer and autumn, are the main features. The winter is cold everywhere. All the rivers are frozen over early in December, and they remain under ice for from one hundred days in the south to one hundred and sixty days in the north.

Products and Industries.—Excepting along the tundra belt on the Arctic coasts, in Finland, and in the saline steppes of the southeast, the cultivation of grain extends all over the great Russian plains.

Agriculture and Forests.—Rye and barley, oats and flax, are the chief crops in the north; wheat and vines, hemp and tobacco, the products of the center and the south. The south central governments, extending from the Upper Oka to the Ukraine on the Dnieper, may be regarded as the granary of Russia, for they produce a third of all its corn supply. Russia is thus most important of all as a grain-producing country.

Its forests extend over about forty per cent of the surface—pine and fir and birch in the north; oak and elm and lime in the center and south. The timber is sent down the Niemen and Vistula to the Baltic, and to Archangel in the White Sea, in enormous quantities for the supply of western Europe. In Russia itself the larger portion of the houses are built of wood.

Live Stock and Fisheries.—The steppes of the south are the great pastoral lands of Russia, which possess more than forty-five millions of sheep, about twenty-five per cent yielding fine wool; twenty-five millions of cattle; and twenty millions of horses. Russian leather is famous. Swine are also kept in very large numbers all over the land; the export of bristles and brushes from Russia is very large. Reindeer form the wealth of the Lapps and Samoyeds in the north; camels of the Tartars in the southeastern steppes. Hunting the bear, wolf, fox, and deer, and trapping the sable in the forests for their skins, give employment to many. The Caspian, as well as the Sea of Azof, the Black Sea, and the great rivers, are rich in fish—tunny, sturgeon, salmon, anchovy. Most caviare is made at Astrakhan on the Caspian.

Minerals.—The Obdorsk and Ural Mountains contain very great mineral riches, and, with the Altai range, are the principal seat of mining and metallic industry, producing gold, platinum, copper, iron of very superior quality, rock-salt, marble, and kaolin, or china-clay. Silver, gold, and lead are also obtained in large quantities from the mines in the Altai Mountains. Russia is now the largest producer of petroleum in the world. Great supplies of petroleum and naptha are found in the Baku, Kerch, and Taman. An immense bed of coal, both steam and anthracite, and apparently inexhaustible, has been discovered in the basin of the Donetz (between the rivers Donetz and Dnieper). Other mineral products are: gold, platinum, pig iron, steel and rails, copper, quicksilver, salt and lead.

Education.—From the close of the sixteenth century onward till 1861, the greater portion of the inhabitants of Russia were serfs, belonging either to the crown or to private individuals. Under these circumstances it is not surprising that the masses of the people in Russia are without education. Finland is in advance of all other parts of the empire in respect of education; it possesses a separate system. Probably not more than ten per cent of the population have received instruction of any kind. The control and maintenance of primary schools is divided between the Ministry of Public Instruction and the Holy Synod. Conditions are, however, improving. Secondary institutions comprise gymnasia and good schools, but numbers and attendances are small. Special schools are increasing in number, especially in the European cities. There are universities at Kazan, Kieff, Kharkoff, Moscow, Odessa, Petrograd, Saratoff, Tomsk, Yurieff and Warsaw.

Religion.—The great bulk of the Russians—excepting a few White Russians professing the Union—belong to the Greek-Russian Church, or to one of its numberless sects of dissenters. The Poles and most of the Lithuanians are Roman Catholics; while the Finns, the Esthonians, and other Western Finns, the Swedes, and the Germans, are Protestant (about four millions).

Cities and Towns.—The largest towns in European Russia are Petrograd (2,018,596), Moscow (1,173,427), Warsaw (756,426), Riga (500,000), Odessa (449,673), Lodz (351,570), Kieff (329,000), Kharkoff (197,405), Vilna (162,633), Saratoff (143,431), Kazan (143,707), Ekaterinoslav (135,552), Rostoff (119,889), Astrakhan (121,580), Tula (109,279), and Kishineff (125,787); while Nijni Novgorod, Nikolaieff, Samara, and Minsk have populations between 90,000 and 95,000. In Asiatic Russia the Caucasus contains two towns with over 100,000 inhabitants: Baku (179,133), and Tiflis (160,645); Turkestan contains five large towns, Tashkend (156,000), Namangan, Samarkand, and Andijan; in Siberia Vladivostok has 90,000 (one-third Chinese), Tomsk, Irkutsk, and Ekaterinburg have each about 50,000 inhabitants. Nijni Novgorod, though small, is a station on the Trans-Siberian Railway, and has annually the largest fair in the world.

PALACE OF PETER THE GREAT, FOUNDER OF PETROGRAD

Petrograd, the splendid looking metropolis of the Russian Empire, is situated on the River [542] Neva, near its entrance into the Gulf of Finland. The flat and low marshy ground upon which the city is built only recently emerged from the sea. The mighty Neva, which flows thirty-six miles from Lake Ladoga, subdivides into many branches, thus forming some one hundred islands.

VIEW OF PETROGRAD, RUSSIA, FROM THE ISLAND

Peter the Great began to build, in 1703, a small hut for himself, and some wooden hovels near the old fort. Now the quays form noble uninterrupted walks for several miles on each side of the broad, deep, rapid, and clear river. The climate is cold, damp, and changeable with a mean summer temperature of sixty-four degrees, mean winter temperature of fifteen degrees.

THE IMPERIAL WINTER PALACE, PETROGRAD

General Aspect and Divisions.—The main body of the city stands on the mainland, on the left bank of the Neva; and a beautiful granite quay, with a long series of palaces and mansions, stretches for two and one-half miles. Only three permanent bridges cross the Neva; a bridge of boats is constructed each spring and removed each autumn.

The island Vasilievsky, between the Great and Little Nevas, contains the Stock Exchange, the Academy of Sciences, the University, the Philological Institute, the Academy of Arts, and various schools and colleges.

On the Petrogradsky Island, between the Little Neva and the Great Neva, stands the old fortress and prison of St. Peter and St. Paul, facing the Winter Palace, and containing the mint and the cathedral wherein the members of the imperial family are buried, also the arsenal.

The Chief Center.—The main part of Petrograd has for its center the Old Admiralty. Its lofty gilded spire and the gilded dome of St. Isaac’s Cathedral are among the first sights caught on approaching Petrograd by sea. Three streets radiate from it, the first of them, the famous Nevsky Prospect. The street architecture, with its huge brick houses covered with stucco and mostly painted gray, is rigid and military in aspect.

A spacious square, planted with trees, encloses the Old Admiralty on three sides. To the east of it rise the magnificent mass of the Winter Palace, the Hermitage Gallery of Art, and the semicircular buildings of the general staff.

In the Petrogradsky Square is the well-known statue of Peter I. on an immense block of Finland granite. The richly decorated cathedral of St. Isaac of Dalmatia, erected by Nicholas I., is an almost cubic building (three hundred and thirty feet long, two hundred and ninety feet broad, and three hundred and ten feet high), surmounted by one [543] large and lofty and four small gilded domes.

In Nevsky Prospect are the Kazan Cathedral, the Public Library, the square of Catherine II., and the Anitchkoff Palace.

The aristocratic quarter lies between the line of the Nevsky Prospect and the River Neva.

The principal places of interest are: the Imperial or Winter Palace, the Hermitage, St. Isaac’s Cathedral, the Kazan Cathedral, the Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, the Smolnoi Church, the Academy of Science, the House of Peter the Great; and, in the environs, Tsarskoe Selo, and Peterhof. For most travelers the greatest attraction in Petrograd is:

The Hermitage.—It is connected with the Winter Palace, and was originally built by the Empress Catherine II. as a retreat. The present building, erected 1840-1852, by Klenze, is in the Greek style; it is a parallelogram, five hundred and twelve feet by three hundred and seventy-five feet, and for elegance of form as well as for beauty and costliness of materials employed has scarcely a rival in Europe.

Baedeker says: “The gallery of the Hermitage unquestionably stands among the first in Europe, not on account of its numbers (it boasts over one thousand nine hundred pictures) or on account of its completeness—the art of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and the entire German school is lacking—but because it possesses such a number of masterpieces from the best periods of the various schools, that for the Spanish masters it ranks next to the Prado and the Louvre, in French masters it is surpassed only by the Louvre, in Flemish artists it stands on a level with the principal galleries, and it is the premier collection of the Dutch school, especially Rembrandt.”

Cathedral of St. Peter and St. Paul is in the fortress. It was erected 1714-1733, and was several times damaged by lightning. It has a beautiful spire, three hundred and two feet, the loftiest in Russia, except that at Reval. All sovereigns of Russia, including and since Peter the Great, except Peter II., who was interred at Moscow, lie buried here. The tomb of Peter the Great is near the south door. On the walls are many military trophies, keys of fortresses, flags, weapons, shields, etc. Nearby the Cathedral, in a brick building, is the boat of Peter the Great, preserved exactly as when it engaged the curious attention of Peter and so led to the creation of the Russian navy, of which it is facetiously called the “Grandfather.”

THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. ISAAC

The largest in Petrograd, was begun a century ago by Catherine II.; but was rebuilt in 1819-1858, by Montferrand, in the shape of a Greek cross. It is a simple but massive pile, with one hundred and twelve pillars in the four fronts. Those at the chief entrance are sixty feet high, and seven feet diameter—all round and highly polished granite monoliths from Finland. The dome, two hundred and ninety-six feet high, is surmounted by a golden cross and covered with copper, overlaid with gold. The Altar screen is of immense value and the entire edifice cost about fifty million dollars.

The Kazan Cathedral is situated upon the Nevsky Prospect, and is approached by a circular colonnade, in imitation of St. Peter’s at Rome. In front are fine statues of Smolenskoi and de Tolly. The interior corresponds in its magnificence and display to St. Isaac’s. The special object of interest is the image of “Our Lady of Kazan,” which is covered with gems, the diamonds of the crown being of exceeding value. Around the cathedral are banners of important victories won by Russian arms and valor.

STATUE OF PETER THE GREAT, PETROGRAD

A very striking equestrian statue, erected by Catherine II. in 1782. It is of colossal size, by Falconet, and stands on a huge pedestal of granite, between St. Isaac’s Church and the River Neva.

The Smolnoi Church, at the eastern extremity of the city, is peculiarly rich in its effects, the entire structure and all its decorations being of [544] the purest white. In connection with this church is a celebrated seminary for young ladies of noble birth.

Cathedral and Monastery of St. Alexander Nevsky is at the extreme east end of the Nevsky Prospect. The buildings cover much ground, and include twelve churches, the monastery, and gardens. The Cathedral, which is that of the Metropolitan, dating from 1790, is enriched with marble and agate and paintings—the altarpiece, the Annunciation, is by Raphael Mengs. On pillars opposite the altar are large portraits of Peter the Great and Catherine II. The shrine of St. Alexander Nevsky is of silver, about two thousand pounds of the metal being used in the whole; near the tomb are suspended the keys of Adrianople. The Monastery has a rich collection of jeweled mitres, gold brocaded vestments, and a mass of valuables, also many objects of interest, including the crown of St. Alexander and the bed on which Peter the Great died.

Tsarskoe Selo (tsär’kō-ye sā´lō), about fifteen miles south of St. Petersburg, contains a famous imperial palace, a favorite summer residence of the court. The Old Palace, begun in 1744, is richly decorated, the walls of one room are incrusted with amber, those of another with lapis lazuli. The magnificent marble gallery, two hundred and seventy feet long, connects the palace with a detached building. The park is full of caprices, such as a Chinese tower and village, an Egyptian pyramid, a Turkish kiosk, and the so-called doll-houses of the royal princesses.

MONUMENT TO NICHOLAS I., PETROGRAD

Peterhof (pā´ter-hōf), near Oranienbaum, was begun in 1720, and built by Leblond for Peter the Great. A marine palace, with a long front, made to retain its original appearance, even its ancient yellow color has been continually renewed. It contains porcelain, malachite, tapestry, paintings of victories in the reign of Catherine II., and a collection of three hundred and sixty-eight portraits of women, painted by Count Rosali for the empress during a journey. All are in the national costume. The gardens are full of Neptunes and Tritons and good fountains. The well-wooded park has many curiosities:—Marli, a favorite resort of Peter the Great; the cottage of the Empress Catherine, brilliant with gold and mirrors; the Palais de Paille; the English Garden, with a ball-room.

THE HERMITAGE OR MUSEUM OF ART,

connected with the Winter Palace, is one of most famous in Europe and contains one thousand seven hundred paintings of all schools, among them being some by Murillo, Velasquez, Rubens, Van Dyke, Rembrandt, and Ruysdael.

Moscow (mŏs’kō), the ancient capital of the Russian Empire, is one of the most magnificent and interesting cities of the world. The city is gathered in a semi-circle around the citadel, or Kremlin, which stands immediately upon the river bank. The streets are exceedingly irregular, though generally presenting the appearance of broad, well-paved avenues of a modern European city. The innumerable white, semi-oriental structures which greet the vision from every commanding point, with their unnumbered domes, spires, belfries, towers, and minarets, give to the city a magnificence of beauty scarcely to [545] be found elsewhere in the great cities of Europe.

The Kremlin.—The historic, as well as the most interesting part of the city, is within the walls of the Kremlin. It is associated with much that is held in deepest reverence by Russians—here the imperial power receives religious consecration, and the great bell of Ivan Veliky proclaims the new monarch. The Kremlin is an assemblage of many buildings, covering quite a section of the city—churches, palaces, arsenals, barracks, monuments—enclosed within a brick wall about a mile and a half in circuit. Upon the wall, which is sixty feet high, are twenty-one towers. The principal gate, the Gate of the Saviour, is on the east side. Over the passage of the gate is the venerated “Saviour” brought from Smolensk in 1685, and it is the custom for the passer-by to uncover his head.

The Tower of Ivan Veliky, or John the Great, built in 1600, and three hundred and twenty feet high, contains thirty-four bells, the largest of which weighs sixty-four tons. When all these bells are rung together at Easter the effect is wonderful. At the foot of this tower is the vast Tsar Kolokol, or Monarch of Bells. It once hung in a tower (burned in 1737), weighs four hundred and forty-four thousand pounds, and is twenty feet high and sixty feet round. The value of the metal in the bell is nearly two million dollars.

Outside the Kremlin is the Chinese town, so-called, founded by Helena. Here are the Romanoff Palace, the Iberian Gate and Chapel, the University, the great Riding School, the Theaters, and the largest Bazaar in Russia, except that of Nijni-Novgorod.

The Church of the Saviour, is conspicuous near the river, a quarter mile southwest of the Kremlin. This beautiful church, by the architect Thon, was erected 1837-1883, at a cost of more than eight million dollars. It has five cupolas, the principal being about one hundred feet in diameter; many figures in relief of patriarchs and saints upon the facade. The interior is elaborately decorated with marble and gilding; upon the walls are tablets relating to military events, admirable paintings and sculpture.

The Cathedral of St. Basil, erected 1554-1557, is a remarkable edifice, consisting of eleven chapels with as many cupolas, all different, but wonderfully proportioned.

Vladivostok (vlä-dē-vōs-tok´), capital (since 1903) of the vice-royalty of Eastern Asia, Siberia, is situated on the east shore of Amur Gulf. It has one of the finest harbors in the world, is a naval station, has an arsenal, and is a terminus of the Siberian railroad. It escaped attack during the Russo-Japanese war, but suffered from naval mutiny and unrest in the Russian disturbances of 1905-1906. Its climate is severe—the average annual temperature being only forty degrees Fahrenheit.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA

The races who peopled Russia were vaguely known to the ancients as Scythians, and their country as Sarmatia. It received its name from the Ruotsi or Russ, a tribe of Norse “rovers” or freebooters, who entered the country from the west about the eighth century. The name was later applied to the realm of Moscow, and modified to Russia.

Early Traditions.—Three brothers, Rurik, Sineus, and Truvor, Scandinavians, were invited, according to tradition, to come and protect territory in northwest Russia against the Finns and the Lithuanians. They and their successors built new forts, and took part in wars. The times of the “Sunny Vladimir” (980-1015) are the “heroic” epoch of early Russian history, and the feats and feasts of Vladimir and his “war companions” have been handed down through ages in legend and song; while his conversion to Christianity made him the hero of the annals written by monks.

Kieff the First Historic Center.—The first half of the eleventh century, during which Yaroslaff the Wise was grand prince at Kieff, was the most brilliant time for Kieff, then the “mother of the Russian towns.” The great cathedral of St. Sophia was built at that time; schools were opened, and the first written Russian law was compiled. At his death (1054) Yaroslaff was ruling over most of the Russian towns.

The next two centuries of Russian history correspond to the feudal period of Western Europe. The Russians at that time were steadily extending their territory toward the east; they colonized the Oka, the Don, and the Finnish territories in the northeast.

Settlements in and about Moscow.—Owing to the gradual colonization of the basin of the Oka and the upper Volga, a new Russian territory had grown in importance in the meantime. Suzdal and Rostoff were its chief centers. It differed from southwest Russia in many respects. Its inhabitants were Great Russians—a hard-working race, less poetical and less gifted, but more active than their southern brethren. Besides, a good many of its inhabitants were peasants, settled on the lands of the boyars, and the cities themselves, being of recent creation—like Vladimir and, later on, Moscow—had not those traditions of independence which characterized Kieff or Novgorod. It was therefore easier for the authority of the prince to develop in the northeast, under the guidance of the church and the boyars.

The first Suzdal prince, Andrei Bogolubsky (1157-1174), was the first representative of that policy. He invited many Kieff boyars to settle in the land of Suzdal, and finally he took and burnt Kieff (1169).

The supremacy of Kieff was thus destroyed, and the land of Suzdal became the Ile-de-France of Russia—the nucleus of the future Russian state. The Suzdal land continued to grow and to enjoy prosperity during the next fifty years; economical, educational and literary progress were marked, and the Russian territory extended farther eastward.

Tartar Invasion.—But in the thirteenth century a great calamity visited Russia: a Mongol invasion suddenly put a stop to the development of the country and threw it into a totally new direction.

The Tartars first appeared in 1224, but their real conquest, under Batu Khan, was made in 1238 and the years immediately following. They subdued all the little Slav states except the republic of Novgorod. Latterly the rulers or princes of Moscow gained an ascendency over the other states, and formed the nucleus of a central sovereignty.

Ivan III. Expels the Tartars.—The Tartar supremacy lasted till about 1480, when Ivan III. (1462-1505) succeeded in throwing off their yoke. He did much to consolidate and extend his kingdom, and conquered Novgorod in 1478. The reign of Ivan IV. “The Terrible” (1533-1584) is of great importance. In 1547 he assumed the title of Czar or Tsar, a variant of Cæsar. He conquered Kazan and Astrakhan, and the conquest of Siberia was begun in his reign. The epithet “terrible” has reference to his cruel persecution of the boyars, a kind of powerful baronial class.

House of Romanoff Established.—The accession of the still-reigning Romanoff house took place in 1613 when the States-General elected Michael Romanoff as ruler. Under Alexei (1645-1676), son of Michael, territory was won from Poland, the Cossacks of the Ukraine had to submit, and the power of Russia greatly increased. The reign of Alexei’s son, Feodor III. (1676-1682), witnessed a war with Turkey, but was signalized by many important reforms. His imbecile brother Ivan was heir apparent, but Feodor willed the throne to his half-brother Peter, known in history as the Great; but Peter only obtained sole power in 1689 after overthrowing Sophia, Ivan’s sister.

Under Peter the Great.—Peter the Great opened what may be called the European period of Russian history. (See Peter the Great.) He made his country a European state. He gave it a standing army, a navy on the Baltic, the embryo of a modern administration, a diplomatic service, and a financial organization. He made canals, encouraged industry, literature and art. The heart of Russia might remain at Moscow, but henceforth it was to have also a head that looked out westward from the Neva.

On the other hand, Peter increased taxation; his cruelty was oriental, and serfdom under him became more and more extensive.

He completed the conquest of Siberia, waged successful war with Charles XII. of Sweden, and by the treaty of Nystad in 1721 obtained Esthonia, Livonia, Ingermannland, and part of Finland, thus gaining a large maritime territory on the Baltic Sea. He founded Petrograd in 1703, and made it the capital in place of Moscow.

The Eighteenth Century in Russian history is a century of empresses. Peter the Great was succeeded by his wife, Catherine I. (1725-1727). A grandson of Peter the Great, Peter II., followed Catherine, reigning from 1727 to 1730. The next sovereign was Anna (1730-1740), whose reign was a period of German influence. Ivan VI. (1740-1741) was soon displaced by the anti-German party, and Elizabeth (1741-1762), daughter of Peter the Great, ascended the throne. A part of Finland was obtained by the treaty of Abo, and Russia took part against Prussia in the Seven Years’ war. The first Russian university, that of Moscow, was founded in 1755.

The death of Elizabeth and the accession of Peter III., in 1762, greatly relieved the hard-pressed Frederick the Great, because Peter at once reversed the Russian policy.

Catherine II.—In July, 1762, he was deposed by his wife, Catherine II. (1762-1796), whose reign is of great importance in the progress of Russian power.

Under Catherine II. successful wars were carried on against Turkey, Persia, Sweden and Poland, which largely extended the limits of the empire. The acquisition of the Crimea, which gave Russia a firm footing on the Black Sea, and the first partition of Poland, were two most important steps toward the consolidation of the empire.

Napoleonic Period.—Catherine’s son and successor, Paul I. (1796-1801), at first, through apprehension of the revolution in France, joined the Austrians and British against France, but soon after capriciously withdrew, and was about to commence war with Great Britain when his assassination took place. A palace conspiracy put an end to his reign and life.

His eldest son, Alexander I. (1801-1825), was at the outset desirous of peace, but was soon drawn into the vortex of the great struggle with France, in which he played a prominent part. (See Alexander I. and Napoleon.) The Holy Alliance and the example of conservative policy set by Austria exercised a pernicious influence on the later part of his reign; and the higher classes, who had looked for the introduction of at least a portion of the liberal institutions they had seen and admired in Western Europe, became so dissatisfied that, when his youngest brother, Nicholas I. (1825-1855), from whom they had nothing to hope, succeeded, they broke out into open rebellion, which was speedily crushed.

The Turkish Wars.—A full stop was now put to the intellectual development of Russia. Wars were declared with Persia and Turkey; and a long and deadly struggle commenced with the Caucasian mountaineers. The cession of Erivan and Nahitchevan by Persia, of the plain of the Kubañ, of the protectorate of the Danubian principalities, and of the free right of navigation of the Black Sea, the Dardanelles, and the Danube by Turkey only induced him to further prosecute his aim of conquering for Russia a free issue from the Black Sea in the Dardanelles.

In 1830 he converted Poland into a Russian province; in 1849 he aided Austria in quelling the insurrection of the Magyars; and in 1853 he began a war with Turkey which became the Crimean war, and in which, though the allies, Great Britain, France and Sardinia, did not obtain any decided success, Russia suffered immense loss.

Alexander II.—The accession of Nicholas’ son Alexander II. (1855-1881)—one of whose first acts was the conclusion of the peace of Paris (1856), by which Russia lost the right of navigation on the Danube, a strip of territory to the north of that river, and the right of keeping a navy in the Black Sea—was the signal for a general revival of intellectual life in Russia. Obligatory military service for all Russians was introduced in 1874.

The insurrection in Poland was suppressed with extreme severity, and in 1868 the last relics of Polish independence disappeared in the thorough incorporation of the kingdom with the Russian Empire. The subjugation of the Caucasus was completed in 1859. [547] Russian supremacy was established over all the states of Turkestan. In 1876 the administration of the Baltic provinces was merged in that of the central government; but the autonomy of Finland was respected and even extended.

Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878.—In 1877 the Russo-Turkish war broke out. At first the Russian progress was rapid; but the energy displayed by the Turks during the summer, and the resolute defense of Plevna by Osman Pasha from July till December, checked the progress of the Russian army. During the winter, however, she crossed the Balkans, and her vanguard, reaching the Sea of Marmora, stood in view of Constantinople. The armistice signed in January, 1878, was followed in March by the treaty of San Stefano; and after diplomatic difficulties that seemed for a time not unlikely to issue in war between Russia and Great Britain, a Congress of the Great Powers met at Berlin in June, 1878, and sanctioned the cession to Russia of the part of Bessarabia given to Moldavia in 1856, as also of the port of Batoum, of Kars, and of Ardahan.

Rise of Nihilism.—The growth of revolutionary discontent, leading to severe repressive measures, was marked by several murders of high officials, and on March 13, 1881, Alexander II. was killed by the revolutionists.

Reactionary Reign of Alexander III.—The reign of Alexander III. (1881-1894) was in the main characterized, in contrast to the liberal reforms of the last reign, by reactionary steps. Press freedom disappeared completely, and the universities were again suppressed. The Dumas, or representative assemblies, were deprived of all real independence in 1892. Alexander II.’s judicial reforms were partly undone, and the village communities, known as mirs, were brought under the more direct control of the land-owners. Russification was vigorously pursued in Poland and the Baltic provinces, and in 1890 the first steps toward the Russification of Finland were taken.

Alexander III. was not friendly to Germany, but avoided hostilities more serious than those of a tariff war, although the Bulgarian crisis of 1885 subjected their relations to a severe strain. Russia and France now began to draw close together, but a Franco-Russian alliance was not officially admitted till 1896-1897, and its terms were secret. Merv was annexed in 1884, and the occupation of Penjdeh in 1885 nearly led to war with Great Britain. Alexander III. escaped several attempts at assassination, and died of disease in November, 1894.

Russia in the Far East.—After the reign of Alexander III. comes the fateful reign of his son, Nicholas II. In 1896 China granted permission to carry the Siberian railway (begun in 1889) through Manchuria to the far eastern Russian seaport of Vladivostok. In December, 1897, in consequence of the Germans having acquired Kiauchau from China, Russia occupied Port Arthur, and in the following year obtained from China a lease of it and some neighboring territory, although in 1895 she had taken the chief part in preventing Japan from taking it as a prize of victory. She shared in the international expedition to China in 1900, and herself suppressed risings in Manchuria with the utmost cruelty. Professing to be ready, and even anxious to evacuate Manchuria as soon as possible, she was preparing for virtual annexation; but her aggressive action in Korea aroused Japanese opposition, and led to the war of 1904-1905.

By treaty of Portsmouth (1905), which ended this war, Russia lost—for the time being at least—all influence in Manchuria, Korea, and China, and had to cede to Japan Port Arthur and its territory, and also southern Sakhalien.

The Imperial Duma.—In August, 1905, the czar issued a manifesto ordering the election of an Imperial Duma or Parliament. Count Witte was made president of a reorganized Council of Ministers, with instructions to form a reform cabinet. The general strike in Finland compelled the czar to restore Finland’s constitution and liberties previously taken away in 1903. The bureaucrats attempted to discredit the reform movement by instigating attacks on Jews, and other outrages, especially in Odessa, where the authorities permitted appalling atrocities.

The Imperial Duma, promised in 1905, was duly elected early in 1906, and held its first meeting on May 10 at Petrograd. It was dissolved later in the year because too liberal, and a second one, elected in 1907, met the same fate. By various devices the government managed to get a less advanced Duma elected late in 1907, which did some useful work in 1908. An important Anglo-Russian convention was signed in 1907, the signatories agreeing to respect the territorial integrity of Thibet and the suzerainty of China. Other conventions were signed (1910) between Russia and Japan respecting the status of Manchuria, and between Russia and Germany in 1911.

After declaration of war by Austria against Servia in 1914, Russia announced that her support would be given to Servia. Consequently Russia joined France and Great Britain in the conflict that followed. (See further under European war.)

Books of Reference.—Wallace’s Russia; Leroy-Beaulieu’s The Empire of the Tsars; Norman’s All the Russians; Drage’s Russian Affairs; Suvorin’s All Russia—a Directory of Industries, etc.; Stepniak’s King Log and King Stork; Krapotkin’s Memoirs of a Revolutionist; Morfill’s Russia; Villari’s Russia under the Great Shadow; Wellesley’s With the Russians in Peace and War; Ganz’s The Downfall of Russia; Milyoukov’s Russia and Its Crisis; Meakin’s Russia, Travels and Studies.

SOVEREIGNS OF RUSSIA

A long list of dukes and grand dukes preceded the actual foundation of the Russian monarchy under the rule of a czar.

HOUSE OF RURIK

This royal house includes the descendants of Rurik, Grand Prince of Novgorod, the reputed founder of the Russian royalty. It became extinct in the person of Feodor in 1598.

1462-1505.—Ivan (Basilovitz), or John III., took the title of czar, 1482; Grand Duke of Moscow.

1505-1533.—Vasali IV., or Basil V., obtained the title of Emperor from Maximilian I.; son of Ivan the Great.

1533-1584.—Ivan IV. the Terrible; a tyrant; son of Vasily IV.

1584-1598.—Feodor, or Theodor, I.; and his son Demetrius, murdered by his successor; son of Ivan the Terrible: was elected to the throne.

1598-1604.—Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne.

1605.—Feodor II., murdered.

1606.—Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski.

1606-1610.—Demetrius the Impostor, a young Polish monk; pretended to be the murdered prince Demetrius; put to death.

1610-1613.—Ladislaus of Poland; retired 1613.

HOUSE OF ROMANOFF—MALE LINE

1613-1645.—Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, descended from the czar Ivan Basilovitz; unanimously elected czar.

1645-1676.—Alexis, styled the father of his country; son of Michael Feodorovitch.

1676-1682.—Feodor, or Theodor, II.; eldest son of Emperor Alexis.

1682-1689.—Ivan V.; Peter I., Ivan was the half-brother of Peter the Great, in whose favor he resigned.

1689-1725.—Peter I., the Great, alone; took the title of emperor October, 1721; founded St. Petersburg; son of Alexis.

1725-1727.—Catherine I., his widow, at first the wife of a Swedish dragoon, said to have been killed on the day of marriage; was married to Peter the Great in 1707.

1727-1730.—Peter II., son of Alexis Petrovitz, and grandson of Peter the Great; deposed.

HOUSE OF ROMANOFF—FEMALE LINE

The reign of the next three sovereigns of Russia, Anne, Ivan VI., and Elizabeth, of the female line of Romanoff, formed a transition period, which came to an end with the accession of Peter III., of the house of Holstein-Gottorp.

1730-1740.—Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the czar Ivan.

1740-1741.—Ivan VI., an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the Great; immured in a dungeon for eighteen years; murdered in 1764.

1741-1762.—Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great reigned during Ivan’s captivity.

HOUSE OF ROMANOFF-HOLSTEIN

All the subsequent emperors, without exception, connected themselves by marriage with German families. The wife and successor of Peter III., Catherine II., daughter of the Prince of Anhalt Zerbst, general in the Prussian army, left the crown to her only son Paul, who became the father of two emperors, Alexander I. and Nicholas, and the grandfather of a third, Alexander II. All these sovereigns married German princesses, creating intimate family alliances, among others, with the reigning houses of Württemberg, Baden, and Prussia.

1762.—Peter III., son of Anne and of Charles Frederick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp; deposed, and died soon after; supposed to have been murdered. Son of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein.

1762-1796.—Catherine II.; a great sovereign; extended the Russian territories on all sides; died 1796; wife of Peter III.

1796-1801.—Paul, her son; murdered, 1801; son of Peter III.

1801-1825.—Alexander I., died 1825; son of Paul.

1825-1855.—Nicholas I.; died 1855; third son of Paul.

1855-1881.—Alexander II., assassinated at St. Petersburg, March, 1881; son of Nicholas I.

1881-1894.—Alexander III.; died 1894; married Mary (formerly Dagmar), princess of Denmark; son of Alexander II.

1894.—Nicholas II., married princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt; son of Alexander III.

SECONDARY POWERS OF EUROPE

BELGIUM

BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique), one of the smaller European states, consists of the southern portion of the former kingdom of the Netherlands (as created by the Congress of Vienna), lying between France and Holland, the North Sea and Rhenish Prussia. Its greatest length from northwest to southeast is one hundred and seventy-three miles; and its greatest breadth from north to south one hundred and five miles.

Surface.—Belgium is, on the whole, a level, and even low lying, country; diversified, however, by hilly districts. The north and west of the country is low and level plain, like Holland, but the undulating forest plateaus of the Ardennes cover all the south and east, rising near the frontier in that direction to a height of two thousand feet above the sea. The Campine, composed of marshes, coal-bearing heaths, and irrigated lands, extends along the Dutch frontier. In Flanders dykes have been raised to check the encroachments of the sea.

Rivers.—The land slopes generally northward, and this is the direction of the numerous rivers and streams which water it. The great river of the country is the Meuse, which enters from France and passes out into Holland, being navigable all through Belgium. Its tributary, the Sambre, from France, which joins it on the left near the center of the country, is also a navigable stream; and the Ourthe, from the frontier of Luxemburg, which joins it lower down on the right, is navigable for half its course. The Escaut or Scheldt is the main river of the lowland in the west, and with its chief tributaries, the Lys on the left and the Rupel on the right, forms the waterway of the plain. These rivers and important tributaries, with canals make up one thousand four hundred miles of waterways.

Climate and Landscape.—Belgium has a climate which resembles that of England, opposite to it in the same latitude, but which is more excessive. The lowland of the north is foggy and damp, like Holland; the higher country south and east has clearer skies.

People.—Belgium is one of the most densely peopled countries of the world, only equaled in this respect by some parts of the plain of China, or of the valley of the Ganges in India, a result which is no doubt due to the combination of natural facilities for agriculture, manufactures, and trade, within its limits. The Flemings (of Teutonic stock) and Walloons (Celtic in origin) speak each their own dialects of Dutch and French; there are also numbers of Germans, Dutch, and French. East and West Flanders, Antwerp, and Limburg are almost wholly Flemish, and Brabant mainly so. The line between the Flemish and Walloon districts is sharply defined, the Flemish part being the richest and most cultivated. The French language has gained the ascendancy in educated society and in the offices of government, but the Flemish dialect prevails numerically in the proportion of nine to eight.

PALACE OF JUSTICE, OR PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, AT BRUSSELS

Religion and Education.—Almost all the inhabitants of Belgium are Roman Catholics, though complete liberty and social equality is allowed to all religious confessions. Education is not yet generally diffused through the population, and was, until recently, almost entirely in the hands of the Roman Catholic clergy. There are state universities at Ghent and Liège, an independent liberal university at Brussels, and a Catholic university at Louvain.

Products and Industries.—About a fourth of all the inhabitants of Belgium are occupied in agriculture. Besides wheat, rye, and oats, hops are cultivated on a large scale, for export chiefly to France and England. Beetroot for the sugar factories, of which there are over a hundred in the country, is also a large crop, and flax is largely grown in the Flemish lowlands.

Two great coalfields extend across the central part of the country from west to east, along the valleys of the Meuse, but Belgium is essentially a manufacturing country, and it is largely dependent upon foreign supplies for its food. The mineral kingdom yields, beside coal, iron, zinc, lead and copper. The leading industries are collieries, quarries, and metal, glass, textiles, lace, flour and starch mills, sugar, distilleries, breweries, etc.

Government.—On the re-arrangement of European affairs, after the fall of Napoleon, Holland and Belgium were formed into the ill-assorted kingdom of the Netherlands under the family of Orange. The differences between the northern and southern divisions in race and language, in history, religion, and customs, proved too great.

In 1830 Belgium separated from Holland, and her neutrality was guaranteed by a conference of the European Powers, and by a further treaty, in 1839, signed by Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, the Netherlands, and Russia.

The Belgium constitution of 1831 jointly vests the legislative power in the king, the Senate, and the Chamber of Representatives. The one hundred and ten senators (with the exception of twenty-seven elected by the provincial councils) and one hundred and sixty-six representatives are elected by the people, the former for eight, the latter for four years. Universal male suffrage, with plural voting up to three votes by property and educational qualifications, was introduced by the electoral law of 1894, proportional representation being secured by an act of 1900. There are in addition representative Provincial and Communal Councils.

Cities.—Brussels, population, 1910, with suburbs, 720,347 inhabitants, is the capital. Other towns with over 100,000 inhabitants are Antwerp, the chief port (320,650 exclusive of suburbs); Ghent (165,149), the center of the iron industry, which has also large cotton and flax spinning mills, and is the second port of importance after Antwerp, while its flower shows are famous; and Liège (174,768).

Its great harbor and commercial city is Antwerp, a strongly fortified city on the Scheldt. The other harbors are Ghent, Bruges, Ostend, Nieuport, Blankenberg, and Zeebrugge.

Antwerp, the principal fortress, and Liège and Namur, also fortified, were designed to afford military protection on the line of the Meuse against a violation of neutrality by either France or Germany.

Brussels (Fr. Bruxelles), the capital of Belgium, is situated in a fertile plain on the ditch-like Senne, twenty-seven miles south of Antwerp, and one hundred and ninety-three miles northeast of Paris. It has a circumference of about five miles, and is built partly on the side of a hill. Though some of the streets are so steep that they can be ascended only by means of stairs, Brussels may on the whole be pronounced one of the finest cities in Europe.

The fashionable Upper Town, in which are the royal palace, public offices, and chief hotels, is much more healthy than the older Lower Town, which is greatly subject to fogs, owing to its intersection by canals and the Senne, although the stream now passes under an arched covering, which supports a boulevard. But the closely built old streets, with their numerous handsome buildings, formerly belonging to the Brabant nobility, and now occupied by successful merchants and traders, have a fine picturesque appearance, while some of the public edifices are unrivaled as specimens of Gothic architecture.

THE TOWN HALL, OR

Hôtel de Ville, in Grande Place, near the center of the city, 1402, is regarded as architecturally one of the finest structures in Europe. Its tower rises to the height of three hundred and seventy feet, and is placed somewhat to one side of the center of the building.

French is spoken in the upper division; but in the lower Flemish is the current language prevalent, and by many the Walloon dialect is spoken.

The walls which formerly surrounded Brussels have been removed, and their place is now occupied by pleasant boulevards extending all around the old town, and shaded by alleys of limes. The Allée Verte—a double avenue along the Scheldt Canal—forms a splendid promenade, and leads toward the country palace of Laeken, three miles north of the city.

Besides the fine park of thirty-two acres, in the Upper Town, ornamented with fountains and statues, and surrounded by the palace and other state buildings, Brussels has several other squares or places, among which are: the Place Royale, with its colossal monument of Godfrey of Bouillon; the Grande Place, in which is the hôtel-de-ville, a splendid Gothic structure of the fifteenth century, with a spire of open stonework three hundred and sixty-four feet high; and the Place des Martyrs, where a memorial has been erected to those who fell here in the revolution of 1830. The statue group of the Counts Egmont and Horn is notable. The cathedral of St. Gudule, dating from the thirteenth century, has many richly painted windows, and a pulpit considered to be the masterpiece of Verbruggen. The Palais des Beaux Arts contains the finest specimens of the Flemish school of painting and a sculpture gallery. The Royal Library adjoining has half a million volumes.

The Palais de Justice, built in 1866-1883 at a cost of more than ten million dollars, is one of the most magnificent buildings in Europe, dominating the lower town from the terraced slope of the upper town. The Royal Palace and the National Palace (for the chambers) are important buildings. Besides the University, there are schools of painting and sculpture, and a conservatory of music.

Brussels lace is particularly famous. Of the so-called Brussels carpets only a few are manufactured here, most of those of Belgian make being produced at Tournai. There are also manufactures of damask, linen, ribbons, embroidery, paper, jewelry, hats, soap, porcelain, carriages, etc.

History.—The history of Belgium as a kingdom can be said to date only from the time of the Congress of Vienna, in 1830, but its history as part of the Netherlands goes back to the time of the Romans.

The province of Belgica under the Romans passed under the sway of the Franks, and fell later to the Burgundian princes. On the death of Charles the Bold in 1477 it passed by marriage to the House of Hapsburg. The Spanish Netherlands remained (unlike the northern provinces which rebelled against Spain and became a Protestant republic) under the Spanish branch of the Hapsburgs, till in 1713 they were transferred to Austria. From 1794 Belgium was under French sway, but on the fall of Napoleon was united with the kingdom of the Netherlands. It rebelled in 1830, and since then, as above stated, has had a separate career as a limited constitutional monarchy. Again, in 1838, Holland and Belgium seemed on the brink of war, the cause being that Belgium had treated Lembourg and Luxembourg, which by the convention had been given to Holland, as if they were in reality a part of its territory. The crisis was terminated by the action of the Great Powers, who reduced Belgium’s share of the national [551] debt of the Netherlands, and partitioned the territories again in dispute. The tranquillity of the country was again disturbed by the revolutionary spirit of 1848, but after 1850 the constitutional party began that series of reforms which gained for Belgium the position of one of the freest countries in Europe.

The question of Luxembourg threatened in 1861 the peace of Europe, and Belgium took part in the congress which prevented war breaking out. In 1870, on the outbreak of hostilities between France and Germany, Belgium, fearing invasion, mobilized her troops, but her neutrality was recognized and left inviolate by both parties. In 1885 the Congo Free State was acknowledged to be under the presidency of the king of Belgium, Leopold II., who had succeeded his father in 1865. The management of the colony gave cause for much bitterness, and led to a number of scandals. Leopold II. died in 1910, and was succeeded by his nephew, King Albert.

On August 2, 1914, the neutrality of Belgium was violated by the invasion of the German army at Visé, on the ground of military necessity. The German forces met with the most stubborn resistance from the valiant though numerically inferior Belgians at Liège and Namur. The country was subsequently completely overrun by German armies and subjected to military control. The Germans are at present (1917) in occupation of practically the whole country, where they are exercising civil government. The Belgian government has withdrawn temporarily to Havre, in France.

COLUMN OF THE CONGRESS, BRUSSELS

It is in Place du Congrès, two squares north from the Cathedral, was erected, 1850, in honor of the adoption, in 1831, of the present Constitution of Belgium. This is surmounted by a statue of the king. At the corners are allegorical figures of Liberty.

BULGARIA

BULGARIA, a monarchy in the northeast part of the Balkan Peninsula between the Danube and the Balkans, was created a principality by the treaty of Berlin in 1878, greatly extended by the incorporation of East Rumelia in 1885, and declared an independent kingdom in 1908.

The net result of the wars of 1912-1913 was the increase of Bulgarian territory from 33,600 square miles to about 45,000. The population increased by about 500,000, was in 1910 4,337,513—over three-fourths Bulgarians, 465,000 Turks, 121,000 Gypsies, 80,000 Roumanians, 43,000 Greeks, and 40,000 Jews. The Bulgarians now extend into Macedonia, Bessarabia, etc., their total number being about 8,000,000.

Surface.—The north of Bulgaria is fertile plain and hilly country; the south is wooded and mountainous. The country has a fine waterway on the northern boundary, a Black Sea and Ægean seaboard, a mild climate, an agricultural country capable of much, an abundance of iron and some coal, free institutions, a peasantry possessing the solid qualities and persevering industry of northern races, and an assured economic development.

Productions.—The chief occupation of the people is agriculture, which engages about seventy per cent of the population. Cereals (wheat, maize, rye, barley, oats) are the principal crops, and rank first among the exports. Wine is produced everywhere, especially near the Black Sea. Roses are cultivated to a large extent, especially round Kazanlik and Karlavo and on the north side of the Rhodope Mountains for attar of roses, which is largely exported. Silkworms are bred in Philippopolis and Haskaro. Tobacco is carefully cultivated. There is little industry apart from domestic branches such as native cloth, carpets, trimmings and ribbons; but there is some brewing and distilling, leather work at Sumen, copper work, and pottery-making. The chief exports are grain, live stock, butter, eggs, hides, and attar of roses, sent chiefly to Turkey, France, Great Britain, and Austria-Hungary.

People.—Education has been very zealously and steadily promoted. Elementary education is compulsory. There are few technical schools. Sofia has a university.

The old Bulgarian Slavonic tongue is closely allied to the great Russian, but some Servian, Greek, Romanic, Albanian, and Turkish elements have found their way into the language.

The Orthodox Greek Church counts seventy-seven per cent as its adherents, Islam twenty-one and one-half per cent, and the others are Jews.

Government.—Bulgaria possesses one of the freest and most democratic constitutions in Europe, largely modeled on the lines of the Belgian constitution, except that there is no second chamber; and election of the Sobranje or National Assembly is by universal manhood [552] suffrage, in the proportion of one member to every twenty thousand of the population. The executive power is vested in eight ministers nominated by the king. The monarchy, independent since 1908, is hereditary.

STREET SCENE IN SOFIA CAPITAL OF BULGARIA

This modern city is quite American in its appearance. It typifies to Bulgarians the progress of their nation, and is substantial and practical rather than pleasing. The streets are broad, straight, electrically lighted, and well paved, while the houses in the newer sections are modern structures of dignified architecture. While Sofia may not impress the visitor with its beauty, it does impress him with the fact that there is a good deal of common sense and business efficiency in this part of the Balkans.

Cities.—The chief towns of Bulgaria are Sofia, Philippopolis, Rustchuk and Varna. Varna and Burgas are ports on the Black Sea, Dedeagatch on the Ægean.

Sofia (sofee´a), the capital since 1878 of Bulgaria, stands in a broad valley of the Balkans, on the railway from Constantinople to Belgrade and Vienna. It lies two hundred and six miles northwest of Belgrade, while Constantinople lies three hundred miles southeast. The valley at Sofia is an upland plateau, seventeen hundred feet above sea level, and near the heart of the peninsula, between the Vitosha Mountains and the main Balkan chain. At the end of almost every vista in the city are the distant hill masses, and fringing mountains.

The city early became important as a trade center, and probably would have developed into one of the great cities of Europe had not periodical destruction, almost continual dangers of war, and centuries of misrule held it back.

The rebuilding of Sofia began around 1880. It now has many creditable public buildings, electric lighting, an electric street railway and good sewerage and water systems.

It possesses the largest theater in southeastern Europe. The Bulgarian National Theater, with a competent corps of actors and singers, and offering the best in opera and drama, is a revelation of the strides that have been made in the Balkans since the Turks were driven back a brief generation ago. The theater is a handsome modern structure, planned with greater luxury of detail than most buildings in Sofia, and it cost four hundred thousand dollars.

Sofia has a public bathhouse which is one of the finest buildings of its kind in the world. It was built over a hot mineral spring, famed since the days of the Romans. This building, in Byzantine style, including in its interior appointments all of the most modern luxuries, cost the Bulgarians six hundred thousand dollars.

Their capital city is one of the peculiar prides of the hard-working, long-enduring, persistent Bulgarians. It typifies to them the promise of a great Bulgarian future, and they also look upon it as an earnest of their right to a respected place among the civilized nations of the West.

History.—The country now known as Bulgaria was originally inhabited by Thracians, and under the Romans formed the province of Mœsia. The Bulgars originally came from the banks of the Volga and crossed the Danube in the sixth century, and occupied the East. They overcame the Slavs, adopted their language and customs, and thus became a great Slav power; but by 1186 they had split up into three principalities, and from 1393 fell under the domination of the Turks. For close upon five hundred years the Bulgars were subject to the rule of the Ottoman Empire.

The first national awakening dates from the year 1762, when the monk Paysios, then at Mt. Athos, wrote the national chronicles, and revived memories of ancient glory. A new national literature began; the first Bulgarian school was opened in 1835, and was followed by others. A newspaper appeared in 1844. The Crimean war stirred up Slavonic sympathies which Russia sedulously and naturally cherished. In 1872 the Bulgarian Church and archbishop became again independent of the supremacy of the Greek patriarch.

In 1877 Russia, as guardian of the Slav races of Turkey, declared war. As a result of the war, Bulgaria was created by the treaty of Berlin. July 13, 1878, and in 1885 Eastern Rumelia was added to the newly created principality. In 1908 the country was declared to be an independent kingdom. In 1912-1913 a successful war of the Balkan League against Turkey increased the size of the kingdom, but in August, 1913, a short campaign against the remaining members of the League reduced the acquired area, and led to the surrender of about two thousand square miles to Roumania. In October, 1915, Bulgaria decided to participate in the European conflict, and sided with Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey, and attacked Servia.

NEW QUARTERS OF COPENHAGEN, CAPITAL OF DENMARK

DENMARK

DENMARK, the smallest of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, consists of the peninsula of Jutland and a group of islands in the Baltic, and is bounded by the Skager-Rak, the Cattegat, the Sound, the Baltic, the Little Belt, Sleswick, and the North Sea.

Surface.—Except in Bornholm, the surface of Denmark is very similar in every part of the kingdom, and is uniformly low, its highest point (in southeast Jutland) being only five hundred and sixty-four feet above sea-level. The coast is generally flat, skirted by sand-dunes and shallow lagoons, especially along the west side. Both the continental portion and the islands are penetrated deeply; by numerous fiords, the largest being Limfiord, which intersects Jutland, and has isolated the northern extremity of the peninsula since 1825, when it broke through the narrow isthmus which had separated it from the North Sea.

Rivers.—Denmark has numerous streams but no large rivers; the principal is the Guden, which flows northeast through Jutland into the Cattegat. It is navigable for part of its course. Less important streams are the Holm, the Lonborg, and the Stor Aa. All the others are insignificant brooks and streamlets.

The lakes are very numerous but not large, none exceeding five and one-half miles in length by about one and one-half miles broad. There are numerous winding inlets of the sea that penetrate far into the land. The largest of these, the Limfiord in Jutland, entering from the Cattegat by a narrow channel, winds its way through to the North Sea, thus making northern Jutland really an island. In this fiord, which widens out greatly in the interior and gives off various minor fiords, there are one large and various small islands.

Climate.—The climate is milder, and the air more humid than in the more southern but continental Germany; it is not unhealthy, except in the low lying islands, such as Laaland, where the short and sudden heat of the summer occasions fevers.

Production and Industry.—The common products are wheat, rye, oats, barley, potatoes, cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, and butter. Its manufactures are, for the most part, for home consumption. Its chief exports are agricultural produce, including wheat and barley, bacon, hams, flour, butter, eggs, hides, skins, corn meal and oil cake, horses and cattle.

People.—The population of Denmark is composed almost exclusively of Danes, with a few thousand Jews and others. The Danes have regular features, fair or brownish hair, and blue eyes. They still maintain their [554] reputation for seafaring skill and hospitable customs. They belong to the Scandinavian branch of the Teutonic peoples, and speak the Danish form of the old Norse, which was fixed in writing about the time of the Reformation.

Since the Reformation the Danes have been adherents of the Lutheran Church. Education is well advanced, and there are very few people in the country who can neither read nor write.

Government.—The present constitution of Denmark dates from 1866. The executive power is vested in the king and his ministers, the legislative in the Rigsdag or Diet, comprising the Landsthing or Upper House, and the Folkething or House of Commons, partly nominated by the Crown, partly elected, indirectly, by the people.

Cities.—Copenhagen is the capital, population, 560,000; other chief towns are Odense, Aarhuus, Aalborg, Randers and Horsens.

FREDERICK’S CHURCH, COPENHAGEN

Copenhagen (kō-pen-hāgen; Dan. Kjöbenhavn, “Merchants Haven”), the capital of Denmark, is situated on the low-lying eastern shore of the island of Zealand, in the Sound, which is here about twelve miles broad. The channel forms a fine and capacious harbor, which is bridged over so as to connect the isolated suburb of Christianshavn and the main part of the city at two points. Copenhagen is still defended by the old citadel of Frederikshavn and by forts on the seaward side.

Among its buildings of historical interest or intrinsic beauty, the Cathedral, rebuilt after the bombardment of 1807, possesses statues of Christ and the Apostles, and a baptismal font, designed and in part executed by Thorwaldsen. Frederick’s Church, or Trinitatiskirke, is remarkable for its round tower, which is ascended by a spiral incline instead of steps.

The Royal Palace, called Christiansborg, was rebuilt between 1794 and 1828, but suffered greatly from fire in 1884. In the castle of Rosenborg are kept the regalia; the palace of Charlottenborg, is now used as an Academy of Arts. The University, founded by Christian I. in 1479, has a library of three hundred and fifty thousand volumes; the royal library contains six hundred thousand volumes.

Copenhagen is the center, not only of Danish, but of northern literature and art, and is the seat of the unrivaled Museum of Northern Antiquities, and the Thorwaldsen Museum.

The exports include grain, rape-seed, butter, cheese, beef, cattle, wool, etc.; and porcelain, pianos, clocks, watches, mathematical instruments, chemicals, sugar, beer, and tobacco are manufactured.

History.—The early history of Denmark is lost in the twilight of the Vikings and their valiant deeds. The Danes coming from the islands occupied the lands deserted by the Jutes and Angles who had in the fifth century migrated to England. The Danish monarchy was founded in 936 by Gorm the Old, whose son became a Christian. Waldemar I. (1157-1182) ruled Norway also, and conquered Mecklenburg and Pomerania; under his son Waldemar II. further conquests were made in German and Wendish lands, so that the Baltic became a Danish sea.

By the treaty of Calmar in 1397, Norway, Sweden and Denmark, already under one monarch, Margaret, were formally united into one state. In 1448 the Danes elected as king Christian of Oldenburg, a descendant of their royal family, who was also Duke of Sleswick and Holstein; and his line continued on the throne till 1863.

Sweden became independent in 1523. Lutheranism was introduced into Denmark in 1527. In 1815 Denmark had to cede Norway to Sweden; and in 1848 the Germanic peoples of the duchies Sleswick and Holstein rebelled against Denmark. For the time the Danes succeeded in retaining the duchies, but the controversy, renewed in 1863, led to the defeat of the Danes by Austria and Prussia (1864), followed by the incorporation of the duchies in the Germanic Confederation, and, after the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, in Prussia.

Denmark although reduced to the narrow limits of the islands and Jutland, has greatly prospered, in spite of the spread of socialistic opinions, and political dissensions. Christian IX. died January 29, 1906, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick VIII.

GREECE

GREECE is a maritime kingdom in the southeast of Europe. The country is composed of a continental portion, almost separated into two parts by the gulfs of Patras and Lepanto on the west, and the gulf of Ægina on the east, the archipelago of the Ægean Sea and the Ionian Islands, and is divided into twenty-six provinces, called nomarchies.

Surface.—The mountain range which cuts off the peninsula from the continent of Europe is an extension of the Balkans. From it run chains from north-northwest to south-southeast, which form the skeleton of Greece. The western boundary of Thessaly is formed by Pindus, the main offshoot of the Balkans. The eastern boundary is also marked not only by the sea but by important mountains derived from the Balkan system. These are Olympus, Ossa, Mavrovuni, and Pelion. Othrys, a branch of Pindus, forms the south boundary of Thessaly. This branch is continued in the celebrated mountains Parnassus and Helicon, forms the land of Attica, and reappears as the islands of Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos, and Siphnos. The Peloponnese, “the island of Pelops,” or by its modern name the Morea, is connected with northern Greece merely by the narrow isthmus of Corinth, now pierced by a canal; its highest point is Taygetus.

Rivers.—The rivers of Greece are unimportant. The chief in the Peloponnesus are the Eurotas (Basilipotamo), the Alpheus (Ruphia), draining Arcadia and Elis; and the Peneus draining Elis.

Climate.—The climate is generally mild, in the parts exposed to the sea equable and genial, but in the mountainous regions of the interior sometimes very cold. None of the mountains attain the limit of perpetual snow; but several retain it far into the summer. During summer rain scarcely ever falls, and the channels of the minor streams become dry. Toward the end of harvest rain becomes frequent and copious, and fevers become common.

Production and Industry.—The most important of the fruit trees are the olive, the vine, orange, lemon, fig, almond, citron, pomegranate, and currant grape. Its exports consist of currants, figs, olive oil, wine, cognac, tobacco, hides, lead, iron ore, magnesium, emery, marble, and sponges.

People.—The Greeks called themselves Hellenes, and the inhabitants of Italy called them Graeci. The modern Greeks are by no means pure-bred descendants of the ancient Greeks. Indeed, it has been maintained that from the seventh century A. D. there have been no pure Greeks in the country, but only Slavs. It is, however, pretty certain that the two and one-quarter million of modern inhabitants are descendants of the three races that occupied the soil at the time of the Roman conquest. They speak the modern Greek tongue, which is a greatly modified form of the old.

Education is free and compulsory, maintained by local taxation supplemented by State grants. Secondary education is somewhat backward, particularly in the country districts. There is a university of some repute at Athens, which is largely attended by Turks.

Government.—According to the constitution, which was framed by an assembly in 1864, the executive power is vested in the king and his responsible ministry; the legislature is a single chamber of deputies called the Boulé, elected by the people, and meets at Athens.

Cities.—Athens is the capital, population 167,500; the towns next in size are Patras, Piræus, and Trikhala, all above 20,000; and there are eight others between 20,000 and 10,000.

Athens, in the southeast of Attica, occupies an extensive area round the site and remains of the classical city, four and one-half miles from its harbor of Piræus, on the Gulf of Ægina. The city, which takes its name from Athena, “goddess of science, arts, and arms,” and its own patron divinity, was originally built on the Acropolis, a conspicuous limestone rock rising three hundred and twenty feet above the Attic plain, and afterwards spread out on the plain below. The Acropolis became the citadel and subsequently the site of a group of beautiful temples of the time of Pericles (fifth century, B. C.).

The ruins of the Parthenon, the Erechtheum, the temple of Nike Apteros (“Wingless Victory”), and the Propylæa, still remain to testify to the former glory of the Acropolis. Of the other ancient buildings the most notable are the Theseum (also of the Periclean period, and still almost perfect), and the fragments of the vast temple of Zeus (begun in 530 B. C. and finished by the Roman Emperor Hadrian), with the theater of Dionysus and other structures.

Not far from the Acropolis rose the hill Lycabettus (nine hundred and eleven feet), and the hillocks or ridges of the Pnyx and the Areopagus or Mars Hill. At a greater distance the plain is bounded by Hymettus (three thousand three hundred and sixty-eight feet), Pentelicus (three thousand six hundred and forty-one feet), and other ranges.

Athens was fabled to have been founded by the hero Cecrops. The most brilliant period of its history was when, after the Persian wars (fifth century, B. C.), Athens took the lead among the Greek states, became powerful by land and sea, was adorned by Pericles with most glorious buildings, and brought Greek literature and Greek philosophy to their highest development. Its decline dates from the disastrous conclusion of the Peloponnesian war (403 B. C.). It was plundered and ruined by Sulla in 87 B. C.; and neither under Byzantine nor Turkish rule ever attained any prosperity. In the days of its glory Athens had some one hundred thousand free inhabitants and twice as many slaves; when after the liberation of Greece Athens was made the capital of the new kingdom (1834), it was a wretched village of a few hundred houses. Since then it has had a prosperous growth, looks like a well built German town, with a fine royal palace, a marble stadium (restored), a university with over one hundred and fifty professors and lecturers and two thousand five hundred students, and a good deal of miscellaneous trade by the way of the Piræus. It is connected by rail also with Corinth, and the Athens-Larissa line brings Greece into railway communication with the rest of Europe. (See also under [ancient Greece].)

History.—Modern Greece threw off the Turkish yoke in 1830 and was declared an independent kingdom and the boundaries were defined. The liberated state was at first governed by a national assembly, but the president, Count Capo D’Istrias, assumed autocratic powers, and sedition culminated in his assassination. Subsequently the Powers offered the throne to Prince Leopold (afterwards [556] king of Belgium), but the offer was refused. The crown was then given to Otho, son of Louis I. of Bavaria. Throughout his reign discontent was rife, and an insurrection in 1862 resulted in the deposal of the king. George, second son of the king of Denmark, was then chosen king, and the Ionian Islands, at that time under British protection, were ceded unconditionally to the kingdom.

By the Berlin Congress of 1878, Greece was promised a modification of her frontier, and in 1881 a readjustment was accepted. The adjustment proved distasteful to the Hellenes, who demanded Crete, and hostilities commenced with Turkey in 1897. The war was short-lived, and was disastrous to the Greeks, and on the intervention of the Powers an armistice was concluded. By the Treaty of Constantinople Greece was compelled to pay an indemnity to submit to the readjustment of her frontier, and to accept the control of the Powers in financial affairs.

In October, 1912, war broke out in the Balkan states, known as the Balkan war. The permanent effects on the Greek frontier, owing to the Hellenic participation in the victory over the Turks, are not yet determinable, but all deeply affect Greek interests, and depend on the decision of the Great Powers. George, King of the Hellenes, was assassinated in Salonica by a maniac named Schinas in March, 1913. The perpetrator of the crime subsequently committed suicide. The present ruler is the late king’s eldest son, who was proclaimed King Constantine XII.

HOLLAND

HOLLAND, the popular name of a country officially described as “Netherland,” or “The Netherlands,” is bounded by the North Sea, Prussia, and Belgium. Its greatest length, north to south, is one hundred and ninety-five miles, and its greatest breadth one hundred and ten miles. Luxemburg was, till 1890, connected with Holland.

Surface.—Almost the whole country is flat and low; the parts of it nearest the coasts are even below the sea level, the waters being kept out by dykes, which are maintained at a great annual cost. One stretch of fifty miles of the coast is guarded by a triple wall of piles driven into the soil, filled up between, and buttressed by huge granite blocks brought from Norway. If it were not for these dykes controlling the rivers and keeping out the sea, nearly half the country would be under water.

All the southern part of Holland belongs to the alluvial delta lands formed at the mouths of the Rhine (the chief branch of which is named the Waal), the Meuse or Maas, and Scheldt. Opening out into broad, shallow estuaries these river mouths form a number of islands, of which Walcheren and Beveland, Schouwen and Tholen, Over Flakkee, Voorne and Beyerland, are the largest.

Toward the north appears the great shallow gulf called the Zuider Zee (or South Sea, in distinction from the North Sea outside), which was formed in the thirteenth century by the bursting of the sea into a former inland lake called “Flevo” by the Roman geographers. Outside of it a chain of islands marks the line of the former coast of the mainland.

Rivers and Canals.—Besides the natural channels formed by the estuaries of the Scheldt, the Maas, and the delta branches of the Rhine (the Waal, Lek, Old Rhine, Vecht, Amstel, and Yssel) the country is intersected in all directions by Grachts or larger canals, lined with rows of trees, joining river to river. No country in the world has such a network of waterways; ships’ masts, and windmills with large sails, pumping the water from the smaller drainage canals, are seen everywhere.

Climate.—The general climate of Holland resembles that of England, opposite to it, in its rapid variations; but it is more humid. Dense sea fogs from the North Sea drive over it. In most winters the rivers and canals are frozen over for two or three months, when even women skate to market; in summer the thermometer rises to eighty or ninety degrees in the shade.

Production and Industry.—Cattle rearing, butter and cheese making, are the most general industries of the country, for the grazing meadows are far more extensive than the corn lands. In the latter, rye, barley, wheat, and potatoes, are the chief crops. Flax, and beet-root for sugar, chicory, and tobacco, are grown also to a considerable extent.

The principal manufactures are shipping, bricks, margarine, cocoa, chocolate, linen, rich damasks, cottons, woolens, cigars and other manufactured tobacco, candles, confectionery, earthenware and pottery, glass bottles and ware, chemical and pharmaceutical products, matches, perfumery, sugar, bicycles and automobiles, boots and shoes, starch, potato flour, engines, metal substances, works of art in gold and silver, incandescent lamps, machinery, motors, paper, printing, oils, beer, “geneva” and other liqueurs. Diamond cutting employs numerous hands in Amsterdam.

People.—Of the population, the greater part (seventy per cent) is formed by the Dutch or Batavians, the descendants of the Germanic tribe of the Batavi who occupied the delta of the Rhine in the time of the Roman conquest of the land. Frieslanders (fourteen per cent), descendants of the ancient Frisii, occupy the northern borders of the country, where the peasantry still speak a language closely allied to Anglo-Saxon; the Flemings (thirteen per cent) occupy the southeastern borders of the country. Their language differs little from the Dutch; but the dialects throughout the country are very numerous.

The majority, about three-fifths, belong to the several Reformed Churches; and the remainder are Roman Catholics, with about one hundred and seven thousand Jews.

Private state-aided primary instruction is encouraged rather than public, though the latter is provided, if required, by local taxation. Secondary schools for working classes are numerous, well equipped and attended. The principal universities are at Amsterdam, Groningen, Leiden, Utrecht.

Government.—The government of Holland is a limited constitutional monarchy. The crown is the executive power; legislation is vested in the States-general of two chambers, called the [557] First Chamber and the Second Chamber. A State Council of fourteen members appointed by the Sovereign is consulted on all legislative and on most executive matters.

There is no state religion, but the state gives financial support to the different churches.

Cities.—The capital is The Hague with a population of 300,000; other cities exceeding 50,000 in 1913 were as follows: Amsterdam, 591,053; Rotterdam, 454,135; Utrecht, 123,457; Groningen, 78,670; Haarlem, 70,907; Arnhem, 64,760; Leiden, 59,297; Nymegen, 58,679; Tilburg, 54,216.

The Hague (Dutch Gravenhagen, “the count’s hedge”), the capital of the Netherlands is two miles from the North Sea and fifteen miles northwest of Rotterdam. It is intersected by canals and shady avenues of lime-trees, and has many fine public buildings and private houses.

In the center of it is the Vijver, or Fish-pond, to the south of which stands the old castle of the Counts of Holland, where the Dutch parliament sits. In its gatetower the brothers De Witt were confined till dragged thence and torn to pieces by the populace (1672). The picture-gallery has a splendid collection of works by native painters (Paul Potter’s “Bull” and Rembrandt’s “Lesson in Anatomy”); and there are the royal library with five hundred thousand volumes; the municipal and other museums; the Town-House, and the royal palaces.

Among the numerous statues are those of William I. (two in number), William II., Spinoza, Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, and the monument which commemorates the deliverance from the French. Close to the town is the beautiful pleasure-park called “The Wood” (Bosch), in which stands a royal residence with the magnificent so-called “Orange Hall.”

PALACE IN THE WOOD,

or Dutch “White House,” is situated in a fine old plantation of beeches and oaks, round ornamental lakes and islands, is a plain building with a grand interior; and has Jordaen’s masterpiece, the Apotheosis of Prince Fred. Henry.

The great Peace Conference was held here in 1899; The Hague is the seat of the resulting arbitration courts, for which Mr. Carnegie provided permanent buildings of great architectural beauty. Industries are iron-founding, copper and lead smelting, cannon-founding, printing, furniture and carriage making, and the manufacture of gold and silver lace.

NATIONAL MONUMENT IN THE WILLEMS-PARK, THE HAGUE

History.—The ancient inhabitants of the country, the Batavians and the Frisians, became subjects or allies of the Romans in the first century A. D., and so remained till in the fourth century their territories were overrun by the Saxons and Salian Franks.

At the end of the eighth century the Low Countries submitted to Charlemagne, and various feudal dukedoms, counties, and lordships were gradually established (the countship of Holland in the eleventh century). In 1384 the earldom of Flanders passed to the Dukes of Burgundy, and Philip the Good (c. 1450) made the Low Countries as prosperous as any part of his Burgundian state.

The Emperor Charles V. inherited the Burgundian dominions; and under his son, Philip II. of Spain, broke out the bitter quarrel between Holland and Spain, between Dutch Protestantism and persistence and Spanish tyranny and persecution, which ended in 1581 in the establishment of the Dutch Republic as an independent state under William the Silent (of Orange), though the war continued with intervals till 1648, and the Belgian provinces abode by their allegiance to the kings of Spain.

In the seventeenth century Dutch commerce, especially at sea, Dutch science, Dutch classical scholarship, Dutch literature and Dutch art attained an eminence hardly afterwards equalled. The rivalry of Holland and England at sea led to the [558] unfortunate wars of 1652-1654 and 1664-1667. The accession of William III. of Orange to the Stadtholdership of the United Provinces (1672) proved the salvation of the republic from France; in 1678 Louis XIV. signed the peace of Nymegen.

Ten years later William was hailed as the savior of English liberties, and became king of Great Britain and Ireland. On William’s death, the United Provinces became a pure republic once more, the stadtholdership was re-established in 1747 but it made no difference in the downward course.

The National Convention of France having declared war against Great Britain and the stadtholder of Holland in 1793, French armies overran Belgium (1794); they were welcomed by the so-called patriots of the United Provinces and William V. and his family (January 1795) were obliged to escape from Scheveningen to England in a fishing-smack and the French rule began. After several changes Louis Bonaparte, June 5, 1806, was appointed king of Holland, but, four years later, was obliged to resign because he refused to be a mere tool in the hands of the French emperor. Holland was then added to the empire.

The fall of Napoleon I. and the dismemberment of the French empire led to the recall of the Orange family and the formation of the southern and northern provinces into the ill-managed kingdom of the Netherlands, which in 1830 was broken up by the secession of Belgium. In 1839 peace was finally concluded with Belgium; but almost immediately after national discontent with the government showed itself, and William I. in 1840 abdicated in favor of his son.

Holland, being moved by the revolutionary fever of 1848, King William II. granted a new constitution, according to which new chambers were chosen, but they had scarcely met when he died, March, 1849, and William III. (born 1817) ascended the throne.

William III. having no living male issue, the succession to the crown was vested in the princess of Orange, Wilhelmina, the only child of the king’s second marriage, born in 1880. For many years the great question of internal politics was the new constitution, which, promulgated November 30, 1887, increased the electorate of Holland by no less than two hundred thousand voters. On the death of the king (November 23, 1890), when Luxemburg ceased to be connected with the crown of Holland, the Princess Wilhelmina became queen.

Queen Wilhelmina married Prince Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in 1901, and in 1909 a daughter (the Princess Juliana) was born to them.

NORWAY

NORWAY (Norweg. Norge), the western division of the Scandinavian peninsula, is one thousand one hundred and sixty miles in length (coast-line three thousand miles) and varies in width from twenty to one hundred miles north of 63° N. lat.; below that line it swells out to two hundred and sixty miles. The coast-line is extensive, deeply indented with numerous fiords, and fringed with an immense number of rocky islands. The surface is mountainous, consisting of elevated and barren tablelands, separated by deep and narrow valleys. The finest of the valleys stretching inland from the fiords is Romsdal, where the rounded pure gneiss mountains tower up to six thousand feet with almost perpendicular walls. The cultivated area is about one-thirtieth part of the country; forests cover nearly one-fourth; the rest consists of highland pastures or mountains.

Norway is separated from Sweden by the Kjolen Mountains (three thousand to six thousand feet), the backbone of the peninsula, which divide south of 63°; the western branch widens out into a broad plateau, undulating between two thousand and four thousand feet and embossed with mountain-knots—Dovre, Jotun, Lang, Fille, Hardanger Fjelde (fells)—the separate peaks of which shoot up to six thousand feet and higher.

Rivers.—The few important rivers that Norway can claim as exclusively her own have a southerly direction, and discharge themselves into the Skager-Rack; of these the chief are the Glommen (four hundred miles), and its affluent, the Lougen. The most important river in the north is the Tana, which forms part of the boundary between Russia and Norway, and falls into the Arctic Ocean. Lofty waterfalls are numerous. Lakes are extremely numerous but generally small. The principal is the Miösen Vand. The streams are turned to account in floating down the valuable timber of the forests, and their rapids give abundant mill power.

Production and Industry.—Agriculture, though pursued with some vigor of late, is unable to furnish sufficient products for home consumption; hence it has been necessary to import considerable quantities of corn, meat, and pork. The fisheries give employment to a large part of the population throughout the year. The most important are cod and herring. The mineral products are of late increasing.

The purely industrial establishments are grouped mainly around Christiania, and include textile factories, machine shops, chemical works, flour mills, breweries, etc. The use of water power for electrical enterprises is growing. The Norwegians rank among the busiest sea carriers of the world, the Norwegian mercantile marine ranking third among maritime nations, or first in proportion to population.

The chief exports consist of timber, matches, fish, oil, and other products of the fisheries, pulp, paper, skins and furs, nails, minerals, stone, ice, calcium carbide, condensed milk, butter, margarine, tinned goods, etc.

People.—The people of the peninsula are of Germanic race, with the exception of the small number of Finns and the Lapps in the north. The Norsemen of Norway, of middle stature, strong, generally blonde haired and blue eyed, seamen by choice, have adopted the Danish as the language of the towns and of literature, the modernized Old Norse being banished to the outlying country districts and unfrequented fiords.

Education is compulsory and free between the ages of seven and fourteen, schools being maintained by local taxation with state grants [559] in aid. The attendance is high. Secondary schools are provided by the state, by local authorities, and privately. There are a number of special schools and industrial and technical institutes. The University of Christiania is an important institution for higher education.

Except 52,700 persons (including Methodists, Baptists, Roman Catholics, Jews, Mormons), the entire population belong to the Lutheran Church.

Government.—After the crisis of European affairs brought about by Napoleon’s wars, Denmark lost her hold over Norway, which had been united to it for more than four centuries, and that country was united to Sweden in exchange for Finland, which then passed under Russian sway. Norway, however, was again separated from Sweden as an independent kingdom under King Haakon VII. in 1905.

The Storthing or Parliament consists of one hundred and twenty-three members, women being eligible and electors (since 1907); and divides for legislative purposes into two chambers called “Odelsting” and “Lagting.”

The Norwegians share with the Swiss the distinction of being the most democratic people in Europe; all titles of nobility were abolished in 1821. In 1912 practically all offices except in the cabinet, diplomatic service, army, navy, and church, were thrown open to women.

Cities.—The chief cities are the capital, Christiania, and Bergen. Other important towns are Trondhjem, Stavanger, and Drammen.

Christiania, the modern capital and chief commercial town of Norway (the ancient capital is Trondhjem, “home of the throne,” where the kings are still crowned), is built on the northern end of the Christiania Fiord. Population, in 1910, 241,834. It is named after Christian IV., who commenced building it in 1624 after the destruction of the ancient city of Oslo by fire. It is the seat of Parliament, of the High Court of Judicature, and of the National University. Connected with this are the students’ garden, a library of four hundred and fifty thousand volumes, a botanical garden, zoological and other museums, laboratories, and observatory. The Meteorological Institute was established in 1866. There are two national and historical palaces here, one in the city quite near the university, and one, Oscarshall, beautifully situated two miles from the city on an eminence overlooking the fiord. There is a national picture-gallery, and a very interesting museum of northern antiquities. The Dom or Cathedral and Trinity Church are the principal ecclesiastical buildings. The old fortress Akershus Faestning still remains, but has little military value.

The staple industry of Christiania is its shipping trade; its chief export is timber. A considerable industry is the brewing of Christiania öl, a sort of lager beer, with resinous flavor, largely consumed throughout Norway, and exported. The minor manufactures are cotton, canvas, engine-works, nailworks, paper-mills, and cariole-making. The harbor is closed by ice for three or four months most winters.

History.—It is not until the ninth century that the story of Norway begins to emerge from the obscurities of myth and legend. At first it was occupied by Lapps and by several Gothic tribes, then became an independent kingdom, founded in 872, and was united to Denmark in 1380.

The Napoleonic crisis in Europe may be said to have severed the union, which had existed for more than four hundred years between Norway and Denmark. The latter country after having given unequivocal proofs of adhesion to the cause of Bonaparte, was compelled, after the war of 1813, to sign the treaty of Kiel in 1814, in which it was stipulated by the allied powers that she should resign Norway to Sweden. Charles XIII. was declared joint king of Sweden and Norway in 1818. From that time down to 1905 Norway remained in union with Sweden. In June of that year Norway declared the union dissolved, and the repeal of the union was signed in October of the same year. The throne was offered to and declined by a prince of the reigning house of Sweden, but was afterwards accepted by Prince Carl of Sweden, who was thereupon elected as King Haakon VII. In 1908 a treaty was signed by Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia, and Norway guaranteeing the integrity of the Norwegian kingdom.

Poland

Poland (called by the natives Polska, a word of the same root as Pole, “a plain”), a kingdom of Europe, proclaimed, in 1916, by the governments of Austria-Hungary and the German Empire as the result of conquests by the Central Powers, comprises substantially what is geographically known as Russian Poland (the kingdom of Poland formed in 1815) and Austrian Poland (or the Austrian province of Galicia). The former has an area of about 49,000 square miles, with a population of more than 12,000,000; the latter, an area of 30,300 square miles, and a population of 8,000,000.

Surface.—This extensive tract forms part of the great European central plain, and is crossed by only one range of hills, which run northeast from the Carpathians, forming the watershed between the Baltic and Black Seas.

Its principal streams are the Vistula, the Niemen, and the Dwina, all belonging to the basin of the Baltic; and the Dniester, South Bug, and Dnieper, with its tributary, Pripet, belonging to the basin of the Black Sea.

The physical configuration of the country makes it admirably adapted for agriculture. Next to grain and cattle its most important product is timber.

The soil is mostly a light fertile loam, though there are large barren tracts of sand, heath, and swamp, especially in the east. Much of the fertile soil is rich pasture land, and much is occupied with forests of pine, birch, oak, etc. Rye, wheat, barley, and other cereals, hemp, timber, honey, and wax, cattle, sheep, and horses, vast mines of salt and coal, some silver, iron, copper, and lead constitute the natural riches of the country.

People.—The present population of the provinces, included in the Poland of former days, consists chiefly of Poles, Lithuanians, Germans, Jews, Malo-Russians, Roumanians and Gypsies. The Poles, who number 10,000,000, form the bulk of the population; the Lithuanians, 2,100,000 in number, inhabit the northeast of the country; the Germans, of whom there are 2,000,000, live mostly in the towns; the Jews are very numerous being estimated, at 2,200,000.

Roman Catholics preponderate; then come in order the Greek Church, Protestants, Jews, and Armenians.

Cities.—The following are the populations of the chief cities: Capital, Warsaw, 800,000; Lodz, 400,000; Lemberg, 225,000; Cracow, 160,000; Przemysl, 60,000.

Warsaw (Polish Warszawa), the capital of Poland, stands on the Vistula’s left bank, three hundred and thirty miles east of Berlin by rail and seven hundred miles southwest of Petrograd. Two iron bridges lead to the suburb of Prague, on the opposite bank. Standing on a navigable river, with great railway lines to Moscow, Petrograd, Vienna, Danzig, and Berlin, Warsaw is one of the most important cities of eastern Europe, being smaller only than Petrograd and Moscow. Corn and flax are largely exported, and coal and manufactured goods imported. Warsaw itself manufactures electroplate, machinery, boots, woolens, pianos, carriages, tobacco, sugar, chemicals, beer, and spirits.

Of over one hundred Catholic churches the cathedral of St. John is the most notable; there are also several Greek churches, two Lutheran ones, and many synagogues. The castle is an imposing building, and there are many fine private palaces. The university, suppressed at various times, was reopened in 1915, and has seventy-five professors who now teach in Polish.

History.—The early history of Poland is legendary and obscure. The Poles, like the Russians, are a Slavonic race, and are first spoken of as the Polani, a tribe or people between the Vistula and Oder. The country was divided into small communities until the reign of Mieczyslaw I. (962-992) of the Piast dynasty, who renounced paganism in favor of Christianity, and was a vassal of the German emperor.

He was succeeded by Boleslaw the Great (992-1025), who raised Poland into an independent kingdom and increased its territories. In succeeding reigns the country was involved in war with Germany, the Prussians, the Teutonic knights, and with Russia. The last of the Piast dynasty was Casimir the Great (1364-1370), during whose reign the material prosperity of Poland greatly increased. He was succeeded by his nephew, Louis of Anjou, king of Hungary, whose daughter, Hedwig, was recognized as “king” in 1384, and having married Jagello, prince of Lithuania, thus established the dynasty of the Jagellons, which lasted from 1386 to 1572.

During this period Poland attained its most powerful and flourishing condition. In 1572 the Jagellon dynasty became extinct in the male line, and the monarchy, hitherto elective in theory, now became so in fact. The more important of the elective kings were Sigismund III. (1587-1637), Wladislaw or Ladislaus IV. (1632-1648), John Casimir, (1648-1669), and the Polish general Sobieski, who became king under the title of John III. (1674-1696). He was succeeded by Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, who got entangled in the war of Russia with Charles XII., and had as a rival in the kingdom Stanislaus Lesczynski. Augustus III. (1733-1763) followed, and by the end of his reign internal dissensions and other causes had brought the country into a state of helplessness.

In 1772 under the last feeble king Stanislaus Augustus (1764-1795), the first actual partition of Poland took place, when about a third of her territories were seized by Prussia, Austria, and Russia, the respective shares of the spoil being Prussia 13,415 square miles, Austria 27,000 square miles, Russia 42,000 square miles.

A second division between Russia and Prussia took place in 1793. Prussia received nearly all the present province of Posen, and the western part of what is now Russian Poland; Russia received all the territory east of about long. 44°. A third division between Russia, Prussia, and Austria occurred in 1795. Prussia took a large part of the present Russian Poland, including Warsaw; Austria received part of the present Russian Poland between the Bug, Vistula, and Pilica; and Russia received all the remainder, situated east of the Niemen and Bug.

An insurrection under Koszciusko had taken place in 1794, but he was defeated at the battle of Maciejowice and taken prisoner. Suvorov (Suwarrow), the Russian general, took Warsaw, and the Polish monarchy was at an end. King Stanislaus resigned his crown, and died at Petrograd in 1798.

Part of Poland was formed by Napoleon into the duchy of Warsaw. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 made a resettlement of the territory, creating a kingdom of Poland, under Russian rule, with a constitution. An insurrection which began in November, 1830, was suppressed in September, 1831; the constitution was abolished in 1832. From this time the independence of Poland was suppressed, and in 1832 it was declared an integral part of the Russian empire, with a separate administration, headed by a viceroy chosen by the Czar. On November 6, 1848, the republic of Cracow became Austrian; and the subsequent rebellion against Russian rule in 1863 only brought further humiliation on Polish hopes and aspirations.

During the European war Poland, in 1914, first suffered invasion and devastation by the Russian armies, and during the two following years was completely overrun by the Austro-German armies, and placed under the military rule of the latter. The proclamation of Poland as a new independent kingdom took effect in 1916.

PORTUGAL

PORTUGAL (named from Portus Cale, the Roman name of Oporto), a republic of Europe, lying between Spain and the Atlantic, on the west side of the Iberian Peninsula, is three hundred and fifty miles in length and varies in width from seventy to one hundred and forty miles. The area is 36,038 square miles—a little larger than Ireland.

Surface and Climate.—The coast is mostly low and flat, except immediately north and south of the mouth of the Tagus, and at Cape St. Vincent. The north of Portugal is diversified by spurs (five thousand feet) of the mountains of Spanish Galicia. The Sierra da Estrella (six thousand five hundred and forty feet) is a westward continuation of the Spanish Sierra Guadarrama system. The Sierra Morena is continued westwards in southern Portugal.

The principal rivers of the country—the Guadiana in the south, the Tagus in the center, and the Douro and Minho in the north—are [561] simply the lower courses of Spanish rivers; but the Mondego has its sources in the country.

The vicinity to the ocean tempers the climate and exempts it from the dry heat of Spain. The inequalities of the surface produce, however, diversities of climate; for, while snow falls abundantly on the mountains in the northern provinces, it is never seen in the southern lowlands. Rain falls abundantly throughout the year.

Production and Industry.—The chief products are wheat, barley, oats, maize, flax, hemp, and the vine in elevated tracts; in the lowlands, rice, olives, oranges, lemons, citrons, figs, and almonds. There are extensive forests of oak, chestnut, sea pine, and cork, the cultivation of the vine and the olive being among the chief branches of industry; the rich red wine known to us as “port” is shipped from Oporto. Its mineral products are important—copper, lead, tin, antimony, coal, manganese, iron, slate, and bay salt, which last, from its hardness and purity, is in demand. Its manufactures consist of gloves, silk, woolens, linen, and cotton fabrics, metal and earthenware goods, tobacco, cigars, etc. The exports consist to the extent of fifty per cent of wine, which is the chief industrial product of the country; others are cork, cattle, copper ore, fruits, oil, sardines, and salt.

People.—The Portuguese are a mixed race—original Iberian or Basque, with later Celtic admixture. Galician blood (derived from the ancient Gallaici, presumably Gallic invaders) predominates in the north; Jewish and Arabic blood are strongly present in the center, and African in the south.

The Portuguese differ widely from their Spanish brethren, whom they regard with inveterate hatred and jealousy, mainly on account of their attempts to subvert the independence of Portugal.

Education is free and nominally compulsory between the ages of seven and fifteen, but is not strictly enforced, and over seventy-five per cent of the population above seven years old are illiterate. Secondary education is conducted in state lyceums. There are also military, naval and other special schools. The University of Coimbra is the chief higher institution.

Government.—Portugal was a constitutional monarchy till 1910, when a republic was established. The constitution of 1911 provides a Senate, elected by municipal councils, and a National Council, by direct suffrage. The two chambers united constitute the Congress of the republic. The president of the republic is elected by both chambers for a period of four years. He cannot be re-elected.

Cities.—Capital, Lisbon, on the Tagus, population, 435,359. Oporto had a population (1911) of 194,664. There are no other large towns, but Braga, Loulé, Setubal, and Funchal (Madeira) had populations exceeding 20,000 in 1911.

Lisbon (Port. Lisboa), capital of Portugal, stands on the northern shore of a bottle-shaped expansion of the Tagus, nine miles from its mouth; it is four hundred and twelve miles by rail west by southwest of Madrid. The city extends for four or five miles along the shore, and climbs up the slopes of a low range of hills, occupying a site of imposing beauty.

The oldest part of Lisbon is that which escaped the earthquake of 1755; it lies on the east, round the citadel, and consists of narrow, intricate streets, not over clean. It is still known by its Moorish name of Alfama. The western portions were built after the earthquake, with wide and regular streets, fine squares, and good houses. The summits are mostly crowned with what were formerly large monasteries.

The gloomy cathedral of the “patriarch,” built in 1147, restored after 1755, has a Gothic facade and choir. The large church of St. Vincent contains the tombs of the former royal (Braganza) family. The church of Estrella is a reduced copy of St. Peter’s at Rome. In San Roque is a chapel thickly encrusted with mosaics and costly marbles. But the finest structure in the city is the Gothic monastery and church of Belem, a monument to the great seamen of Portugal; it was begun in 1500 on the spot from which Vasco da Gama embarked (1497) on his momentous voyage. Inside the church are tombs to Camoens and Vasco da Gama, and the grave of Catharine, wife of Charles II. of England.

A fine square facing the bay is surrounded with government offices, the handsome custom-house, and the marine arsenal. There are an academy of sciences, with a library of one hundred and twenty thousand volumes, a polytechnic school, a medical school, a conservatory of music, a public library of four hundred thousand volumes and two observatories.

A magnificent aqueduct brings water to the city from springs nine miles to the northwest.

A series of forts protect the seaward approaches. The harbor is one of the finest in the world, well sheltered, deep close to the quays, and capacious enough to hold all the navies of Europe at once.

History.—Like the rest of Iberia, Portugal (the southern part of which was known to the Romans as Lusitania, often taken as a poetical name for the whole country) was thoroughly Romanized after the conquest of the Carthaginians by the Romans in 138 B. C. Then the peninsula was overrun by the Visigoths, and next by the Saracens. Northern Portugal fell under the influence of Castile; but under Alfonso I. (1143) Portugal became an independent kingdom, though the Saracens were not conquered in the south till 1250. Wars with Castile were frequent.

Under John (1385-1433) began a close alliance between Portugal and England, and the Portuguese king John married John of Gaunt’s daughter. With their son, Prince Henry the Navigator, began the most brilliant era of discovery and conquest, including the acquisition of Madeira, the Azores, and the doubling of the Cape of Good Hope (1486), the reaching of India by sea and settlements there (1497), and the discovery and occupation of Brazil (1500).

In the sixteenth century Portugal was one of the most powerful monarchies of Europe, and most prosperous of commercial peoples; but its decline was swift, and Philip II. annexed Portugal to Spain for sixty years. English assistance secured the independence of the kingdom in 1640; but the glory had departed. Portugal shared in the troubles of the French occupation and the Peninsular war; after Napoleon’s defeat, the old family, which had taken refuge in Brazil, was restored, but the country was rent by intrigue, dissension, and civil war.

The rush of the European powers to occupy central and southern Africa stirred Portugal to cling tenaciously to her once great colonial empire in Africa; but the march of events has given to Britain, Germany, France, and Belgium much that Portugal once claimed as hers.

Popular discontent culminated in the assassination of King Carlos and his eldest son in the streets of Lisbon in February, 1908. His second son, Manoel, succeeded. In 1910 the murder of Dr. Bombarda, a republican, hastened on a revolution already arranged for. The army and navy assisted in deposing Manoel and setting up a provisional government, with Theophile Braga as provisional president. He retired in 1911, and in August of that year Dr. Manoel Arriaga was elected as the first president of the republic.

The republic was formally recognized by the United States upon the meeting of the Portuguese chambers in June, 1911, and by the other powers on the formation of the cabinet in September, 1911. In 1915 Portugal joined the Entente Allies in the European war.

ROUMANIA

ROUMANIA, a kingdom in southeast Europe, lies mainly between the Carpathians, the Purth, and the Danube (the Dobruja being south of the Danube). It includes the strip added from Bulgaria as “compensation” for changes consequent on the Balkan war of 1912-1913, from a point on the Danube above Silistria to Cape Sabla on the Black Sea. Bordering on Hungary, Russia, Bulgaria, and Servia, its area is 52,000 square miles, and population 7,500,000.

Surface.—Roumania consists for the most part of a great treeless steppe-like plain, occupying nearly the whole of the northern watershed of the Lower Danube; behind this plain rise the wooded Transylvania Alps. Between the northern bend of the river to its marshy delta and the Black Sea there rises the bare plateau called the Dobruja, partly grass-covered, partly swampy, without tree or bush. This famous old battle-ground is crossed by Trajan’s double wall or rampart, built to keep the northern barbarians out of the Roman provinces.

Rivers.—All the rivers are tributaries of the Danube, and flow from the Carpathians and the Transylvanian Alps across the level steppe to join its left bank. The chief are the Pruth, which now forms the boundary towards Russia, the Sereth, and the Oltu (Aluta).

People.—Most of the Roumanians are supposed to be descendants of the race formed by the alliance of the Roman colonists with the original inhabitants of Dacia. The Roumanian language is derived mainly from Latin, with Slavonic, Hungarian, and other elements.

They are strong, well-knit men, with black hair, lively, but not very active. The mass of the people live in great poverty; a few thousand Boyars, nobles or landed proprietors, really form the nation. Large numbers of Jews and Gypsies live among the Roumanians. Almost the entire population belongs to the Greek Church, but religious equality prevails.

Government.—The constitution, voted by a popular assembly in 1866, vests the executive authority in the reigning king and his council of ministers; the legislative body consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies.

Production and Industry.—The agricultural products consist of wheat, maize, millet, barley, rye, beans, and peas. Vines and fruits are abundant. The forests are of great extent and importance, but the riches of the country consist mainly in its cattle and sheep. Minerals and precious metals are said to be abundant, but only salt and petroleum are obtained.

Education is free and nominally compulsory, but owing to inadequate provision over sixty per cent of those above seven years of age are illiterate. Secondary education is relatively better, and the schools are well attended. There are also special schools and universities at Bucharest and Jassy. A government high school of commerce was opened in 1913.

Cities.—Capital, Bucharest, has a population (1912) of about 500,000. Other towns are: Jassy, 80,000; Galatz, 66,000; Braīla, 60,000; Ploesci, 50,000; Craiova, 46,000.

Bucharest (Bucuresci), the “Paris of the East,” stands two hundred and sixty-five feet above sea-level, in the fertile but treeless plain of the small, sluggish Dambovitza. By rail it is seven hundred and sixteen miles southeast of Vienna, forty miles north of Giurgevo on the Danube, and one hundred and seventy-nine miles northwest of Varna on the Black Sea. Viewed from the hills which lie to the west and southwest, Bucharest presents a most striking appearance. It is sprawled out on both banks of the river, occupying more than twenty square miles of territory in the slight depression through which the stream makes its way.

Most of its houses are low, not more than two stories, with flat roofs that shimmer in the sun. High above them rise almost innumerable towers, cupolas and minarets of churches, in which the city abounds. The Catholic Cathedral is a fine edifice, built 1875-1884.

Great spots and stretches of greenery mark the spacious parks and gardens and the great boulevards, some of which extend along the river bank, others out to the distant sections of the city.

Three of these thoroughfares skirt the river on the left, where the greater part of the city lies. They are the Plevna, Lipscani and Vacaresci, in order. From the Lipscani extend the Elizabeth Boulevard and Calea Victorie, the avenue of Victory, which connect with another broad highway extending nearly around the city on its outskirts.

Parks and drives are frequent. Then there are the botanical and zoological gardens, and a racecourse, where meets are held at least twice a year.

In these streets the East meets the West. Women gowned in the latest Paris creations and men in perfect European dress are in contrast with the wandering bands of gypsies, the brilliant-clad Roumanian country folk come in to market, the fez-topped Turk, and the distinctly dressed Russian cabmen.

Besides the parkways and busy thoroughfares there are many beautiful buildings—the National Bank, the Athenaeum, with its collection of rare antiques dating back to the days of the Roman conquest; the National Library and Theater; the University of Bucharest, founded in 1864; the many other schools and academies; the great home for the blind established by the late Queen Elizabeth, better known by her pen name “Carmen Sylvia”; a hundred-and-one other places that go to make the city notable as a center of learning, culture and modern progress.

Nearly all of these institutions have homes that are masterpieces of architecture. The Treasury [563] Building and the Postoffice are notable examples. It is said that the Roumanian government has the finest home for its foreign ministry of any country in Europe.

Bucharest is the center for trade between Austria and the Balkan Peninsula, the chief articles of commerce being textile fabrics, grain, hides, metal, coal, timber, and cattle. It has been several times besieged; and between 1793 and 1812 suffered twice from earthquakes, twice from inundations, once from fire, and twice from pestilence.

History.—The Roumanians are descended from the ancient inhabitants—probably Thracians or Dacians—of the country, modified by elements derived from the Roman, Gothic, Bulgarian, and Slavonic invaders. Dacia was a Roman colony from 101 A.D. till 274, when it became the prey of successive swarms of wandering tribes.

Out of numerous small states, two, Wallachia and Moldavia, had become dominant, when they had to bow to the Turkish yoke, and became tributary to the Porte. They were governed by rulers nominated by the Porte, who were generally extortionate Greeks of Constantinople. Russian intervention during the eighteenth century somewhat improved the condition of the downtrodden principalities, which at times were wholly under Russian influence. In 1859 they elected the same prince, Couza. He ruled till he was deposed for misgovernment in 1866, and was succeeded by Prince Charles of Hohenzollern.

The Roumanians fought bravely on the Russian side in the Turkish war of 1877-1878, and at the end obtained complete independence, though they had to give Russia part of Bessarabia for the Dobruja. In 1881 the prince was recognized as a king.

Roumania is not a Balkan state, and took no part in the operations of the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, and Greece) against the Ottoman Empire in 1912-1913; but during the second war (1913), when Bulgaria was in opposition to the remaining members of the League, Roumania was able to exact terms from Bulgaria at the Treaty of Bucharest, by which Bulgarian territory amounting to 7,609 square miles, with a population of 285,000, was surrendered to Roumania.

SERVIA

SERVIA (ser´vi-ä), a kingdom in the Balkan peninsula, southeastern Europe, is bounded by Austria-Hungary (separated by the Save and Danube) on the north, Roumania (separated by the Danube) and Bulgaria on the east, Turkey and Bosnia on the south, and Bosnia (mainly separated by the Drina) on the west.

Surface.—The greater part of the country is mountainous and wooded; it is full of forests and hills, hedged fields, and fresh meadows, forming pretty but never very grand landscapes. The principal river (besides the frontier rivers) is the Morava.

Production and Industry.—Nearly nine-tenths of the land is left under its primitive woods and pastures. The principal crops are maize for home consumption, and wheat for export; flax, hemp, and tobacco are also grown, and silk-culture is carried on to a limited extent. The exports consist of dried prunes, pigs, and wool, besides wheat, wine, hides, cattle, and horses. The bulk of the trade is with Austria. The mineral treasures of Servia are considerable; gold, copper, and zinc occur in the hills which reach towards the “Iron Gates” of the Danube, and coal beds extend along the river.

Fruit trees exist in very great abundance, especially plums, from which the brandy of the Servians (slovovitza) is extensively made.

People.—The Servians are a well-built, stalwart Slavonic (or perhaps in part Slavonized Albanian) race, proud and martial by temperament; the most striking feature of their social life is the family community or Zadruga. Their literature is rich in poetry, especially lyrics. The population, about 3,000,000 at the outbreak of the war of 1912-1913, was raised by conquests to about 5,000,000. Besides these the Montenegrins (450,000) are almost all pure Servians by race, as are also the Bosnians and Herzegovinians (2,000,000), not to speak of over 3,700,000 Servians in other parts of Austria-Hungary.

The people of Servia belong to the Greek Catholic Church. Education does not reach a very high standard, although a school exists in every commune. There is a university at Belgrade.

Government.—Servia is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The legislative power is vested in the king and the National Assembly. This last, called the Skupshtina, consists of one hundred and sixty deputies. Besides this body there is a senate of sixteen members, eight chosen by the king and eight by the National Assembly; this body acts as a permanent state council.

Cities.—Capital, Belgrade (Biograd, “White Fortress”) at the confluence of the Save and Danube, is now a modern city, with electric railways and light, and wide streets, containing the university, national museum and library, and the old Turkish citadel. Population (1910) 91,000. It lies opposite Semlin, at the confluence of the Save and Danube, two hundred and fifteen miles southeast of Budapesth. The walls disappeared in 1862; the last and finest of the five gates was demolished in 1868. Year by year the town is losing its old Turkish aspect, becoming more modern, more European. The royal palace, the residence of the metropolitan, the national theater (1871), and the public offices are the principal buildings. Opposite the theater is a bronze monument to the murdered Prince Michael III.

Belgrade has but trifling manufactures of arms, cutlery, saddlery, silk goods, carpets, etc. It is, however, an entrepôt of trade between Turkey and Austria.

Other towns are Nish, 25,000; Kragojevatz, 19,000; Leskovatz, 15,000; Podjeravatz, 14,000; Shabatz, 12,000; Vranya, 11,500; Pirot, 11,000; and Krutchevatz, 10,000.

The principal towns in the territories acquired in 1913 are Monastir, 60,000; Prisrend, 42,000; Uskub, 32,000; Prilip, 24,000; Istip, or Shtip, 21,000; Kalkandelen, or Tetovo, 20,000; Koprili, or Veles, 20,000; Dibra, 16,000; Pristina, 16,000; Kumanovo, 15,000; Ochrida, 15,000; and Novi Bazar, 13,000.

History.—The Servians came from the Carpathians in the seventh century, and founded a great state, which, about 1350, embraced Albania and much of Bulgaria and Macedonia; but at Kossovo in 1389 the Turks crushed the Servian power and made Servia first tributary and then a province of the Ottoman empire.

A national rising had some success under Kara George in 1807-1810 and through Russian influence it was arranged that Servia should have some measure of internal autonomy. Still more successful was a rising in 1815 under Obrenovich. Under his successors there was considerable progress; and after the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878 Servia obtained complete independence and became a kingdom. King Milan abdicated in 1889.

In 1903 a party of officers, representing a wide conspiracy, assassinated King Alexander and Queen Draga, and Peter Karageorgevitch was proclaimed king. In 1913 Servia, as a member of the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Greece, Servia, and Montenegro), waged a successful war against Turkey. In August, 1913, Servia and Greece were attacked by Bulgaria, their former ally, owing to disputes concerning the division of the spoils. The second war collapsed in a few weeks through the threatened intervention of Roumania, and ended in the Treaty of Bucharest. Servia also became involved with the Austro-Hungarian monarchy on a question of the Albanian frontier, where desultory fighting had taken place for some months, but eventually the smaller power withdrew from the disputed area. The outcome of the military operations was the inclusion of the whole of “Old Servia” (the greater part of Macedonia) within the Servian boundaries, which thus embrace an area (1914) of close on thirty-four thousand square miles, with a population estimated at five million.

The assassination of the Austrian heir presumptive, in June, 1914, brought about an invasion of Servia by the forces of Austria-Hungary, and started the Pan-European war that is still in progress.

SPAIN

SPAIN (Span. España), occupying the larger part of the southwestern peninsula of Europe, is bounded on the south and east by the Mediterranean, on the west by the Atlantic and Portugal, and on the north by the Bay of Biscay and France, from which it is separated by the Pyrenees. Its coast line extends 1,317 miles—712 formed by the Mediterranean and 605 by the Atlantic—and it comprises a total area of 196,700 English square miles, and a population (1910) of 19,588,688.

Surface.—The interior of the peninsula consists of an elevated tableland, surrounded and traversed by mountain ranges. The uniform coast line and the great elevation of its central plateau give Spain a more continental character in its extreme range of temperature than any of the other peninsulas of Europe.

Outside the plateau lie the highest summits in the country, the Pic de Néthou, in the Pyrenees, Mulhacen and Veleta in the Sierra Nevada, while the Picos de Europa in the Cantabrian Range attain over eight thousand feet. The plateau itself is traversed by four mountain ranges which separate the valley of the Ebro from that of the Douro; and the whole of it has a general slight inclination from east or northeast to southwest. Hence all the considerable rivers except the Ebro flow westward to the Atlantic.

These include the Guadalaviar, Júcar, and Segura, important rivers of the eastern watershed. The Minho, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir drain the western valleys, which are formed between the mountain ranges of the Peninsula. The Tagus is the largest river of the Peninsula, the estuary of which forms a magnificent harbor. The Guadalquivir, though the shortest of the larger streams, is the most important on account of its fullness and its course through the most extensive lowland of the Peninsula. The effect of the tide in it is felt for several leagues above Seville, to which city it is navigable, eighty miles from the sea.

The configuration of the country renders the climate very varied. In parts of the northwest the rainfall is among the heaviest in Europe. In the east and southeast occasionally no rain falls in the whole year. The rainfall in the western Pyrenees is very great, yet on the northern slope of the valley of the Ebro there are districts almost rainless. The western side of the great plateau, speaking generally, is more humid and much colder than the eastern, where irrigation is necessary for successful cultivation.

Production and Industry.—Galicia is almost a cattle country; Estremadura possesses vast flocks of sheep and herds of swine. The country is generally fertile, and well adapted to agriculture and the cultivation of heat-loving fruits—as olives, oranges, lemons, almonds, pomegranates, and dates. The agricultural products comprise wheat, barley, maize, oats, rice, with hemp and flax of the best quality. The vine is cultivated in every province; in the southwest, Jerez, the well-known sherry and tent wines are made; in the southeast, the Malaga and Alicante.

Spain is rich in iron, copper and lead, but the mines have been only partially developed.

The seat of the manufacturing industries is chiefly Catalonia. Cotton and woolen manufactures engage many hands, and there are also considerable silk, paper, and cork industries.

The principal exports are wine, copper and copper ores, lead, iron ores, olive oil, raisins, oranges, cork, esparto grass, wool, salt, quicksilver, grapes, etc.

People.—The basis of the population of the whole Peninsula is that of the old Iberians, modified by the admixture of Celtic, Phœnician, Roman, Germanic, and Moorish (Arab) invaders who from time to time gained ascendency in the land and became intermixed with the ancient inhabitants.

Until lately the only religion tolerated was that of the state, the Roman Catholic; now a certain toleration is allowed to other denominations.

Education varies greatly among different classes and in different provinces. In the large towns and in some of the provinces a great effort is made to keep the higher and the technical schools on a level with the best in other European countries. In other parts the [565] neglect is very great. There are ten universities: Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, Oviedo, Salamanca, Seville, Santiago, Valencia, Valladolid, and Saragossa. Primary education is by law compulsory, but the law is not strictly enforced, which accounts for the large percentage of illiterates.

Government.—The government of Spain is an hereditary monarchy founded on the constitution of 1876. The Cortes consists of two bodies—the Senate, of about three hundred and sixty members (one-half elected), and a Congress of Deputies, elected at the rate of one member to every fifty thousand inhabitants.

Cities.—The principal cities are Madrid, population 597,573; Barcelona, 587,219; Valencia, 233,348; Seville, 155,366; Malaga, 136,192; Murcia, 125,380; Saragossa, 111,701; Carthagena, 96,983; Bilbao, 93,536; and San Sebastian, 92,514; and there are also twelve towns with over 50,000 inhabitants.

THE ROYAL PALACE, MADRID,

one of the finest in Europe, has a frontage of four hundred and seventy feet, is one hundred feet high, and built of white stone. Among the thirty rooms on the first floor, the largest and finest is the Hall of the Ambassadors. The vault was painted by Tiepolo, and represents the exaltation of the Spanish monarchs. The walls are draped with velvet embroidered with gold, and twelve immense mirrors also decorate it. On the right of the throne, which is guarded by four gilded bronze lions, is a statue of Prudence, and on the left that of Justice. The chapel is extremely rich, but not very handsome. There is also a library, a theatre, and the magnificent collection of Flemish tapestries.

Madrid (Span. pron. Madh-reedh´), the capital of Spain, is situated in the department of Madrid (part of the ancient province of New Castile), eight hundred and eighty miles by rail from Paris. It is built on a treeless, ill-watered plateau, on the left bank of the Manzanares, two thousand and sixty feet above the sea-level.

The Manzanares is merely a mountain-torrent falling into the Jarama, a tributary of the Tagus; water is brought from the Guadarrama Mountains by an aqueduct forty-two miles in length.

The general aspect of the city is clean and gay, while the older parts are picturesque; no trace now remains of the mediæval city. The new streets are generally fine, broad, and planted with trees; the houses well built, lofty, and inhabited by several families living in flats. A great feature is the magnificent open spaces, chief of which is the Prado, running north and south through the eastern part of the city, and, with its continuations, three miles long. It contains four handsome fountains with groups of statuary, a fine obelisk to commemorate the gallant struggle with the French (May 2, 1808), monuments to Columbus, Isabel the Catholic, etc.

The picture-gallery here, founded by Charles III., is one of the finest in Europe, and contains many of the masterpieces of Velasquez, Murillo, Raphael, Tintoretto, Rubens, Teniers, and Van Dyck. Two other parks are the Buen Retiro, the fashionable promenade on the east of the city, and the Casa de Campo on the west. Midway between its extremities the Prado is crossed at right angles by the Calle de Alcala, the finest street in the city, about a mile in length, and leading from outside the fine triumphal arch rebuilt by Charles III. to the Puerta del Sol, the square which is the heart of Madrid; here converge the principal electric lines, and in it and the streets branching off from it are situated the principal shops and places of business.

The finest square is the Plaza Mayor, formerly the scene of bull-fights; it contains a gigantic equestrian statue of Philip III., its founder. On the west of the city are the new cathedral and the royal palace; the latter, commenced in 1738 to replace the ancient Alcazar, which had been burned down, was finished in 1764 at a cost of fifteen million dollars. Other fine buildings are the palace of justice, formerly a convent; the houses of parliament; Buena Vista Palace, now the ministry of war, and the new national bank.

Besides a flourishing university, founded by Cardinal Ximenes, and two high schools, Madrid contains numerous municipal schools. Madrid [566] is well provided with newspapers and public libraries, the chief being the National Library, with more than half a million volumes, and the library of the university.

The opera house is one of the finest in the world; all the theaters must by law be lighted by electricity. The bull ring, situated outside the gates on the east, is a solid structure seating fourteen thousand.

Iron founding and the manufacture of furniture, carriages, and fancy articles are carried on on a small scale. The manufacture of tobacco employs many persons, chiefly women. The publishing trade is important, and books are well printed and cheap. The old tapestry factory still turns out beautiful work, as do the potteries at Moncloa.

THE ESCURIAL

is thirty-two miles from Madrid. It is called by the Spaniards the eighth wonder of the world. Philip II. built it in 1685 to commemorate the taking of St. Quentin, and to accomplish a vow which he made to St. Lawrence. This vast building has fifteen principal entrances, and more than one thousand one hundred windows. It is entirely built of granite, and its appearance is monotonous and cold. It contains a church, the Capilla Mayor, filled with royal monuments, the sacristy, a vast vaulted hall with a marble altar ornamented with bronze, the choir, and the pantheon or vault, where the kings of Spain are buried. The pantheon is reached by a magnificent staircase of colored marbles. The urn containing the remains of Charles V. was opened in 1870, and the body was even then in perfect preservation. The library of books and the manuscript library attracts the attention of scholars. The main entrance to the palace is in the middle of the north façade. The Hall of Battles, is covered with frescos representing Spanish conquests; and the apartments in which Philip II. lived and died. The Pavilion of Charles IV., called the Casa del Principe, is a charming little museum of paintings, sculptures, and mosaics. The King’s Seat, where Philip II. came to sit when presiding over the work of the palace, is also to be seen.

History.—Spain was originally occupied by Iberian tribes (akin to the present Basque inhabitants of the north), who were partially overlaid by invading Celts. The Carthaginians established themselves in the south of Spain in the third century B. C. The Romans appeared in force in the next century, but it was not till after a fierce and prolonged resistance from Iberians and Celtiberians that, under Augustus, the Roman conquest was complete. Soon Spain, thoroughly Romanized, was contributing largely to Latin literature and Roman culture.

The Germanic invaders from the north, Suevi, Vandals, and Visigoths, crushed the Roman power in the fifth century A. D., and Spain became a province of the Visigothic kingdom (573 A. D.). Then followed the Moorish conquest, which was very rapid (714-732) and complete, except in the north and northwest. The several Christian kingdoms of Spain: Castile, Leon, Navarre, Aragon, etc., as well as Portugal—were formed by the gradual depression of the Moors; but Moorish Granada was not conquered till 1492, and Spain was not united under one rule till 1512.

Spain became a European state with the union of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469, and the New World was discovered for them. Under the Emperor Charles V., in the sixteenth century, Spain was the most important country in Europe; but the population was unequal to the drain upon it caused by constant warfare, emigration, and adverse economical and industrial conditions.

With Philip II., Charles’s son, the decline of Spain set in, though now for sixty years Portugal was under the Spanish crown. The Bourbon dynasty brought complication in the wars of Louis XIV., and little advantage from the recovery of Naples and Sicily. The nadir of Spanish history is in the time of Napoleon, when Spain, in spite of some national efforts, was nominally a kingdom, but really a mere province of the French empire.

In spite of the valiant patriotism shown in resisting the French, and the ultimate recovery of national independence through the overthrow of Napoleon, the history of Spain in the nineteenth century was in the main inglorious. In Cuba there had been trouble since 1895, the final outcome of which was the disastrous Spanish-American war, leading to the loss of the greater colonies. The twentieth century has seen gradual recovery, growing [567] toleration, a breach with the Vatican, revolutionary and repressive movements, and ambitions in northwest Africa.

In June, 1911, the situation in Morocco led to the dispatch of a Spanish force to Alcazar. But the indignation aroused in France at this action was quite overshadowed by the sensation caused when it became known that Germany had sent a warship to Agadir. Labor troubles in Spain broke out in September, 1911. Martial law was proclaimed throughout the country, and a royal decree suspended the constitutional guarantees, which were not re-established until October 22. In March, 1912, the ministry was reconstituted, but, in 1916, during the European war, again gave way over grave questions over neutrality and internal conditions.

SWEDEN

SWEDEN (Swedish Sverige), a kingdom of northern Europe, occupies the eastern side of the Scandinavian peninsula. From 1814 till the amicable but definitive separation in 1905, it was associated with Norway under one crown. Its greatest length, north to south, is close to 1000 miles, its greatest breadth 300; its area 170,970 square miles; and its coast line 1550 miles. Besides many skerry islands, Sweden owns Gothland and Œland.

Surface.—The country may be generally described as a broad plain sloping southeastward from the Kjölen Mountains to the Baltic. The only mountainous districts adjoin Norway; the peaks sink in altitude from seven thousand feet in the north to three thousand eight hundred feet at the southern end of the chain. Immediately south of this point a subsidiary chain strikes off to the southeast, and, threading the lake region of central Sweden, swells out beyond into a tableland with a mean elevation of eight hundred and fifty feet and maximum of twelve hundred and forty feet. Fully two-thirds of the entire surface lies lower than eight hundred feet, and one-third lower than three hundred feet, above sea level.

Sweden is separated popularly and geographically into three great divisions—Norrland, Svealand, and Gothland. Norrland, in the north, is a region of vast and lonely forests and rapid mountain streams, often forming fine cascades and ribbon-like lakes before they reach the Gulf of Bothnia.

The central division of Svealand, or Sweden proper, is a region of big lakes, and contains most of the mines. Lakes occupy nearly fourteen thousand square miles, or eight and two-tenths per cent of the total area; several of the largest, as Vener, Vetter, Hjelmar, Mälar, are connected with one another and the sea by rivers and canals. Lake Mälar contains some thirteen hundred islands, many beautifully wooded, with royal palaces or noblemen’s castles; and its shores are studded with prosperous towns, castles, palaces, and factories.

Gothland, the southern division, contains a much higher proportion of cultivated land, and its wide plains are all under agriculture.

Climate.—The climate of Sweden is continental in the north, along the Norwegian frontier, and on the southern plateau. The lakes in the colder districts of the north are ice bound for some two hundred and twenty days in the year; in the south only for about ninety days. The rainfall is greatest on the coast of the Cattegat.

Production and Industry.—The principal articles of cultivation are the various cereals—oats, rye, barley, wheat—and potatoes. The forests are very extensive, covering one-half of the surface of the country, and consisting of pine, birch, fir; these are of great importance, supplying timber, pitch, and tar, and also the chief fuel.

The mineral products are extremely rich: iron of excellent quality, that known as the Dannemora iron, being converted into the finest steel; gold and silver in small proportions; copper, lead, nickel, zinc, cobalt, alum, sulphur, porphyry, and marble. There is a railroad opening up the rich iron ore districts of Lapland, and mineral trains run from Gellivare and Kiruna to Lulea on the Gulf of Bothnia and to Narvik on the Atlantic. Considerable mines of coal are worked in Scania.

The chief articles of export are timber, butter, iron, steel, wood pulp, paper, matches, stone, iron and zinc ores, etc.

People.—The Swedes are a Germanic people, tall and strong, but with more variety of characteristics than the Norwegians. The Swedish language, allied closely to Norse and Danish, appears in very many dialects. It has had, especially since the sixteenth century, an extensive literature.

Almost the whole population is Protestant, adhering to the Lutheran Church, members of which alone are permitted to hold public offices. Education is well advanced in both countries, public instruction being gratuitous and compulsory. Sweden has the Universities of Upsala, which dates from 1477, and of Lund, founded in 1668, besides the many scientific and educational institutions of Stockholm.

Government.—The constitution of Sweden dates from 1809, but in 1866, when the separate meetings of the four estates—nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants—were done away, the legislative system was much modified. The executive power is vested in the king, acting under the advice of a Council of State; the legislative in the two Chambers of the Diet, both of which are elected by the people—the first for nine years from proprietors, the second for three years from a lower class. The administration of justice is entirely independent of the government.

Cities.—The capital, Stockholm, has a population (1913) of 382,085. In addition to the capital, there are fourteen towns with above 20,000 population, viz.: Göteborg, 178,030; Malmö, 95,821; Norrköping, 46,180; Gefle, 35,736; Helsingborg, 37,385; Örebro, 33,182.

Malmö, on the sound opposite Copenhagen, is the outlet of the corn granary of the southern plain; Norrköping, on an inlet of the Baltic, after Stockholm, is the busiest manufacturing town of Sweden, its mills being driven by the rapids of the Motala; Gefle lies north of Stockholm, and is second only to it as a seaport on the Baltic side of the country; and Karlskrona, on the south coast, is the naval arsenal and headquarters of the fleet of Sweden.

PANORAMA OF STOCKHOLM, CAPITAL OF SWEDEN

Within recent years a network of railways has been formed over southern Sweden and Norway, connecting the capital towns with the ports of Göteborg, Malmö, and many other points.

Stockholm (l pronounced), stands on several islands and the adjacent mainland, between a bay of the Baltic and Lake Mälar, in a situation that is accounted one of the most picturesque in Europe.

Its nucleus is an island in mid-channel called “the Town”; on it stand the imposing royal palace; the chief church (St. Nicholas), in which the kings are crowned; the House of the Nobles; the town house; the ministries of the kingdom; and the principal wharf, a magnificent granite quay, fronting east.

Immediately west of the central island lies the Knights’ Island (Riddarholm); it is almost entirely occupied with public buildings as the old Houses of Parliament; the old Franciscan church, in which all the later sovereigns of Sweden have been buried; the royal archives, and the chief law-courts.

North of these two islands lie the handsomely built districts of Norrmalm, separated from them by a narrow channel, in which is an islet with the new Houses of Parliament. In Norrmalm are the National Museum with valuable prehistoric collections, coins, paintings, sculptures; the principal theaters; the Academy of Fine Arts; the barracks; the Hop Garden, with the Royal Library, two hundred and fifty thousand volumes and eight thousand manuscripts, and with the statue of Linnæus; the Academy of Sciences; the Museum of Northern Antiquities; the Observatory, etc.

Ship Island (Skeppsholm), immediately east of “the Town” island, is the headquarters of the Swedish navy, and is connected with a smaller island on the southeast, that is crowned with a citadel. Beyond these again, and farther to the east, lies the beautiful island of the Zoological Gardens. Immediately south of “the Town” island is the extensive district of Södermalm, the houses of which climb up the steep slopes that rise from the water’s edge. Handsome bridges connect the central islands with the northern and southern districts; quick little steamboats go to the beautiful islands in Lake Mälar on the west, and eastward toward the Baltic Sea, forty miles distant.

Sugar, tobacco, silks and ribbons, candles, linen, cotton, and leather are produced, and there are large iron foundries and machine shops. Though the water approaches are frozen up during winter, Stockholm exports iron and steel, oats and tar.

Stockholm was founded by Birger Jarl in 1255, and grew to be the capital only in modern times.

History.—Sweden was originally occupied by Lapps and Finns, but probably (1500 B. C.) Teutonic tribes drove them into the forests of the north, and at the dawn of history we find Svealand occupied by Swedes (Svea) and Gothland by the Goths.

Gothland was christianized and also conquered by the Danes in the ninth century, while Svealand remained fanatically heathen till the time of St. Eric (twelfth century), who conquered Finland, henceforth a Swedish possession. For a century Goths and Swedes had different kings, but gradually melted into one people toward the end of the thirteenth century.

Now arose bitter feuds between king, nobility, peasants, and universal turbulence prevailed; agriculture, industry, literature and culture progressed not at all or hardly existed. Even after the union of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark under one monarch (1397), Sweden was torn by conflicts which lasted down to the expulsion of Danish oppressors, and the restoration of Swedish autonomy by the national rising under Gustavus Vasa (1524), the ablest prince who had yet ruled the Swedes. Under him the reformation was heartily [569] accepted. Gustavus Adolphus and the Swedes were its bulwark, not merely at home but in Germany in the Thirty Years’ war; and by the acquirement of Bremen, Verden, and Pomerania, Sweden became (1648) a member of the empire.

GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS PLACE AND THE ROYAL THEATER, STOCKHOLM

NEW UNIVERSITY, UPSALA, SWEDEN

Upsala is best reached by boat from Stockholm. Here the celebrated university, founded 1477, by Jacob Ulfson, now magnificently housed, stands in the Drottninggatan. Library, the largest in Sweden, with three hundred thousand volumes, including the Codex Argenteus, or Gothic Gospel of Bishop Ulphilas (318-388), written in silver letters on purple vellum, also the Atlantica of Rudbeck, and the sacred book of the Druses, with the Edda Manuscript. An Observatory is attached to the University. The Botanical Garden has many rare plants and a bust of Linnæus (Linné), who was professor and physician here, living at Hammarby.

Under Charles XII. and his successor, the enmity of Denmark, Poland, and Russia wrested her new conquests from Sweden, and gave Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermanland, and Karelia (which had long been Swedish) to Russia; thus reducing Sweden from the rank of a first-rate European power. After a bloody struggle Sweden had to cede Finland (1809) to Russia. Norway was united by a personal union (i. e., by the monarch) with Sweden in 1810; and in 1818 the French general Bernadotte was elected king (as Charles XIV.).

Norway’s demand for a larger measure of home rule led in 1905 to a complete separation.

SWITZERLAND

SWITZERLAND (Ger. Schweiz; Fr. Suisse), is a confederation of twenty-two cantons, lying practically in the very center of Europe, between France, Germany, Austria, and Italy. No part of it is within one hundred miles of the sea. It is also a very small country (sixteen thousand square miles), not much larger than the half of Scotland. The greatest length from east to west is two hundred and sixteen miles, the width from north to south being one hundred and thirty-seven miles. The population in 1910 was 3,741,971.

Surface.—The southern boundary lies for the most part along the highest crests of the Alps, which descend by the Italian valleys to the plain of Lombardy; the summits of the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa rise on the boundary line, which is crossed by the Great St. Bernard, Simplon, and Splügen passes. North of this mass of heights the deep valleys of the Upper Rhone flowing west to the Lake of Geneva, and of the Upper Rhine flowing northeast to that of Constance, mark a deep trench all across the country. In the heart of the country rises the mass of the Bernese Alps or Oberland, the Alps of Uri and Glarus, with the summits of the Finsteraarhorn and Jungfrau. Still farther north the country descends gradually by less elevated mountains and hills to the undulating lowland of Switzerland (still one thousand five hundred feet above the sea), which extends in a curve from the Lake of Constance on the northeast along the Valley of the Aar, by the Lakes of Biel (Bienne) and Neuchâtel to that of Geneva. Beyond this the long parallel ranges of the Jura close in the country on the northwestern frontier.

More than half of the whole country is covered by rocks, glaciers, forest, and mountain pasture, and cannot be permanently inhabited.

Rivers and Lakes.—All the northern part of the country belongs to the basin of the Rhine flowing to the North Sea. That river, having purified its waters in its passage through the Boden-See or Lake of Constance (partly in Switzerland), is joined by the Aar, which rises near the Grimsel, and flows through the lakes of Brienz and Thun. To this basin also belong the lakes of Zürich and Zug, Luzerne, Neuchâtel, and Biel or Bienne. The southwestern district drains by the Rhône to the Mediterranean, through the Lake of Geneva or Leman, which is partly in Switzerland, partly in France.

The smaller part of the southern boundary that laps over the Italian valleys of the Alps includes the head of Lake Maggiore, in Switzerland, and the upper Ticino, which flows through it to the plain of Lombardy and the Adriatic. In the east the boundary embraces only one valley, which drains to the Danube, the Engadine, through which the Upper Inn flows northeastward.

From the elevation at which they rise, and their rapids, the rivers of Switzerland are of no value in navigation. The Rhine only begins to be freely navigable at Basel, where it leaves the country. The larger lakes, however, have little steamers plying from shore to shore; that of Geneva, forty-seven miles long, has a considerable traffic.

Climate and Scenery.—The climate naturally varies with the elevation above the sea level, from that of the perennial snows at an elevation of about nine thousand feet, downward through the pastoral alpine region and the tall pine forests, to the lower lands in which the chestnut flourishes, and where orchard fruits, the vine, mulberry, and wheat can be grown. There is a variation of about thirty-four and one-half degrees in the mean temperature—between fifty-four and one-half degrees Fahrenheit at Bellinzona, and twenty degrees on the Theodule Pass.

Switzerland has been called the playground of Europe, and is visited by large numbers of tourists from all parts of the world, attracted by its magnificent mountain and lake scenery.

The amount of money brought annually by tourists is estimated at twenty million dollars.

STATUE OF TELL, ALTDORF, SWITZERLAND

Altdorf, near the southern end of Lake Luzerne, and capital of the canton of of Uri, is in the mountain-walled valley, and is the reputed scene of Tell’s shooting the apple. The side is marked by a fountain. The colossal statue of Tell is near by. His birthplace, near Bürglen, is occupied by a frescoed chapel.

Geneva and Lausanne, on the beautiful lake of Geneva, Interlaken (between the lakes of Thun and Brienz), Luzerne and the Rigi, Schaffhausen at the Rhine fall, Zermatt beneath Monte Rosa, Lugano in the heart of the Italian lake district, are notable tourist stations; St. Moritz in the Engadine, and Leuk (Louèche) in the Rhone Valley, Pfäffers in that of the Upper Rhine, are famous for their baths. Switzerland as a whole—with its mountains, lakes, glaciers, waterfalls, valleys and cities—has been described by an American poet as a “cluster of delights and grandeurs.”

Production and Industry.—The forests, which cover about a sixth of the surface, are of immense value to the country, where most of the houses are built of wood. The mountain pastures give the characteristic employments of the people of the Alps and Jura, as herdsmen and shepherds, tending their cattle and making cheese in the mountain châlets during summer.

Agriculture is followed chiefly in the valleys, where wheat, oats, maize, barley, flax, hemp, and tobacco are produced.

The textile industries are the most important, the chief centers being Zürich, Basel, Glarus, and St. Gall. The chief are silk, cotton, and linen fabrics, besides raw silk. Next comes the clock and watchmaking industry, established at Geneva in 1587, which spread to the cantons of Neuchâtel, Berne and Vaud.

Wood carving was introduced in the Oberland about 1820. Other manufactures are chemicals, chocolate, and condensed milk.

Salt, obtained on the banks of the Rhine, is the only valuable mineral of the country.

People.—Three-fourths of the population of Switzerland, occupying all the center and north of the country, are Germanic; the remaining fourth belongs to three branches of the Romanic family—the French in the west, the Italian in the south, and the Rhæto-Romanic in the southeast. A little more than half of the population is Protestant, the remainder, chiefly in the mountain region, Roman Catholic.

Education is widely diffused, especially in the Protestant districts of the northeast, where the law of compulsory education is rigidly enforced. There are universities at Basel, Berne, Zurich, Geneva, and Lausanne.

Government.—At the close of the political storms which raged in Europe from 1789 till 1815, the affairs of Switzerland were re-arranged by the Congress of Vienna, which provided for the perpetual neutrality and independence of Switzerland in its twenty-two cantons. Since 1848 the independent states or cantons of Switzerland have become a united confederacy (Bundes Staat), the supreme legislative and executive authority of which is vested in a parliament of two chambers, sitting at Berne—the Stände Rath or States Council, and the National Rath, the first composed of two members for each canton, the second of representatives of the people according to numbers. The cantons are still, however, in a great measure, independent democracies, each making its own laws and managing its local affairs.

Referendum and Initiative.—These are two political institutions peculiar to Switzerland, the furthest developments of democracy yet attained.

The referendum, which has now spread throughout the whole Confederation, and by means of which all legislative acts passed in the Federal or Cantonal Assemblies may be referred to the people en masse, was fully developed in 1874, and it has been put in operation on an average once a year. The decisions have generally shown a conservative rather than a radical tendency on the part of the people.

Initiative is the exercise of the right granted to voters to initiate proposals for the enactment of new laws or for the alteration or abolition of the old ones.

Cities.—The capital of the Swiss Confederation is Berne, population (1910) 85,650. In 1910 there were twelve communes with populations exceeding 20,000: Zürich, 190,733; Bâle, 132,280; Geneva, 123,160; Berne, 85,650; Lausanne, 63,296; St. Gall, 37,657; Chaux-de-Fonds, 37,626; and Luzerne, 39,152.

THE BERNE CATHEDRAL

was built in 1421-1573, and restored in 1850, with a richly sculptured portal, some good stained glass of the fifteenth century, and a famous organ. From the Terrace in the rear of the Cathedral, the snowy peaks of the Bernese Alps are seen in a glorious panorama.

Berne, since 1849 the capital of Switzerland, sixty-eight miles by rail southwest of Basel, is situated on a lofty sandstone promontory formed by the winding Aar, which surrounds it on three sides. It is one of the best and most regularly built towns in Europe, as it is the finest in Switzerland. The houses are massive structures of freestone, resting upon shop-lined arcades. Rills of water flow through the streets. The view of the Alpine peaks from the city is magnificent.

The principal public buildings are a Gothic cathedral, the magnificent Federal Council Hall, the mint, the hospital, and the university. Berne has an interesting museum, and a valuable public library of fifty thousand volumes.

It was founded in 1191, was made a free imperial city in 1218, under Frederick II.; and between 1288 and 1339 successfully resisted the attacks of Rudolf of Hapsburg, Albert, his son, and Louis of Bavaria. The “Disputation of Berne” between Catholics and Reformers in 1528 prepared the way for the acceptance of the reformed doctrine.

On account of the traditionary derivation of its name (Swabian bern, “a bear”), bears are maintained in a public bear-pit.

History.—The original inhabitants of Switzerland were the Celtic Helvetii, and the Rhætii of doubtful affinity. Both were conquered by Julius Cæsar and the generals of Augustus, and Romanized. Overrun by the Burgundians in the west, and their Germanic kinsmen the Alemannians in the east, Helvetia became subject to the Frankish kings and were christianized in the seventh century.

Most of the country was subsequently part of the Holy Roman Empire; and in 1273 a Swiss noble, Rudolf of Hapsburg in Aargau, became German emperor. Soon after his death (in 1291) the inhabitants of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden formed a league to defend their common interests, and in 1315 crushed an Austrian army at Morgarten. In 1332 Luzerne joined the alliance, and in 1353, Berne, Zürich, Glarus, and Zug. The Austrians were again routed in Sempach in 1386, and in 1388 at Näfels.

The Swiss next had a fierce but triumphant struggle with Charles the Bold of Burgundy, whom they routed at Grandson and Morat in 1476, and finally at Nancy (where Charles was slain) in 1477.

When the Reformation began there were thirteen cantons, and the cantons took opposite sides from the beginning, not without serious turmoil and bloodshed. The treaty of Westphalia in 1648 recognized Switzerland as an independent state. Some of the cantons were strictly aristocratic and some highly democratic, and there was much discontent long before the French Revolution, when, in 1798, between civil strife and French armies, the old republic (or rather alliance) came to an end.

The Helvetic Republic of nineteen cantons, under French auspices, endured till 1805; then a new republican constitution was adopted, the Federal Pact of twenty-two cantons. On Napoleon’s downfall, Valais, Neuchâtel, and Geneva, which had been incorporated with France, were restored, and Swiss neutrality and inviolability were recognized by the treaty of Vienna in 1815. Religious troubles led to a Catholic league in 1844, which was suppressed by the Federal forces in 1847. The present constitution was adopted in 1848, but revised in 1874. In 1891 a demand for popular initiative for measures was carried. In 1908 Switzerland entered into an international convention for compulsory arbitration at the court of the Hague.

BERNE CLOCK TOWER,

famous for its Bear Chimes—figures which perform every time the clock strikes.

TURKEY, or Ottoman Empire

TURKEY, or Ottoman Empire, comprises the wide but heterogeneous territories really or nominally subject to the Osmânlî Sultan, in Europe, Asia, and Africa. These territories, which once extended from the Danube to the cataracts of the Nile, and from the Euphrates to the borders of Morocco, have been greatly reduced in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Asiatic Turkey is now the true center of gravity of the empire; it includes Anatolia (the great plateau of Asia Minor), the lowlands of Mesopotamia, the highlands of Kurdistan and Armenia, and the island of Samos. The total area of the empire has been estimated as follows:

Area in Square Miles
Turkey in Europe12,000
Turkey in Asia:
Anatolia193,800
Armenia and Kurdistan72,600
Mesopotamia and Syria244,460
Turkish Arabia172,000
Total694,860
Estimated Population
Turkey in Europe2,755,000
Turkey in Asia:
Anatolia9,175,000
Armenia and Kurdistan2,500,000
Mesopotamia and Syria4,650,000
Turkish Arabia1,100,000
Total20,150,000

Of the above totals only 700,000 square miles (with a population of 21,000,000) are directly under Turkish government.

European Turkey consists of the provinces of Adrianople, Constantinople and Chatalja, and is separated from Asia by the Bosphorus at Constantinople and by the Dardanelles (Hellespont), the only political neighbor being Bulgaria, on the northwest.

PANORAMA OF THE BOSPHORUS AT THE NARROWEST PART

The Bosphorus, the straight connecting the Sea of Azov with the Black Sea, is so-called after Io, who swam over it in the shape of a heifer. On the western shore is the city of Constantinople. The Bosphorus at this point is about five hundred and fifty yards wide.

Physical Features.—Turkey in Europe is a mountainous country and the chief physical features as it is now limited is the strait of Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. The Bosphorus, which guards the approach to the Black Sea from the Sea of Marmora, is at the same time the focus of all maritime trade between the Mediterranean and Russia, etc., as well as of the overland routes from Europe into Asia Minor. It has fitly been likened to a tortuous river valley over whose wooded banks are scattered forts and towers, cities and villages, castles and parks. The southern gate of the Sea of Marmora is the Dardanelles, which gives an opening into the Ægean.

Turkey in Asia is still more mountainous. The two almost parallel ranges, Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which are the basis of its mountain system, cover almost the whole of the peninsula of Asia Minor or Anatolia with their ramifications and offshoots, forming the surface into elevated plateaus, deep valleys, and enclosed plains. From the Taurus chain the Lebanon range proceeds southwards parallel to the coast of Syria, and, diminishing in elevation in Palestine, terminates on the Red Sea coast at Sinai.

The Euphrates, Tigris, Orontes, and Kizil-Ermak are the chief rivers. (See Asia Minor.)

Climate.—The climate of Turkey in Asia is as varied as the physical features. The great plateau on the north has a distinctly continental climate, rigorous severe winters with intense scorching heat in summer; in the eastern part of the plateau region the mountains are covered with snow for two-thirds of the year, and some of the principal ranges are capped with perpetual snow; here the peasants build their dwellings underground to escape the severity of the seasons. Towards the west the winters are not quite so severe, but the variations of temperature are excessive.

Products and Industry.—The soil of European Turkey is for the most part very fertile, and the cultivated products include most of those usual in central and southern Europe—maize, rice, rye, barley, millet, besides tobacco madder, and cotton. The mineral products are iron in abundance, argentiferous lead ore, copper, sulphur, salt, alum, and a little gold; some deposits of coal have been found, but none are worked. Sheep-breeding is largely carried on.

In Asiatic Turkey the mineral wealth is great; coal and iron are found together in considerable quantities; rich mines of copper exist in the mountains on the south of the Black Sea, and in the Taurus near Diarbekir lead and silver are found at intervals along a line connecting Angora, Sivas, and Trebizond in the north, and the eastern Taurus in the south; green, black, and white marble, and the finest quality of granite, are to be had in many parts of the mountain section.

With a fertile arable soil and a suitable climate, nearly every agricultural product flourishes. Oats, barley, and wheat are produced in great abundance. Almost all kinds of garden produce and orchard fruits abound, grapes and oranges are to be had all round the Mediterranean coast, as well as the choicest tobacco, opium, valonia and madder.

The mulberry is everywhere cultivated for feeding the silkworms, and cotton is grown in most of the western valleys. Vast groves of boxwood and other valuable trees clothe the seaward slopes of the hills. Dates are produced for export in the Babylonian plain, where wheat is indigenous. Petroleum and bitumen springs are found in the Euphrates valley.

Angora is famous for its flocks of goats, which produce the mohair of commerce, and enormous quantities of wool come from the countless flocks of sheep tended by the wandering Bedouin and Kurd shepherds.

There are at present no manufactures worth mention. The sponge fisheries of the Mediterranean are a source of great wealth.

Commerce.—The exports include tobacco, cereals, fruits, silk, opium, mohair, cotton, coffee, skins, wool, oil-seeds, valonia, carpets, etc., and are largely derived from the Asiatic provinces. Recently large quantities of wine and of raisins for the manufacture of wine have been exported. Since the establishment of the Anatolian railway by German enterprise the export of cereals, chiefly malting barley, has largely increased.

People.—The population consists of a singular mixture of races. Turks, Greeks, Slavs, and Albanians are largely represented, besides Armenians, Kurds, Arabs, Tartars, Jews, Circassians, and Frank residents. (See [Book of Races].)

The established religion is Islam or Mohammedanism, but most other creeds are recognized and tolerated. The Protestant religion was for the first time officially recognized in 1845.

Education in all departments has of late been notably improved and has largely contributed to the complete overthrow of the antiquated and despotic system of government.

Government.—Until 1908 the government of Turkey was a pure despotism. An amazing change was swiftly and peacefully carried through in the autumn of that year. In connection with the troubles in Macedonia between Christians and Moslems, Greeks and Bulgarians, a Turkish military revolt took place, which, under the guidance of the “Young-Turkish” party (mostly educated abroad), became a great national movement. The sultan, overawed, had to acquiesce; parliamentary government was planned and carried out; equality before the law proclaimed to all races and religions of the empire; and a large measure of local self-government promised not merely to Turks but to Greeks, Bulgarians, Albanians, Armenians, Syrians, Kurds and Arabs.

The enormous difficulties of the crisis were complicated by Bulgaria proclaiming its independence, and Austria-Hungary annexing the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. But government by a national assembly has taken root in Turkey.

The term “Sublime Porte,” sometimes given to the Turkish government, is derived from the name of the chief gate of Constantinople.

Cities.—Of the towns by far the most populous is the capital, Constantinople (1,200,000), while after it come Adrianople (83,000), which by reason of its central position in the Maritza valley, commands an extensive inland commerce, Midia, and Gallipoli, the chief port on the Dardanelles.

The principal towns of Asiatic Turkey are Smyrna, 260,000; Bagdad, 150,000; Damascus, 150,000; Aleppo, 125,000; Beyrout, 120,000; Scutari in Anatolia, 80,000, and Broussa, 80,000.

Constantinople was founded in 330 A. D. by Constantine the Great, from whom it derives its name, on a site partly occupied by the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium. The Turks call it Istambol or Stambol.

The city stands on a hilly promontory of triangular shape, having the Sea of Marmora and the Bosphorus on the south and east, and on the north the Golden Horn, an arm of the Bosphorus. It is thus surrounded by water on all sides but the west, where a strong wall shuts the city off, from the mainland. Like Rome, the city is built on seven hills, six of them being separated portions of one long ridge.

As in the case of all great cities, Constantinople has spread far beyond its original bounds, and may be said to include towns originally quite separate from itself.

Constantinople is excellently situated, more advantageously, perhaps, than any European city but Naples.

From the outside its appearance is most picturesque and imposing. At the taking of the city in the fifteenth century most of the churches were destroyed, and mosques were erected in the most prominent situations. Cupolas and minarets, with graceful curves and soaring spires, combine with lofty cypresses to give the city an air of unique grace, and to invest it with the mysterious glamour of the oriental world.

Within, however, the appearance is not so pleasing. The streets form a labyrinth of dirty, crooked, and ill-paved alleys, while most of the houses are low and are built of wood or rough stone. During the last half century the aspect of things has become much more European. The streets, under western influence, have been widened and improved, lighting at night is common, and a European style of building has been introduced, even for the sultan’s palace. Cabs and electric cars are to be seen in most parts, while the old camel service has entirely disappeared. The dress of the people has changed in the same direction. The streets are generally dull in appearance, almost all animation being concentrated in the bazaars.

Constantinople consists of two distinct parts, besides more distant suburbs—Constantinople proper or Stambol, and what may be termed Christian Constantinople because it is there that the Christian colonies chiefly congregate. The two are separated by the Golden Horn, a safe harbor, capable of accommodating twelve hundred vessels, and so deep that the largest ironclads of the Turkish navy find enough water for their draught quite close to the shore.

Stambol or Turkish Constantinople lies on the south side of the Golden Horn, and Christian Constantinople lies on the north side; the two are connected by bridges. Stambol is on the site of Byzantium, and the old walls run a circuit of fourteen miles from the grim but now ruined and disused castle of the Seven Towers—where many sultans met their deaths at the hands of their mutinous soldiery, and where foreign ambassadors were imprisoned upon declaration of war—to the Golden Horn, then along its south shore to Seraglio Point, and so back to the Seven Towers, close along the margin of the Propontis. Here are nearly all the monuments and antiquities worth seeing in Constantinople.

First, next the Seraglio, stands Agia Sophia, Saint Sophia, the church dedicated by Constantine to “Eternal Wisdom,” and rebuilt with added splendor by Theodosius and by Justinian, and now converted into a cathedral mosque. Outside it is not worth a second glance, but within, the airy grace of its stupendous dome, and the beauty of its marbles and mosaics fascinate and amaze the vision.

PANORAMA OF CONSTANTINOPLE

As the steamer runs up the Bosphorus, the white buildings and glittering minarets of Constantinople come into view; with the mosque of Santa Sophia, Galata Tower and Pera, the Sultan’s Palaces at Beshiktash, with Scutari Suburb on the right, and then, rounding Seraglio Point, it glides at half speed into the Golden Horn, or harbor of Constantinople. At this moment, if the weather be fine and clear, a striking panorama opens to the eye of the voyager. The Golden Horn divides the city into two sections; Stamboul to the left, and Galata and Pera to the right. It is a bay, or amphitheater, surrounded by hills which are covered with buildings, domes, minarets, and palaces, embosomed by cypress groves, with hundreds of vessels and caiques skimming in all directions.

Next, but not less beautiful, is the Suleymaniya, the mosque which the Great Suleyman and his architect Sinan erected on the model of St. Sophia, but with Saracenic ornament and a loftier though not quite so expansive dome. Some of the monolithic columns are remarkable for their size and beauty, and the general effect is even more imposing than that of St. Sophia.

Scarcely less stately is the Mosque of Sultan Ahmed I. in the Hippodrome; distinguished without by its six minarets (instead of the usual four), and within by the four gigantic columns which support the dome. Here the official celebrations and formal processions take place at the great festivals.

The mosque of the conqueror, Mohammed II., is also notable, though it has been greatly altered in restoration.

There are altogether some eight hundred mosques in Constantinople, and numerous chapels; but very few of them present features of special interest, except sometimes in the beauty of their wall tiles, of the Rhodian style, for the manufacture of which the suburb of Eyyûb was famous.

The remains of the Greek churches are more interesting, and the Fanar, or Greek quarter of Stambol, recall the memories of many distinguished Fanariote statesmen; but among the relics of ancient Constantinople none is more striking than the Hippodrome or “Horse Manège”, originally a circus surrounded by marble seats, long since removed, but still showing remains of antiquity, such as the famous column of the Three Serpents which once stood at the Temple of Delphi, and supported a gold tripod made out of the spoils taken by the Greeks at the battle of Platæa, but was removed to his new capital by Constantine.

Christian Constantinople, on the north side of the Golden Horn, comprises Galata, Pera, and Tophâna. Galata is pre-eminently the merchant quarter, founded by a colony of Genoese merchants in 1216. The Tower of Galata, a Genoese erection, serves the same purpose as the Seraskier’s Tower on the opposite side in giving alarms of fires. A tunnelled railway drags passengers up the steep ascent to Pera.

Pera is the aristocratic quarter; here are all the embassies and consulates. The steep and badly paved Grande Rue is lined with fair if expensive shops, and has an opera house, many cafés and restaurants, besides most of the principal hotels. Turks preponderate at Tophâna, which is so named from its cannon foundry.

The magnificent palace of Dolmabagché is on the brink of the Bosphorus. Other suburbs are Kâsim Pasha, on the Golden Horn, the seat of the admiralty; Hasköi, and the picturesque village of Eyyûb.

Along the European shore of the Bosphorus are the summer resorts of Therapia and Biyukderé.

The Asiatic shore is also lined with settlements from Scutari to Candili. The new palace of Yildiz Köshki stands at the top of the hill of Beshiktâsh, beyond Pera.

The commerce of Constantinople is increasing rapidly, though most of it is in the hands of foreigners, especially of Greek and Armenian merchants. Exports are chiefly cereals, carpets, silk, wool, hides, and all kinds of refuse and waste materials such as horns, hoofs, skins, bones, old iron, etc. Several hundreds of tons of the sweetmeat known as “Turkish delight” are also sent yearly to countries of Europe and America.

The manufactures have all taken their rise during the last twenty years or so, and even now only that of cloth making has made much headway.

ENTRANCE TO DOLMA-BAGTCHE PALACE

This palace, on the shore of the Bosphorus, was built and inhabited by Abdul-Medjid (1839-1861), is beautifully decorated in the interior and has a splendid throne room.

History.—The Osmanlis or Ottoman Turks sprang from a small clan of the Oghuz, who assisted the Seljûk sultan of Iconium, early in the thirteenth century, to resist the Mongol avalanche.

In the fourteenth century, the Turks under Osmân or Othmân conquered the Seljûk kingdom, and became known as Osmânlis or Ottomans. By 1336 they pushed their way to the Hellespont; under Murâd I. (Amurath) they occupied Adrianople and Philippopolis, received homage from the kings of Servia and Bulgaria, and practically held all the Balkan peninsula except Constantinople, which, after much fighting, fell before Mohammed II. in 1453. In the same century they conquered Albania, Greece, and the Crimea; and in the sixteenth century Syria, Egypt, Tunis, Hungary, and South Russia, and had wars with the Russians, Persians, and Venetians.

Their star began to decline in the seventeenth century; in 1682 they were driven back from Vienna, and lost Hungary, Transylvania, and Podolia. In the eighteenth century the Russians were their most successful enemies, wresting from them the territories from the Dniester to the Caspian. Greece attained independence in 1828, though Egypt failed to throw off its allegiance. The Crimean war (1854-1857) was fought in aid of the Turks against the Russians.

The next great crisis was the Russian war of 1877-1878. The worst Armenian massacres were in 1895-1896. Turkey held her own against Greece in 1897.

Abdul Hamid was deposed and constitutional government nominally established in 1908. But unrest and intrigue still prevent settled conditions.

Until the disastrous war of 1912-1913 with the States of the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Greece, Servia, and Montenegro) the European dominions of Turkey extended westwards to the Adriatic and northwards to Bosnia-Herzegovina (Austria). Under the Treaty of London in 1913 the northwest portion of Turkey was a line drawn from Enos, in the Ægean, to Midia, in the Black Sea, thus excluding Adrianople, which had capitulated to the Bulgarians after a prolonged siege.

During the second Balkan war (Bulgaria against the other members of the Balkan States) Turkey took advantage of the military difficulties of Bulgaria and reoccupied Adrianople, thus recovering a considerable portion of the province of that name. In 1911-1912 Turkey lost the remaining portion of her African possessions through the occupation by Italy of Tripoli and Cyrenaica, which were ceded under the Treaty of Ouchy(1912).

Turkey joined forces with the Austro-Germans in November, 1914, and attacked Russia and invaded Egyptian territory. Far more important than any of the Turkish operations, however, was the attempt of England and France, in 1915, to force the passage of the Dardanelles, so as to take much needed supplies of arms and ammunition to Russia and in turn enable her to export the enormous stocks of wheat which had piled up at her Black Sea ports.

EGYPTIAN OBELISK, CONSTANTINOPLE

This Obelisk from Thebes, of rose colored granite, sixty feet high, was transported hither by Theodosius the Great, A. D. 390-395, and shows traces of bas-reliefs of that date, and Egyptian hieroglyphs thirty centuries old.

A combined English and French fleet, therefore, attempted to force the passage of the Dardanelles, battering at the Turkish forts from February 21 to March 18, when they attempted to force the Narrows, [577] but were repulsed, with the loss of the British battleships Irresistible and Ocean, and the French battleships Bouvet and Gaulois, in addition to serious injury to a number of other warships engaged.

YILDIZ PALACE AND THE BEAUTIFUL HAMIDIEH MOSQUE,

in the Beshiktash suburb, some distance north of Galata. The present Sultan resides in the Palace of Yildiz.

A joint land and sea expedition was subsequently sent to accomplish what the fleets had failed to achieve.

The most desperate fighting continued there from the beginning of May. The allies employed British and French regulars—the famous Foreign Legion of France, British colonials from Australia and New Zealand, and troops from Egypt, the Soudan and North Africa—but they failed to capture the summits of the hills that command the Narrows and the great Turkish forts.

The land forces had the constant support of British and French fleets, which engaged the defenses at close range.

On May 11 the British battleship Goliath was sunk, and two weeks later a German submarine made its way through the straits of Gibraltar, succeeded in torpedoing the British battleship Triumph and the Majestic and Agamemnon.

On January 9, 1916, the British and French forces entirely withdrew from the Gallipoli Peninsula, and the attempt to force the Dardanelles was abandoned.

Internal Communications.—The railways of Turkey have made great strides in recent years. Constantinople is now in direct communication with Salonica and Monastir by means of a coastal line, and with Sophia, Nisch, and Belgrade, by means of a line passing up the Maritza Valley, through Adrianople and Philipopolis, and thence over a pass between the Balkans and Rhodope Mountains. Salonica is further united with Uskub and Mitrevitza.

The postal and telegraphic services are a long way behind those of other European countries, and foreign nations still find it necessary to maintain their own post-offices in the large towns and ports.

Bagdad Railroad.—The most important step in the industrial progress of Turkey in modern times is the concession for the construction of the Bagdad Railroad, which, when completed, will connect the Mediterranean with the Persian Gulf.

By a provisional convention, preference was given to a German company in 1903. England had a particular interest in the proposed scheme, as the line suggested would provide a short route to India; accordingly, in 1903, the British government objected to the railway being placed under German control, and discussion followed with a view to putting the line under international control. By the agreement of 1903 it was decided the German group should control forty per cent of the capital, the French, through the Imperial Ottoman Bank, thirty per cent, the Austrian, Italian, Swiss, and Turkish twenty per cent, and the Anatolian Railway ten per cent. In 1904, one hundred and twenty-four miles of the line were completed, from Konieh, through Eregli, to Bugurlu. In 1908 sanction was given to extend the line eastwards from Bugurlu across the Taurus to Adana.

The total length of the line will be one thousand five hundred and fifty miles and will run through Aintab and Berejik to Mosul, thence along the right bank of the Tigris to Bagdad.

THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA

Since the beginning of the sixteenth century America has been the general name for the two continents and adjacent islands, forming the main body of land found in the western hemisphere.

Position and Extent.—North America forms the northern section of the “New World” discovered by Columbus. It is separated from Europe by a sea nine hundred and thirty miles broad, from Asia by Bering Strait sixty miles across, and extends from the Arctic Ocean nearly to the equator.

The main mass is triangular in shape, and its outline varied by large peninsulas, broad gulfs and numerous inlets. Development of coast-line, twenty-eight thousand one hundred and thirty miles. Length, four thousand five hundred miles; breadth, three thousand one hundred miles. The area of the continental mainland is estimated at seven million one hundred and forty-six thousand six hundred and forty-one square miles; the entire area, including Greenland, the Arctic Archipelago, the West Indies, Newfoundland, and other islands, at over nine million square miles.

Islands.—It is customary to regard Greenland as a part of America, while the adjacent island of Iceland, though partially in the western hemisphere, is usually associated with Europe. The other principal American islands in the Atlantic are Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Anticosti, Prince Edward Island, Long Island, the Bermudas, the Antilles or West Indies, Joannes, Staten Island and South Georgia.

In the Pacific are the Aleutian Islands, Kadiak, the Alexander and Queen Charlotte groups, Vancouver and other British-Columbian Islands, the Santa Barbara group, Bevilla-Gigedo, the Pearl Islands, and others in the Gulf of Panama, the Galápagos, Juan Fernandez and the associated islets, Chiloe and the Chonos Archipelago. In the Arctic Ocean there are many large but unimportant islands. (See [Map of Comparative Size of Islands] and [Table of Areas].)

Coast-line.—The coast-line of North America on the west is almost everywhere high and rocky. To the south of Puget Sound good harbors are rare, but British Columbia and Alaska have great numbers of good seaports, the coast-line being, in many places, deeply cut with high-walled fjords, or “canals,” and elsewhere sheltered by ranges of high and well-wooded islands. The Atlantic coast, north of New York Bay, is generally rocky and well sheltered with islands, and has abundance of good natural harbors; but south of the parallel of New York the coast of the mainland is almost everywhere low and sandy. Many of the best ports are formed by river-mouths, and have sandbars across their entrances. Nowhere else in the world is there any such extent of low and sandy coast as on the Atlantic and Gulf seaboards of the United States.

Surface.—The western mountain-system of North America comprises a very great number of minor ranges, mostly having a north and south direction. The main chain (Sierra Madre) cannot be said to preserve an unmistakable identity throughout. The Coast Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the Cascade Mountains are the most noted of the western parallel ranges; they all lie on the Pacific slope, and contain some of the highest of North American peaks. The elevated plateau called the Great Basin (chiefly in Utah and Nevada), contains the Great Salt Lake and several smaller bodies of strongly saline water, evidently the remains of a much larger lake which once sent its waters to the sea. The eastern or great Appalachian mountain-system has a general direction nearly parallel with the Atlantic coast-line.

North of the St. Lawrence River is seen the vast and complicated Laurentian mountain-system, which extends from the Atlantic westward to near Lake Superior.

The highest summits are Mt. McKinley, in the north; Mt. Harvard, in the Rocky mountains; Mt. Whitney, in the Sierra Nevadas; and Mt. Popocatepetl or Peak of Orizaba, in Mexico. (See [Tables of Mountain Peaks].)

Rivers and Lakes.—In the Rocky Mountain region of Canada, the great rivers, Yukon, Fraser, Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Mackenzie, take their rise. Between these mountains and Hudson Bay, a girdle of vast lakes, or inland seas (Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Deer Lake, Winnipeg, and others), form a regular succession running from the Arctic Circle to Lake Superior, the first of a wonderful chain of great sea-like expansions of the Upper St. Lawrence (the others being Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario). North of the St. Lawrence system almost the whole country is thickly studded with lakes, which, with their connecting streams, form a network of important waterways traversable by canoes and boats.

The Atlantic slope of the United States is well supplied with water, and many of its streams afford extensive navigation. The Hudson is noted for its fine scenery; the Potomac is one of the noblest of American rivers; and important streams flowing to the Atlantic are the St. John, the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Merrimac, the Connecticut, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the James, and the St. John’s, nearly all navigable in their lower courses.

The chief rivers flowing to the Gulf of Mexico are the Appalachicola, the Mobile, the Pearl, the great Mississippi, the Sabine, the Trinity, the Brazos, the Colorado of Texas and the Rio Grande.

Of the many large Alaskan rivers the principal are the Yukon and the Kuskoquim. The Fraser is a swift and strong river; the great river Columbia is noted alike for its navigation, its salmon fisheries, and its enormous cataracts. The Rio Colorado, whose waters flow to the Gulf of California, traverses a desert plateau. Here nearly every watercourse runs in a deep-walled cañon, a narrow valley with precipitous sides, often of prodigious height.

In the plateau of Central America the largest lake is that of Nicaragua, nearly equal to Ontario in extent, and only one hundred and thirty-one feet above the level of the sea. (See further under the respective countries of North America.)

Climate.—Largely determined by the direction of the mountain ranges. Five climatic regions, viz., an arctic region, whose mean temperature is less than thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit; an Atlantic temperate region, extending as far as the Mississippi, with abundant rains and dense woods; an inland temperate region, dry, with steppes or prairies; a Pacific coast region, and a tropical region.

Political Divisions.—The political divisions of North America are:

(1) Danish America,[8] which includes Greenland and three small islands of the Virgin group in the West Indies.

[8] The Danish West Indies were transferred to the sovereignty of the United States in 1917 at the purchase price of twenty-five million dollars.

(2) British North America, in which division we may place the Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, Labrador, the Bermudas, the numerous British West Indian islands, and British Honduras.

(3) The United States, including the detached territory of Alaska.

(4) Mexico.

(5) The Central American republics of Honduras, Guatemala, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, together with Panama—unless its southern part be regarded as belonging to the South American continent.

(6) The West Indian republics of Hayti and San Domingo.

(7) The Dutch West Indies.

(See the articles on the separate states and colonies.)

THE UNITED STATES

The republic of the United States is by far the most populous, wealthy, and progressive country of all the New World.

Location and Extent.—It occupies the most valuable portion of the North American continent, the whole of it (with the exception of the territory of Alaska) lying within the temperate zone, between Canada on the north and Mexico on the south, and reaching across from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.

Its boundary toward the Canadian Dominion passes through the Haro, or northern channel of the Strait of San Juan de Fuca, south of Vancouver Island, and thence along the forty-ninth parallel of latitude to Lake Superior; then midway through the center of the Great Lakes to the St. Lawrence, and down that river to the forty-fifth parallel, and an irregular boundary which separates New Brunswick from the States of New York and Maine, terminating at Passamaquoddy Bay.

In the south, the Mexican frontier runs from the Pacific coast, northward of the peninsula of California, to the Rio Grande del Norte, which it follows to the Gulf of Mexico.

From Atlantic to Pacific, the breadth of the United States is not less than twenty-five hundred miles; and from north to south the country extends nearly seventeen hundred miles.

Surface.—The surface of the United States from east to west may be divided as follows: (1) The Atlantic Plain, which extends from the coast to the Allegheny Mountains. (2) [580] The Mississippi Valley and Great Central Plain, which extends from the Allegheny Mountains west to the Rocky Mountains. (3) The Western Highlands. (4) The Pacific slope, which extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean.

Mountains and Plains.—The chief mountain systems are the Appalachian region in the east and the Rocky Mountains in the west.

The Appalachian System begins in the northern part of New England (in Maine without the appearance of regular ranges) and New York, and extends southwestward to Alabama and Georgia, being divided by the Hudson River valley and Lake Champlain, and that of the Mohawk River into three distinct sections.

A coast-plain extends from its eastern base to the Atlantic. It is narrow in Maine, where it terminates in a bold rocky coast indented by bays, and broken into projecting promontories and islands. South of Massachusetts the coast becomes lower and more sandy, and the plain grows gradually wider, with the exception of a narrow belt at New York, until in North Carolina it attains a width of two hundred miles.

In the southern part of New England it is characterized by hills, and below New York by a distinct coast region and a more elevated slope. This higher region, which is in Virginia and thence southward, is marked by a somewhat abrupt terrace, varies in altitude from a few hundred to more than a thousand feet, and is known as the Piedmont plateau. The lower coast region is seldom more than one hundred feet above the sea. It has a sandy soil, and in many places there are large swamps near the coast. Much of this swampy country is uninhabitable, but when reclaimed, as it has been in many parts of North and South Carolina, it makes valuable rice-land. Many acres of fertile agricultural land have also been secured in Florida by draining its swamps. The middle elevated region is diversified by hills and valleys, and has a productive soil. The dividing line between it and the low coast-plain marks the head of navigation of most of the streams, and also determines the sites of many important towns.

The surface of this region today is a series of parallel ranges divided by fertile valleys. The various ridges are named as follows: The Blue Ridge, which lies nearest the Atlantic; the Kittatinny Chain; the Allegheny Mountains, which lie in the western part of Virginia and the central part of Pennsylvania; the Cumberland Mountains, on the eastern boundary of Tennessee and Kentucky; the Catskill Mountains, in the State of New York, which are continued in the Sacondago Chain; the Green Mountains, in the State of Vermont; the Hudson River Highlands, and the hills of New Hampshire. There is no peak of marked elevation in the Appalachian region, the highest point being Mt. Washington, in New Hampshire, which reaches a height of nearly seven thousand feet.

Great Central Plain.—West of the Appalachian system and lying between it and the western highland is a great central valley, forming part of the continental depression which extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. It is almost an absolute plain, rising gradually from the Gulf toward the chain of Great Lakes in the north, and toward the mountains on the east and west. The only important departure from its uniform level character is an elevation of from five hundred to two thousand feet, running from southern Missouri through northwestern Arkansas into eastern Oklahoma, and known as the Ozark Mountains.

This great valley occupies about one-half the entire area of the United States, and the fertile prairies and bottom-lands of the eastern and central portions make it the most important agricultural basin of the globe. From an irregular line west of the Mississippi River the land rises in an almost imperceptible slope till it reaches the base of the western plateau.

The Rocky Mountain System extends a distance of about two thousand miles. The system is continued in Canada. The Rocky Mountains are not a single range, but are double and sometimes threefold. These ranges are the edge of a region of plateaus and hills which extends to the coastal mountains. The chief mountain ranges belonging to the United States Rockies are the Bitter Root Mountains, the Blue Mountains, and the Big Horn Mountains in the north; the Wahsatch Mountains, the Wind River Mountains, and the White Mountains in the center; and the Sierra Madre and the Sangra de Cristo Range in the south. In the western part of the southern Rockies lies the Great Basin of Colorado, with the Wahsatch Mountains on the east and the Sierra Nevada on the west. This basin is extremely arid, has suffered much volcanic action.

The Western or Pacific System forms a part of the vast elevation which extends from the northern to the southern extremity of the western continent. In the United States it is a great plateau of four thousand to ten thousand feet surmounted by a complex system of ranges, in its widest part more than one thousand miles broad. Of this Cordilleran region the Rocky Mountains form the eastern and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains and the Coast Ranges the western border.

In the ranges of central Colorado alone nearly forty of the summits have an altitude of more than fourteen thousand feet. In the Wind River Mountains, in Wyoming, are the head-waters of the Colorado, the Columbia, and the Mississippi, the three great river-systems of the United States; and in the northwestern corner of the same state is situated the National Park, famous for its hot springs and geysers as well as for its magnificent scenery (see [Yellowstone]).

Between the Wahsatch Range and the lofty masses of mountains in Colorado is a region of peculiar interest, consisting of level plateaus in which the changes of elevation from one plain to another are marked by abrupt descents and steep cliffs. It is furrowed by cañons or gorges, whose sides are nearly vertical; and the bed of the Colorado is in some places more than a mile and a quarter below the surface of the plateau. (See [Grand Cañon] under [Colorado River].)

Between the Wahsatch Range and the Sierra Nevada lies the Great Basin, an immense tract having at best but little rainfall, except upon the summits of the ranges by which it is traversed, and none of whose waters are drained to either ocean. The saline swamps, salt lakes, and sinks of Nevada indicate the former location of one of these lakes; Great Salt Lake is all that now remains of the other.

The Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range are topographically continuous, and constitute a great mountain-wall, which so far as the height of the peaks and the grandeur of the scenery are concerned, is one of the most striking portions of the Cordilleran system. Most of the peaks of the Sierras are, however, of granite and metamorphic rock, while those of the Cascade Range are volcanic. The greatest altitude is attained with Mt. Whitney as the culminating point. The lofty character of the range is maintained throughout the greater part of California, and the sublimity of the scenery is justly celebrated. (See [Yosemite Valley].)

From this point there extends northward one of the most remarkable groups of extinct or faintly active volcanoes to be found anywhere in the world: the lava overflows in this region cover an area of above two hundred thousand square miles. The most prominent peaks are Mt. Shasta, in California, and Mt. Rainier, in Washington. In three separate places rivers have cut a passage through the volcanic portion of the range. The most notable is the passage of the Columbia River in a grand cañon more than three thousand feet in depth.

The Coast Ranges of Washington, Oregon, and northern California consist of numerous and approximately parallel chains, which as a rule pitch off abruptly toward the sea, leaving no coast-plain. Between the Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range is a series of broad valleys, occupied mainly in Oregon by the Willamette River, and in California by the Sacramento and San Joaquin. In southern California the mountains of the Coast Ranges diminish in height, but throughout their whole extent they are interspersed with picturesque and fertile valleys.

Coast.—The Atlantic coast has a length of about twelve thousand three hundred and sixty miles; the Gulf Coast of five thousand seven hundred and fifty miles, and the Pacific Coast of three thousand two hundred and fifty miles.

On the coast of the New England states there are many indentations which, though small, furnish commodious harbors. Long Island Sound adds greatly to the commercial importance of New York harbor, and farther south are Delaware and Chesapeake Bays; Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, and several small indentations, such as those which form the harbors of Charleston and Savannah. The Chesapeake Bay is the largest indentation of the Atlantic Coast and runs inland in a northward direction for more than one hundred and eighty miles, with an average breadth of about fifteen miles. From Cape Hatteras to Cape Sable, however, the coast is swampy, and, especially in Florida, fringed with lagoons. The harbors of this part of the coast are not good naturally. The coast of the Gulf of Mexico is low and very swampy, but is of special climatic and commercial importance.

The Pacific Coast of the United States has a very narrow Continental Shelf, and few bays or capes. With the exception of Puget Sound, the Bay of San Francisco, and the harbor of San Diego, there is scarcely a noticeable break in the continuity of the coast line.

Islands.—There are many small rocky islands along the coast of Maine, and on the southern New England Coast is a group to which belongs Long Island, the largest of the islands of the United States. Farther south, off the Atlantic Coast, and also in portions of the Gulf of Mexico, are many low sand-spits lying parallel to the coast and having behind them shallow channels, lagoons and swamps. On the Pacific Coast there are no islands of importance except the Santa Barbara group off the southern coast of California.

Rivers.—The rivers of the Atlantic Plain rise in the Appalachian system, and are comparatively short. In many cases they are too rapid to be of much value for navigation, but are valuable for supplying water power. These rivers almost without exception have good harbors at their mouths. The chief are: the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the Potomac, the James, and the Savannah.

The Great Central Plain is drained by the Mississippi-Missouri river system, the basin of which covers half the area of the United States, and is equal in area to about one-third the area of Europe.

The Mississippi rises in Lake Itasca, in Minnesota, at about fifteen hundred feet above sea-level. After flowing for about one hundred miles in an easterly direction it turns south, and is joined by numerous tributaries. The chief are: St. Peter’s River, which joins the main stream nine miles above St. Anthony’s Falls; the Missouri, which enters the Mississippi just above St. Louis; the Ohio, which joins the main river at Cairo; the Arkansas, the Wisconsin, the Illinois, and the Red River.

The Mississippi-Missouri has made a broad flood plain, varying in width from thirty to sixty miles. This plain is subject to severe inundations, for it slopes very gently away from the river bed, which is in many parts of the river above the level of the surrounding plain. The river carries a vast amount of silt, which it deposits at its mouth, thus forming a delta which stretches a series of long, narrow, tentacle-like arms seaward.

Other rivers falling into the Gulf of Mexico are the Mobile and the Rio Grande. The Mobile, which enters the gulf at the town of Mobile, is the union of the Alabama and the Tombigbee. The Rio Grande forms the boundary between Texas and Mexico.

The rivers flowing into the Pacific are comparatively short, owing to the nearness of the coast ranges to the sea. The Colorado River flows into the Gulf of California, after crossing an arid plateau. (See [description] below.)

The San Joaquin and the Sacramento rivers unite and flow into the harbor of San Francisco; these and the Columbia are the only important rivers entering the Pacific.

The Great Basin of California is largely an area of inland drainage. The rivers flow into lakes with no outlets to the sea.

Colorado River (Spanish for “red” or “reddish”), is a remarkable river formed by the union of the Grand and Green Rivers, and flowing through the great plateau region. Below the junction of the Green and Grand, the main affluent in Utah is the San Juan, which drains an interesting region in the southwest of Colorado and the northwest of New Mexico. In Arizona the main affluents are the Colorado Chiquito or Flax River, the Bill Williams, and the Rio Gila, all from the left. The only important affluent the Colorado receives from the right is the Rio Virgen. From the junction of the Grand and Green the general course of the stream is to the southwest through the southern part of Utah and northwestern Arizona; and it afterwards separates Arizona from Nevada and California. The lower part of its course is in Mexican territory, where it flows into the northern extremity of the Gulf of California.

The most striking features of the Colorado basin are its dryness, and the deeply channeled surface of the greater part of the country. Almost every stream and watercourse, and most of all the Colorado itself, has cut its way through stratum after stratum of rock, until now it flows in a great part of its course, at the bottom of a deep trench or cañon.

The Grand Cañon.—The main stream, for nearly four hundred miles below the mouth of the Colorado Chiquito, thus makes its way through a great plateau, forming what is called the Grand Cañon of the Colorado, the most extensive and marvelous example of the kind anywhere known.

Throughout the upper part of the great cañon the walls are from four thousand to seven thousand feet in height, and are often nearly perpendicular. Frequently they are terraced and carved into a myriad of pinnacles and towers, tinted with various brilliant colors. At some points the walls on either side rise sheer from the water; at others there is a talus of fallen rock, or occasionally a strip of fertile soil, on one or both banks. There are two main trails by which the bottom of the cañon may be reached. The Bright Angel Trail is seven miles down from the rim to the river and requires three hours for the descent. The Grand View Trail is somewhat longer and more difficult.

This over-drained river basin has an area of two hundred and twenty-five thousand square miles. The whole course of the river below the junction is about nine hundred miles; to its remotest sources it is over two thousand miles. Navigation is possible for light-draft steamers for over six hundred miles. The river is subject to vast and frequent changes of volume, and except where confined by cañon-walls, the river channel shifts to and fro in a very remarkable degree.

Hudson River, one of the most beautiful and important in America, rises in the Adirondack Mountains, four thousand three hundred and twenty-six feet above the level of the sea, where its head-streams are the outlets of many mountain-lakes. At Glens Falls it has a fall of fifty feet, and soon after, taking a southerly course, runs nearly in a straight line to its mouth, at New York City. It is tidal up to Troy, one hundred and fifty-one miles from its mouth, and magnificent steamboats ply daily between New York and Albany.

Below Newburg, sixty miles from New York, the river enters the highlands, which rise abruptly from the water to the height of sixteen hundred feet. Here historical associations add to the interest of varied scenery of singular beauty and grandeur: here was the scene of Arnold’s treason and of André’s fate; and at West Point, the seat of the United States military academy, eight miles below Newburg, are the ruins of Fort Putnam, built during the War of Independence.

Emerging from the highlands the river widens into a broad expanse called Tappan Bay, which is four and one-half miles wide and thirteen miles long. Below, on the right bank, a steep wall of trap rock, called the Palisades, rises from the river’s brink to a height of three hundred to five hundred and ten feet, and extends for nearly twenty miles to the upper portion of the city of New York.

The river from here is known as the North River, and is from one to two miles wide; and after passing between New York and Hoboken and Jersey City, it falls into New York Bay. Its whole length is about three hundred and fifty miles, and its principal tributaries are the Sacondaga, Mohawk, and Walkill.

The Hudson has valuable shad and sturgeon fisheries, and has large commercial value. It is connected by the Erie Canal with Buffalo and the Great Lakes, while the Richelieu Canal connects it with Montreal. The Hudson River Railroad, connecting New York with Albany, runs along the east bank.

The river is named for the English navigator who explored it in 1609. Robert Fulton’s first successful experiment in steamboat navigation was made on this river in 1807.

The St. Lawrence, issuing from Lake Ontario, flows northeast for some seven hundred and fifty miles—part of the way forming the boundary between Canada and the United States—and falls into the Gulf of St. Lawrence by a broad estuary. But in its widest acceptation the name includes the whole system of the Great Lakes and their connecting streams, with a total length from source to mouth of two thousand miles, and a drainage basin of five hundred and sixty-five thousand two hundred square miles. It pours more fresh water into the ocean than any other river except the Amazon.

This mighty artery rises, under the name of the St. Louis, on the spacious plateau which sends forth also the Mississippi toward the Gulf of Mexico, and the Red River of the North toward Hudson Bay. Lake Superior (six hundred and two feet above sea-level), the next link in the chain, finds its way to Lake Huron through St. Mary’s River, whose rapids have a fall of twenty and one-half feet. Below Lake Huron, which receives Lake Michigan from the south, St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, Detroit River, and Lake Erie, maintain pretty nearly the same level (there is a fall of some eight feet, however, in Detroit River) till the river Niagara descends three hundred and twenty-six feet to Lake Ontario, which is itself still two hundred and forty-seven feet above the sea-level.

The St. Lawrence proper, with a number of lakelike expansions (such as the Lake of the Thousand Isles, of St. Francis, St. Peter, etc.), presents the character first of a river, and then of an estuary, down to the gulf. What is known as the Lake of the Thousand Islands contains about seventeen hundred islands, big and little, many of them extremely picturesque. This is a famous tourist region, with numerous hotels and other resorts as well as many fine private estates.

Prior to 1858 only vessels drawing not more than eleven feet of water could pass up the river above Quebec, but since then a channel has been made in the shallow parts of the river, three hundred feet wide and twenty-seven and one-quarter deep, which permits the passage up to Montreal of large vessels.

Between Lake Ontario and Montreal there are several rapids, which, however, may be all avoided by means of canals that have been constructed at a very great expense. Immediately above the [583] island of Montreal, the St. Lawrence is joined by its principal auxiliary, the Ottawa, from the northwest; and a little more than half-way between this confluence and Three Rivers, the highest point of tidal influence, the Richelieu from the south brings in the tribute of Lake Champlain. Other principal tributaries are the St. Maurice, the Saguenay, and the Batiscan. The width of the St. Lawrence varies from less than one to four miles; the estuary at its mouth is above one hundred miles across. During winter the river is frozen over and navigation closed.

Lakes.—Of the Great Lakes of North America, Lake Michigan lies within the United States, and the southern shores of Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, and Lake Superior are United States territory. These lakes were formed by the action of the glacier which once covered the continent as far south as the forty-second parallel, roughly speaking. They are remainders of much larger lakes and are of the utmost importance as waterways.

New England has very many smaller lakes, which are also the result of glacial action. The largest lake of the United States apart from the Great Lakes is the Great Salt Lake of Utah. The extremely low rainfall of this region and the intense evaporation consequent upon the high temperature are responsible for the salinity of the waters of the lake.

The Great Lakes.—The five Great Lakes cover a total area of over ninety thousand square miles, forming the largest collective mass of fresh water in the world.

Lake Superior.—The northern shores of Superior are mostly precipitous cliffs ranging from three hundred to one thousand feet in height. On the southeast sandy coasts prevail. The coast on the south and southwest is composed largely of sandstone cliffs, rich in iron and other metal deposits. The bed of Superior is supposed to be an ancient volcanic crater. Its depth of one thousand and eight feet represents a depression extending four hundred feet below sea-level. Superior is, therefore, distinct in origin from the other lakes of the group, whose beds represent ancient river systems and date from the glacial period. The basin of the lake, closely circumscribed by the Mississippi and Hudson Bay watersheds, receives many streams, but all of them short.

Lake Huron, the second of the Great Lakes, is bounded north, east and south by the Province of Ontario, and south and west by the State of Michigan, including Georgian Bay (five thousand six hundred and twenty-six square miles), and North Passage, one thousand five hundred and fifty-six square miles. It is connected with Lake Michigan by the Straits of Mackinac, three and one-half miles broad and one hundred and thirty-five feet deep.

The discharge of Lake Huron is about two hundred and seventeen thousand cubic feet per second. By reason of evaporation and rainfall, the level of the lake varies annually between four and five feet, but much greater local variation is caused by the strong winds. The densely wooded northeast is broken by many low islands of limestone and glacial débris. Elsewhere the shores are almost unbroken and low, except when cliffs of one hundred or one hundred and fifty feet high rise from the northeast border and afford good sites for the many Canadian towns and villages. Nearly all the harbors on this coast are protected by breakwaters.

Lake Michigan.—The area of Lake Michigan includes Green Bay on the northwestern shore, and Grand Travers Bay directly on the eastern shore. Many islands lie in the lake between these two breaks in the shore, which elsewhere is low and unbroken.

About the southern and eastern borders are immense heaps of sand which have been piled up by waves and currents, and drift inland by the winds, sometimes, as at Sleeping Bear bluffs, completely burying the heavy forests.

The level of Michigan varies, but not as greatly as does that of Huron, according to the direction and force of the winds, the changes in rainfall, evaporation, atmospheric pressure, etc. Except when caused by protracted gales blowing steadily in one direction, this variation rarely exceeds one and three-tenths feet. The lake has a lunar tide with accompanying variation of from one and one-half inches neap to about three inches spring tide, and the water is warmer than the air in winter and cooler in summer, and visibly ameliorates the climate of the shores, as may be shown in the quantity and rich quality of the Michigan fruits. Like all the Great Lakes, Michigan abounds in fish, such as whitefish and trout.

Lake Erie has a northeast and southwest direction, bounded on the entire upper shore by the Province of Ontario, and on the southern and eastern shores by Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. At its southwestern end it is connected with Lake St. Clair by the Detroit River. At its northwestern end it discharges into Lake Ontario through the Niagara River. It is connected by the Welland Canal with Lake Ontario and by other canals with the Hudson and Ohio Rivers, making it thus a link in the waterway from east to west.

Besides the drainage from the Lake Superior system, Lake Erie receives the Grand River, the Maumee from the west, and the Sandusky and Cuyahoga from the south. The west coast is broken by the islands of Put-in-Bay.

Lake Ontario is the most eastern, with a northeast and southwest direction, like Lake Erie. It is the lowest of the Great Lakes, and has naturally the largest discharge, three hundred thousand cubic feet per second. The shores are flat, except in the Bay of Quinte, which extends on the northeast fifty miles inland. There are many harbors and flourishing ports. The waters have a surface current, due to the fact that the larger axis of the lake coincides with the direction of the prevailing westerly winds. This, added to frequent violent storms, keeps the lake from freezing, except a few miles in width along the shores.

Lake Ontario is connected with the Erie Canal and Hudson River by the Oswego Canal and with the Ottawa River by the Rideau Canal.

Great Salt Lake, in Utah, stretches along the western base of the Wahsatch Mountains, about four thousand two hundred feet above the sea, forming a principal drainage center of the Great Basin. Well-marked shore-lines on the mountains around, reaching one thousand feet higher than the present level, show that the lake had formerly a vastly greater extent; this prehistoric sea has been named Lake Bonneville. Great Salt Lake is over eighty miles long and from twenty to thirty-two broad, but for the most part exceedingly shallow. It contains several islands, the largest Antelope I., about eighteen miles long. Its tributaries are the Bear, Ogden, Jordan and Weber, the Jordan bringing the fresh waters of Lake Utah; but Great Salt Lake has no outlet save evaporation, and its clear water consequently holds at all times a considerable quantity of saline matter in solution. Several species of insects and a brine-shrimp have been found in its waters, but no fishes; large flocks of water-fowls frequent the shores.

The first mention of Great Salt Lake was by the Franciscan friar Escalante in 1776, but it was first explored and described in 1843 by Fremont.

Champlain is a beautiful lake separating the states of New York and Vermont, and penetrating, at its north end, about six miles into the Dominion of Canada. Lying ninety-one feet above sea-level, it is one hundred and ten miles long, by from one to fifteen broad, empties itself into the St. Lawrence by the Richelieu River, and has communication by canal with the Hudson. The lake, now an important trade channel, was the scene of several incidents of the French and Indian revolutionary wars; and here a British flotilla was defeated by the Americans September 11, 1814. It was discovered by Champlain in 1609, and in 1909 tercentenary celebrations of its discovery were held along its shores.

Natural Wonders.—Of the great natural wonders the chief are the Niagara Falls, the Grand Cañon of Colorado, and Yellowstone Park. The Sequoia, General Grant and Calaveras Parks—all reservations of the famous big trees, many thousands of years old, have also great scenic interest. Mt. Ranier Park, in Washington, encloses the noblest and most interesting mountain of our Pacific Coast. The chief feature of Crater Lake Park, in southern Oregon, is a lake two thousand feet deep, occupying the crater of an extinct volcano on the summit of the Cascade Range, with walls one thousand to two thousand feet high. The latest addition is Glacier Park, in northwestern Montana. It is named from its glaciers, of which there are over sixty within an area of five square miles, and contains numerous snow-capped peaks seven thousand to twelve thousand feet high. It also contains Lake McDonald, one of the most beautiful alpine lakes. Among the national monuments are the petrified forests in Arizona.

GARDEN OF THE GODS, COLORADO,

is a tract of land about five hundred acres in extent, thickly strewn with grotesque rocks and cliffs of red and white sandstone. Among the chief features are the Cathedral Spires, the Balanced Rock, etc. The Gateway of the Garden of the Gods consists of two enormous masses of bright red rock, three hundred and thirty feet high and separated just enough for the roadway to pass between.

Garden of the Gods, a region in Colorado, is noted for its view of Pike’s Peak, and its weird and grotesque rock pinnacles, needles, etc., some of which receive descriptive names such as Cathedral Spires. The region is about five hundred acres in extent, and in 1908 was presented to Colorado Springs city.

Grand Canyon.—See under [Colorado River].

Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky, is eighty-five miles by railroad southwest of Louisville. The cave is about ten miles long; but it is said to require upwards of one hundred and fifty miles of traveling to explore its multitudinous avenues, chambers, grottoes, rivers and cataracts. It is the largest cavern in the world. The main cave is only four miles long, but it is from forty to three hundred feet wide, and rises in height to one hundred and twenty-five feet. Lucy’s Dome is three hundred feet high, the loftiest of the many vertical shafts that pierce through all the levels.

It is estimated that there are more than four thousand sink-holes and five hundred open caverns. Some avenues are covered with a continuous incrustation of the most beautiful crystals; stalactites and stalagmites abound.

There are several lakes or rivers connected with Green River outside the cave, rising with the river, but subsiding more slowly, so that they are generally impassible for more than six months in the year. The largest is Echo River, three-fourths of a mile long, and in some places two hundred feet wide. The air of the cave is pure; the temperature keeps at about fifty-four degrees.

Among the most striking facts which exploration has revealed are the following: there is a pit, named the Bottomless Pit, one hundred and five feet deep, besides Scylla, one hundred and thirty-five feet deep. Crevice Pit, with Klett’s Dome, which forms a part of it, is one hundred and fifty feet in total vertical measurement. Cleveland Avenue is two miles long, Silliman’s one and one-half miles and in places two hundred feet in width. Large stretches of water have been christened Dead Sea, Lake Lethe; also there are the Styx, and Roaring and Echo rivers. In the outer galleries of the cave millions of bats are congregated. There are also blind fish, crayfish, crickets, and other abnormal insect inhabitants of the cave.

BIG TREE, CALIFORNIA

The Mariposa Grove of Big Trees (six thousand five hundred feet), so-called from its situation in Mariposa (“butterfly”) County, occupies a tract of land four square miles in area, reserved as a State Park, and consists of two distinct groves, one-half mile apart. The Lower Grove contains about two hundred and forty fine specimens of the Sequoia Gigantea, including the “Grizzly Giant,” the largest of all, with a circumference of ninety-four feet and a diameter of thirty-one feet. Its main limb, two hundred feet from the ground, is six and one-half feet in diameter. In ascending to the Upper Grove, which contains three hundred and sixty big trees, the road goes through a tunnel, ten feet high and nine and one-half feet wide (at the bottom), cut directly through the heart of a living Sequoia, twenty-seven feet in diameter. (See illustration.) About ten of the trees exceed two hundred and fifty feet in height and about twenty trees have a circumference of over sixty feet, three of these being over ninety feet. The Calaveras Grove has taller trees than any in the Mariposa Grove, but the latter has those of greatest circumference. At Santa Cruz there is a grove which contains about a score of the genuine Redwood with a diameter of ten feet and upwards. The largest is twenty-three feet across; one of the finest, named the Giant, has a circumference of seventy feet. Here is a large hollow tree in which General Fremont camped for several days in 1847. Another stump is covered with a platform, which holds twelve to fourteen people.

Niagara Falls.—See under [Famous Waterfalls].

Yosemite Valley is the name of a cleft in the west slope of the Sierra Nevada, about the center of California, and one hundred and forty miles east of San Francisco. The name Yosemite is an Indian word which signifies “large grizzly bear.” This celebrated valley, noted for the sublimity and beauty of its scenery, is about six miles long and from one-half to nearly two miles in breadth, and is traversed by the Merced River. The beholder is awed and impressed by the massiveness of its mountain elevations, the nearly perpendicular granite walls, from three thousand to six thousand feet high, by which it is shut in throughout its entire length, and the grandeur of its waterfalls, which are in some respects the most remarkable in the world.

At the lower end of the valley stands the striking cliff known as El Capitan, three thousand three hundred feet high, while from near its lower corner the Virgin’s Tears Fall descends one thousand feet. But the eye turns from it to the remarkable fall opposite, happily named the Bridal Veil, which leaps from the brow of a cliff nine hundred feet high, and descends in a broad sheet of spray and finally mist, swaying in the wind and constantly changing its form of fleecy beauty. Farther up the valley are Cathedral Rock (two thousand six hundred and sixty feet), the Three Brothers (three thousand eight hundred and thirty feet), Sentinel Rock (three thousand and forty-three feet), and directly opposite it the grand Yosemite Falls. (See [Famous Waterfalls].) Above the falls are the North Dome (three thousand five hundred and sixty-eight feet) and the vast Half Dome, nearly one mile (four thousand seven hundred and thirty-seven feet) high, whose summit can now be reached by a long climb. Two miles above the great falls the stream enters the main valley in two arms, coming out of two canyons. In that of the south fork is the Illilouet Fall, some six hundred feet high; in the main canyon are Vernal Fall and Nevada Fall, the latter one of the finest in the world.

(See [Famous Waterfalls].)

The country surrounding the valley and constituting the National Park is a rolling and hilly region varying from eight thousand to ten thousand feet above sea-level. There is little soil or vegetation except a scattered forest growth. Small glaciers still remain near the summits of some of the adjacent mountains. Bare granite peaks rise still higher from this surface.

Yellowstone National Park comprises a tract of land originally comprising three thousand five hundred and seventy-five square miles in northwestern Wyoming, set apart by act of Congress in 1872 as a national park to preserve from destructive molestation the most wonderful group of natural features and phenomena known within the boundaries of the United States. It is readily reached over the Northern Pacific Railroad, which has a branch from Livingston to Gardiner, just outside the north park boundary, thirty-six hours’ ride from St. Paul; or it may be reached from the Oregon Short Line R. R. from the west side by a more difficult stage connection.

The whole park plateau lies between six thousand and eight thousand feet above sea-level. The mountains rise in great grandeur upon this plateau, giving evidence of their volcanic origin, though now extinct, by their form, and their rock structure, and the many evidences of pent-up heat that one sees in the hot springs and geysers for which the locality is justly famous. Twenty-four peaks rise over ten thousand feet, several over eleven thousand. Electric Peak on the border is eleven thousand one hundred and fifty-five feet. Many have been glaciated. Just outside the Teton Range peaks rise to nearly fourteen thousand feet. It is a part of the continental divide and from Two-ocean Pond the waters may flow into either the Atlantic or the Pacific. The Yellowstone, Snake and Madison rivers are fed by the waters from this area.

The surface of the park is dotted with lakes, the largest being Yellowstone Lake, standing seven thousand seven hundred and forty-one feet above sea-level, ten by twenty miles in average dimensions, the largest body at so great elevation in the United States.

The streams contain numerous falls and rapids, twenty-five of special interest, some as picturesque as the Falls of the Yellowstone, though not on such a grand scale, and some far removed from the usual routes of travel. The falls and canyons of the Yellowstone are considered among the most wonderful in the world. The canyon is cut more than two thousand feet deep into the lavas and sediments, exhibiting the most fantastic carvings of erosion, modified by an exquisite blending of colors. Into it plunges the river by two great leaps, the Upper and the Lower Falls, one hundred and twelve and three hundred and ten feet high respectively, and then flows on as a narrow ribbon scarcely more than one hundred and sixty to two hundred feet wide for twelve miles of this wonderfully beautiful chasm.

Yellowstone Park includes within its borders the largest geysers in the world. There are about seventy in all, included in six groups or geyser basins. Norris, Upper, Middle and Lower basins, ten to fifteen miles apart, are on the headwaters of the Madison, here called Five Hole River. The Upper is most active and is called the Great Geyser Basin. A group is also found at Shoshone Lake, at the head of Snake River, and another group at Heart Lake. Fifty geysers spout water and steam from thirty to two hundred and fifty feet into the air. Some spout from open bowl-shaped basins, and others have built cones or tubes by their deposits. Extinct geysers are marked by the remains of these cones, among which is Liberty Cap. Excelsior geyser is the largest of all. It has a bowl-shaped opening two hundred by three hundred feet, flows four thousand gallons of boiling hot water per minute, and throws a fifty-foot column of water and steam seventy-five feet to two hundred and fifty feet high. Giant throws a five-foot column over two hundred feet high for an hour. Old Faithful, so named because of its exceptional regularity, every sixty-four to sixty-five minutes without a failure within the memory of the oldest observers, discharges a column one hundred and fifty feet high amounting to one and a half million gallons of water at each eruption. There is every gradation in size and violence and periodicity.

In the Mammoth Hot Springs area, near the northern boundary, where there are fifty active springs within an area of one hundred and seventy acres, there is a travertine accumulation of one thousand feet. Others deposit silica in similar manner, both types aided much by algous plant growth in the mineralized warm waters. In some places sulphur has been deposited.

Nine-tenths of the whole area is forest. The tree limit varies from nine thousand four hundred to nine thousand seven hundred feet. Few of the plateau localities are bare. Pine, poplar, balsam, cedar and spruce grow abundantly and many to large size. In the spring and geyser localities the trees are often covered by deposits and buried. Whole forests have been thus entombed. Petrified trees are common. Wild animals are wholly unmolested. Deer, elk, buffalo and bear may be seen and approached near enough to photograph. Trout abound in the waters throughout.

NATURAL BRIDGE OF VIRGINIA

The Natural Bridge of Virginia (one thousand five hundred feet above the sea) is a huge monolithic limestone arch, two hundred and fifteen feet high, one hundred feet wide, and ninety feet in span, crossing the ravine of the Cedar Creek. It seems to be a remnant of a great horizontal bed of limestone rock that entirely covered the gorge of the brook, which originally flowed through a subterranean tunnel. The rest of this roof has fallen in and been gradually washed or worn away. The bridge is finely situated in a beautiful amphitheater, surrounded by mountains, on land originally granted by George III. to Thomas Jefferson, who built a cabin here for the use of visitors. Among the names upon the smooth side of the archway is that of George Washington (west side, about twenty-five feet up), which was the highest of all until a student named Piper actually climbed from the bottom to the top of the arch in 1818.

The first white man to attempt an exploration [587] of the region was a trapper named Coulter, who in 1805 traversed a part of this district. His tales were disbelieved, but were confirmed thirty years later by the discoveries of Bridger. In 1870 the first official survey was made, and in 1871 Hayden’s famous expedition revealed the glories of the Yellowstone district.

Climate and Irrigation.—The United States, stretching over such a vast area and having such great tracts of mountain and plain, must necessarily present a great variety of climate. The mean annual temperature ranges from under forty degrees to seventy-five degrees. The isotherm of fifty-five degrees mean annual temperature crosses the center of the country from east to west, passing through St. Louis. The mean annual rainfall for the whole country is about thirty inches, but there is a great difference in this respect between different parts. The rainfall is most abundant on the northwest Pacific Coast, on the Gulf Coast, and on the higher mountain ranges. On the great plains it is only ten to twenty inches, and there are large desert stretches in the Rocky Mountain region with a rainfall of less than ten inches.

Irrigation.—As far as lack of rainfall is concerned in the so-called rainless regions of the United States, this has been notably offset by great works of irrigation that have been steadily going forward. Agriculture, horticulture and vitaculture are, therefore, no longer dependent on chance but science, as the National Irrigation Congress expresses it.

Modern irrigation in the United States began in 1750 with the watering of the gardens in the hills and deserts of the coast of California by the adventurous missionaries from Mexico. Irrigation by English-speaking people had its origin in Utah one hundred years later. There the Mormons, separated by one thousand miles of untrodden desert from all cultivated land, found in irrigation their only means of escape from starvation.

In 1870 there were twenty thousand acres under irrigation, followed by a rapid development of small ditches, until in 1880 there were one million acres irrigated. Today (1917) upward of fifty million acres are included in reclamation projects, and it is estimated that there are upward of four hundred and fifty million acres still awaiting the scientific use of water.

The diversity of methods used in irrigation in the United States is remarkable. Practically every system to be found in the world can be seen in some part of the arid west. This is due to the fact that many of the irrigators have come from distant parts of the world and each seeks to introduce on his farm customs and practices of his old environments. This is particularly noticeable in California, where the Chinese irrigate their truck gardens in Chinese fashion, and Italians, Spaniards and Mexicans imitate for a time at least the practices of their forefathers.

Upward of one hundred and fifty thousand miles of irrigation canals, with reservoirs and supplementary works, have been built at a cost of more than six hundred million dollars. These projects are distributed through the States of Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. The most notable among them are: the Truckee-Carson Canal and Reservoir, in Nevada; the Minidoka project, in southern Idaho; that of the Uncompahgre Valley, in Colorado; the Roosevelt Dam, in the Salt River Valley, Arizona; the Klamath Reservoir, on the Oregon-California boundary; the Boisé project, Idaho; that of Yuma, on the Arizona-California boundary; North Platte, on the Nebraska-Wyoming boundary; and the gigantic Elephant Butte Reservoir, in New Mexico—the second largest in the world.

Political Divisions.—Under its present organization the United States comprises fifty-one political divisions. Of these forty-eight are states enjoying the full privileges afforded by the federal constitution. The three territories—Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Rico—all are organized but not yet admitted to statehood. The Philippines have a modified territorial government.

(See [Tables] appended.)

It is worthy of remark that the center of population advanced westward during the ten decades since 1790 in a nearly uniform line along the thirty-ninth parallel of latitude.

THE CENTER OF POPULATION

Census
Year		Approximate Location by Important TownsFrom Point
to Point
in Direct
Line[9]
1790Twenty-three miles east of Baltimore, Md....
1800Eighteen miles west of Baltimore, Md.40.6
1810Forty miles northwest by west of Washington, D. C.36.9
1820Sixteen miles north of Woodstock, Va.50.5
1830Nineteen miles west by southwest of Moorefield, W. Va.[10]40.4
1840Sixteen miles south of Clarksburg, W. Va.[10]55.0
1850Twenty-three miles southeast of Parkersburg, W. Va.[10]54.8
1860Twenty miles south of Chillicothe, Ohio80.6
1870Forty-eight miles east by north of Cincinnati, Ohio44.1
1880Eight miles west by south of Cincinnati, Ohio58.1
1890Twenty miles east of Columbus, Ind.48.6
1900Six miles southeast of Columbus, Ind.14.6
1910In the city of Bloomington, Ind.39.0

[9] Movement in miles during preceding decade.

[10] West Virginia formed part of Virginia until 1860.

Public Lands.—The United States originally owned nearly all the area of the states, with the exception of the original thirteen. Homesteads have been given, or sold at a nominal price, to all bona fide settlers. Vast areas have been given to railroad companies and in aid of education. The country’s Indian wards have been provided with ample reservations. The government has established great national parks, and it has reserved more than seventy-two thousand square miles of forest land.

The following tabulations give numerous important facts concerning the states and territories:

TABLE OF STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES

Date of Admission Into UnionState or Territory
Origin and Meaning of Name
Area andPopulation
Motto and Meaning		Settlement Where, When, By Whom
Original Territory from WhichDerived		Capitals and Populations
Chief Productions of State
1819Alabama (Indian—Here we rest).
51,998 sq. miles. Pop.2,138,093.
Motto: Here we rest.		Mobile Bay, 1702, by the French.
From Louisiana, Georgia, Mississippi andAlabama territories.		Montgomery: Pop. 38,136.
Corn, oats, wheat, rice, cotton, sugar, iron, lumber,manufactures, potatoes.
1867‡Alaska (Al-ay-eska, meaning “the great country”).
590,884 sq. miles. No motto.		Three Saints, 1784, by the Russians.
Purchased from Russia in 1867for $7,200,000.		Juneau: Pop. 1,864.
Seals, salmon, gold, copper, silver, lumber, tin, lead,coal.
1911Arizona (Indian—Sand Hills).
113,956 sq. miles. Pop.204,354.
Motto: Ditat deus (Founded by God).		Tucson, 1580, by the Spanish.
From New Mexico territory.		Phoenix: Pop. 11,134.
Copper, gold, silver, alfalfa, fruits, live stock, wheat,barley.
1836Arkansas (From a tribe of Indians).
53,335 sq. miles. Pop.1,574,449.
Motto: Regnat populi (The people rule).		Arkansas Post, 1685, by the French.
From Louisiana, Missouri and Arkansasterritories.		Little Rock: Pop. 45,941.
Cotton, lumber, corn, oats, wheat, fruits, wool,coal, tobacco.
1850California (From an old Spanish romance).
158,297 sq. miles. Pop.2,377,549.
Motto: Eureka (I have found it).		San Diego, 1768, by the Spanish.
From New Albion, Upper California.		Sacramento: Pop. 44,696.
Gold, silver, copper, lead, petroleum, borax, lumber,fruits, wine, olives, beet sugar.
1876Colorado (Spanish—Red, or Ruddy). 103,948 sq. miles. Pop. 799,024.
Motto: Nil sine numine (Nothing without providence).		Auroria, 1859, by the Americans.
From Louisiana and Mexican cession.Colorado territory.		Denver: Pop. 213,381.
Gold, silver, coal, copper, vegetables, fruits, livestock, wheat, beet sugar, oats, corn.
*1788Connecticut (Indian—Long River).
4,965 sq. miles. Pop.1,114,756.
Motto: Qui transtulit sustinet (He who transplanted still sustains).		Windsor, 1636, by the English.
From North Virginia, New England.		Hartford: Pop. 98,915.
Manufactures, woolen, cotton, notions; tobacco, iron,granite, cereals.
*1787Delaware (In honor of Lord De La Warr).
2,370 sq. miles. Pop.202,322.
Motto: Liberty and independence.		Wilmington, 1637, by the Swedes.
From New Sweden, New Netherlands, threelower counties on the Delaware.		Dover: Pop. 3,720.
Corn, wheat, tomatoes, fruits, manufactures, leather, iron,steel, machinery.
1791District of Columbia (In honor of Columbus).
70 sq. miles. Pop.331,069.
Motto: Justitia omnibus (Justice to all).		Rome, 1663, by the English.
Ceded to government by Maryland andVirginia.		Washington: Pop. 331,069.
Flour mills, manufactures.
1845Florida (Spanish—Blooming).
58,666 sq. miles. Pop.752,619.
Motto: In God is our trust.		St. Augustine, 1565, by the Spanish.
From Florida territory.		Tallahassee: Pop. 5,018.
Fruits, vegetables, tobacco, rice, cotton, lumber,turpentine, resin, fish, phosphate.
*1788Georgia (In honor of George II.).
59,265 sq. miles. Pop.2,609,121.
Motto: Obverse: Wisdom, justice, moderation. Reverse: Agriculture andcommerce.		Savannah, 1733, by the English.
One of the original thirteen states.		Atlanta: Pop. 154,839.
Cotton, corn, rice, oats, tobacco, oysters, peaches,melons, marble, clay; cotton goods, lumber, fertilizers, tar.
...‡Hawaii (From the native Owhyhee).
6,449 sq. miles. Nomotto.		Honolulu, 1820, by the Americans.
From Sandwich Islands.		Honolulu: Pop. 52,183.
Sugar, fruits, rice, coffee, hides, wool, honey,sisal.
1890Idaho (Indian—Gem of the Mountains).
84,313 sq. miles. Pop.325,594.
Motto: Salve (Hail).		Coeur d’Alene, 1842, by the Americans.
From Oregon, Washington andIdaho territories.		Boise City: Pop. 17,358.
Gold, silver, copper, lead, lumber, flour, wheat,oats, barley, live stock.
1818Illinois (Indian—The Men).
56,665 sq. miles. Pop.5,638,591.
Motto: National union, state sovereignty.		Kaskaskia, 1682, by the French.
From Northwest, Indian and Illinoisterritories.		Springfield: Pop. 51,678.
Corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, live stock, wool,meat, manufactures.
1816Indiana (Indian’s Ground).
36,354 sq. miles. Pop.2,700,876.
No motto.		Vincennes, 1702, by the French.
From Northwest and Indiana territories.		Indianapolis: Pop. 233,650.
Corn, wheat, tobacco, vegetables, fruits, wool,coal, clay, flour, machinery.
1846Iowa (Indian—Drowsy Ones).
56,147 sq. miles. Pop.2,224,771.
Motto: Our liberties we prize and our rights we will maintain.		Dubuque, 1833, by the Americans.
From Louisiana, Missouri, Michigan,Wisconsin and Iowa territories.		Des Moines: Pop. 86,368.
Corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, live stock, butter,coal, lumber, poultry.
1861Kansas (Indian—Smoky Water).
82,158 sq. miles. Pop.1,690,949.
Motto: Ad astra per aspera (To the stars through difficulties).		Leavenworth, 1854, by the Americans.
From Louisiana, Kansas territory.		Topeka: Pop. 43,684.
Corn, wheat, hay, live stock, fruits, coal, petroleum,salt, meats, Kaffir corn.
1792Kentucky (Indian—Dark and Bloody Ground).
40,598 sq. miles.Pop. 2,289,905.
Motto: United we stand, divided we fall.		Boonesboro, 1769, by the English.
From Virginia.		Frankfort: Pop. 10,465.
Tobacco, hemp, wheat, cotton, live stock, lumber, coal,sorghum, flour.
1812Louisiana (In honor of Louis XIV.).
48,506 sq. miles. Pop.1,656,388.
Motto: Union, justice, and confidence.		New Orleans, 1718, by the French.
From Louisiana, Territory of Orleans.		Baton Rouge: Pop. 14,897.
Cotton, corn, rice, sugar, lumber, oysters, salt,sulphur.
1820Maine (The Main Land).
33,040 sq. miles. Pop. 742,371.
Motto: Dirigo (I direct).		Saco, 1623, by the English.
From New England, Laconia and Massachusetts.		Augusta: Pop. 13,211.
Hay, grains, dairying, potatoes, wool, granite, ice,lumber, apples, paper.
*1788Maryland (In honor of Queen Henriette Maria).
12,327 sq. miles. Pop.1,295,346.
Motto: Fatti maschii, parole femine (Manly deeds, womanly words).		St. Mary’s, 1632, by the English.
From one of the original states.		Annapolis: Pop. 8,609.
Wheat, hay, corn, vegetables, fruits, oysters, coal,wool, canned fruits, vegetables.
*1788Massachusetts (The Place of Great Hills).
8,266 sq. miles. Pop.3,366,416.
Motto: Ense petit placidam sub liberate quietem (With the sword she seeks calmpeace under liberty).		Plymouth, 1620, by the English.
From North Virginia, New England,Massachusetts Bay.		Boston: Pop. 670,585.
Manufactures (woolen, cotton), boots, shoes, fish,tobacco, granite, marble.
1837Michigan (Indian—Great Lake).
57,980 sq. miles. Pop.2,810,173.
Motto: Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam, circumspice (If you seek a beautifulpeninsula, behold it here).		Sault Ste. Marie, 1668, by the French.
From Northwest, Indiana and Michiganterritories.		Lansing: Pop. 31,229.
Corn, wheat, oats, hay, fruits, vegetables, iron, copper,clay, lumber, manufactures.
1858Minnesota (Indian—Cloudy Water).
84,682 sq. miles. Pop.2,075,708.
Motto: L’étoile du nord (The star of the north).		St. Paul, 1838, by the Americans.
From Louisiana and Northwest and Minnesotaterritories.		St. Paul: Pop. 214,744.
Corn, wheat, oats, barley, flaxseed, wool, live stock,flour, iron, lumber, dairying.
1817Mississippi (Indian—Great River, or Father of Waters).
46,865sq. miles. Pop. 1,797,114.
No motto.		Biloxi, 1699, by the French.
From Louisiana and Georgia, Mississippiterritory.		Jackson: Pop. 21,262.
Cotton, corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, rice, tobacco,oysters, shrimps.
1821Missouri (Indian—Great Muddy).
69,420 sq. miles. Pop.3,293,335.
Motto: Salus populi suprema lex esto (The welfare of the people is the supremelaw).		St. Genevieve, 1755, by the French.
From Louisiana and Louisiana andMissouri territories.		Jefferson City: Pop. 11,850.
Corn, wheat, oats, rye, cotton, swine, honey,zinc, lead, tobacco, meats.
1889Montana (Spanish—A Mountain).
146,572 sq. miles. Pop.375,053.
Motto: Oro y plata (Gold and silver).		Yellowstone River, 1809, by the Americans.
From Louisiana and Nebraska,Idaho, Dakota and Montana territories.		Helena: Pop. 39,165.
Wheat, wool, live stock, fruit, oats, barley, lumber,copper, lead, silver, coal.
1867Nebraska (Indian—Shallow Water).
77,520 sq. miles. Pop.1,192,214.
Motto: Equality before the law.		Bellevue, 1847, by the Americans.
From Louisiana, Nebraska territory.		Lincoln: Pop. 43,973.
Corn, wheat, oats, live stock, hay, chicory, sugar beets,fruits, potatoes.
1864Nevada (Spanish—Snow-covered).
110,690 sq. miles. Pop.81,875.
Motto: All for our country.		Genoa, 1850, by the Americans.
From Upper California and Utah and Nevadaterritories.		Carson City: Pop. 2,466.
Gold, silver, copper, zinc, wool, live stock, lumber,borax.
*1788New Hampshire (Hampshire, England).
9,341 sq. miles. Pop.430,572.
No motto.		Portsmouth, 1623, by the English.
From North Virginia, New England,Laconia.		Concord: Pop. 21,497.
Hay, corn, potatoes, oats, apples, granite, mica,manufactures.
*1787New Jersey (In honor of governor of Jersey Island).
8,224 sq. miles.Pop. 2,537,167.
No motto.		Elizabethtown, 1617, by the Dutch.
From New Netherland.		Trenton: Pop. 96,815.
Market garden crops, cereals, fruits, fisheries,manufactures, textiles, machinery.
1911New Mexico (From Old Mexico).
122,634 sq. miles. Pop.327,301.
Motto: Crescit eundo (It increases by going).		...Santa Fe: Pop. 5,072.
Gold, silver, fruits, vegetables, live stock, wool,lumber, copper, coal, turquoise.
*1788New York (In honor of Duke of York).
49,204 sq. miles. Pop.9,113,614.
Motto: Excelsior (Higher).		New York, 1614, by the Dutch.
From New Netherland.		Albany: Pop. 100,253.
Market garden crops, fruits, corn, wheat, dairying,manufactures, clothing, textiles, books, magazines, papers.
*1789North Carolina (In honor of Charles II.).
52,426 sq. miles. Pop.2,206,287.
Motto: Esse quam videri (To be, rather than to seem).		Albemarle Sound, 1653, by the English.
From Albemarle colony.		Raleigh: Pop. 19,218.
Cotton, corn, tobacco, wheat, shad, oysters, lumber,mining.
1889North Dakota (Indian—Allied).
70,837 sq. miles. Pop.577,056.
Motto: Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable.		Pembino, 1859, by the Americans.
From Louisiana, Minnesota and Nebraska andDakota territories.		Bismarck: Pop. 5,443.
Wheat, oats, barley, flaxseed, live stock, wool,minerals.
1803Ohio (Indian—Beautiful River).
41,040 sq. miles. Pop.4,767,121.
No motto.		Marietta, 1788, by the Americans.
From Northwest territory.		Columbus: Pop. 181,548.
Corn, wheat, oats, hay, potatoes, fruits, tobacco, livestock, wool, dairying, coal, petroleum, salt, iron, steel, machinery, flour.
1907Oklahoma (Indian—Beautiful Land).
70,057 sq. miles. Pop.1,657,155.
Motto: Labor omnia vincit (Labor conquers everything).		Guthrie, 1890, by the Americans.
From Indian and Oklahoma territories.		Oklahoma City: Pop. 64,205.
Corn, wheat, oats, cotton, flax, live stock,petroleum, minerals.
1859Oregon (Spanish—Wild Marjoram).
96,699 sq. miles. Pop.672,765.
Motto: The union.		Astoria, 1811, by the Americans.
From Oregon territory.		Salem: Pop. 14,094.
Lumber, live stock, wheat, hay, fruits, hops, wool, salmon,gold, silver, paper making.
*1787Pennsylvania (Latin—Penn’s Woods).
45,126 sq. miles. Pop.7,665,111.
Motto: Virtue, liberty and independence.		Chester, 1638, by the Swedes.
From original state.		Harrisburg: Pop. 64,186.
Manufactures, steel, machinery, textiles, coal, coke,petroleum, natural gas, iron, grains, wool, leather.
...‡Philippines (In honor of Philip II.).
115,026 sq. miles.		Cebu, 1565, by the Spanish.
From Archipelago de San Lazaro.		Manila: Pop. 250,000.
Cocoa, coffee, tobacco, cotton, hemp, cocoanuts, corn,sugar, rice, timber, dyewoods.
...Porto Rico (Spanish—Rich Port).
3,435 sq. miles.		San Juan, 1510, by the Spanish.
Ceded by Spain.		San Juan: Pop. 50,000.
Coffee, sugar, tobacco, cotton, citrus fruits, bananas,pineapples, salt.
*1790Rhode Island (Rhodes, an island in the Ægean Sea).
1,248 sq.miles. Pop. 542,610.
Motto: Hope.		Providence, 1636, by the English.
From Providence and Rhode Islandplantations.		Providence: Pop. 224,326.
Manufactures, worsted, cotton, jewelry, machinery,rubber, minerals.
*1788South Carolina (In honor of Charles II.).
30,989 sq. miles. Pop.1,515,400.
Motto: Dum spiro, spero. Spes (While I breathe, I hope. Hope).		Ashley River, 1670, by the English.
From Carteret colony.		Columbia: Pop. 26,319.
Cotton, wheat, corn, oats, tobacco, rice, oysters,turpentine, lumber, phosphates.
1889South Dakota (Indian—Allied).
77,615 sq. miles. Pop.583,888.
Motto: Under God the people rule.		Southeast part, 1859, by the Americans.
From Louisiana, Minnesota andNebraska and Dakota territories.		Pierre: Pop. 3,656.
Corn, wheat, oats, flax, potatoes, live stock, wool, gold,silver, tin, dairying.
1796Tennessee (Indian—River with the Great Bend).
42,022 sq. miles.Pop. 2,184,789.
Motto: Agriculture, commerce.		Fort Loudon, 1757, by the English.
From North Carolina, territory south ofthe Ohio River.		Nashville: Pop. 110,364.
Corn, wheat, cotton, potatoes, tobacco, live stock,coal, iron, marble, lumber.
1845Texas (From tribe of Indians).
265,896 sq. miles. Pop.3,896,542.
No motto.		San Antonio, 1692, by the Spanish.
From Mexican cession.		Austin: Pop. 29,860.
Cotton, corn, oats, wheat, rice, sugar, live stock, wool,fruits, lumber, petroleum, coal.
1896Utah (Indian—Mountain Dwellers).
84,990 sq. miles. Pop.373,351.
Motto: Industry.		Salt Lake City, 1847, by the Americans.
From Mexican cession, Utahterritory.		Salt Lake City: Pop. 92,777.
Gold, silver, copper, lead, coal, vegetables,fruits, sugar, wheat, oats, live stock, wool.
1791Vermont (French—Green Mountain).
9,564 sq. miles. Pop.355,956.
Motto: Freedom and unity.		Fort Dummer, 1724, by the English.
From New Netherland, New Hampshiregrants.		Montpelier: Pop. 7,856.
Hay, cereals, potatoes, lumber, marble, dairying, maplesugar, manufactures, wood pulp.
*1788Virginia (In honor of Elizabeth, the virgin queen).
42,627 sq. miles.Pop. 2,061,212.
Motto: Obverse; Sic semper tyrannis (Ever so to tyrants). Reverse:Perseverando (By perseverance).		Jamestown, 1607, by the English.
From South Virginia.		Richmond: Pop. 127,628.
Corn, wheat, oats, tobacco, potatoes, cotton, oysters,coal, iron, cotton, manufactures.
1889Washington (After George Washington, first president).
69,127 sq.miles. Pop. 1,141,990.
Motto: Al-Ki (Bye-bye).		Columbia River, 1811, by the English.
From Oregon and Washingtonterritories.		Olympia: Pop. 6,996.
Lumber, coal, wheat, barley, oats, fruits, salmon, livestock, minerals.
1863West Virginia (From Virginia).
24,170 sq. miles. Pop.1,221,119.
Motto: Obverse: Montani semper liberi (Mountaineers are always free men).Reverse: Libertas et fidelitas (Liberty and fidelity).		Berkeley County, 1726, by the Americans.
From Virginia.		Charleston: Pop. 22,996.
Corn, oats, hay, wheat, fruits, cattle, sheep, lumber,coal, petroleum, natural gas, mining.
1848Wisconsin (Indian—Wild Rushing Channel).
56,066 sq. miles. Pop.2,333,860.
Motto: Forward.		Green Bay, 1745, by the French.
From Northwest, Illinois, Michigan andWisconsin territories.		Madison: Pop. 25,531.
Corn, oats, barley, wheat, hay, potatoes, fruits, beetsugar, dairying, iron, lumber.
1890Wyoming (Indian—Extensive Plain).
97,914 sq. miles. Pop.145,965.
Motto: Equal rights.		Cheyenne, 1867, by the Americans.
From Louisiana (chiefly), Nebraska,Dakota, Idaho, and Wyoming territories.		Cheyenne: Pop. 11,320.
Wool, lumber, coal, copper, petroleum, minerals.
* Original Thirteen States. ‡ Organized Territories.

Cities.—In January, 1917, three cities of the United States, New York, Chicago and Philadelphia, had a population of over one million. St. Louis, Boston, Cleveland, Baltimore, Pittsburgh and Detroit had each over 500,000. Buffalo, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Newark, New Orleans, Washington, Minneapolis and Seattle had over 300,000. Forty-seven others had populations ranging from 100,000 to 300,000; while altogether there were one hundred and ninety-eight above 30,000.

The following table gives the approximate population of all cities in excess of 100,000.

POPULATION OF CITIES HAVING OVER 100,000 IN 1917

CitiesEst. Pop.
Jan. 1,
1917
Akron, Ohio106,000
Albany, N.Y.110,000
Atlanta, Ga.191,000
Baltimore, Md.590,000
Birmingham, Ala.182,000
Boston, Mass.757,000
Bridgeport, Ct.150,000
Buffalo, N.Y.469,000
Cambridge, Mass.112,000
Camden, N.J.105,000
Chicago, Ill.2,498,000
Cincinnati, Ohio411,000
Cleveland, Ohio674,000
Columbus, Ohio215,000
Dallas, Tex.135,000
Dayton, Ohio.130,000
Denver, Col.261,000
Des Moines, Iowa106,000
Detroit, Mich.572,000
Fall River, Mass.130,000
Fort Worth, Tex.100,000
Grand Rapids, Mich.141,856
Hartford, Ct.145,000
Houston, Tex.148,000
Indianapolis, Ind.272,000
Jersey, City, N.J.306,000
Kansas City, Mo.298,000
Los Angeles, Cal.504,000
Louisville, Ky.239,000
Lowell, Mass.111,000
Memphis, Tenn.160,000
Milwaukee, Wis.437,000
Minneapolis, Minn.364,000
Nashville, Tenn.135,000
Newark, N.J.408,000
New Bedford, Mass.113,000
New Haven, Ct.150,000
New Orleans, La.372,000
New York City5,603,000
Oakland, Cal.192,000
Omaha, Neb.166,000
Paterson, N.J.126,000
Philadelphia, Pa.1,710,000
Pittsburgh, Pa.580,000
Portland, Ore.296,000
Providence, R.I.255,000
Reading, Pa.107,000
Richmond, Va.157,000
Rochester, N.Y.257,000
Salt Lake City, Utah125,000
San Antonio, Tex.125,000
San Diego, Cal.100,000
San Francisco, Cal.464,000
Scranton, Pa.150,000
Seattle, Wash.349,000
Spokane, Wash.125,000
Springfield, Mass.102,103
St. Joseph, Mo.101,800
St. Louis, Mo.758,000
St. Paul, Minn.247,000
Syracuse, N.Y.155,000
Tacoma, Wash.108,094
Toledo, Ohio192,000
Trenton, N.J.110,000
Washington, D.C.364,000
Worcester, Mass.164,000
Youngstown, Ohio118,000

Atlanta (ăt-lăn´tȧ), Ga. [The “Gate City”; the name Atlanta was suggested by its geographical position, immediately on the dividing ridge, separating the Gulf and Atlantic waters.]

It is situated at the base of the Blue Ridge, near the Chattahoochee River; has an elevation of over one thousand feet, and a remarkably healthful climate.

Atlanta is laid out in the form of a circle, with the Union Depot as its center. A little to the south of the old Union Station is the State Capitol, which contains a library of about sixty thousand volumes and an interesting geological collection. A little to the northwest is the New Court House; and farther to the north, beyond the railway, are the Custom House and the L. & N. Freight House, an enormous concrete structure. The City Hall, the Chamber of Commerce, the Opera House, the Carnegie Library (of white marble), the Century Building, the Empire Building, the Equitable Building, the Jewish Temple, and the First Methodist Church are notable edifices. Among the chief educational establishments are the Georgia School of Technology, the Atlanta University (for colored students), the Agnes Scott Institute, and the Clark University (colored students). The finest private houses are in Peachtree Street.

Several railroads, converging at Atlanta and leading to other important Southern cities, greatly facilitate the city’s extensive and rapidly increasing trade. It has a large export trade in tobacco, cotton, horses, and mules, its mule market being one of the most important in the United States. Its manufactures include implements, fertilizers, cotton goods, other foundry and machine products.

Atlanta was first settled in 1830. In 1843 it was incorporated as a town, and called Marthasville. In 1845 changed its name to Atlanta, and two years later secured a city charter. It was an important city in the Confederacy and the objective point of General Sherman’s campaign. The battle of Atlanta (July 22, 1864) was fought southeast of the city. In September the city was made a military camp by Sherman, and in November he left the city in flames, and started on his “march to the sea.” The city was almost entirely destroyed, but recovered rapidly after the war, and in 1878 became the capital of Georgia.

Baltimore (bôl´tĭ-mōr), Md. [The “Monumental City”; named for the proprietor of a large tract of land in Maryland, Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, who settled the province in 1635.]

It is situated on an estuary of the Patapsco River, at the head of navigation, about fourteen miles from Chesapeake Bay, and is on the Baltimore and Ohio, the Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington, and other railroads. A good harbor and fine geographical situation give Baltimore unusual trade advantages, and it has become one of the great export centers of the United States.

The city is roughly divided into two nearly equal parts by a small stream, Jones Falls, which flows entirely through the city. The portion of the city northeast of the stream is called “Old Town.” Baltimore Street is the chief longitudinal thoroughfare.

The natural center for the visitor is Mt. Vernon Place, a small square, prettily laid out and suggesting Paris in its tasteful monuments and surrounding buildings. In the middle rises the Washington Monument, a column one hundred and thirty feet high, surmounted by a colossal statue of George Washington.

At the northeast corner of the square is the handsome Mt. Vernon Methodist Episcopal Church; at the southeast corner, Peabody Institute, for the encouragement of science, art, and general knowledge.

On the south side of the square is the house of Henry Walters, connected by an overhead bridge with a new picture-gallery containing the celebrated Walters Collection, one of the finest private collections of art in America.

Charles Street, one of the chief thoroughfares of the city, leads to the north from the Washington Monument past the Union Station, near which, at the north end of the B. & O. tunnel, is the Mt. Royal Station. Following Charles Street to the south we pass (right) the First Unitarian Church and the back of the Roman Catholic Cathedral, which faces Cathedral Street. The latter is surmounted by a dome one hundred and twenty-five feet high, and contains some interesting paintings. Adjacent is the residence of the Cardinal.

Farther on Charles Street passes the Masonic Temple, intersects Baltimore Street, the chief business street of the city, and is continued to South Baltimore. In East Fayette Street, to the left, is the Court House, a handsome white marble building, and the Post Office, in front of which rises the Battle Monument, erected in 1815 in memory of the struggles of the war of 1812-1814. The interior of the Court House is adorned with admirable mural paintings. To the east of the Post Office is the City Hall, a large and handsome building, with a dome two hundred and sixty feet high.

To the south of the City Hall, in Gay Street, between Water and Lombard Streets, is the imposing new Custom House, which was damaged by the fire of 1904, but has since been repaired and completed.

A little to the west of Mt. Vernon Place, between Howard St. and Eutaw St., are the unpretentious buildings formerly occupied by Johns Hopkins University, one of the foremost institutions of learning in the country. It was endowed with over three million five hundred thousand dollars by Johns Hopkins, a Quaker. In 1902 a suburban site about two miles north of the Washington Monument was secured for this famous university, and the first of a fine group of buildings was occupied by it in 1914.

The Johns Hopkins Hospital, opened in 1889, is also due to the liberality of Mr. Hopkins, who bequeathed over three million dollars for its foundation.

Both as a scientific and charitable institution, this hospital is an important adjunct to the University; and in the completeness of its equipment and excellence of its system, it ranks with the foremost hospitals in the world. The buildings of the Medical School of Johns Hopkins University adjoin the hospital.

Druid Hill Park, a pleasure-ground of about seven hundred acres, owes its beauty in great part to the fact that is has been preserved as a private park for one hundred years before passing into the hands of the city. Its hills afford beautiful views. Druid Lake, one-half mile long, is one of the reservoirs of the city waterworks.

Baltimore is an important center of the traffic in breadstuffs, and is also the seat of extensive and varied industries—cotton and woolen goods, flour, tobacco and cigars, beer, glassware, boots and shoes, iron and steel (including machinery, car-wheels, iron bridges, stoves, furnaces, etc.), clothing, pianos, organs, and the canning of oysters. Shipbuilding has become an important development, and Sparrows Point, with its immense Bessemer steel plant, is a place of great industrial activity.

The construction of the first important line of railway in the United States was begun at Baltimore in 1828 and carried on by private enterprise, and the first telegraph line was constructed to, and the first message received in, Baltimore. In 1904 Baltimore was visited by a fire which consumed fifty million dollars’ worth of property.

SOME VIEWS IN BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS: RIVER FRONT, PARKS AND NOTABLE BUILDINGS

THE CHARLES RIVER EMBANKMENT

STATE HOUSE BOSTON COMMON TREMONT STREET

Boston (bôs´ton), Mass. [Called the “Hub” and “Athens of America”; name is derived from Boston, a seaport in England, originally called Botalf, or Botolph’s town.]

The capital of Massachusetts, the chief town of New England, Boston is one of the oldest and most interesting cities of the United States. Whether considered from the point of view of its educational and charitable institutions, its trade, manufactures and public buildings, its influence upon the intellectual life and literary culture of the nation, or its historic part as an inspirational center of political liberty and social reform, its record and position command attention.

In no other American city are the civic and other public buildings more closely associated with events of national importance.

CUSTOM HOUSE

TRINITY CHURCH COPLEY-PLAZA HOTEL

PIERCE BUILDING PUBLIC LIBRARY

BUNKER HILL MONUMENT

CUSTOM HOUSE

TRINITY CHURCH COPLEY-PLAZA HOTEL

PIERCE BUILDING PUBLIC LIBRARY

BUNKER HILL MONUMENT

Boston is situated at the head of Massachusetts Bay, about two hundred miles northeast of New York, and occupies a peninsula between the Charles River and the arm of the bay known as Boston Harbor. Originally the town was founded on three hills, Beacon, Copp’s and Fort, which, however, have been materially cut down. The metropolitan area now includes also East Boston, on Noddle’s or Maverick Island, on the other side of the harbor; South Boston, separated from the old city by an arm of the harbor; Charlestown, on the other side of the river; and the suburban districts of Brighton, Roxbury (or Boston Highlands), West Roxbury (including Jamaica Plain), and Dorchester. Boston is connected with the city of Cambridge by several bridges across the Charles. The old town is cramped and irregular, and its streets are narrow and crooked; but the new parts, especially the so-called Back Bay, formed by filling in the tide-water flats on the Charles, are laid out on a very spacious scale.

The chief retail business streets of Boston are Washington Street and Tremont Street. Among the finest residence streets are Commonwealth Avenue, Beacon Street, Marlborough Street, Mt. Vernon Street, and Bay State Road.

Boston Common, a park of forty-eight acres in the heart of the city, shaded by fine elms and other trees and crossed by many pleasant walks, has been reserved for public use since 1634 and is carefully guarded for this purpose in the charter of 1822. Just across Charles from the Common is the fine Public Garden, reclaimed from what was low-lying waste land.

That part of the Common adjoining Tremont Street and known as the Tremont Street Mall is now occupied by eight small buildings, covering the entrances to the stations of the Boston Subway, a wonderful piece of engineering that facilitates traffic by an underground system of electric cars. The subway was, in part, constructed in 1895-1898, at a cost of about four million one hundred and sixty-five thousand dollars, and since greatly extended by the expenditure of many millions more.

Near the northeast angle of the Common, on Beacon Hill, stands the State House, an imposing building surmounted by a huge gilded dome, and preceded by a Corinthian portico and a flight of steps. On the terrace in front are statues of Daniel Webster and Horace Mann. The dome is illuminated at night.

In Beacon Street, opposite the State House, is the beautiful Shaw Monument, by Saint-Gaudens, erected in honor of Colonel Shaw and his regiment, the first colored regiment raised during the Civil war.

In Pemberton Square is the new County Court House, a massive granite building in the German Renaissance style, with an imposing central hall adorned with emblematic figures. In School Street, to the left, is the City Hall, behind which is the Old Court House. In front of the City Hall are statues of Franklin and Josiah Quincy.

School Street ends at the large Old South Building in Washington Street, the most crowded thoroughfare in Boston, with many of the best shops. Following Washington Street (“Newspaper Row”) to the left, we soon reach, at the corner of State Street, the Old State House, dating from 1748 and restored as far as possible to its original appearance, even to the figures of the British lion and unicorn on the roof.

State Street, the center of financial life, leads to the east, past the Exchange Building (with the Stock Exchange) and other large office buildings, to the Custom House, a massive granite building in the shape of a Greek cross, with lofty tower.

Change Alley (now inappropriately styled “Avenue”), diverging to the left from State Street leads to Faneuil Hall, the “cradle of American liberty,” originally presented to the city in 1742, by Peter Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant, but rebuilt after a fire in 1761 and reconstructed on the original plan in 1898.

Devonshire Street leads to the right from State Street to the Government Building, a huge edifice occupying the entire block between Milk Street, Devonshire Street, Water Street and Post Office Square. The Post Office occupies the ground floor, the basement, and part of the first floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to the United States Sub-Treasury and the United States Courts.

At the corner of Washington Street stands the Old South Meeting House, built in 1729 on the site of an earlier church of wood, which lay near Governor Winthrop’s house.

Boylston Street, another important thoroughfare, diverging from Washington Street to the right, skirts the Common and Public Garden and leads to the Back Bay. At the corner of Berkeley Street (right) stands the Museum of Natural History, with a library of thirty thousand volumes and good zoological, ornithological, entomological and mineralogical collections. Opposite is the Berkeley Building, a structure of a fine commercial type. Adjacent are old buildings of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, one of the leading institutions of the kind in the world. It now occupies a magnificent group of buildings on the Cambridge side of the Charles River, erected at a cost of ten million dollars.

Boylston Street now reaches Copley Square, which offers perhaps the finest architectural group in Boston, including Trinity Church, the Copley-Plaza Hotel, the Public Library, the New Old South Church, and a number of imposing business structures. (See [illustrations].)

Trinity Church, on the east side of the square, the masterpiece of H. H. Richardson and a typical example of “Richardsonian” architecture, is deservedly regarded as one of the finest buildings in America. Its style may be described as a free treatment of the Romanesque of Central France.

The Public Library, on the west side of the square, designed by McKim, Mead & White, and erected in 1888-1895, is a dignified, simple and scholarly edifice which forms a worthy mate to the Trinity Church. Its style is that of the Roman Renaissance.

The New Old South Church, so called as the successor of the Old South Church, is a fine building in the Italian Gothic style, with a tower two hundred and forty-eight feet in height. The marbles and ornamental stone work are very fine.

Huntington Avenue, which diverges to the left from Boylston Street at Copley Square, contains many important buildings. This thoroughfare, and the district known as the Back Bay Fens, is celebrated for its cultural institutions. Among them are Mechanics Hall, Horticultural Hall, the imposing Symphony Hall, the New England Conservatory of Music, and the new Opera House—all in Huntington Avenue. Just beyond this is the New Museum of Fine Arts, a large granite edifice by Guy Lowell, admirably adapted for its ends. Farther out, at the corner of Longwood Avenue, are the extensive new buildings of the Harvard Medical School, erected at a cost of five million dollars, and equipped in the most complete and up-to-date manner.

Commonwealth Avenue, which runs parallel with Boylston Street, is one of the finest residence streets in America, with rows of trees and handsome houses. It is two hundred and forty feet wide and adorned with statues.

Beacon Street, beginning on Beacon Hill, skirting the north side of the Common, and then running parallel with Commonwealth Avenue is the aristocratic street of Boston. Its back-windows command a fine view of the Charles River.

The Back Bay, the fashionable west end district traversed by the above-named streets, was at the beginning of the nineteenth century occupied by dreary mud-flats, salt-marshes and water.

The Back Bay Fens have been skillfully laid out on the site of unsightly swamps and form the first link in the splendid chain of parks and boulevards, of which Franklin Park is the chief ornament. The chief entrances to the Fens are marked by a gateway and a fountain; and at the end of Boylston Street is a fine memorial of John Boyle O’Reilly, by D. C. French.

Fenway Court, the residence of Mrs. John L. Gardner, a building in a Venetian style, enclosing a courtyard and incorporating many original balconies, windows, and other details brought from Italy, contains a choice collection of art, which is open to the public from time to time.

Franklin Park is five hundred and twenty acres in extent and lies in West Roxbury (reached by electric car). It abounds in natural beauty and many of its drives and walks are very attractive.

The Public Park System of Boston, as a whole, is almost unique. The City Park System, with a total area of twenty-four hundred acres, forms an almost unbroken line of parks and parkways from the Public Garden to City Point, in Boston Harbor. The Metropolitan System, forming an outer line of parks, has an area of eleven thousand acres, including two large wooded reservations (Blue Hills, and Middlesex Fells), three beaches (Revere Beach, Nantasket Beach, and Lynn Beach), and the boating section of the Charles River. When completed this system will afford fifty miles of drives.

The North End of Boston, embracing the site of Copp’s Hill, now one of the poorer districts and occupied mainly by foreigners, contains some points of considerable historical interest. The Copp’s Hill Burial Ground, dating from 1660, contains the graves of Increase, Cotton and Samuel Mather. Adjacent, in Salem Street, is Christ Church, the oldest church now standing in the city (1723), on the steeple of which the signal-lanterns of Paul Revere are said to have been displayed on April 18th, 1775, to warn the country of the march of the British troops to Lexington and Concord. North Square is the center of what is known as “Little Italy.” The House of Paul Revere has recently been restored and contains some relics.

Within metropolitan Boston are many famous institutions of learning. At the head of these stand Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Radcliffe College, the greater part of whose schools are in the adjoining city of Cambridge and the remaining in Boston. Among the institutions of higher education are Boston University, with its affiliated colleges, its schools of law, medicine, and theology, and its post-graduate department in philosophy, science, and language; the medical, dental, and agricultural schools of Harvard University; Boston College; the medical and dental schools of Tufts College; Simmons College for Women; the New England Conservatory of Music; the Massachusetts Normal Art School; the Lowell Institute; and the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy.

Wellesley College is situated in the beautiful village of Wellesley, about fifteen miles from Boston, on Lake Waban.

Besides Trinity Church, already referred to, there are upward of three hundred other edifices. Chief of these are the Cathedral of the Holy [595] Cross, on the corner of Washington and Malden Streets, the largest and most noteworthy Catholic church in New England; Arlington Street Church, corner of Arlington and Boylston Streets; First Church of Christ, Scientist, on Falmouth Street, corner of Norway; and Fremont Temple, a Free Baptist Church.

The beauty of the parks, squares, and of many public buildings is enhanced by monuments and statues, of which the following are the chief: Bunker Hill Monument in Charlestown, two hundred and twenty feet high, built of granite and commemorative of the resistance and heroism of American patriots at the Battle of Bunker Hill; the equestrian statue of Washington in the Public Garden; the monument to Colonel Shaw; the Soldiers’ Monument in the Common; the Crispus Attucks monument, a memorial of the Boston Massacre of 1770; statues to General Joseph Warren, Edward Everett, Charles Sumner, Alexander Hamilton, Governor Winthrop, William Lloyd Garrison, Benjamin Franklin, Josiah Quincy, Beethoven, Daniel Webster, Horace Mann, Phillips Brooks and many other notable men.

The principal industries of Boston are the manufacture of food preparations, clothing, building, printing, publishing, and book-binding, distilled liquors, machinery, metals and metallic goods, and furniture. Other important manufactures include musical instruments, woolen goods, boots and shoes, rubber goods, tobacco, and drugs and medicines. As a commercial port, Boston ranks next to New York, the value of foreign trade amounting to two hundred million dollars annually. After London, the city is the leading wool market of the world.

Boston was settled in 1630 by a party of Puritans from Salem. A memorable massacre occurred here in 1770, and in 1773 several cargoes of English tea were thrown overboard in the harbor by citizens. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought on Breed’s Hill, within the present city limits, June 17, 1775. The city charter was granted in 1822.

Cambridge (kām´brĭj), Mass. [So named for the English university town of that name. The English name is supposed to mean “the bridge over the river Cam,” the real name of which is the Granta.]

It is virtually a suburb of Boston, from which it is separated by the Charles River, and with which it is connected by several bridges. The city comprises Old Cambridge, the seat of Harvard University, North Cambridge, East Cambridge, Cambridgeport, and Mount Auburn. The streets are broad and shaded with elms, and there are many places of historical and literary interest, among these the Craigie House and “Elmwood,” the homes of Longfellow and Lowell, respectively; and Mount Auburn Cemetery, containing the graves of Longfellow, Lowell, Prescott, Motley, Agassiz, Holmes, and other noted men.

The chief interest of Cambridge, however, lies in its educational institutions, which include Harvard University, Radcliffe College (for women), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Episcopal Theological School, and Andover Theological Seminary. All these institutions are now in close working alliance with Harvard University.

Harvard University, founded in 1636, is not only the oldest but the richest of American universities, and the roster of graduates contains more than twenty thousand names. Massachusetts Hall is the oldest of the present buildings, being built in 1720. The most notable buildings architecturally (besides the fine Medical School group in Boston) are: Austin Hall and Longdell Hall, devoted to the Law School; Widener Memorial Library, a splendid new building dominating the college yard; Busch Hall, devoted to the art collections of the Germanic Museum; Memorial Hall, containing Sanders Theater; and Sever Hall, containing class-rooms.

The activities of the university require upward of sixty other buildings, including laboratories, lecture halls, museums, residence halls, and a number of fine structures devoted to the social, religious, athletic and art life of the student body.

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, founded in 1861, is located on the Charles River Parkway, and occupies a newly acquired area of about seventy acres. Here has been erected a magnificent group of buildings, unrivaled, perhaps, in design, adaptation for their respective uses, and general equipment. This institution is devoted to the teaching of science as applied to the various engineering professions—civil, mechanical, mining, electrical, chemical, and sanitary engineering—as well as to architecture, chemistry, metallurgy, physics, and geology.

Among the industrial establishments are foundries, machine shops, and extensive manufactories. The Riverside, Athenæum, and University Presses are well-known printing establishments, and the “Bay Psalm Book,” the first book printed in America, was published in Cambridge in 1640.

Cambridge was settled in 1630 by Governor Winthrop under the name of Newtowne. In 1636 Harvard College was founded at Newtowne, and in 1638 Newtowne became Cambridge. The Washington elm, under which Washington received command of the American troops, is still standing.

Under this ancient elm near the Cambridge Common, Washington assumed command of the American Continental army July 3, 1775, by order of the Continental Congress. It is therefore one of the landmarks of the greatest historic interest to every liberty-loving American—man, woman, or child.

MICHIGAN BOULEVARD AND GRANT PARK, CHICAGO, VIEWED FROM THE WEST SHORE OF LAKE MICHIGAN

1. Blackstone Hotel 2. Harvester Building 3. Congress Hotel 4. Auditorium Hotel 5. Fine Arts Building 6. Chicago Club 7. McCormick Building 8. Stratford Hotel 9. Railway Exchange 10. Orchestra Hall 11. Pullman Building 12. Gas Building 13. Lake View Building 14. Illinois Athletic Club 15. Monroe Building 16. University Club 17. Ward Building

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Chicago (shĭ-kä´gō), Ill. [The “Windy City”], probably received its name from the Indian Checagua, meaning “wild onion” and “pole-cat.”

It is the second city and largest railway center of the United States, and is situated on the southwest shore of Lake Michigan, at the mouths of the rivers Chicago and Calumet, five hundred and ninety feet above sea level and fifteen to seventy-five feet above the lake. It is eight hundred and fifty miles from Baltimore, the nearest Atlantic port, and two thousand four hundred and fifteen miles from San Francisco.

Chicago is noted for the magnitude of its commercial enterprises; for the greatness of its financial institutions; for the excellence of its parks and public playgrounds—particularly in the number, equipment, and splendid use of its small parks in congested localities; for its universities, its efficient public-school system, and for other educational, artistic, and morally uplifting institutions that give to it an enlightened, a cultured, and a progressive citizenship.

It is estimated that not more than 350,000 of the inhabitants are of native American parentage; about 550,000 are Germans, 250,000 are Irish, 225,000 Scandinavians, 160,000 Poles, 110,000 Bohemians, 40,000 Italians, 60,000 Canadians, and 100,000 English and Scottish. There are some fourteen languages, besides English, each of which is spoken by ten thousand or more persons.

The city has a water-front on the lake of twenty-six miles and is divided by the Chicago River and its branches into three portions, known as the North, South, and West Sides, to which must be added the “Loop,” or business part of the city. The site of the city is remarkably level, rising very slightly from the lake; and its streets are usually wide and straight. Among the chief business-thoroughfares are State, Clark, Madison, Randolph, Dearborn, and La Salle Streets, and Wabash Avenue. Perhaps the finest residence streets are Prairie and Michigan Avenues and Drexel and Grand Boulevards, on the South Side, and Lake Shore Drive, on the North Side.

A splendid bird’s-eye view of Chicago is obtained by ascending to the top of the tower of the Auditorium on Congress Street and Michigan Boulevard. This huge building, erected in 1887-1889 at a cost of three million five hundred thousand dollars, includes a large hotel and a handsome theater. The Fine Arts or Studebaker Building, adjoining the Auditorium, on Michigan Boulevard, is one of the show buildings of Chicago, and has deservedly been described as the focus of the artistic and intellectual life of Chicago, containing as it does a theater, concert, assembly, and lecture rooms, studios of leading artists, and the meeting-places of several clubs. The beautiful Romanesque building to the north of the Fine Arts Building is the Chicago Club. A little farther to the north, at the corner of Jackson Boulevard, is the tall Railway Exchange Building, erected in 1903-1904, and cased in tiles. Next to this on the north is the new building of the Chicago Orchestra Association, on the roof of which is the house of the “Cliff Dwellers,” a literary and artistic club. A little to the south of the Auditorium, at the corner of Harrison Street, is the Harvester Building, erected in 1907, beyond which is the palatial Blackstone Hotel. A little farther to the south is the Illinois Central Station.

Following Michigan Avenue toward the north from the Auditorium, we reach the Art Institute of Chicago, an imposing building in a semi-classical style, containing a valuable collection of paintings, sculptures, and other objects of art. Opposite is the magnificent People’s Gas Building, erected at a cost of eight million dollars.

Farther to the north, on the opposite side of Michigan Avenue, are the buildings of the Illinois Athletic Club, the University Club, and the Chicago Athletic Club. At the corner of Madison Street is the Montgomery Ward Building, with its tower, and a little farther up, at the corner of Washington Street, is the Chicago Public Library, an imposing building in a classical style, erected in 1893-1897, at a cost of two million dollars.

This fine edifice is worthy to rank with the Library of Congress and the Boston Public Library. The main entrances are to the north and south, in Randolph Street and Washington Street. The interior is sumptuously adorned with marble, mosaics, frescoes and mottoes. It contains three hundred and fifty thousand volumes. On the first floor is a large Memorial Hall, used by the Grand Army of the Republic and covered by a dome; it contains an interesting collection of Civil War and other historical relics.

On the north, Michigan Avenue ends at the Chicago River. Fort Dearborn stood to the left, on the river, at the end of the avenue.

The business quarters of Chicago occupy chiefly the great central district called the “Loop,” which is bounded by the lines of the Elevated Railway. We may follow Randolph Street to the west to the City Hall and County Building, two large adjoining buildings, in a modern classical style with huge Corinthian columns, built at a cost of five million dollars.

La Salle Street, leading to the south from the County Building, contains some of the finest office buildings in the city. Among these are the Chamber of Commerce at the corner of Washington Street; the Tacoma Building at the corner of Madison Street; the Y. M. C. A. Building, a little farther to the south; the New York Life Insurance Building; the low but impressive Northern Trust Co. Building, and the oddly shaped Women’s Temperance Temple, all three at the corners of Monroe Street; the new granite building of the Corn Exchange National Bank, the Home Insurance Co. Building, and the Rookery, with a very attractive interior lined with white marble. Farther on in La Salle Street, at the corner of Jackson Boulevard, is the Illinois Trust & Savings Bank, a massive two-storied edifice, with a fine central court. At the end of La Salle Street stands the granite building of the Board of Trade.

Jackson Boulevard leads hence to the east to the Federal Building, containing the Post Office and Custom House and occupying an entire city square. It is in the Corinthian style, with a large central dome two hundred feet in height.

Other notable buildings within the “Loop” district include: the Continental and Commercial Bank, Hotel La Salle, First National Bank, and the great department store, office, newspaper, and hotel buildings.

The park system of Chicago is without a parallel in America; it embraces Lincoln Park, on the lake shore to the north, and six others, and is divided into three sections, all connected or nearly so by magnificent boulevards, which, with the park drives, measure over sixty miles. In all, Chicago has ninety-three parks, covering more than four thousand four hundred acres. A characteristic feature of the system is the large number of small “People’s Parks” scattered through the poorer districts and provided with baths, gymnasiums and playgrounds. On the north side is Lincoln Park, reached via Lake Shore Drive, one of the finest residence streets in Chicago, containing some very handsome houses. This passes near the Water Works, at the foot of Chicago Avenue, and ends on the north at Lincoln Park, which is at present three hundred acres in area, but is being extended by filling in the adjacent shallows of Lake Michigan.

Among the attractions of this park are the conservatories, palm-house, lily-ponds, and flower-beds; a small zoological collection; a fountain illuminated at night by electric light; the statues of Lincoln (by Saint-Gaudens), Grant (by Rebisso), Beethoven, Schiller, La Salle, a Mounted Indian, and Linnaeus; and the boating lake. Near the main entrance is the Academy of Sciences, containing admirably arranged and classified collections illustrating the various natural sciences.

Grant Park, consisting of a public pleasure ground of two hundred and ten acres, lies between Michigan Boulevard and Lake Michigan. This park has been improved of late by the depression of the tracks of the Illinois Central Railway and by the construction of massive stone viaducts connecting the park proper with the lake shore. The adjoining part of the lake, between the shore and the breakwater, has been filled in and added to the park. In Grant Park, to the south of the Auditorium and opposite Eldredge Place, is an equestrian statute of General John A. Logan, in bronze, by Saint-Gaudens.

The South Side parks are also fine. They are best reached by Michigan Avenue and Drexel Boulevards, two fine residence streets with tasteful houses and ornamental gardens. Michigan Avenue also contains several churches, the Calumet Club, numerous large hotels and apartment houses, and the First Regiment Armory. In Drexel Boulevard is the handsome Drexel Memorial Fountain.

Washington Park (three hundred and seventy-one acres) and Jackson Park (five hundred and twenty-three acres) are connected by a wide boulevard known as the Midway Plaisance, on which is located the University of Chicago.

The West Side parks, Douglas Park, Garfield Park, and Humboldt Park are little inferior to those of the North and South Sides.

The University of Chicago, between Fifty-sixth and Fifty-ninth Streets, occupies probably the finest group of buildings, architecturally, devoted to higher education in the United States. The total value of buildings and equipment is more [598] than thirty million dollars, one-fourth of which was contributed by citizens of Chicago and the balance by John D. Rockefeller. The ground has an area of sixty-six acres, and the university includes faculties of Arts, Literature, Science, Commerce and Administration, Education, Medicine, Law, and Divinity.

Above thirty different buildings have already been erected, mainly of limestone and in a Gothic style, from the designs of H. I. Cobb and Mr. Coolidge. Perhaps the most successful group is that at the corner of Fifty-seventh Street and Lexington Avenue, including an Assembly Hall, a Students’ Club House, the University Tower, and the University Commons. Other important buildings are the Cobb Lecture Hall, the Kent Chemical Laboratory, the Ryerson Physical Laboratory, the Law School, the Anatomy, Physiology, Zoology, and Botany Buildings, the Walker Museum, the Haskell Oriental Museum, the handsome Bartlett Gymnasium, dormitories for women and dormitories for men. On the south edge of the campus stands the main structure of the Harper Memorial Library, an enormous Gothic building by Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge, erected in memory of President Wm. R. Harper. The Yerkes Observatory, at Williams Bay on Lake Geneva, containing one of the largest refracting telescopes in the world, belongs to the University of Chicago. Connected with the University is the large School of Education, facing the Midway Plaisance, between Monroe and Kimbark Avenues.

Other notable educational institutions include the Lewis Institute, founded and endowed by the late Mr. A. A. Lewis and opened in 1896, comprising a School of Arts and a School of Engineering, tuition in which is furnished at a nominal cost; and the Armour Institute, a well equipped institution for higher technical education, endowed by its founder with three million dollars.

Hull House, at the southwest corner of Polk and South Halsted Streets, is a social settlement of men and women, furnishing a social, intellectual, and charitable center for the surrounding district. It includes a free kindergarten, a coffee-house, a residential boys’ club, a theater, a labor-museum, and a free gymnasium, while classes, lectures, and concerts of various kinds are held.

The famous Union Stockyards (“Packingtown”) are in South Halsted Street, five and one-half miles to the southwest of the City Hall, and may be reached by the South Halsted Street or Racine Avenue trolley-lines, both running directly to the main entrance at Forty-first Street. The yards proper cover an area of about five hundred acres, have twenty-five miles of feeding-troughs, and twenty miles of water-troughs, and can accommodate seventy-five thousand cattle, three hundred thousand hogs, fifty thousand sheep, and five thousand horses. From two-thirds to three-fourths of the cattle and hogs are killed in the yards, and sent out in the form of meat. About thirty thousand workers are employed by the packing-houses. Chicago is the greatest live stock and grain market in the world.

Among the more important general manufactures of the city may be mentioned those of railway cars, locomotives, agricultural implements, mining appliances, clothing, electrical apparatus, lumber products, furniture, pianos, organs, leather, cigars, chemicals, beer, spirits, and flour. The steel and iron industry is conducted on a large scale, and the city has some large rolling mills. Chicago is also one of the leading publishing centers of the United States, and is an active jobbing center for the book trade.

As a center of railroad industry Chicago takes precedence over all cities of the world. Twenty-six of the principal trunk-line railroads of the United States run trains into Chicago terminals, and in addition to these there are numerous belt transfer, terminal and industrial lines which have either a part or all of their trackage in the city. Within the corporate limits of the city are eight hundred miles of main line railway and one thousand four hundred miles of auxiliary track. The total mileage of the twenty-six roads entering Chicago approximates ninety-seven thousand miles, or about forty-two per cent of the total mileage of the United States. The land occupied by main line property within Chicago represents nine thousand six hundred acres, or eight per cent of the entire area of the city.

There are six principal passenger terminals in Chicago, located as follows:

Baltimore & Ohio Terminal (Grand Central Station), at Fifth Avenue and Harrison Street. Central Station, at Michigan Avenue and Twelfth Street. Chicago & North Western Passenger Terminal, at North Clinton, West Madison, and North Canal Streets. La Salle Street Station, with entrance on Van Buren Street. Dearborn Station, at Dearborn and Polk Streets. Union Passenger Station, at Adams and Canal Streets.

Present plans are under way, however, to concentrate all roads entering Chicago in three great union stations—the North Western Station (already built, at a cost of $25,000,000), the Illinois Central Station, and the Pennsylvania Station, the two latter involving an expenditure of one hundred and fifty million dollars.

The water carrying trade of Chicago is comparable to that of New York and Boston, and exceeds that of Philadelphia, New Orleans, Baltimore, and San Francisco.

The Chicago Tunnel System involves a labyrinth of small tunnels or subways, six by seven and one-half feet in size, and sixty-two miles long, forty feet under the principal business streets within the Loop district. These tunnels connect with all railway freight depots, passenger stations and, through their sub-basements, with a number of the larger mercantile concerns. They also extend beyond the Loop—north, south, and west—a distance of about two miles. They are not designed for passenger traffic, but are used by cars laden with all sorts of merchandise, coal, ashes, etc.

There are three underground power stations, four universal freight and transfer stations (one of them occupying five floors below the ground), eighty-five ordinary stations, and twelve tunnels, extending sixty feet under the Chicago River or its branches. So far, between thirty million and forty million dollars have been expended on construction and equipment. The bores also contain the cables of the automatic telephone company.

The site of Chicago was first visited by Joliet and Marquette in 1673. The United States Government established there the frontier post of Fort Dearborn in 1804. On October 8 and 9, 1871, occurred the memorable fire which reduced the greater part of the city to ashes. In 1886 occurred the Haymarket riot, in 1893 the World’s Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago, and in 1894 the Pullman strike, the greatest in history, centered in Chicago.

Cincinnati (sin-si-nä´ti), Ohio. [The “Queen City,” named in honor of Cincinnatus, the Roman patriot.]

It is the second city of Ohio, on the north bank of the river Ohio, two hundred and seventy miles southeast of Chicago by rail, opposite the cities of Covington and Newport, in Kentucky. Steam ferries and six lofty bridges connect the city with the Kentucky shore; the suspension bridge by Roebling is two thousand two hundred and fifty feet long, and cost one million eight hundred thousand dollars.

Cincinnati occupies an exceedingly broken and irregular site, the more densely built parts being [599] enclosed between the Ohio River and steep hills. The river front is upwards of fourteen miles in length. A second terrace is fifty or sixty feet higher, and a district between the hills and the Miami Canal, known as “over the Rhine,” is occupied by the large German colony.

The main portion of the city is regularly laid out and its streets are well paved. The chief shopping district is bounded by Fourth, Main, Seventh, and Elm Streets. The best residential quarters are on the surrounding highlands, built on a succession of irregular hills, by whose steepness they are broken into a series of some five and twenty villages, interspersed with parks.

Fountain Square, an expansion of Fifth Street, may, perhaps, be called the business center of the city and from it start most of the street railway lines. In the middle of the square stands the Tyler Davidson Fountain, cast at the Royal Bronze Foundry at Munich. To the north, at the corner of Fifth Street and Walnut Street, is the United States Government Building containing the Post Office, Custom House, and United States Law Courts, erected at a cost of five million dollars. It is of sawed freestone in the Corinthian style.

By following Fifth Street to the west and turning to the left down Vine Street, we pass the entrance to the Emery Arcade and reach, at the corner of the busy Fourth Street, the Chamber of Commerce. Opposite, at the northeast corner of Fourth and Vine Streets, stands the Ingalls Building. On the north side of Fourth Street, between Vine and Race Streets, is the fine Third National Bank.

Following Fourth Street towards the west, we soon reach Plum Street, which we may follow to the right to St. Paul’s Protestant Cathedral, at the corner of Seventh Street; the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Peter, at the corner of Eighth Street, and the Synagogue, opposite the last. In the block bounded by Central Avenue and Eighth, Ninth and Plum Streets is the City Hall, a large red building in a Romanesque style, with a lofty tower, constructed of brown granite and red sandstone at a cost of one million six hundred thousand dollars. A little to the east, in Vine Street, between Sixth and Seventh Streets, is the Public Library. To the north of this point, “over the Rhine,” is Washington Park, with the Springer Music Hall and the Exposition Building.

Among other buildings may be mentioned the County Court House, St. Xavier’s College, the Oddfellows’ Temple and the Cincinnati Hospital. Recent buildings of the modern type include the Traction Building, the Mercantile Library, the Union Trust Building, and the First National Bank.

The chief park of Cincinnati is Eden Park, which lies on the hills to the east and affords fine views of the city and river. It contains the Art Museum, a storage reservoir of the City Water Works, and the Water Tower. The top of the last affords the best view of the city and its environs, the river, and the Kentucky Highlands.

The Art Museum is a handsome group of buildings on a hill-top, some in a Romanesque, others in a Grecian style. Adjacent is the Art Academy. Both are maintained by a private corporation.

There are more than two hundred and fifty churches, including a Roman Catholic cathedral; besides many handsome theaters, hotels, and public halls, hospitals and asylums, and schools.

The educational institutions are of the highest order. They include the University of Cincinnati, which has associated with it the Cincinnati Hospital and the Cincinnati Observatory, the Ohio and Miami Medical Colleges, St. Joseph’s and St. Xavier’s Jesuit Colleges, the Law Theological Seminary, Cincinnati Conservatory of Music and the Ohio Mechanics’ Institute.

Cincinnati is a center of musical and art culture, and its decorative pottery and wood-carving have a national reputation. It has a large river and canal traffic, and many railways converge here.

Among the factories are clothing factories, foundries, machine shops, coach-works, works for the manufacture of furniture, tobacco, shoes, leather, etc. There is some boat-building and printing; and the slaughter-houses, stockyards, and grain elevators are very extensive.

Cincinnati was settled by white men in 1780, was incorporated as a city in 1819, and early attained the name of “the Queen City of the West;” as also that of “Porkopolis,” from its great trade in pork. Great riots occurred in 1884, and were with difficulty suppressed by the military.

Cleveland, Ohio. [The “Forest City;” named in honor of General Moses Cleveland of Connecticut, who had charge of the surveying of this region, acting as general agent for the Connecticut Land Company.]

It is the largest city of Ohio, and is situated on the south shore of Lake Erie, three hundred and fifty miles by rail east of Chicago. The city is built mainly upon a plain from sixty to one hundred and fifty feet above the lake, and five hundred and eighty feet above sea-level. It is divided into the East and West Sides by the tortuous valley of the Cuyahoga River, which is crossed by two high-level bridges—one mainly of stone, and one of iron, three thousand nine hundred and thirty-one feet long. The former, one thousand and seventy feet long, was completed in 1878 at a cost of two million two hundred thousand dollars. There are three other similar viaducts in different parts of the city.

The chief business street is Superior Avenue, a really fine and wide thoroughfare, the west end of which is lined with substantial business blocks, such as the Perry-Payne Building. A little farther on the street expands into Monumental Park or the Public Square, containing a Soldiers’ Monument and a statue of General Moses Cleveland. The new Federal Building, at the northeast corner of the square, contains the Post Office, the Custom House, and the Court House.

This building is the first of several public buildings comprised in the so-called “Group Plan,” the others being the City Hall, County Building, Public Library, and Union Station. A broad mall connects all these buildings.

At the northwest corner is the Old Court House, adjoined by the American Trust Building. On the north side of the square, at the corner of Ontario Street, is the handsome building of the Society for Savings, established in 1849, and now having deposits of upwards of fifty million dollars. Adjacent is the Chamber of Commerce, containing a handsome auditorium, with a library and reading room. In Superior Avenue, beyond the Federal Building, is the massive City Hall, which is adjoined by the temporary building of the Public Library. A little to the north of this point is the huge Central Armory.

Euclid Avenue, which begins at the southeast angle of the Public Square, is, at its east end, also an important artery of business, and farther out becomes one of the most beautiful residence streets in America, with each of its handsome houses surrounded by pleasant grounds and shady trees. At the northeast corner of the Square and Euclid Avenue is the Williamson Building; a little farther on, also on the north side of the Avenue, is the handsome First National Bank; on the right is the tall, narrow building of the Guardian Savings & Trust Co. To the left is the Arcade, four hundred feet long, one hundred and eighty feet wide, and one hundred and forty-four feet high, with a fine five-balconied interior, running through to Superior Avenue; and to the right is the Colonial Arcade, running through to [600] Prospect Avenue. At the corner of East Sixth Street are the tall Garfield and New England Buildings. Nearly opposite the New England Building is the new Taylor Arcade, just east of which is the Hippodrome Building. Farther on, near east Ninth Street, is the Citizens Building, with the offices of the Citizens Savings & Trust Co., and at the corner is the Schofield Building. Directly opposite the latter, at the southeast corner of East Ninth Street and Euclid Avenue, is the Cleveland Trust Co. At the corner of East Twelfth Street is the handsome Union Club. Farther on are several fine churches. About four and one-half miles from the Public Square Euclid Avenue reaches University Circle, with a statue of Senator M. A. Hanna by Saint-Gaudens, and one of Kossuth, erected by the Hungarians of Cleveland. To the right is the building of the Western Reserve Historical Society, to the left is the Elysium, an artificial ice skating rink. Just beyond the Circle is the entrance to Wade Park, which contains statues of Commodore Perry, and a Goethe-Schiller Monument. Opposite the Park are the buildings of the Western Reserve University (including Adelbert College, Woman’s College, Law, Medical, and Dental Schools, and a Library School, in addition to the graduate department) and the Case School of Applied Science. About one mile farther on the avenue passes Lake View Cemetery, containing the Garfield Memorial, the Rockefeller Monolith, the graves of Senator Hanna and John Hay, and the Wade Memorial Chapel.

Prospect Avenue, which runs parallel to Euclid Avenue on the south, is little inferior to it in beauty.

Cleveland’s rapid growth is due mainly to the fact that nowhere else can the rich iron ores of Lake Superior, the coal of Northern Ohio, and the limestone of the Lake Erie islands, be brought together so cheaply; its position at the north terminus of the Ohio Canal being very advantageous, and seven railways terminate here.

The chief industries of the city are the various manufactures of iron, including steel rails, forgings, wire, bridges, steel and iron ships, engines, boilers, nails, screws, sewing machines, agricultural implements and machinery of all kinds, the refining of petroleum, wood-work, and other manufactures of endless variety. Cleveland is the greatest iron ore receiving point in America, one of the largest lumber markets and extensively engaged in the automobile industry.

Cleveland was founded in 1796 by General Moses Cleveland, under the direction of the Connecticut Land Company. In 1814 Cleveland was incorporated as a village with less than one hundred inhabitants. The opening of the Ohio land served as an impetus to growth, and in 1836 Cleveland was incorporated as a city. Its great prosperity dates from its connection by rail with the cities of the East and the manufacturing establishments set up during the Civil War.

Des Moines (dē-moin´), Iowa. [This name was applied by the Indians to a place in the form of Moingona, which the French shortened into Moin, calling the river “rivière des Moins.” Finally, the name became associated with the Trappist monks, and the river by a spurious etymology was called “la rivière des moines,” “the river of the monks.”]

The capital and largest city of Iowa, it is an important manufacturing and commercial city, and noted especially for its extensive insurance interests and exceptional railroad facilities. It has many important buildings, among them the Capitol, built at a cost of three million dollars, the United States Government Building, the State Arsenal, a State Historical Building, completed in 1908 at a cost of five hundred thousand dollars, Drake University, Highland Park College, Des Moines College, and a state library. A new city hall at a cost of four hundred thousand dollars, and a great coliseum to seat ten thousand are recent additions.

The city has nearly one hundred churches of all denominations. Half a dozen bridges over the two rivers connect the different parts of the town, and there is a public park, with fine groves of forest trees.

Vast bituminous coal fields have contributed to the growth of the manufacturing industries. These include typewriters, wagons, sleighs, cotton and woolen goods, pottery, furniture, and electrical appliances. The city was one of the first to adopt the electric car system.

Des Moines was settled in 1846, incorporated as the town of Fort Des Moines, 1851, chartered as a city and became the capital of the State in 1857. In 1907 Des Moines adopted the commission form of government and attained wide celebrity as a leader in progressive municipal government.

Denver, Colo. [The “Queen City of the Plains”; named after James W. Denver, ex-Governor of Kansas, upon the consolidation in 1860 of the towns of St. Charles and Aurora.]

The capital of Colorado, it is situated on the South Platte River, nine hundred and twenty-two miles west of St. Louis. It lies on a level plain, five thousand one hundred and ninety-six feet above the sea, beyond which rise the snow-capped peaks and deep blue shoulders of the Rocky Mountains.

The Union Depot lies at the foot of Seventeenth Street, one of the chief business thoroughfares, and electric cars start from here for all parts of the city. Near the station is a large bronze Arch, bearing the work “Welcome.” The route up Seventeenth Street and Seventeenth Avenue by electric car to the City Park and then across to Colfax (or Fifteenth) Avenue and return traverses the chief features of the city. On the way out is passed the Equitable Building, the roof of which affords a superb view.

The Rocky Mountains are seen to the west in an unbroken line of about one hundred and seventy miles, extending from beyond Long’s Peak on the north to Pike’s Peak on the south. Among the loftiest of the intervening summits are Grey’s Peak, Torrey’s Peak, and Mount Evans. The bird’s-eye view of the city in the immediate foreground includes the State Capitol and the fine residences of Capitol Hill on the east.

At the corner of Seventeenth and Glenarm Streets is the Denver Club, and at the corner of Sherman Avenue are the University Club and the Central Presbyterian Church. In returning through Colfax (or Fifteenth) Avenue the following buildings may be observed: the State Capitol, an imposing structure erected at a cost of two million five hundred thousand dollars; the new Public Library, between Acoma and Bannock Streets; the United States Mint, at the corner of Cherokee street, and the West Side Court House. The County Court House occupies the block bounded by Court Place and Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Tremont Streets. The Custom House and Post Office, on Sixteenth Street, is another imposing building. In Fourteenth Street is a handsome Auditorium used by the Democratic Convention in 1908.

The other important buildings of the city include the Denver High School, Stout Street, between Nineteenth and Twentieth Streets; the City Hall, corner Fourteenth and Larimer Streets; the Mining Exchange; the Chamber of Commerce; Baptist College (Montclair); the Tabor Opera House Block; the Broadway Theater; the Denver Athletic Club; Trinity Church, Broadway and Eighteenth Street; the Church of Christ, Scientist, Fourteenth and Logan Avenues; the Y. M. C. A., [601] Lincoln and Sixteenth Avenues; Mystic Shrine Temple, Sherman and Eighteenth Avenues; the Westminster University of Colorado, and the Jesuit College of the Sacred Heart (College Avenue, corner of Homer Avenue). On Capitol Hill are the new buildings of St. Mary’s Cathedral (Roman Catholic) and St. John’s Cathedral (Episcopalian). The Art Museum, in Montclair, contains a collection of paintings and other objects of art. The Museum in the City Park includes an interesting collection of Colorado animals. In University Park, eight miles to the southeast of the Union Depot, is the University of Denver.

The city is the center of a great agricultural and mining district, and has a large trade in cattle, hides, wool, and tallow. It is chiefly, however, to its position as the center of a great mining region that Denver owes its marvelous progress; the discovery, in 1878, of the fabulous wealth of the Leadville Hills attracted capital and emigration from all parts of the continent. It has a United States assaying mint, is an important ore market, and is noted for its smelting and refining works, foundry and machine shops.

Denver has an abundant water supply, and the clear invigorating air and dry climate of Denver are famous. It was founded on a barren waste, dry and treeless, in 1858, and the following year incorporated as a city by the Provisional Legislature.

Detroit (dē-troit´), Mich. [The “City of the Straits”; named from the river or strait on which the city is built. Derived from two French words, detroit, “the narrows.”]

It is situated on the Detroit River, eighteen miles from Lake Erie, at an altitude of six hundred feet. The river, sometimes called the “Dardanelles of the New World,” is here the boundary between the United States and Canada. It affords a splendid harbor, with a water-front of about nine miles. Ferries connect with the Canadian side. Many beautiful islands, with those of Lake St. Clair, are popular as places of summer residence and resort.

One of these, Belle Isle, is about seven hundred acres in extent and forms a beautiful public park, with fine trees, and still retaining many of its natural features unimpaired. It contains a statute of Schiller, a small zoological collection, a large aquarium and horticultural building, and a casino.

Woodward Avenue, the principal thoroughfare, divides the city into two very nearly equal parts. It is also the main business street, and at its northern end has many of the city’s most prominent buildings. Its expansion, about half a mile from the river, is known as the Campus Martius, adorned with a handsome fountain, from which Michigan and Gratiot Avenues diverge to the left and right. To the left stands the City Hall, the tower of which contains a clock with a dial eight and one-half feet in diameter. In front of the City Hall is the Soldiers’ Monument.

In Gratiot Avenue, near the Campus Martius, is the Public Library, containing two hundred and twenty thousand volumes and some historical relics. The Chamber of Commerce, at the corner of Griswold and State Streets, is thirteen stories high. The Post Office, in Fort Street, adjoining the site of the old Fort Lernoult, is a handsome building. In the same street, at the southeast corner of Shelby Street, is the State Savings Bank, and adjoining it on the east is the tall Penobscot Building.

Just to the east of the Campus Martius, in Cadillac Square, stands the County Building. It is in a plain renaissance style with a Corinthian portico over the main entrance, sculptures in the pediment, and a tower surmounted by a gilded dome. In front of it is the Cadillac Chair, erected in 1901 to commemorate the two hundredth anniversary of the city’s foundation.

A little farther on Woodward Avenue reaches Grand Circus Park, a square with trees, fountains, and a statue of ex-Governor Pingree. To the north, at the corner of Adams Street, is the Central Methodist Church, with a richly decorated interior. One block to the east, between Adams and Elizabeth Streets, is the new building of the Y. M. C. A. At the corner of Edmund Place, one-half mile farther on, are the First Unitarian and First Presbyterian churches, two fine Romanesque buildings of red stone. Between Erskine and Eliot Streets, to the right, is the Temple Bethel, an effective Jewish synagogue. Also to the right, at the head of Martin Place, is the handsome Harper Hospital; and Grace Hospital is also seen to the right (corner of Willis Avenue and John R. Street) a little farther on. To the left, a little higher up, is the Detroit Athletic Club. The north end of Woodward Avenue and the adjoining streets form the principal residence quarter.

Jefferson Avenue, which runs at right angles to Woodward Avenue, crossing it one-fifth mile from the river, contains many of the chief wholesale houses, and toward its northeast end has also many pleasant residences. The site of Fort Pontchartrain was at the corner of Jefferson Avenue and Griswold Street, two squares to the west of Woodward Avenue. To the east, on the left side of the street, are the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul and the Jesuit College, and on the right side the Academy of the Sacred Heart. On the same side, at the corner of Jefferson Avenue and Hastings Street, about one-half mile to the east of Woodward Avenue, stands the Museum of Art, containing paintings, sculptures and oriental curiosities.

The commerce of Detroit is enormous, a number of conditions favoring it as a commercial and industrial center. Its geographical position brings it into relation with an immense lake traffic and with the Canadian trade. About three-fourths of the total trade is with Canada. The principal exports are grain, wool, pork, lard, hides, and copper. It has important lumbering interests and large tanneries.

The manufactures include stoves, freight cars, drugs, varnish, paint, furniture, carriages, cigars, and matches. Other industries are those of iron and steel, foundry and machine shop products, and the manufacture of malt liquors.

The site of Detroit was visited by a party of Frenchmen as early as 1610, and again by La Salle in 1670, but no permanent settlement was made until 1701, when Sieur de la Mothe Cadillac, the first Governor of the French territory in this vicinity, built Fort Pontchartrain and established a small trading village. In 1815 Detroit was incorporated as a village, and in 1824 was chartered as a city by the Legislature of Michigan Territory. It was the capital of the Territory from 1805 to 1837, and of the State from 1837 to 1847.

Hartford, Conn. [Named from Hertford, England.] It is the capital of Connecticut, on the right bank of the Connecticut River, fifty miles from its mouth, and one hundred and twelve by rail northeast of New York. It is a handsome city, finely situated on the navigable Connecticut River, at its confluence with the Park River. The Union Depot is near the center of the town. To the southwest of it, beyond the Park River, lies Bushnell Park, containing the handsome white marble Capitol, a conspicuous object in most views of the town.

The fine sculptural embellishment of the north facade of the Capitol was done under the supervision of Paul W. Bartlett and partly by his own hand. The Senate Chamber contains a good [602] portrait of Washington, by Stuart, and an elaborately carved chair, made from the wood of the “Charter Oak.” In the Library are the Charter of Connecticut and portraits of Connecticut governors. In the east wing of the ground floor is a statue of Nathan Hale, and in the west wing are the tombstone of General Putnam and a statue of Governor Buckingham.

The gateway to the park was erected as a Soldiers’ Memorial.

Following Capitol Avenue to the east and then turning to the left, along Main Street, is the Wadsworth Athenæum, containing a gallery and libraries with one hundred and fifty thousand volumes, and the collections of the Historical Society. Adjacent are the buildings of the Ætna Life Insurance, the Ætna Fire Insurance, and the Travelers Insurance Co. A little farther on is the Post Office, adjoined by the interesting Old State House, erected by Chas. Bulfinch. Opposite is the Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Co. The State Arsenal is also on Main Street farther along.

Near the State House are the High School, the Hartford Orphan Asylum, and the Hartford Theological Institute. About a mile to the south is Trinity College, with fine buildings and equally fine location. The Colt Firearms factory is in the southeast part of the city, and near it is the handsome Church of the Good Shepherd, erected in memory of Colonel Colt, inventor of the revolver, by his wife.

A tablet at the corner of Charter Oak Place marks the site of the “Charter Oak,” where, in 1687, the charter of Connecticut was concealed to save it from Sir Edmund Andros, a tyrannical British governor. Charter Oak Park is famous for its trotting races. Elizabeth Park has a fine show of flowers.

Among other large buildings are the Retreat for the Insane, the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, the Old Folks Home, the City Hospital, and St. Joseph’s Roman Catholic Cathedral. The last is in Farmington Avenue, which, with its continuation, Asylum Street, contains many fine private residences.

Hartford is a prominent commercial and manufacturing city, and is particularly noted for the importance of its insurance companies, rating third in this regard among the cities of the United States. It is the farthest point, at present, to which large steamers can ascend the Connecticut River. Among the manufactures are firearms—the celebrated Colt manufactory is here—typewriters, rubber goods, especially tires, electrical supplies, automobiles, bicycles, sewing-machines, hardware, tools, carriages, silver plate, woven wire mattresses, book binding machinery, cash registers, knit goods, etc.

The site of a Dutch fort in 1633, and of a colony of Massachusetts settlers as early as 1635-1636, Hartford was incorporated as a city in 1784. Here (January 14, 1639) was adopted the first constitution in writing ever proclaimed by a people organizing a government, therefore Hartford is called the birthplace of American democracy. In 1687 occurred the famous attempt of Governor Andros to seize the charter of Connecticut. Hartford was the capital of Connecticut until 1701, thenceforth until 1873 it divided the responsibility with New Haven. Since 1875 it has been sole capital. Here in 1814 took place the famous meeting of New England delegates known as the Hartford Convention.

About 1780 the “Hartford wits,” of whom Joel Barlow was one, made the city a literary center. Since that time it has been the residence of a large number of literary men and women; among them Harriet Beecher Stowe, Whittier, Trumbull, Charles Dudley Warner, and Samuel L. Clemens. Noah Webster, Henry Barnard, Frederick Law Olmsted, and John Fiske were born here.

Indianapolis (in-di-a-nap´o-lis), Ind. [Literally, the City of Indiana, from Indiana and polis, city.]

It is the capital of Indiana, on the west fork of White River, in a level plain one hundred and ninety-five miles southeast of Chicago by rail. It is a regularly built and beautiful city.

The focus of the city is the circular Monument Place, from which four wide avenues run diagonally to the four corners of the city. The other streets, many of them one hundred feet wide, are laid out at right angles to each other. In the center of this place rises the Soldiers and Sailors’ Monument, two hundred and eighty-five feet high, by Bruno Schmitz of Berlin. Round the monument are statues of General G. R. Clark, Governor Whitcomb, President W. H. Harrison, and Governor Morton. A little to the west is the State Capitol, a large building with a central tower and dome, erected at a cost of two million dollars. At the east entrance to the Capitol is a statue of Governor Morton and near by is that of Governor Hendricks. The Marion County Court House, also an imposing edifice, lies to the east of Monument Place, while to the north of it is the United States Court House and Post Office, erected in 1902-1904. To the southwest of the former is a statue of General H. W. Lawton, by A. O’Connor. In University Park is a statue of Benjamin Harrison, erected in 1908.

The John Herron Art Institute, at the corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and Sixteenth Street, contains a School of Art and a collection of modern paintings. Other large and important buildings are the Blind Asylum; the Propylæum, owned and controlled by a stock company of women for literary purposes; the Deaf and Dumb Asylum; the Union Railway Station; the City Hall; the Public Library; the Masonic Temple; the Oddfellows Building; the Deutsche Haus, a German club-house; the Mænnerchor Building, and several churches. The Winona Technical Institute is installed in buildings erected for the United States Arsenal. The Central Hospital for the Insane lies one and one-half miles to the west of the city, beyond the White River. The Riverside, Broad Ripple, Brookside, Fairview, and Garfield Parks deserve mention.

Indianapolis is one of the chief railroad centers of the United States, fifteen main lines converging here. It is also a great center of electric railways, which radiate hence in all directions, two hundred and fifty cars leaving the terminal station daily. The trade in agricultural produce is very considerable. Pork-packing is the leading industry, but there are also large flour and cotton and woolen mills, numerous foundries, and manufactories of furniture, carriages, tiles, etc.

Indianapolis was first settled in 1819, the city founded in 1821, became the seat of the state government in 1825, was incorporated as a town in 1836, and received its city charter in 1847. In the same year the first railroad in the state was opened.

Los Angeles (los an´je-les, Sp. pron. lōs äng´he-lās), Cal. [Named by the Spaniards Pueblo de la Reina de los Angeles, “The Town of the Queen of the Angels,” hence Los Angeles, “the angels.”]

It is the metropolis of southern California, lies on the Los Angeles River, twenty miles above its mouth and fifteen miles in a direct line from the Pacific Ocean, and four hundred and eighty-three miles southeast of San Francisco by the Southern Pacific Railroad.

It is a splendid city of wide streets and spacious sidewalks, with an extensive residential quarter, one hundred and thirty churches, over sixty public schools, and about one thousand seven hundred manufactories. It publishes newspapers in seven languages.

The city, especially the residential quarters, is embowered in plants, among the characteristic [603] features of which are the swift-growing eucalyptus, the graceful pepper-tree, many palms, Norfolk Island pines, live-oaks, india-rubber trees, orange trees, roses, geraniums, yuccas, century plants, bananas, calla lilies, and pomegranates. A distinguished French traveler pronounces Los Angeles one of the few really beautiful cities in the United States.

Broadway, running parallel to Main Street, is the dividing line for east and west, as First Street is for north and south. Among the many substantial buildings in Main Street are the City Hall, between Second and Third Streets, and the new Chamber of Commerce. The latter contains an interesting collection of California products, the Palmer collection of Indian antiquities, and the Coronel collection, illustrating the Spanish period. Here is also the first cannon brought to California by Padre Junipero Serra in 1769. In Temple Street, near Broadway, stands the County Court House. The Public Library is at the southeast corner of Broadway and Third Street.

Other edifices worthy of mention are the Women’s Club, in the Mission-Renaissance style (940 South Figueroa Street), the State Normal School (corner Grand Avenue and Fifth Street), the Security Savings Bank (corner Spring and Fifth Streets), the Union Trust and Hellman Buildings (opposite corners of Spring and Fourth Streets), the Auditorium (corner Fifth and Olive Streets), the Y. M. C. A. (Hope Street, between Seventh and Eighth Streets), the Y. W. C. A. (corner Hill and Third Streets), the Farmers and Merchants National Bank (corner Fourth and Main Streets), the Grant Building (corner Broadway and Fourth Street), Hamburger’s (corner Broadway and Eighth Street), Merchants Trust (207 Broadway), and the International Bank (corner Temple, Spring and Main Streets). The viaduct of the Electric Railway, in San Fernando Street, spanning the railway tracks on the east side of the city, is an interesting piece of engineering.

Los Angeles also contains many parks, including the Griffith Park of three thousand acres, and the Eastlake Park and Westlake Park, each with a small lake. The University of Southern California is situated at Wesley Avenue and Thirty-fifth Street.

The small plaza, with the Old Mission Church, at the north end of the business-town, is interesting as a survival of the ancient settlement. Just beyond is a genuine Chinatown, keeping many of the original adobe structures. An excellent view of the city can be obtained from the tower at “Angel’s Flight,” corner Hill and Third Streets. Opposite Eastlake Park is an Ostrich Farm, with some two hundred adult birds.

Los Angeles is the center of the orange-growing industry. The residents are principally occupied in the cultivation and export of oranges, grapes, and other fruits, as well as the manufacture of wine. There are rich oil-wells in and near the city and this district now forms part of one of the richest petroleum fields in the world. Many invalids resort to Los Angeles in the winter because of its mild and equable climate. The city has a harbor on the coast, eighteen miles off.

It is one of the oldest towns in the Western states, and was already a thriving place when the Franciscan fathers established a mission there in 1781. Under Mexican rule Los Angeles alternated with Monterey as the capital of California. From 1835 to 1847 it was the capital of the State of California. In 1846 it was occupied by the United States forces. For the first century of its history Los Angeles was only a small pueblo constructed mainly of adobe in the Mexican style, but the advent of the railroad brought a sudden impetus. It was the first city in the United States to be lighted with electricity.

Louisville (lōō´ĭ-vĭl, or lōō´ĭs-vĭl), Ky. [The “Falls City”; named by act of the Virginian Legislature in 1780, in honor of Louis XVI. of France, then assisting the American colonies in their revolutionary struggle.]

It is the largest city of Kentucky, and is situated on the Ohio River, one hundred and thirty miles by water southwest of Cincinnati. The river is here crossed by two railroad bridges, and forms a series of rapids—the “Falls of Ohio”—descending twenty-six feet in two miles.

Louisville covers about forty square miles of a plain, and is nearly enclosed by hills. It is handsomely built and extends for nearly eight miles along the river. Its well-shaded streets are from sixty to one hundred and twenty feet wide, and slope up from the river.

Perhaps the most prominent building in Louisville is the Custom House, in Chestnut Street between Third and Fourth Streets. The Court House is in Jefferson Street between Fifth and Sixth Streets, and is adjoined by the City Hall, with its square clock-tower.

The Louisville Public Library, at the corner of Fourth and York Streets, contains also an art gallery and a small museum, including the Troost Collection of Minerals.

The Farmers’ Tobacco Warehouse, in Main Street, is the center of the tobacco trade and has a large storage capacity. The University of Louisville, at corner of Eighth and Chestnut Streets, is housed in a handsome building. The Lincoln Bank, corner of Fourth and Market Streets, is fifteen stories high, with a splendid view from upper windows and roof.

Fourth Avenue, with many pleasant residences, leads south, passing the pretty little Central Park, to the Racecourse. Louisville possesses three fine parks: Iroquois Park, Cherokee Park, and Shawnee Park, to the south, east and west of the city. The First Regiment Armory has an enormous drill-hall and can seat fifteen thousand persons.

The Louisville Bridge, one mile long, crossing to the west end of Jeffersonville, was built in 1868-1872 and has twenty-seven iron spans supported by limestone piers. The Kentucky and Indiana Bridge, leading to New Albany, is one-half mile long. A third bridge, also leading to Jeffersonville, was constructed in 1892.

President Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) is buried near his old home, five miles to the east of Louisville.

Louisville is the greatest market for tobacco in the world, and has large pork-packing establishments, distilleries, and tanneries, with manufactories of plows, furniture, castings, gas and water pipes, machinery, flour, cement, cotton seed oil and cake, steam railroad cars, and carriages and wagons.

It was founded in 1778 and in 1780 named in honor of Louis XVI. of France, whose troops were then assisting the Americans. A great part of the town, including the tobacco-market and the city hall, was destroyed by a cyclone in March, 1890. Since the Civil War, Louisville has rapidly grown in importance as one of the chief gateways to the southwest.

Milwaukee (mĭl-wau´kē), Wis. [Named from the river, called by the Algonquins Minnwaukee, or Me-ne-wau-kee, “good earth, good country, rich or beautiful country.”]

It is the largest city in Wisconsin, and is situated on the west shore of Lake Michigan at the common mouth of three improved and navigable rivers, which, with a canal, supply twenty-four miles of dockage. An excellent harbor has been formed by the erection of huge breakwaters, and the river admits the largest lake-vessels to the doors of the warehouses.

The city is well built, largely of a light-colored [604] brick, and many of its streets are lined with beautiful shade trees, recalling some of the older eastern cities. Among the finest residence streets are Grand Avenue, Prospect Avenue, Waverly Place, Juneau Avenue, Marshall Street and Astor Street. About two-thirds of the inhabitants are Germans, which may account for its successful cultivation of music and art. There are no fewer than seventy-five musical societies in the city.

Grand Avenue, which runs east and west, contains many of the chief buildings and best shops, while Wisconsin Street and East Water Street are also busy thoroughfares. Among the most prominent buildings is the Federal Building, a handsome structure of granite in a turreted baronial style, occupying the block bounded by Jefferson, Jackson, Michigan and Wisconsin Streets, and containing the Post Office, Custom House and United States Court House. The interior is finely finished in marbles, mosaics, mahogany, and oak. The County Court House, a brown sandstone edifice, is in the square bounded by Jefferson, Jackson, Oneida, and Biddle Streets. The tall Wells Building, at the corner of Milwaukee and Wisconsin Streets; the Chamber of Commerce, Michigan Street; Plymouth Church, a massive building at the corner of Van Buren and Oneida Streets, and St. Paul’s Church, Marshall Street, are other important structures. The Auditorium, in Cedar Street, can accommodate ten thousand people.

The Layton Art Gallery, a well-lighted structure at the corner of Jefferson and Mason Streets, has some interesting pictures and statues. The paintings include examples of Rosa Bonheur, Constable, Corot, Millet, Achenbach, Alma-Tadema, Clays, Inness, Kensett, Mauve, Holmberg, Pradilla, Mesdag, Munkácsy, Van Marcke, and other modern masters. In the Sculpture Hall are works by Hiram Powers and Romanelli. The magnificent Public Library in Grand Avenue, between Eighth and Ninth Streets, contains two hundred thousand volumes and a free museum of natural history, palæontology, etc.

The curiously thin looking City Hall, with one of the largest bells in the world and an illuminated clock-dial, visible for two miles at night, occupies a triangular site bounded by East Water, Market and Biddle Streets.

Other notable structures in the business district are the Germania Building, the Evening Wisconsin Building, the Sentinel, the New Insurance Building, the Mitchell Building and the Pabst Building.

Among the public monuments are statues of Washington, near Ninth Street, and the Soldiers’ Monument.

Juneau Park, laid out on a bluff overlooking Lake Michigan, contains statues of Solomon Juneau, the earliest white settler, and Leif Ericson; it commands fine views. Lake Park, farther to the north, also overlooks the lake. Near it is the North Point Pumping Station, with a tall and graceful water tower. The Forest Home Cemetery, at the southwest corner of the city, deserves notice. The attractions of Washington Park, on the west limits of the city, include a large herd of deer.

The great breweries, such as Pabst’s, which covers thirty-four acres, or Schlitz’s, are wonderfully interesting plants, while the grain elevators, the flour mills, the coal docks, the International Harvester Co., and the workshops of the C. M. St. P. Railway are also great concerns. To the south are the rolling mills of the Illinois Steel Co., covering one hundred and fifty-four acres of ground. To the southwest, chiefly in the valley of the Menomonee, are the large brick yards that produce the light colored bricks which give Milwaukee the name of “Cream City.” To the north, along the Milwaukee River, are extensive cement works.

Sheridan Drive, skirting the lake to the south for two miles, is intended to be prolonged so as ultimately to meet the boulevard of that name running from Chicago to Fort Sheridan.

The other industries include manufactories of leather, machinery, iron and steel goods, tobacco, clothing, stoves, tinware, brick, furnaces, cars, steel and malleable iron. Pork packing is also carried on extensively.

Milwaukee became a village in 1835 and received a city charter in 1846. Its growth has been rapid, particularly in the last twenty-five years.

Minneapolis (min-e-ap´ō-lis), Minn. [The “Flour City”; named from Dakota Indian words, Minni, “water,” ha, “curling,” and the Greek word polis, “a city,” namely “city of the curling water,” alluding to the Falls of St. Anthony.]

It is the largest city of Minnesota, adjoins the capital, St. Paul, and is situated on both sides of the Mississippi, which is here crossed by numerous bridges. The Falls of St. Anthony, with a perpendicular descent of sixteen feet, afford a water power which has been a chief source of the city’s prosperity.

At the corner of Second Avenue South and Third Street stands the Metropolitan Life Building, erected at a cost of one million six hundred thousand dollars. Adjacent is the Post Office, in a Romanesque style.

On Hennepin Avenue, at the corner of North Fifth Street, is the imposing Lumber Exchange. To the right are the West Hotel and the Masonic Temple. At the corner of Eighth Street is the private art gallery of Mr. T. B. Walker, containing good specimens of British portrait painters and of the Barbison school and also works by or ascribed to Raphael, Michael Angelo, Rubens, Rembrandt, Van Dyck, Holbein, and Murillo.

Farther on, at the corner of Tenth Street, is the Public Library and Art Gallery, an ornate Romanesque structure.

At the corner of Sixteenth Street is the new Roman Catholic Cathedral.

Other prominent churches are the First Unitarian Church, at the corner of Mary’s Place and Eighth Street; the Westminster Presbyterian Church, Nicollet Avenue; the Church of the Redeemer; the Fowler Methodist Episcopal Church, on Lowry Hill; the Second Church of Christ, Scientist; Plymouth Church, and St. Mark’s Cathedral.

At the other end of Hennepin Avenue is the Union Depot. Among other prominent buildings in the business quarter are the Court House and City Hall, a handsome building in Fourth Street, completed at a cost of three million dollars, with a tower three hundred and forty-five feet high; the New York Life Insurance Building, Fifth Street and Second Avenue, with an elaborate interior; the Northwestern National Bank; the First National Bank; the Andrus Building; Donaldson’s Glass Block Store; the Security Bank Building, and the Chamber of Commerce, Fourth Street South and Fourth Avenue.

The University of Minnesota lies on the left bank of the river, between Washington and University Avenues, and occupies various well-equipped buildings.

Other notable institutions are the Augsburg Theological School, Minneapolis Normal School, and a Conservatory of Music.

Within the urban limits of Minneapolis are fourteen wooded lakes, while the gorges of the Mississippi and the Minnehaha Creek are very picturesque. These natural features have been made the basis of a fine system of boulevards. From the southeast side of Lake Harriet the road runs to the east along the Minnehaha Creek, passing Lake Amelia, to Minnehaha Park, containing the graceful Falls of the Minnehaha, fifty feet high and immortalized by Longfellow.

The most delightful resort near Minneapolis or St. Paul is Lake Minnetonka (eight hundred and twenty feet above the sea), which lies fifteen miles to the west. The lake is singularly irregular in outline, and with a total length of twelve to fifteen miles has a shore line of perhaps one hundred and fifty miles.

Minneapolis is the foremost city in the world in flour and lumber products. The flour mills, perhaps its most characteristic sight, are congregated on the banks of the Mississippi, near St. Anthony’s Falls. Other important industries are the manufacture of agricultural implements and machinery, bread and baking products, cars and general shop construction, food preparations, foundry products, furniture, fur goods, dressed fur, malt liquors, patent medicines, and printing and publishing.

The Falls of St. Anthony were named in 1680 by Father Hennepin. In 1819 Fort Snelling was built by the United States government. Though a large mill was built as early as 1822, it was not till 1850 that a permanent settlement was made. In 1856 Minneapolis was incorporated as a town on the west bank of the river, and in 1867 it was incorporated as a city. St. Anthony on the east bank was annexed in 1872.

Nashville, Tenn. [The “Rock City”; first named as a settlement, Nashborough, in honor of Francis Nash of North Carolina, a brigadier-general in the Continental Army. In June, 1784, changed to Nashville.]

It is the capital of Tennessee, on the navigable Cumberland River, two hundred miles above the Ohio, and one hundred and eighty-five miles by railroad southwest of Louisville. The city, which is one of the principal railroad centers in the Southern states, is built mainly on the left bank of the river, which is crossed by a suspension bridge and a railroad drawbridge to the suburb of Edgefield. Nashville is a handsome, well-built town, and it is, perhaps, the most important educational center in the South.

The most prominent building in the city is the State Capitol, conspicuously situated on a hill. In its grounds are a bronze equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson, and the tomb of President Polk, whose home stood at the corner of Vine and Union Streets. Among the other chief buildings are the Court House, the Custom House, the Parthenon, used for exhibitions of art, Greek plays by students, etc., the Vendome and Bijou Theaters, the Carnegie Library, the Board of Trade, the First National Bank, and the Stahlman Building.

At the head of the educational institutions stands Vanderbilt University, endowed by Cornelius Vanderbilt with one million dollars. In the campus is a colossal statue of the founder, by Moretti. Other well-known institutions are the Peabody Teachers’ College, Boscobel College, Belmont College, the Saint Cecilia Academy, Radnor College, Buford College and Ward’s Seminary.

There are also several large colleges for colored students.

Among the places of interest near Nashville are the Hermitage, the home of General Andrew Jackson, eleven miles to the east.

Nashville occupies a foremost place among the manufacturing centers of the country. It is the fifth boot and shoe market in the United States, the largest candy and cracker manufacturing city in the South, and does an enormous wholesale dry goods, grocery, and drug business. It carries on an extensive trade in cotton and tobacco; while its manufactures, which are rapidly extending, include cotton, flour, oil, paper, furniture, timber, leather, iron, and spirits. The iron interests of the South are largely controlled here.

Nashville was settled in 1780, received its charter in 1806, and in 1843 was made the permanent capital.

New Haven, Conn. [The “City of Elms”; named by the original settlers the “new haven.” The original Indian name was Quinnippac. The present name substituted “by the court” September 5, 1640.]

It is the chief city and seaport of Connecticut, at the head of New Haven Bay, is situated four miles from Long Island Sound, seventy-three miles by railroad northeast of New York and thirty-five miles southwest of Hartford.

The city is situated on a level plain, with a background of hills. Its broad streets are shaded with elms, and the public squares, parks, and gardens, with its handsome public and private edifices, make it one of the most beautiful of American cities.

From the large Union Station, which adjoins the harbor, Meadow Street leads north to the Public Green, on which are the City Hall, three churches, the Second National Bank, and the Free Public Library, United States Court House and Post Office. At the southeast corner of the Green is the Bennett Fountain, designed by John F. Weir after the monument of Lysicrates at Athens.

In College Street are most of the substantial buildings of Yale University, which, besides the Academic Department, has schools of Science, Theology, Medicine, Law, Forestry, Music, and Fine Arts, and also a Graduate School.

From the Public Green the university “campus” or quadrangle is entered by an imposing tower-gateway known as Phelps Hall. Among the buildings in the campus are the Art School, containing a good collection of Italian, American, and other paintings and sculptures; Connecticut Hall, the oldest Yale building (1750); Osborn Hall; Battell Chapel; Vanderbilt Hall; Alumni Hall; Dwight Hall, and the College Library. At the corner of Elm and High Streets is the Peabody Museum of Natural History, in which the mineralogical collections are especially fine.

Other important buildings of the university are the buildings of the Sheffield Scientific School, the Schools of Law, Medicine, and Divinity, the Chemical and Physical Laboratories, Memorial and other large halls.

Hillhouse Avenue is especially noted for its trees, and Chapel Street, the principal promenade, for the gardens surrounding many of the residences.

The parks have an aggregate area of one thousand two hundred acres. Besides the Green are the parks at East Rock (three hundred and sixty feet high) and West Rock (four hundred feet high), two masses of trap rock near the city which afford fine views. East Rock is surmounted by a soldiers’ monument. West Rock is famous for a cave in which the regicides Goffe and Whalley were for a time concealed. Savin Rock, Morris Cove, and Momaugin are shore resorts accessible from the city by electric car lines.

The railway lines from New Haven to New York City are the only ones of consequence that have been completely electrified.

New Haven is an important industrial city and has considerable commerce. The harbor has a jetty and a breakwater surmounted by a lighthouse, and the port has a large coasting trade. But it is of more consequence as a manufacturing town, employing many thousands of workers producing hardware, wire, locks, clocks, cutlery, firearms, corsets, india-rubber goods, carriages, furniture, paper, matches, musical instruments, etc.

New Haven was settled in 1638 by a company chiefly from London. In 1639 a government was established under a written constitution, and Theophilus Eaton, the pastor of the colony, was chosen and continued in the governorship until [606] 1658. Church membership was a qualification for suffrage and eligibility to office. The New Haven colony was founded in 1643 by the union of Milford, Guilford and Stamford with New Haven. In the same year it became a member of the confederacy of the United Colonies of New England. The charter of Charles II. for Connecticut (1662) included the New Haven colony, but the latter, supported by Massachusetts and Plymouth, stubbornly opposed absorption and was only forced to accede in 1664. Yale College, founded in Saybrook, was removed to New Haven in 1717. The town was captured by the British under Tryon and Garth, July 5, 1779. It was incorporated as a city in 1784. Joint capital with Hartford from 1701; the government was removed from New Haven altogether in 1873.

New Orleans (nū ôr’lē-ănz), La. [The “Crescent City”; its name is a translation of the French name Nouvelle Orleans, given by them in honor of the Duc d’Orleans, then Regent of France.]

It is the chief city of Louisiana, a great port and mart, and is situated on both sides of the Mississippi River—the greater portion on the east bank—one hundred and seven miles from its mouth, and one thousand one hundred and ninety miles southwest of New York. The Mississippi makes two bends here, whence the city was called “The Crescent City,” but it is now shaped like the letter S. The river is from six hundred to one thousand yards wide, and sixty to two hundred and forty feet deep. The bar at its mouth was removed in 1874-1879 by the Eads jetties in South Pass, and vessels of thirty feet now easily reach New Orleans.

A great part of the city is below the level of the river during the high flood tides, which last for a few days each year, and is protected by a levee or embankment, fifteen feet wide and fourteen feet high. The city is laid out with considerable regularity, and many of the chief streets are wide and shaded with trees. The most important business thoroughfare is Canal Street, which runs at right angles to the river and divides the French Quarter, or “Vieux Carré” on the northeast, from the New City, or American Quarter, on the southwest. The finest residences are in St. Charles Avenue, and in Esplanada Avenue, where the wealthy Creoles have their homes. Of the total population about one-quarter are negroes, while the remaining three-fourths include large proportions of French, German, Irish, Italian and Spanish blood.

While it possesses few imposing buildings, New Orleans is a picturesque city. There are several parks, little improved, but with handsome monuments or statues of Jackson, Lee, Franklin, and others. The custom house of granite cost four million five hundred thousand dollars, and is the largest and most imposing building in the city. It is a large granite building in Canal Street, near the river, and contains a large Marble Hall.

Just below the Custom House, Canal Street ends at the Levee, which extends along the west bank of the Mississippi for about six miles and presents a very animated and interesting scene. At the left is Jackson Square, the old Place d’Armes, which retains its ancient iron railing, and contains a statue of General Andrew Jackson, by Mills. It is adjoined by the Cathedral of St. Louis, a good specimen of the Spanish-Creole style, built in 1792-1794, on the site of the first church in Louisiana, but altered in 1850. It contains some paintings and interesting tombs.

The buildings to the right and left are Court Houses, that to the south having been built for the Cabildo, or City Council of the Spanish régime. In it and in front of it were held the ceremonies attending the cession of Louisiana by the French Government to the United States in 1803.

In Orleans Street, near the east end of the Cathedral, is a Convent of Colored Nuns, which contains what was formerly the famous Quadroon Ballroom, mentioned by Cable, the scene of many celebrated festivities.

On the Levee, just beyond Jackson Square, is the French Market, which often reveals a scene of the greatest picturesqueness and animation. A little farther on, at the foot of Esplanade Avenue, is the United States Branch Mint, a large building in the Ionic style. In Royal Street, four blocks from Canal Street, is the new Court House, a handsome structure of white marble and terra cotta.

In the fine French Quarter the chief promenades are Esplanade Avenue, Rampart Street and Bourbon, Toulouse, Conti and Royal Streets. At the corner of Chartres and Hospital Streets is the Archbishop’s Residence, in the unchanged Ursuline Convent, built in 1730.

Following St. Charles Avenue from Canal Street to the south, is the St. Charles Hotel and the Orpheum and, just beyond, Lafayette Square, around which are grouped the City Hall, the new Post Office, St. Patrick’s Church, the First Presbyterian Church, and the Odd Fellows’ Hall. In the square are a statue of Franklin, by Hiram Powers, a monument to John McDonough, and a statue of Henry Clay. Farther on is Lee Circle, with a monument to General Robert E. Lee. At the corner of Camp Street and Howard Avenue, adjoining Lee Circle, stands the Howard Library, the last work of H. H. Richardson, who was a native of Louisiana. Adjacent are Memorial Hall, a museum of Confederate relics, and the new building of the Public Library. To the southwest, in Carondelet Street, is the Jewish Temple Sinai. The monument to Margaret Haughery, the “Orphans’ Friend,” is said to have been the first statue of a woman erected in the United States.

Tulane Avenue, named in honor of the chief benefactor of Tulane University, and its continuation Common Street, contain the Law Department of Tulane University, the House of Detention, the Jesuit Church of the Immaculate Conception in a singular Moorish style, the Parish Prison and Criminal Courts, the Hôtel Dieu, and the large Charity Hospital, originally established in 1784. The large Cotton Exchange is at the corner of Carondelet and Gravier Streets; the Produce Exchange is in Magazine Street, and the Sugar Exchange is at the foot of Bienville Street. The United States Marine Hospital lies near the river.

St. Charles Avenue, extending in a crescent from Lee Circle past Audubon Park to the river, is lined with oaks and magnolias and contains many old and admirable private residences. Among its public buildings are Christ Church, the New Orleans University, the Academy of the Sacred Heart, the Jewish Orphan Home, and the Harmony Club. At the point where the avenue crosses Audubon Park are the newer buildings of the Tulane University, an important and well-equipped institution. A department of Tulane University is the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for Women, founded in 1886. A legacy of John McDonough has built and equipped thirty handsome school houses in different parts of the city.

The City Park, on the Metairie Ridge, is one hundred and fifty acres in extent. The Audubon Park, in which the Great Exhibition of 1884-1885 was held, and which now holds the “Sugar Experimental Station” of the State of Louisiana, is a long segment extending back from the river, being the ground in which the sugar cane was first grown in this state. Both parks contain fine live-oaks.

New Orleans is the largest cotton market in the world except Liverpool, handling annually two [607] million bales. The manufacturing products include machinery, cotton goods, boots and shoes, and amount in a year to sixty million dollars. As the outlet of the Mississippi Valley it commands a large export trade.

The site of New Orleans was first visited in 1699 by Bienville, who in 1718 laid the foundations of the city, and in 1726 made it the capital. In 1763 it was ceded to Spain by France, with the rest of Louisiana; but when in 1765 the Spanish governor attempted to take possession, he was driven out, and the people established a government of their own till 1769, when the Spaniards occupied it. It was ceded to France in 1802, and transferred to the United States a few days later. Incorporated as a city in 1804, it was divided in 1836-1852 into three separate municipalities, in consequence of the jealousies between the Creoles and the Americans. Other outstanding events have been the defeat of the British by Andrew Jackson in 1815; the capture in 1862 by the Federal fleet; serious political troubles with fighting in 1874 and 1877; and the lynching in 1891 of eleven Italian maffiosi. In 1880 the capital of Louisiana was removed from New Orleans to Baton Rouge.

Newport, R. I. [The “City of Mansions”; named in honor of the English admiral Christopher Newport (under James I.).]

It was, until 1900, one of the capitals of Rhode Island, and lies on the west shore of the island, in Narragansett Bay, five miles from the ocean, and sixty-nine miles by railroad southwest of Boston. It has a deep and excellent harbor, defended by Fort Adams.

The town is noted for fine scenery, and is one of the most fashionable watering-places in America, containing some of the finest mansions in the United States. Bathing facilities are unrivaled, and there are many fashionable promenades.

The chief attractions are Touro Park, and the Old Mill, Cliff Walk, Bailey’s Beach, and the Ocean Drive.

The central point of Old Newport is Washington Square, or the Parade, within a few minutes’ walk of the railway station and steamboat wharf. Here are the State House, with portrait of Washington, by Stuart; the old City Hall (new one in Broadway, corner of Bull Street); a statue of Commodore O. H. Perry, the hero of Lake Erie; the Perry Mansion, and the Roman Catholic Church, with an Ionic portico.

Following Touro Street, to the southeast, is the Synagogue built in 1762 and the oldest in the United States; the Newport Historical Society; and, a little beyond, the picturesque Hebrew Cemetery. Touro Street ends here and Bellevue Avenue, the fashionable promenade, begins, running to the south.

The fine Fern-leaf Beech is at the corner of Bellevue Avenue and Redwood Street. Nearly opposite this is Touro Park, containing the Round Tower or Old Stone Mill, the origin of which is still somewhat of a mystery. Some authorities believe that it was built by Governor Arnold in the seventeenth century as a wind-mill, while others regard it as very possibly the central part of a church built by the Norsemen in the eleventh century. Longfellow mentions it in his Skeleton in Armor. The park also contains statues of M. C. Perry and W. E. Channing; and opposite its south side stands the Channing Memorial Church.

A few hundred paces farther on, Bath Road leads to the left from Bellevue Avenue to the First Beach.

Bellevue Avenue soon passes the Casino, a long, low, many-gabled building, containing a club, a theater, etc. The Lawn Tennis Championship of America is decided in the courts attached to the Casino. Farther on, the avenue passes between a series of magnificent villas, and then turns sharply to the right and ends at Bailey’s Beach.

First or Easton’s Beach, a strip of smooth hard sand, three-fourths mile long, affords some of the best and safest surf-bathing on the Atlantic coast. From the east end of the beach a road leads round Easton’s Point to Purgatory, a curious fissure in the conglomerate rocks, one hundred and fifty feet long, seven to fourteen feet wide, and fifty feet deep.

At the west end of Easton’s Beach begins the famous Cliff Walk, which runs along the winding brow of the cliffs for about three miles, with the ocean on one side and the smooth lawns of handsome homes on the other. Here are summer residences, owned by the wealthiest society people of Boston, New York, and other cities.

Across the hill is Bailey’s Beach, a small bay with a long row of bathing-houses, which has become the fashionable bathing-resort of the Newport cottagers.

From Bailey’s Beach begins the beautiful Ocean or Ten Mile Drive, which skirts the coast of the peninsula to the south of the town for about ten miles, commanding magnificent views.

The locality of Newport has many natural curiosities, including the Hanging Rocks, Spouting Cave, and the Glen, or “Purgatory,” already referred to. Newport is the seat of the United States Naval War College, United States Training Station, Torpedo Station, Naval Hospital, Newport Hospital, and Hazard Memorial School.

The manufactures are flour, cotton goods, copper, brass, oil, etc.

Newport was settled in 1638 by eighteen adherents of Roger Williams, and was an important commercial town prior to the Revolutionary war, which effected its ruin and transferred its trade to New York. During the war it was occupied for three years by the British, and for a while by the French under Rochambeau. It was the birthplace of Commodore Perry and William Ellery Channing, and for a while the place of residence of Bishop Berkeley, the English philosopher.

New York City, N. Y. [The “Empire City”; also “Gotham”; named from the State which was named in honor of James, Duke of York, afterwards James II.]

It is the largest and most important city on the American continent, the second wealthiest on the globe, and, next to London, the most populous in the world. Situated on New York Bay at the confluence of the Hudson and East Rivers, about twelve miles from the Atlantic Ocean, it consists of the boroughs of Manhattan, The Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond, which have a joint area of three hundred and twenty-six square miles. Its extreme length, north and south, is thirty-five miles, its extreme width nineteen miles.

Manhattan, or New York proper, consists mainly of Manhattan Island, a long and narrow tongue of land bounded by the Hudson or North River on the west and the East River (part of Long Island Sound) on the east and separated from the mainland on the north and northeast by the narrow Harlem River and Spuyten Duyvil Creek; but also includes several small islands in New York Bay and the East River.

Manhattan Island is thirteen and one-half miles long, with an average breadth of one and three-fifths miles, and with the exception of a small, wild, and rocky portion, which is utilized for ornamental purposes, the entire island is laid out in avenues and streets. It includes several greens and parks, and its area has been considerably extended by filling in on the two river-sides.

The strikingly beautiful landlocked harbor of New York includes the lower bay, the upper bay, the East River, and the North, or Hudson River. Ocean steamships enter it from the sea by Sandy [608] Hook through the Narrows, and coasting ships from the north through Long Island Sound. The North River averages a mile wide; the East River is not so wide, but both are deep enough for the largest ships, and furnish many miles of wharfage. The Harlem River, at the north end of Manhattan Island, connects the two great rivers.

The bar at Sandy Hook, eighteen miles south of the city, which divides the Atlantic Ocean from the outer or lower bay, is crossed by two ship-channels, from twenty-one to thirty-two feet deep at ebb-tide. The lower bay covers eighty-eight square miles. The Narrows, through which all large ships pass on their way to the inner harbor, is a strait between Long Island and Staten Island, about a mile in width, and like other approaches is defended by forts. New York’s harbor or inner bay covers about fourteen square miles; it is one of the amplest, safest, and most picturesque on the globe, open all the year round.

Liberty Island, for a long time known as Bedloe’s Island, is situated in the harbor, about one and three-fourths miles from the lower end of the city. In 1886 the famous Bartholdi statue was erected on this spot, and occupies its central surface. It is a colossal bronze female figure one hundred and fifty-one feet in height, on a pedestal one hundred and fifty-five feet high, and holding aloft a torch which is lit by electricity at night.

Immense bridges span the East River and Harlem River, and there are some thirty steam-ferries.

The New York and Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, opened in 1883, which cost twenty million dollars, was soon found inadequate for the enormous traffic, and a second bridge from Canal Street to Brooklyn was opened in 1909.

The Williamsburg Suspension Bridge, between Manhattan and Williamsburg, was opened in 1903. It cost twelve million dollars.

The Queensboro Bridge, of cantilever type, between Long Island and Fifty-ninth Street, was opened in 1909. Its cost was twenty million dollars.

In 1909 another bridge from Manhattan to Brooklyn, built at a cost of twenty-six million dollars, was completed.

The Harlem River is crossed by several bridges, of which the Washington is noteworthy as being one of the finest in America.

Hell Gate Arch Bridge spans the East River at Hell Gate, between Ward’s Island and Astoria, Long Island. It was designed and built by Gustav Lindenthal for the New York Connecting Railroad to connect the Pennsylvania and New York, New Haven systems, at a cost, including approaches, of twenty-five million dollars. It is the longest arch in the world. The span is one thousand and sixteen feet ten inches between tower faces. The upper chord of the arch is three hundred feet above mean high water at the center and one hundred and eighty feet at the ends of the span; the lower chord is two hundred and sixty feet above mean high water at the center and forty feet at the ends; the roadway is one hundred and forty feet above mean high water.

Old New York is laid out very irregularly. Here the money interests and wholesale traffic are centered; Wall, New, and Broad Streets being the great centers of banking and speculative enterprises.

The newer part of the city, from Fourteenth Street to the end of the island, northward, is divided into twelve great avenues and several smaller ones, from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet in width, running north and south. These are crossed at right angles by streets, mostly sixty feet in width, running from river to river.

Fifth Avenue, the great modern central thoroughfare, divides the city into eastside and westside. Here or hereabout are the largest banks, churches, museums, libraries, shops, palaces, and tenements in America.

Fifth Avenue below Fifty-ninth Street is now largely occupied by store and office buildings where once were palatial private houses; and between Madison Square and Fifty-ninth Street contains many hotels and clubs, and the New York Public Library.

The original great thoroughfare, Broadway, runs a northwesterly course through the regular cross street arrangement, making some slight deflections, quite through the middle of the island.

For a distance of two and one-half miles from Fifty-ninth to One Hundred and Tenth Street, Central Park divides the city into two parts.

Other parks are Van Cortlandt, one thousand and sixty-nine acres; Pelham Bay, one thousand seven hundred acres; and Bronx Park, six hundred and sixty-one and sixty-one hundredths acres, containing the Botanical and Zoological Gardens. Prospect Park, Brooklyn, contains five hundred and sixteen and one-quarter acres. A recreation course, skirting the Harlem River, and reserved for fast driving, is the “Speedway,” and extending along the Hudson for three miles is Riverside Drive, with its striking views of the Palisades. On an abrupt elevation is Morningside Park, on which are located the new buildings of Columbia University, St. Luke’s Hospital, and the Cathedral of St. John the Divine. Beyond Morningside Park is a rocky ridge known as Washington Heights.

The most thickly settled part of Brooklyn borough is in the north, and the business portion is that part fronting on East River and the upper harbor. The southern part is largely marshland. At the southwestern extremity of Long Island, in this borough, stretches a sandbar known as Coney Island, on which are the widely-known popular summer resorts. Queensboro has several large population centers, among them Long Island City and Flushing. Richmond borough (Staten Island) contains numerous villages.

Communication throughout the city is afforded by an extensive system of electric surface, electric elevated roads, the great subway railroad system, and by ferries plying between the boroughs.

The subway has, for part of its course, four tracks, two of which are for express trains. It begins at the City Hall and traverses the whole length of Manhattan Island. The first length of eight miles to Washington Heights was opened in 1904. The following year the line was extended to the Battery, and also under the Harlem River into Bronx. In 1908 a further extension was opened between the Battery and Brooklyn by way of a tunnel. In 1909, a double-tube tunnel, the McAdoo, connected the city at Sixth Avenue and Twenty-third Street with Hoboken, N. J.

In 1910 several tunnels under the Hudson and East Rivers were opened. Other great works of development are almost constantly in progress to deal with the traffic requirements, including further subways, a number of river tunnels, and additional railroad terminals. A recent gigantic railway enterprise is the construction of the Pennsylvania tunnel under the Hudson River.

Some of the larger features of New York call for more detailed notice.

The architecture of New York exhibits great contrasts, including styles as diverse as the quaint old Dutch houses, and skyscrapers of twenty-five and thirty stories.

At the extreme south end of the island is the Custom House, a large quadrangular granite building, in the French Renaissance style, which occupies the site of Fort Amsterdam. The facade toward Bowling Green is adorned with colossal groups of Europe, Asia, Africa, and [609] America, and with twelve heroic figures representing the great sea-powers.

In Whitehall Street, opposite the Custom House, is the Produce Exchange, a huge brick and terra cotta structure in the Italian Renaissance style, containing numerous offices and a large hall. The tower, two hundred and twenty-five feet high, commands a fine view of the city and harbor.

Broadway begins at the Bowling Green, extending hence all the way to Yonkers, a distance of nineteen miles. Up to Thirty-third Street, Broadway is the scene of a most busy and varied traffic, which reaches its culminating point in the lower part of the street during business-hours. This part of the street is almost entirely occupied by wholesale houses, insurance offices, banks, and the like; but farther up are numerous fine shops. Broadway is no longer the broadest street in New York, but it is still the most important. The number of immensely tall office buildings with which it is now lined give it a curiously canyon-like appearance.

No. 1 Broadway, to the left, is the Washington Building, which is adjoined by the Bowling Green Building (sixteen stories), designed by English architects. Other conspicuous business buildings in the lower part of Broadway are the large Welles and Standard Oil Co. Buildings, Nos. 18, 26, the 42 Broadway Building, twenty stories, and Aldrich Court, on the site of the first habitation of white men on Manhattan Island. At Nos. 64-68 is the Manhattan Life Insurance Co., the tower of which is three hundred and sixty feet high. To the left, at the corner of Rector Street, is the imposing Empire Building, twenty stories, the hall of which forms a busy thoroughfare between Broadway and the Rector Street “L” station.

FAR-FAMED BROADWAY AT NIGHT

Wall Street diverging from Broadway to the right, at this point, is the great financial street of New York, the financial barometer of the country. On this street stands the United States Sub-Treasury, a marble structure with a Doric portico, occupying the site of the old Federal Hall, in which the first United States Congress assembled, and Washington was inaugurated as President; the Drexel Building, a white marble structure in the Renaissance style, occupied by J. Pierpont [610] Morgan & Co.; the National City Bank, largest in the country, occupying the old Custom House.

Trinity Church, on the west side of Broadway, is a handsome Gothic edifice of brown stone, with a spire two hundred and eighty-five feet high. The present building dates from 1839-1846, but occupies the site of a church of 1696. The church owns property to the value of at least twenty million dollars used in the support of several subsidiary churches and numerous charities.

Just above Trinity Church are the enormous Trinity and United States Realty buildings, two dignified structures, the former with an admirable facade in a modified Gothic style, and nearly opposite are the Union Trust Co. and the twenty-three story building of the American Surety Co., the latter containing the United States Weather Bureau (“Old Probabilities”). On the same side, between Pine Street and Cedar Street, is the office of the Equitable Life Insurance Co.

The block to the left, between Liberty Street and Cortland Street, is occupied by the buildings of the Singer Manufacturing Co., the City Realty Co., and the City Investing Co. The tower of the Singer Building, with its forty-one stories, rises to a height of six hundred and twelve feet. Between Broadway and Park Row is the Post Office, a large Renaissance building.

City Hall, containing the headquarters of the Mayor of Greater New York and other municipal authorities, is a well-proportioned building of marble in the Italian style, with a central portico, two projecting wings, and a cupola clock tower.

To the north of the City Hall is the Court House, a large building of white marble, with its principal entrance, garnished with lofty Corinthian columns, facing Chambers Street. The interior, which contains the State Courts and several municipal offices, is well fitted up. This building, one of the “Tweed ring” structures, is said to have cost twelve million dollars. Opposite the Court House, in Chambers Street, are various City Offices. These include the new Register Office or Hall of Records, a handsome building in the French Renaissance style, erected at a cost of six million dollars and faced with granite. The facade is adorned with sculptures, and the interior is also elaborately decorated. To the southwest of the City Hall, facing Broadway, is a statue of Nathan Hale.

Park Row, bounding the southeast side of the City Hall Park, contains the offices of many of the principal New York newspapers, the Pulitzer Building, with the World office, Tribune Building, New York Press, and Park Row Building with its lofty towers. Opposite the newspaper offices, in Printing House Square, is a bronze statue of Benjamin Franklin, and in front of the Tribune Building is a seated bronze figure of its famous founder, Horace Greeley.

Beyond Astor Place, Broadway passes the large building occupied by John Wanamaker, but originally erected for A. T. Stewart & Co. With its new annexes, it is heralded as the largest department store in the world.

Broadway now inclines to the left. At the bend rises Grace Church, which, with the adjoining rectory, chantry, and church-house, forms one of the most attractive ecclesiastical groups in New York. The church is of white limestone and has a lofty marble spire. The interior is well-proportioned, and all the windows contain stained glass.

At Fourteenth Street Broadway reaches Union Square, which is beautified with pleasure grounds, statues, and an ornamental fountain. At the corner of East Sixteenth Street is the massive office building of the Bank of Metropolis. Near the southeast corner is a good equestrian statue of Washington, in the center of the south side is a bronze statue of Lafayette, in the southwest corner is a statue of Abraham Lincoln, and on the west side is the James Fountain.

Broadway, between Union Square and Madison Square, is one of the chief shopping-resorts of New York, containing many fine stores for the sale of furniture, dry goods, etc. At Twenty-third Street it intersects Fifth Avenue and at the point of intersection stands the daring Fuller Building, generally known as the “Flat-iron Building” on account of its strange triangular shape. It is two hundred and ninety feet high, has twenty stories, and cost four million dollars.

Broadway now skirts the west side of Madison Square, a prettily laid out public garden, containing a bronze statue of Admiral Farragut, an obelisk to the memory of General Worth, a statue of Roscoe Conkling, a statue of President Arthur, and a statue of William H. Seward. The statue of Farragut is among the finest in New York, and the imaginative treatment of the pedestal is very beautiful. On the west side of the square is the new Fifth Avenue Building.

On the east side is the new Appellate Court House, a handsome building, perhaps somewhat overloaded with ornamentation.

On the east side of the square, between Twenty-third and Twenty-fourth Streets, is the enormous building of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., the tower of which has fifty stories and reaches a height of six hundred and ninety-three feet. Two elevators run to a height of five hundred and forty-four feet. Adjacent is the Madison Square Presbyterian Church, with its massive dome. At the southeast corner of Twenty-sixth Street stands the Manhattan Club, and at the northeast corner is the huge Madison Square Garden, with its Moorish tower capped by a fine statue of Diana.

The Herald Office, a Venetian palace, stands at Broadway and Thirty-fifth Street, in Herald Square.

West of Herald Square, at Seventh Avenue and Thirty-third Street, is the magnificent station of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, covering an area four hundred and fifty by one thousand eight hundred feet, the largest structure of the kind in the world, connected by tunnels under the Hudson River with New Jersey, and under the East River with Long Island. The tracks are forty feet below the level of the city streets.

The Metropolitan Opera House, opened in 1883 and rebuilt ten years later, after a fire, stands between Thirty-ninth and Fortieth Streets.

At Forty-second Street and Broadway is the Times Building, an ornamental structure sixteen stories high, upon a triangle of ground.

To the east of Madison Avenue is the Grand Central Station, the terminus of the New York Central, the New York, New Haven and Hartford, and the Harlem Railways. Opposite the station is the Belmont Hotel, twenty-two stories high.

The corner at Broadway and Forty-second Street is the recent heart of the theatrical and hotel district, for clustered there are a dozen hotels, the immense Astor and Knickerbocker among them, and there are twenty theaters within half a mile, six of them almost side by side on Forty-second Street.

Beyond Times Square, Broadway is rather uninteresting, but there are some lofty specimens of apartment houses or French flats farther up. From Forty-fifth Street on, Broadway is largely occupied by automobile stores and garages. At the corner of Fifty-sixth Street is the new Broadway Tabernacle and at Fifty-ninth Street Broadway reaches the southwest corner of Central Park and intersects Eighth Avenue.

At the intersection, the so-called Circle, stands the Columbus Monument by Gaetano Russo, [611] erected in 1892, and consisting of a tall shaft surmounted by a marble statue, in all seventy-seven feet high. Beyond Seventy-eighth Street, Broadway, now a wide street with rows of trees, is usually known as the Boulevard. From One Hundred and Eighth Street to One Hundred and Sixty-second Street it coincides with Eleventh Avenue, at One Hundred and Sixteenth Street it passes Columbia University, and from One Hundred and Sixty-second Street it, as Kingsbridge Road, runs on to Yonkers.

Fifth Avenue, the chief street in New York from the standpoint of wealth and fashion, begins at Washington Square to the north of West Fourth Street and a little to the west of Broadway, and runs north to the Harlem River, a distance of six miles. Below Forty-seventh Street the Avenue has now been largely invaded by shops, tall office buildings, and hotels. The avenue has been kept sacred from the marring touch of the street railway or the elevated railroad, and is traversed by a line of motor omnibuses. The avenue is wide and well-paved, and many of the buildings are of brown sandstone. On a fine afternoon Fifth Avenue is alive with carriages and horsemen on their way to and from Central Park and it is, perhaps, seen at its best on a fine Sunday.

At Twenty-third Street the Avenue intersects Broadway and skirts Madison Square. To the right is the Flat-iron Building. At Twenty-sixth Street is the Café Martin.

The whole block between Thirty-third and Thirty-fourth Streets, to the left, is occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, a huge double building of red brick and sandstone in a German Renaissance style. The restaurants and other large halls in the interior are freely adorned with mural paintings by American artists.

The Union League Club, the chief Republican club of New York, is a handsome and substantial building at the corner of Thirty-ninth Street.

Between Fortieth Street and Forty-second Street, to the left, on the site of the old reservoir of the Croton Aqueduct, stands the New York Public Library, a very dignified and imposing structure of white marble, built at a cost of ten million dollars.

A little to the east of this point, in Forty-second Street, is the Grand Central Station already referred to. At the southeast corner of Forty-second Street rises the tasteful Columbia Bank. The Temple Emanu-El, or chief synagogue of New York, at the corner of Forty-third Street, is a fine specimen of Moorish architecture with a richly decorated interior.

At the northeast corner of Forty-fourth Street is Delmonico’s Restaurant, a substantial building with elaborate ornamentation; and at the southwest corner is Sherry’s, a rival establishment, equally patronized by the fashionable world.

The Collegiate Church of St. Nicholas (Dutch Reformed), at the corner of Forty-eighth Street, is one of the handsomest and most elaborately adorned ecclesiastical edifices in the city. It is in decorated Gothic style and has a spire two hundred and seventy feet high. Just below Fiftieth Street, on the right, is the Democratic Club, the stronghold of Tammany and popularly known as “Tamany Hall” or the “Wigwam.”

Between Fiftieth and Fifty-first Streets, to the right, stands St. Patrick’s Cathedral, an extensive building of white marble in the decorated Gothic style, and the most important ecclesiastical edifice in the United States. It is four hundred feet long, one hundred and twenty-five feet wide and one hundred and twelve feet high, and the two beautiful spires are three hundred and thirty-two feet high. The building, which was designed by James Renwick, was erected in 1850-1879, at a cost of three million five hundred thousand dollars.

Adjoining the cathedral, to the right, is the handsome Union Club, and at the corner of Fifty-fourth Street is the University Club, adorned with carvings of the seals of eighteen American colleges. The library contains admirable mural paintings, adapted from Pinturicchio’s work in the Borgia apartments of the Vatican. At the corner of Fifty-fifth Street are the St. Regis Hotel and the Gotham Hotel. The Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church has one of the loftiest spires in the city.

Between Fifty-ninth and One Hundred and Tenth Streets Fifth Avenue skirts the east side of Central Park, having buildings on one side only. Among these, many of which are very handsome, is the Metropolitan Club.

At Fifty-ninth Street, where Fifth Avenue reaches Central Park, are three huge hotels: the New Plaza, the Savoy, and the Netherland. In the middle of the Plaza rises a bronze-gilt equestrian statue of General Sherman, of fine artistic merit.

Mt. Sinai Hospital is between One Hundredth and One Hundred and First Streets.

In Central Park, close to Fifth Avenue at Eighty-second Street, is the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

At One Hundred and Twentieth Street Fifth Avenue reaches Mount Morris Square, the mound in the center of which commands good views. Beyond Mt. Morris Square the Avenue is lined with handsome villas, some of them surrounded by gardens. It ends in a district of tenements and small shops at the Harlem River.

New York has many public parks, the finest of which is the Central Park. The district in which it is located was once a wilderness of rocks and swamps. Plans by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were so admirably carried out as to make the Central Park in ten years one of the most beautiful pleasure-grounds in the world.

Of its eight hundred and forty acres, four hundred are wooded. There are nine miles of drives, with thirty miles of paths, several lakes used for boats in summer and for skating in winter, immense lawns for baseball, tennis, etc., a zoological garden, and conservatories.

The chief promenade is the Mall, near the Fifth Avenue entrance, which is lined with fine elms and contains several statues and groups of sculpture, including Shakespeare, Scott, Burns, Halleck, Columbus, and the Indian Hunter. From the Terrace, at the north end of the Mall, flights of steps descend to the Bethesda Fountain and to the Lake, used for boating in summer and skating in winter. The most extensive view in the park is afforded by the Belvedere, which occupies the highest point of the Ramble, to the north of the Lake.

The North Park, beyond the Croton Reservoir, has fewer artificial features than the South Park, but its natural beauties are greater, and the Harlem Mere, of twelve acres, is very picturesque. Near the southeast corner of the park (nearest entrance in Sixty-fourth Street) are the Old State Arsenal and a small Zoological Garden. On the west side of the park is the American Museum of Natural History, and on the east side is the Metropolitan Museum of Art. To the west of the latter museum rises Cleopatra’s Needle, an Egyptian obelisk from Alexandria, presented by Khedive Ismail Pasha to the City of New York in 1877. The obelisk is of red syenite, is sixty-nine feet high and weighs two hundred tons. Among the other monuments in the park are statues of Webster, Bolivar, Hamilton and Morse, allegorical figures of Commerce and the Pilgrim, and several busts and animal groups. Just outside the park, beside the Sixth Avenue entrance, is a statue of Thorwaldsen.

In Manhattan Square, on the west side of Central Park, between Seventy-seventh and [612] Eighty-first Streets, stands the American Museum of Natural History, which contains collections of natural history, paleontology and ethnology.

CENTRAL PARK TERRACE, NEW YORK

The Metropolitan Museum contains paintings, statuary, ivories, tapestries, porcelains, Greek, Roman, and Egyptian antiquities. Beginning with one structure erected by the city at a cost of five hundred thousand dollars in 1880, it now comprises a series of buildings which cost several million dollars. The collections of paintings, sculpture, antiquities, porcelains, jades, armor, etc., are valued at ten million dollars, most of which has been contributed by art lovers of the city. In 1903 the institution received a bequest of six million dollars from the well-known locomotive builder John T. Rogers, which has enabled it to compete with other great museums.

At the corner of Morningside Avenue and One Hundred and Twelfth Street is the new Episcopal Cathedral of St. John the Divine, designed by Heins and La Farge, the corner-stone of which was laid in 1892, but the building of which has not progressed very far. The Crypt, including the curious Tiffany Chapel of mosaic glass, and the Belmont or St. Saviour’s Chapel are the only portions completed. To the north of this, in the block bounded by Morningside Avenue, Tenth Avenue, One Hundred and Thirteenth Street, and One Hundred and Fourteenth Street, is the large building of St. Luke’s Hospital, constructed of white marble and white pressed brick, with a tower and clock over the main entrance.

To the northwest of this point, on a magnificent site extending from One Hundred and Fourteenth Street to One Hundred and Twenty-first Street, one hundred and ten to one hundred and fifty feet above the Hudson River, are the new buildings of Columbia University, the oldest, largest, and most important educational institution in New York. The finest building in the center of the group is the Low Memorial Library, built at a cost of one million dollars.

On a commanding site bounded by One Hundred and Thirty-eighth Street, Amsterdam Avenue, One Hundred and Fortieth Street, and St. Nicholas Terrace, are the imposing new buildings of the College of the City of New York, erected in 1903-1908 by Mr. George B. Post, in the low-arch Gothic style, at a cost of nearly five million dollars, and notable for their uniformity of design and symmetry of grouping.

Among other educational institutions are the Normal College, at Sixty-ninth Street and Park Avenue; the College of Physicians and Surgeons; the New York University; Cooper Union, in which nearly all the courses are free; St. John’s (Fordham), Manhattan, and St. Francis Xavier, Roman Catholic colleges; the National Academy of Design; Society of American Artists; the Art Students’ League; Chase Art School; New York Institute of Music, and various theological schools.

Riverside Drive or Park, skirting the hills fronting on the Hudson from Seventy-second Street to One Hundred and Twenty-seventh Street, affords beautiful views of the river and is one of the most striking roads of which any city can boast. It has become, perhaps, the most attractive residential quarter of New York, though a great architectural opportunity has been lost in the buildings that border it, these consisting largely of apartment hotels, remarkable mainly for their size.

Near the north end of the drive, on Claremont Heights (West One Hundred and Twenty-second Street), is the Tomb of General Ulysses S. Grant, a huge and solid mausoleum of white granite, erected in 1891-1897 at a cost of six hundred thousand dollars, from a design by J. H. Duncan. The monument consists of a lower story in the Doric style, ninety feet square, surmounted by a cupola borne by Ionic columns. The total height is one hundred and fifty feet.

John Verrazani, a Florentine navigator, was the first European who entered New York Bay (1525). In 1614 the Dutch built a fort on Manhattan Island, and in 1623 a permanent settlement was made, named Nieuw Amsterdam. In 1674 Manhattan Island came into the possession of Great Britain. At the Revolution the population was less than that of Philadelphia or Boston. It was evacuated by the forces of Great Britain in 1783, and from 1785 to 1789 was the seat of government of the United States. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 gave a vast impetus to New York City’s growth. The city by 1874 [613] had extended beyond the Harlem River and a part of Westchester County was incorporated in it. In 1896 a law was passed consolidating with New York City, Brooklyn (Kings County), Long Island City, Staten Island, Westchester, Flushing, Newtown, Jamaica, and parts of Eastchester, Pelham, and Hempstead. By the charter adopted in 1897 this territory was divided into the boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Bronx, Richmond, and Queens. A new charter was secured in 1907 under which the mayor presides over the entire city, with absolute power of appointment and removal of the heads of all city departments. In 1911 a new charter was drawn up which evoked considerable opposition, as it seemed to place still greater powers in the hands of the mayor.

GRANT’S TOMB, RIVERSIDE DRIVE, NEW YORK

Philadelphia (fĭl-ȧ-del´fĭ-ȧ), Pa. [The “Quaker City”; named from two Greek words meaning “loved or friendly,” and “brother,” applied as “brotherly love.” The Indian name of the locality was Coaquannok, “grove of tall pine trees.”]

The chief city of Pennsylvania and the third city in population and importance of the United States, it is situated on the Delaware River, about one hundred miles by ship-channel (via Delaware Bay) from the Atlantic Ocean, ninety miles by railroad southwest of New York City, and one hundred and thirty-six miles northeast of Washington.

The city occupies mainly a broad plain between the Delaware and the Schuylkill Rivers. It is twenty-two miles long from north to south and five to ten miles wide, covering one hundred and thirty square miles, and is laid out with chessboard regularity. The characteristic Philadelphia house is a two-storied or three-storied structure of red pressed brick, with white marble steps. The two rivers give it about thirty miles of water-front for docks and wharfage, and it is the headquarters of two of the greatest American railways—the Pennsylvania and the Reading.

The great wholesale business thoroughfare is Market Street, running east and west between the two rivers, while Chestnut Street, parallel with it on the south, contains the finest shops, many of the newspaper offices, etc. Broad Street is the chief street running north and south. Among the most fashionable residence quarters are Rittenhouse Square and the west parts of Walnut, Locust, Spruce, and Pine Streets. Eighth Street is the great district for shops and amusements.

The City Hall (or Public Buildings) is in the center of the city at the intersection of Broad and Market Streets. The structure is the largest exclusively municipal building in the world. It is built of white marble upon a granite base, in French Renaissance style, and covers an area of four hundred and eighty-six by four hundred and seventy feet. The height of the tower and dome is five hundred and thirty-seven feet four and one-half inches; or five hundred and seventy-three feet four and one-half inches with the colossal figure of Penn (thirty-six feet), to surmount the whole. The entire cost, when completely furnished for occupancy, was estimated at twenty-five million dollars.

The broad pavement round the City Hall is adorned with statues of General Reynolds, General McClellan, Stephen Girard, John C. Bullitt, President McKinley, and Joseph Leidy, the naturalist, and with the “Pilgrim” by Saint-Gaudens.

On the west side of City Hall Square, opposite the City Hall, is the enormous Broad Street Station of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The waiting-room contains a large allegorical relief, while one wall is covered with a mammoth railway map of the United States. On the north side of the square, at the corner of Broad Street and Filbert Street, is the Masonic Temple, a huge granite structure with a tower two hundred and fifty feet high and an elaborately carved Norman porch.

On the east side of the square, occupying the block bounded by the square, Market Street, Thirteenth Street, and Chestnut Street, is Wanamaker’s Store, one of the largest in the United States. On the south side of the square is the Betz Building, with heads of the Presidents of the United States in the bronze cornice above the third-story windows.

Chestnut Street is the chief street of Philadelphia, containing many of the handsomest and most interesting buildings. To the left, at the corner of Broad Street and adjoining the Betz Building, is the Franklin National Bank, while to the right rises the fine office of the Real Estate Trust Co. At the corner of Twelfth Street is the tall Commonwealth Trust Building, and at the corner of Tenth Street, on the same side, is the New York Mutual Life Insurance Co.

Between Tenth and Ninth Streets, to the left, are the Mortgage Trust Co., the Penn Mutual Life Building, with an elaborate facade, and the office of the Philadelphia Record. At the corner of Ninth Street, extending on the north to Market Street, is the Post Office, a large granite building in the Renaissance style, erected at a cost of five million dollars. It also contains the United States Courts and the offices of various Federal officials. In front of the Post Office is a colossal seated figure of Benjamin Franklin. Between Eighth and Seventh Streets is the ornamented [614] front of the Union Trust Co. This neighborhood contains several newspaper offices. At the corner of Sixth Street, on the Public Ledger Building, is another statue of Franklin.

In Seventh Street, a little to the north of Chestnut Street, is the Franklin Institute with a library, museum and lecture-hall.

Between Fifth and Sixth Streets is Independence Hall, or the old State House, a modest brick edifice (1732-1735), which is in some respects the most interesting building in the United States. Here the Continental Congress met during the American Revolution (1775-1781), and here, on July 4th, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted. In 1897-1898 the whole building was restored as far as possible to its original condition.

The Custom House, with a Doric portico, was originally erected in 1819-1824 for the United States Bank. It is copied from the Parthenon, and considered one of the best examples of Doric architecture in the world.

A lane diverging to the right between Fourth and Third Streets, opposite the Fidelity Trust Co., leads to Carpenters’ Hall, where the First Colonial Congress assembled in 1774. It contains the chairs used at the Congress, various historical relics, and the inscription: “Within these walls Henry, Hancock, and Adams inspired the delegates of the colonies with nerve and sinew for the toils of war.” Chestnut Street ends at the Delaware River.

Walnut Street runs parallel to Chestnut Street, one block to the south. In this street, at the intersection of Dock Street and Third Street, is the Stock Exchange, formerly the Merchants Exchange, with a semi-circular portico facing the river. Near it, in Third Street, is the Girard Bank, built for the first United States Bank and long owned by Stephen Girard. At Fourth Street is the building of the Manhattan Insurance Co.

Walnut Street now crosses Broad Street, to the west of which it consists mainly of private residences. Between Eighteenth and Nineteenth Streets we pass Rittenhouse Square, a fashionable residence quarter.

At the corner of Broad and Chestnut Streets are the white marble building of the Girard Trust Co., with a rotunda, and the tall Land Title Building.

North Broad Street, beginning on the north side of the City Hall Square, a handsome street one hundred and thirteen feet wide, contains in its upper portion many of the finest private residences in Philadelphia. To the right, at the corner of Filbert Street, is the Masonic Temple, which is adjoined by the Arch Street Methodist Episcopal Church. On the opposite side of the street are the tall buildings of the United Gas Improvement Co. and the Fidelity Mutual Life Association. To the right is the Odd Fellows’ Temple.

To the left, at the corner of Cherry Street, is the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, a building in the Venetian style of architecture. The Academy was founded in 1805. Besides its collections it supports an important art-school, the lecture hall of which is adorned with effective decorations by the pupils. Its collections include five hundred paintings, numerous sculptures, several hundred casts, and fifty thousand engravings. The early American school is especially well represented.

On the west side of Broad Street, between Race and Vine Streets, are the Hahnemann College and Hospital, one of the chief homœopathic institutions of the kind. To the right, at the corner of Spring Garden Street, is the Spring Garden Institute for instruction in drawing, painting, and the mechanic arts. Opposite are the Baldwin Locomotive Works, a highly interesting industrial establishment.

A little farther on is the Boys’ Central High School, an unusually large and handsome structure, and the Synagogue Rodef Shalom, in a Moorish style.

Farther up Broad Street are numerous handsome private houses, churches, and other edifices. At the northwest corner of Broad Street and Girard Avenue is the handsome Widener Mansion, presented to the city and used as a branch of the Free Library. Beyond Master Street, to the left, is the elaborate home of the Mercantile Club. Beyond this Broad Street runs out to Germantown, six miles from the City Hall.

Girard Avenue runs west from North Broad Street to Girard College, one of the richest and most notable philanthropic institutions in the United States. It was founded by Stephen Girard, a native of France, for the education of male orphans. The original bequest of over five million dollars has increased to about thirty-five million dollars.

The main building is a dignified marble structure in the Corinthian style, resembling the Madeleine at Paris. In the vestibule are a statute of Stephen Girard, and his sarcophagus. A room on the ground floor contains several relics of him.

Market Street is the chief wholesale business thoroughfare of the city. A little to the east of City Hall Square it passes the Philadelphia & Reading Railway Station, a tall Renaissance building with a train shed little smaller than that of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The department store of Gimbel Brothers, on the south side of the street, between Eighth and Ninth Streets, is one of the largest in the world. The Penn National Bank, at the corner of South Seventh Street, occupies the site of the house in which Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence.

South Broad Street leads to the south from City Hall Square. Its intersection with Chestnut Street, just to the south of the City Hall, is environed with tall office buildings. To the right is the annex of the Land Title Building, extending to Sansom Street. Opposite, adjoining the Real Estate Trust Co., is the North American Building, named after the newspaper which occupies it. Below is the Union League Club, the chief Republican club of Pennsylvania. On the same side is the large Bellevue-Stratford Hotel, the leading hotel of Philadelphia, and one of the great hostelries of the country. Farther on, to the right, is the Art Club, in the Renaissance style, in which exhibitions of paintings, concerts, and public lectures are held. At Locust Street, to the right, is the Academy of Music, while to the left is the Pennsylvania School of Industrial Art, incorporated in 1876, with a special view to the development of the art industries of Pennsylvania. A characteristic feature is the department of weaving and textile design. The Industrial Museum Hall is connected with this excellent institution.

Below Pine Street, Broad Street contains few important buildings. Of special note, however, is the Ridgway Library, which stands to the left, between Christian and Carpenter Streets, nearly one mile from the City Hall. This handsome building was erected with a legacy of one million five hundred thousand dollars left by Dr. Rush in 1869, as a branch of the Philadelphia Library. Adjoining the main hall is the tomb of the founder.

Broad Street ends, four miles from the City Hall, at League Island Park, three hundred acres in extent. League Island itself, in the Delaware, contains a United States Navy Yard.

West Philadelphia, the extension of the city beyond the Schuylkill, contains many of the chief residence streets and several public buildings and charitable institutions.

The University of Pennsylvania, founded in 1740, and removed to West Philadelphia in 1872, occupies a group of more than thirty buildings scattered over an area of sixty acres bounded by Woodland and Cleveland Avenues and Pine and Thirty-second Streets.

The College, the Medical School, Dental School, and Law School, are all provided with spacious and well-equipped buildings. Houston Hall, behind College Hall, is the social center of the University student life. The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology is recognized as the headquarters of anatomical research in the United States and contains the first museum of human anatomy founded in America. The Morgan Laboratory of Physics, the Harrison Laboratory of Chemistry, the Gymnasium, and the Dormitories are all notable structures. Franklin Field, adjoining Thirty-third Street, is the athletic ground of the University and contains a large stadium.

The Museum of Science and Art occupies a tasteful building in South Street, owing part of its inspiration to the Certosa at Pavia, and is divided into five sections. Its value is largely due to the fact that many of its contents were found by expeditions organized by the University itself.

A little to the northeast, at the corner of Chestnut Street and Thirty-second Street, is the Drexel Institute, founded by A. J. Drexel, and opened in 1892. The total cost of buildings and equipment was four million five hundred thousand dollars.

Fairmount Park, the chief park of Philadelphia, is one of the largest in the world, and covers an area of three thousand three hundred and forty acres. The park proper extends along both banks of the Schuylkill for about four miles, and the narrow strip along the Wissahickon, six miles, and one of the noted drives of the world, is also included in the park limits. The principal entrances are at the end of Green Street, which is connected with the City Hall by the wide Park Boulevard, and at Girard Avenue.

In this park, in 1876 was held the Centennial Exhibition; and in its environs are the Zoological Garden, the Fairmount Waterworks, which supply to the city one hundred million gallons of water daily, the beautiful Horticultural Hall and Memorial Hall, built as part of the Centennial Exhibition of 1876 at a cost of one million five hundred thousand dollars, and now containing a permanent collection of art and industry known as Pennsylvania Museum of Industrial Art.

At Sackamaxon, in Beach Street, is the small Penn Treaty Park, supposed to occupy the spot where Penn made his treaty with the Indians in 1682, under an elm that has long since vanished, a treaty, in the words of Voltaire, “never sworn to and never broken.”

In its manufacturing products Philadelphia ranks next to New York. There are upward of twenty thousand manufacturing establishments, the combined output of which amounts to more than eight hundred million dollars. The chief products are locomotives, sugar and molasses, men’s clothing, foundry and machine-shop products, carpets and rugs, hosiery and knit goods, woolen and cotton goods, malt liquors, morocco, chemicals, packed meat, refined petroleum and silk, and silk goods. The great Cramp ship-building yards are on the Delaware River. The Baldwin Locomotive Works are the largest in the world.

Philadelphia was founded by William Penn in 1682, the year after was made the capital of Pennsylvania, and soon became a place of importance. It was the central point in the War of Independence, where the first Continental Congress met, September 4, 1774, and where the Declaration of Independence was adopted in 1776. At Philadelphia, also, the Federal Union was signed, in 1778; and here, too, the Constitution of the United States was framed, in 1787. An interest of another kind attaches to the fact that the Protestant Episcopal Church of North America was organized here in 1786. From 1790 to 1800 Philadelphia was the Federal Capital; and the first mint was established here in 1792. Later events have been the holding of the Centennial Exhibition, in 1876, and the commemoration of Penn’s landing in 1882.

Pittsburgh, Pa. [The “Smoky City,” “Iron City”; named in 1758, when the French had been driven out by Washington; Fort Pitt, after William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, the name Pittsburgh being adopted in 1769.]

It is the second city of Pennsylvania and one of the chief industrial centers of the United States, and occupies the tongue of land between the Monongahela and the Allegheny, which here unite to form the Ohio, and also a strip of land on the south side of the Monongahela. The sister city, Allegheny, situated on the north bank of the Allegheny and extending down to the Ohio, was incorporated with Pittsburgh in 1907 and is now known as the North Side. The rivers are crossed by numerous bridges.

Smithfield Street, diverging from Liberty Avenue, not far from the Union Station, leads to the river Monongahela, on the other side of which, from Washington Heights, may be obtained a fine view of the city. On Liberty Avenue, to the right, is the City Hall a fine structure of white sandstone. A little farther on, to the left, is the Post Office. At the bridge are the Monongahela Hotel and the Baltimore & Ohio Station.

Crossing the Smithfield Street Bridge, Mt. Washington (three hundred and seventy feet) may be ascended by one of the three inclined railways on this side. These interesting, but at first somewhat startling, pieces of apparatus are worked by cables and transport horses and carriages as well as persons.

The finest building in Pittsburgh is the Allegheny County Court House, in Grant Street, a splendid example of H. H. Richardson’s treatment of Romanesque, erected in 1888 at a cost of two million five hundred thousand dollars. The massive Prison is connected with the Court House by a finely handled stone bridge. The main tower is three hundred and twenty feet high. The government building cost one million five hundred thousand dollars.

Other buildings of importance are the Frick Building, a granite office structure of twenty stories at the corner of Fifth Avenue and Grant Street; the Carnegie Building and the Farmers’ Bank Building (these two also in Fifth Avenue); the Union National Bank Building and the Commonwealth Trust Co. Building, in Fourth Avenue; the First Presbyterian Church, in Sixth Avenue; the Fulton Building, and the Bessemer Building (the last two at the corner of Sixth Street and Duquesne Way).

More to the east are the Academy of Our Lady of Mercy and the new Calvary Episcopal Church (at the corner of Shady Avenue and Walnut Street), a beautiful example of thirteenth century Gothic. The Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Paul stands in Fifth Avenue, at the corner of Craig Street.

To the east of the city lies Schenley Park, containing the fine Phipps Conservatory and the Hall of Botany. Near the Forbes Street entrance to the Park is the great central building of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, in which are housed not only the main collection of the library, but also two of the three departments of the Carnegie Institute. The structure, originally built in the Italian Renaissance style at a cost of eight hundred thousand dollars, was remodeled [616] and enlarged in 1904-1907 at an additional cost of five million dollars. The city is also the seat of Pittsburgh University, Holy Ghost College, and Penn’s College for Women. The great iron and steel works have made the prosperity and reputation of Pittsburgh. Among these are the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, the Homestead Steel Works, the Duquesne Steel Works, the American Bridge Co., the Jones & Laughlin Works, the Oliver Iron & Steel Co., the Crescent Steel Works, and the Pressed Steel Car Co.

Its manufactures include everything, indeed, which can be made of iron, from a fifty-eight-ton gun to nails and tacks; steel in its various applications; electrical machinery and appliances; all descriptions of glass and glassware; silver and nickel-plated ware; Japan and Britannia ware; pressed tin, brass, copper, bronzes; Portland cement, earthenware, crucibles, fire-pots, bricks; furniture, wagons and carriages; brushes, bellows, mechanical supplies of all kinds; natural-gas fittings, and tools for oil and gas wells. Pittsburgh has, also, the largest manufactory of cork, and the largest pickling and preserving establishment in the world.

In 1754 a few English traders built a stockade here, but were driven away by the French. The latter replaced the stockade by a fort, which, in honor of the Governor of Canada, they called Duquesne. In 1758 it was taken by the English, who next year commenced a large and strong fortification, which, in honor of the elder Pitt, then Prime Minister, they called Fort Pitt. The settlement became a borough in 1804, and in 1816 was incorporated as the city of Pittsburgh. In 1872 the limits of the city were extended across the Monongahela, and by 1906 it extended over twenty-eight square miles. In 1907 Allegheny City (in spite of the opposition of a large majority of its inhabitants) was annexed; the Supreme Court of the United States declared the act valid, and thus Allegheny became the North Side of the present Pittsburgh.

Richmond, Va. [Named from Richmond-on-the-Thames, a suburb of London; the name suggested owing to analogy in situation.]

It is the capital of Virginia, on the left bank of the James River, at the head of tide water, one hundred and fifty miles from its mouth, and one hundred and sixteen miles by rail south of Washington. It is a port of entry, and vessels drawing sixteen feet of water can come up to the lower end of the city, where there are large docks. Richmond is picturesquely situated on a group of hills, and fine water power is afforded by the James River, which descends one hundred and sixteen feet in nine miles.

Near the center of the city, on Shockoe Hill, is Capitol Square, a tree-shaded area of twelve acres. The Capitol, or State House, partly designed after the Maison Carrée at Nîmes, France, occupies the highest point of the square and dates from 1785. The wings were added in 1906.

In the Central Hall, surmounted by a dome, are Houdon’s statue of Washington (which Washington himself is said to have seen in its present position) and a bust of Lafayette by the same artist. The Senate Chamber, to the right, was used as the Confederate House of Representatives during the Civil War. The House of Delegates, to the left, contains portraits of Chatham and Jefferson, and was the scene of Aaron Burr’s trial for high treason in 1807, and of the State Secession Convention in 1861.

Capitol Square also contains a fine equestrian statue of Washington, with figures of Patrick Henry, George Mason, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Nelson, Andrew Lewis, and Chief Justice Marshall round the pedestal; a statue of Stonewall Jackson; a statue of Hunter Holmes McGuire, the most noted surgeon of the South; and a statue of Henry Clay. At the northeast corner of the square stands the Governor’s Mansion.

On the north side, in Broad Street, is the City Hall, a handsome Gothic structure with a clock-tower. To the east of the Capitol is the State Library. In Twelfth Street, at the corner of Clay Street, a little to the north of Capitol Square, is the Jefferson Davis Mansion, or “White House of the Confederacy,” occupied by Mr. Davis as President of the Southern Confederacy. It is now fitted up as a Museum of Confederate Relics.

St. John’s Church, erected in 1740, but since much enlarged, is at the corner of Broad and Twenty-fourth Streets. The Virginia Convention was held in this church in 1775, and it was here that Patrick Henry made his famous “give me liberty or give me death” speech.

On Monument Avenue (a prolongation of Franklin Street) is the equestrian statue of General Lee. Adjacent is an equestrian statue of General J. E. B. Stuart, and a half mile farther on, at the west end of the avenue, is the Jefferson Davis Monument, consisting of a semi-circular colonnade with a pillar supporting an allegorical female figure and inscribed “Deo Vindice,” with a heroic statue of the ex-president in front. A little to the east of the Lee Statue is Richmond College, a leading educational institution of Virginia.

Among other points of interest in Richmond are the Westmoreland Club, at the corner of Grace and Sixth Streets; the Commonwealth Club, at the corner of Franklin and Madison Streets; the Virginia Club, 2311 East Grace Street; Chief Justice Marshall’s House; the Tobacco Exchange, Shockoe Slip; the University College of Medicine; the Medical College of Virginia; the National Cemetery, two miles to the northeast of the city; the Sheltering Arms Hospital, and Idlewood Park, a favorite summer-resort, close to the city on the west.

Hollywood Cemetery is the most interesting of the cemeteries. Near the west gate of the cemetery is the Confederate Monument, a rude pyramid of stone ninety feet high, erected as a memorial to the sixteen thousand Confederate soldiers buried here. On President’s Hill, in the southwest corner of the cemetery, overlooking the river, are the graves of Monroe and Tyler, two of the seven presidents born in Virginia. John Randolph, Jefferson Davis, General Pickett, General J. E. B. Stuart and Commodore Maury are also buried here. Patrick Henry is buried in St. John’s Churchyard.

During the last three years of the Civil War (1862-1865) battles raged all round Richmond, and remains of the fortified lines constructed to protect the city are visible in various parts of the environs.

The leading industry is the manufacture of tobacco. Other important products are lumber and planing-mill supplies, foundry and machine-shop products (including locomotives), fancy and paper boxes, packing boxes, saddlery and harness, carriages and wagons, confectionery, flavoring extracts, patent medicines and compounds, etc. There are also large railroad repair shops, establishments for grinding and roasting coffee, etc. Richmond was formerly noted as a center of the flour-milling industry.

Richmond was settled in 1733 and incorporated in 1742. Captain John Smith’s settlement of “None Such” in 1609 and Fort Charles, erected in 1645, were both near the site of the present city. In 1779 it became the capital of the state. During the American Revolution the place was taken by a British force under Benedict Arnold, January 5, 1781, and the warehouses and public buildings were burned. The following year the city was chartered. Richmond, as the capital of the Confederacy, was the main objective of Federal [617] operations during the Civil War. It was evacuated April 2, 1865. The warehouses and a considerable part of the business section of the city were burned by the Confederates.

Salt Lake City, Utah. [The “City of the Saints;” named for the famous lake of that state.]

It is the chief town and ecclesiastical capital of the State of Utah, and is situated on the river Jordan, eleven miles from Great Salt Lake. It is built at the base of the Wasatch Mountains, four thousand three hundred and thirty-four feet above sea-level. The valley is world-famed for its beauty, resources, climate, and health-giving properties. By rail it is thirty-six miles south of Ogden, on the Union Pacific Railroad; eight hundred and thirty-three miles from San Francisco, and one thousand and thirty-one miles from Omaha.

The city is regularly laid out and the streets are wide and shaded with trees. Each house in the residence quarters stands in its own garden.

Temple Block, “the sacred square of the Mormons,” covering ten acres, is the center of the city. Here are the Great Temple, and the Tabernacle, the latter one hundred and fifty by two hundred and fifty feet, with a self-supporting roof shaped like a tortoise shell, supported by forty-four sandstone pillars, and having a seating capacity of eight thousand, accommodations for twelve thousand, and one of the finest pipe organs in America.

A little to the east of the Tabernacle is the Temple, a large and handsome building of granite, erected at a cost of over four million dollars. At each end are three pointed towers, the loftiest of which, in the center of the east or principal facade, is two hundred and ten feet high and is surmounted by a colossal gilded figure (twelve and one-half feet high) of the Angel Moroni, by C. E. Dallin. The interior is elaborately fitted up and artistically adorned.

The Assembly Hall, to the south of the Tabernacle, is a granite building with accommodation for three thousand people, intended for divine service.

At the corner of North Temple and Main Streets stands the Latter-Day Saints University. At the southeast corner of Temple Square is the Pioneer Monument, surmounted by a copper statue of Brigham Young, which was unveiled in 1897.

On South Temple Street towards the east is the Deseret News Block, a large brown-stone building where the oldest newspaper to the west of the Missouri is published. To the left are the Tithing Office and Tithing Storehouse where the Mormons pay their tithes in kind. A little farther on, also to the left, are the Lion House, one of the residences of Brigham Young; the office of the president of the Mormon Church; and the Beehive House, another of Brigham Young’s houses. On the opposite side of the street are the huge shoe-factory and warehouse of Zion’s Coöperative Mercantile Institution; the office of the Juvenile Instructor; the office of the Historian of the Mormon Church; and the Gardo House, or Amelia Palace, opposite the Beehive House.

A little farther to the northeast, through the Eagle Gate, is Brigham Young’s grave, surrounded by an ornamental iron railing.

The imposing City and County Building is in Washington Square, and the Federal Building is in Main Street, between Third and Fourth South Streets. A new Capitol is in contemplation in Capitol grounds, near Prospect Hill. Among the educational establishments are the Utah State University, to the east of the city, near Fort Douglas, and the High School, in Union Square. The Roman Catholic Cathedral and several other religious edifices also are represented, including Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Methodist churches. St. Mark’s Cathedral is a handsome building. Other noteworthy edifices are those of the museum, the Mining Institute, St. Mary’s Hospital, the University of Utah, and the theaters and opera house.

The city is more important as a trading center than for manufactures. The leading industries are beet-sugar refining, smelting, salt making, and the manufacture of boots and shoes, glass, woolens, paper, cutlery, pottery, etc. A large business is done in bullion and mining stocks. The city has a large jobbing trade, being the distributing center for an immense mining agricultural and stock raising region in Utah, West Wyoming, South Idaho, and East Nevada.

Salt Lake City was founded in 1847 by Brigham Young and incorporated in 1851. Until 1870 it was almost wholly a Mormon city.

San Antonio (săn ăn-to´nĭ-ō), Texas. [Named for the Roman Catholic mission, San Antonio de Valero, otherwise the Alamo.]

After Dallas it is the largest city in the state, and is located on the San Antonio River, two hundred and ten miles by railroad west of Houston, one hundred and eighty-eight miles west of Galveston, on both banks of the San Antonio Creek, at the mouth of San Pedro River. Built on a level plateau, with an elevation of six hundred and sixty feet above the sea, it includes the old Mexican town of San Fernando, west of San Pedro Creek, inhabited chiefly by Americans and largely rebuilt since 1860. The San Antonio River winds for thirteen miles through the city, and San Pedro Creek for ten miles. These are spanned by numerous little bridges. It is one of the most interesting in the United States.

The first object of interest in San Antonio is the Church of the Mission del Alamo, situated in the Alamo Plaza, in the quarter to the east of the San Antonio River. The church, which seems to have derived its name from being built in a grove of alamo or cottonwood trees, is a low and strong structure of adobe, with very thick walls. It was built in 1744, but has lost many of its original features. It is now preserved as a national monument for its historical interests.

At the north end of the Alamo Plaza, in Houston Street, is the handsome Federal Building. On the west side of the plaza is the building containing the San Antonio Club and the Grand Opera House.

Houston Street towards the west crosses the San Antonio and reaches Soledad Street, which leads to the left to the Main Plaza (Plaza de Las Yslas), pleasantly laid out with gardens. On its south side rises the imposing Court House and on its west side stands the Cathedral of San Fernando, dating in its present form mainly from 1868 to 1873, but incorporating parts of the earlier building, where Santa Ana had his headquarters in 1836. To the west of the Cathedral is the Military Plaza (Plaza de Armas), with the City Hall.

The Military Post (Fort Sam Houston), on Government Hill, one mile to the north of the city, costing over two million dollars, is one of the largest in the United States and deserves a visit. The tower (eighty-eight feet high), in the center of the quadrangle, commands a splendid view of the city and its environs.

The old Spanish Missions near the city most often visited are the First and Second Missions, but, the Third and Fourth Missions have much interest also.

The Mission of the Conception, or First Mission, lies about two and a quarter miles to the south of the city (reached via Garden Street), dates from 1731 to 1752, and is well preserved. The church has two towers and a central dome. The Mission San Jose de Aguayo, or Second Mission, four miles to the south of the city, dates from 1720 to 1731 and is the most beautiful of all.

OLD SPANISH CHURCH OF THE ALAMO, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS

During the war of Texan independence, the Alamo, then converted into a fort, was the scene of an extraordinary conflict, the fort being held by Colonel David Crockett and Colonel James Bowie. Though almost continually assailed from February 23 to March 6, 1836, it only yielded when the defenders were all slain but five; these were captured by the Mexicans and cruelly slain. “Remember the Alamo,” thereafter became a war cry, and the place itself has been called the “Thermopylæ of America.”

Among the educational institutions are St. Louis College (Roman Catholic), St. Mary’s Hall, St. Mary’s College, Wolfe Memorial School, and the Ursuline Convent and School.

San Antonio is the natural trading center for an immense area, its jobbing houses have an extensive trade in Mexico as well as in Texas. The industrial establishments are machine shops, foundries, breweries, flour mills, binderies, cotton presses, ice plants, tanneries, marble works, cement works, and manufactories of brooms, carriages and wagons, candy, soda and mineral waters, mattresses, bricks and tiles. It is a leading cattle, horse, and mule market, ships large quantities of cotton, wool, and hides; and is the financial center of the largest stock raising interests of the Southwest. The surrounding district, irrigated by water, obtained from deep artesian wells, is extensively engaged in truck farming for Northern markets.

Although the Spaniards built a fort at San Antonio in 1689, its real settlement began in 1714. In 1718 the Franciscan mission of San Antonio de Valero was founded, and, about 1722, on another site was built the Alamo, the “cradle of Texans’ liberty,” in which in 1836 a garrison of about one hundred and eighty men, among them Davy Crockett and James Bowie, for eleven days resisted General Santa Ana’s Mexican army, numbering thousands of men. Eight battles for independence were fought in or near San Antonio between 1776 and 1836, successively under Spanish, French, Mexican, and Texan flags. It received a city charter in 1873.

San Francisco, Cal. [The “City of the Golden Gate”; said by some to have been named for the old Spanish mission of San Francisco de Assisi, by others to have been named for the founder of the order to which Father Junipero, the discoverer of the bay, belonged.]

It is grandly situated at the north end of a peninsula thirty miles long, separating the Pacific Ocean from San Francisco Bay, two thousand four hundred and thirty-four miles west of St. Louis, and three thousand four hundred and fifty-two miles from New York. The city lies mainly on the shore of the bay and on the steep hills rising from it, but is gradually extending across the peninsula (here six miles wide) to the ocean. On the north it is bounded by the famous Golden Gate, the narrow entrance (one mile across and about five miles long) to San Francisco Bay. The commercial part of the town is fairly level and lies along the bay. The chief business thoroughfare is Market Street, three and one-half miles long, with which the streets from the north and west hills intersect. This feature gives the city a striking skyline.

San Francisco Bay, a noble sheet of water, gives San Francisco one of the finest harbors in the world and affords numerous charming excursions. It gives the city much of its commercial importance, also, and extends from Fort Point past the city in a southerly direction for about fifty miles, varying in width from six to twelve miles. Northward this bay connects by a strait with San Pablo Bay, ten miles in length, having at its northerly end Mare Island and the United States Navy Yard.

Across the bay are Oakland, Alameda, and Berkeley.

In 1906 a large part of the city was destroyed by earthquake and fire, the estimated loss reaching over three hundred million dollars. The business district has since been largely rebuilt, and many costly buildings of marble, granite, and terra cotta, and iron and steel-framed “skyscrapers” have been constructed. Before the earthquake of 1906 the most conspicuous public buildings were the City Hall, erected at a cost of six million dollars, and which occupied twenty-five years in building; the Post Office, completed at a total cost of five million dollars; the Hall of Justice, the Custom House, a Mint and a Sub-treasury; the building of the Society of California Pioneers, and stock and merchants’ exchanges; and the Ferry Building containing a display of the mineral resources of California.

NIGHT VIEW, SHOWING ILLUMINATION OF SOUTH GARDENS AND MAIN ENTRANCE, PANAMA-PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION, SAN FRANCISCO, 1915

The Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco was open from February 20 to December 4, 1915. The total attendance was 18,871,957. The last day made the record, 458,558 persons having passed through the turnstiles. The Fine Arts Palace remained open until May 1, 1916.

Market Street, the chief business thoroughfare, extends to the southwest from the Union Ferry Depot, a handsome structure, with a tower two hundred and fifty feet high, to a point near the twin Mission Peaks, a distance of about three and one-half miles.

Following Market Street towards the southwest, at the intersection with Battery Street is the Labor Monument, a vigorous bronze group dedicated to the memory of Peter Donahue of the Union Iron Works. At the southwest corner of Market and Montgomery Streets stands the Palace Hotel, opposite which is the Union Trust Building, the first of the buildings whose steel and concrete frame withstood the fire. Close by, at the corner of Montgomery and Post Streets, are the Crocker Building, another survivor, and the new stone structure of the First National Bank.

At the corners of Kearney and Third Streets rise the Chronicle Building and the tall Spreckels or Call Building, the top of either of which affords a good bird’s-eye view of the city.

Market Street, towards the southwest from the Chronicle Building, contains many large office buildings, including the tall Humboldt Savings Building. At the corner of Fourth Street is the Pacific Building, a huge structure of re-enforced concrete, with a facade of green and brown tiles. In the same block is the Emporium, which has been rehabilitated since the disaster of 1906. On the right, at the corner of Powell Street, is the large Flood Building, another survivor of the fire. It is chiefly occupied by railway offices.

Powell Street leads to Union Square, with the St. Francis Hotel and a Naval Monument commemorating the exploits of the United States fleet in the Philippines during the war with Spain (1898).

At the junction of Market Street with Mason Street is a monument commemorating the admission of California to the Union (1850). To the left, at the corner of Seventh Street, we catch a glimpse of the long frontage of the Post Office with its fine granite carvings. Just beyond this corner, in a small triangular park, is the large Californian Monument, presented to the city by James Lick. The stately monument erected in honor of the achievements of the navy in the Spanish-American war remains uninjured.

The district containing the United States Appraisers Stores and the large new Custom House was spared by the great fire.

The United States Branch Mint, in Fifth Street, at the corner of Mission Street, contains interesting machinery and a collection of coins and relics. The effect of the fire may be clearly seen on the granite at the north end of the building.

Montgomery Street and the southern part of Sansome Street, form the center of the banking district. On the former is the Union Trust Building, and a series of large office buildings, of which the most important are the Mills Building, corner of Montgomery and Bush Streets; the Merchants Exchange, California Street, near Montgomery Street; Kohl Building, corner Montgomery and California Streets; Italian-American Bank, a one-story building with Doric columns, corner Montgomery and Sacramento Streets; and the Bank of Italy, corner Montgomery and Clay Streets. At the northeast corner of Sansome and California Streets rises the tall Alaska Commercial Building, with the handsome Bank of California opposite.

Nob Hill was the name given about 1870 to that section of California Street, between Powell Street and Leavenworth Street, containing many of the largest private residences in San Francisco. Most of these were of wood, and no expense was spared to make them luxurious dwellings, but with unfortunate architectural results. Few relics of these are now extant. The hill is crowned by the huge Fairmont Hotel, opposite which is the Hopkins Institute of Art.

The present fashionable residential quarter is on [620] Pacific Heights, including the western parts of Jackson Street, Washington Street, Pacific Avenue, and Central Avenue.

The educational institutions of San Francisco, include the Academy of Sciences, endowed by James Lick; the Hopkins Art Academy, situated on Nob Hill; Memorial Museum, in Golden Gate Park; Mechanics’ Institute, which contains property valued at two million dollars, and a library of seventy thousand volumes. Other fine libraries are the Sutro library of two hundred thousand volumes, the public library of one hundred thousand volumes, while the California Historical Society, San Francisco Medical Society, the San Francisco Law Library; the French and Mercantile libraries all have collections of more than thirty thousand volumes. The California School of Mechanical Arts, Cooper Medical College, Cogswell Polytechnic School, College of Notre Dame, Sacred Heart Academy, Irving Institute, the medical and law faculties of the University of California, are also located here.

The city was always conspicuous for its fine churches. The most prominent of these were the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the Jesuit Church of St. Ignatius, and the Mission Dolores, a survival of Spanish occupation.

The largest of the city parks is Golden Gate Park, covering more than one thousand acres and redeemed from a waste of sand-dunes, now one of the most beautiful in the country. It extends from Stanryan Street to the Pacific Ocean, a distance of three miles. Its fine trees and shrubbery, semi-tropical plants and flowers, artificial lakes and Japanese tea gardens combine to make it a veritable wonderland. Through the park a broad, smooth, and well-kept speedway runs out to the ocean beach, and the famous old Cliff House, the Sutro Heights, on the hills of the west or ocean side, from which is a magnificent view of the Seal Rocks and Pacific Ocean.

To the north of the park, beyond the intervening Richmond district, lies the Presidio, the United States military reservation. Here are the harbor fortifications with their big and powerful rapid fire machine guns, the officers’ quarters with picturesque gardens and hedgerows, and the hospital and barracks for the soldiers, while down at the water’s edge is old Fort Mason, a circular brick structure now used as a storehouse.

The population is very heterogeneous, every European nationality being represented here, to say nothing of the Mexicans, Chinese, Japanese, Negroes (relatively few), Filipinos, Hawaiians, and other non-European races.

The Chinese Quarter, rebuilt since the fire, is still one of the most interesting and characteristic features of San Francisco. It lies, roughly defined, between Stockton, Sacramento, Kearney, and Pacific Streets, and now consists mainly of large modern store buildings in a modified Oriental style, and of tall tenements, swarming with Chinese occupants. Chinatown contains about ten thousand inhabitants.

To the north of Chinatown, spreading about the base of Telegraph Hill, is the so-named Latin Quarter, peopled by Italians, Greeks and Mexicans. Their houses, shops, and restaurants are most characteristic. The Japanese Quarter is bounded by Van Ness, Fillmore, Geary, and Pine Streets.

In the pretty park that separates busy Kearney Street from Chinatown, the beautiful golden galleon monument to Robert Louis Stevenson still stands.

San Francisco as the western terminus of the great continental railroads and of many short lines, has important steamship communication with the ports of the world. The bay is accessible to the largest vessels. It is one of the most important grain ports in the United States; and gold and silver, wine, fruit, and wool are exported. There are large sugar refineries, foundries, shipyards, cordage works, wood factories, woolen mills, and many others.

A Spanish post and mission station were established on the site of San Francisco in 1776. The mission was secularized in 1834, and a town was laid out in 1835. A United States man-of-war took possession of it in 1846, and it became an important place in 1849 on account of the discovery of gold (1848). It was devastated by fires, 1849-1851. In 1850 it was incorporated as a city. The original name of the place was Yerba Buena (Spanish, “good herb”). It was changed to San Francisco in 1847. In 1869 railway connection was established with the eastern United States. In 1877 Denis Kearney began a violent agitation against the competition of Chinese labor. This was known as the “sand lots” movement, from the name of the place where the meetings were held. On April 18, 1906, the city was visited with a severe shock of earthquake, and the resultant fires destroyed much of the business section and one-third of the residence portion of the city.

Berkeley, across the Bay from San Francisco, is the seat of the Colleges of Letters and Science of the University of California. The University, founded in 1868, has played a very important part in the educational development of California and of the Pacific Slope. Its other departments are at San Francisco and the Lick Observatory, with the great telescope, is at Mt. Hamilton.

A number of the buildings at Berkeley are handsome, and the picturesque grounds, two hundred and fifty acres in extent, command a splendid view of the Golden Gate and San Francisco. The very interesting open-air Greek Theater, built in 1903 on the general type of the theater at Epidaurus, accommodates twelve thousand spectators and is used for university meetings, commencement exercises, and concerts. The museums, the library, and the laboratories are admirably adapted to their uses.

At Palo Alto, thirty-four miles south of San Francisco, one mile from the station is the Leland Stanford, Jr. University, founded by Mr. and Mrs. Leland Stanford in memory of their only son and endowed by them with upwards of thirty million dollars. The buildings were mainly designed by H. H. Richardson, who took the motif of their architecture from the cloisters of the San Antonio Mission. The material is buff, rough-faced sandstone, surmounted by red-tiled roofs, producing brilliant effects of color in conjunction with the live oak, white oak, and eucalyptus trees outside, and tropical plants in the quadrangle, and the blue sky overhead. In the earthquake of 1906 the buildings suffered severely, the damage done being estimated at nearly two million dollars. Much, however, has been restored or rebuilt. The buildings include a low quadrangle, enclosing a court five hundred and eighty-six feet long and two hundred and forty-six feet wide, with a beautiful colonnade on the inner side; an outer, two-storied quadrangle, with cloisters on the outside; a Chapel; various dormitories; an Art Museum; a mechanical department; and a village of professors’ houses.

Seattle (sē-ăt´t´l), Wash. [Named for the chief of the Duwamish tribe of Indians, See-aa-thl.]

It is finely situated on Elliot Bay, an arm of Puget Sound, one thousand eight hundred and twenty-eight miles from St. Paul. It occupies a series of terraces rising from the shore of the Sound, with steep hills rising from the water, the heights commanding superb views of the snow-crowned Olympic Mountains and the Cascades, including Mounts Rainier and Baker.

The residence streets run up the slope of a hill, with the business portion built on the level ground at the foot, stretching along the excellent harbor, with its many wharves.

Among the finest edifices are the Roman [621] Catholic Cathedral, the Union or King Street Passenger Station, with Carnegie Library, the American Bank, and the Alaska, Lowman, White, Central, and Empire Buildings.

Its notable buildings include, also, the County Court House, County Almshouse, Opera House, High School, and Hospital. The city is beautified with monuments and statues, unique among which is the Totem Pole, in Pioneer Square, near the Union Station, which was brought from Alaska and is one of the best examples of its kind. There is a good statue of Wm. H. Seward, by Richard Brooks, and in the campus of the University of Washington is a colossal statue of Washington, by Lorado Taft.

The University has grounds three hundred and fifty-five acres in extent, and furnished the site for the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition of 1909.

Other leading educational institutions are Seattle Seminary (Methodist), Seattle Female College, College of the Immaculate Conception and Academy of the Holy Name (both Roman Catholic).

There are several fine parks connected, together with the lakes, by a system of boulevards. Fort Lawton, a military post, is within the city limits.

The harbor, which is in Lake Washington and is four miles long and two miles wide, admits the largest vessels at all times. As the terminal of two transcontinental railroads and as an oceanic seaport, Seattle has extraordinary commercial advantages. It has direct steamship lines to Japan, China, the Philippines, and to Honolulu, and is also connected with European and South American ports. It is the chief outfitting port for the Yukon and Alaskan gold fields, and the chief trading center for the numerous ports on the extensive coast-line of Puget Sound. It has abundant electric power generated by falls in the rivers of the Cascades at a very low cost. Snoqualnite Falls, nineteen miles distant, are one hundred and twenty-six feet higher than Niagara, and supply an immense power.

Seattle largely owes its phenomenal growth to the lumber trade. The manufactures include beside, flour, iron and steel products, boots and shoes, beer, etc. Other industries are bridge-works, shipyards, meat-packing, and fish-canning. The city has also smelting and refining works, and a United States assay office. The chief exports are lumber, coal, meats, fruits, wheat, and hops.

Seattle was first settled in 1852. The place was laid out in 1853 and was incorporated in 1865 as a town and in 1880 as a city. In 1889 it was almost wiped out by fire, but one business building escaping destruction. From June 1 to November 30, 1909, the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition was held here, the average daily attendance being twenty-eight thousand. In the spring of 1910 a Municipal Plans Commission of twenty-one members was created by an amendment to the city charter of Seattle, and in 1911 their report was issued containing sketches and plans illustrating their proposals for the beautification and future growth of the city.

St. Louis (sānt lōō´ĭs or lōō´ĭ), Mo. [Named in honor of Louis XV. of France; the name originally applied to a depot established at this point February 15, 1764, by Pierre Láclede Liguest.]

It is the principal city of Missouri, and is located on the west bank of the Mississippi River, twenty-one miles south of the mouth of the Missouri River, and by rail one thousand one hundred and eight miles southwest of New York, two thousand four hundred and thirty-four miles east of San Francisco, and six hundred and ninety-six miles north of New Orleans. It has a frontage of nearly twenty miles on the river and rises from it in three terraces, the third of which is about two hundred feet above the river level.

The city is regularly laid out, on the Philadelphia plan, Market Street running east and west, being the dividing line between north and south. The streets running north and south are numbered, though many of them are also known by names. Broadway or Fifth Street is the chief shopping thoroughfare, while other important business streets are Fourth Street, Olive Street, Washington Avenue, Third Street, and First Street (or Main) and Second Streets. The city is also divided into a north and south section by the valley of Mill Creek (now filled in), which is spanned by seven bridges. The city has recently extended greatly to the west, and commerce is steadily encroaching on the residential quarters.

The Court House, in Broadway, between Market and Chestnut Streets, is a substantial building in the form of a Greek Cross. It is surmounted by a dome, one hundred and seventy-five feet high, the gallery of which commands an excellent view of the city and river. A little to the east, in Third Street, corner of Chestnut Street, is the Merchants’ Exchange, the main hall of which, with a painted ceiling, is two hundred and twenty feet long. The grand ball of the Veiled Prophet is held here. The Cotton Exchange is at the corner of Main and Walnut Streets.

By following Market Street to the west from the Court House, the square, named Washington Park, is reached, and also the City Hall. A little to the south, in the square enclosed by Clark Avenue and Spruce, Eleventh and Twelfth Streets, are the so-called Four Courts, built on the model of the Louvre, in Paris, with a large semi-circular jail at the back. A little to the north of the City Hall runs the busy Olive Street, which toward Broadway, passes the Post Office on the left. Among the numerous substantial business buildings in this part of Olive Street are the Star, Century, Frisco, Chemical, Missouri Trust, Commercial, Laclede, Commonwealth Trust, National Bank of Commerce, and Third National Bank, a large and very fine structure. In Broadway, at the corner of Locust Street, is the Mercantile Library, which contains one hundred and fifty thousand volumes, statues by Harriet Hosmer, and others.

Other important buildings in this business section of the city are the Security Building (at the southwest corner of Fourth and Locust Streets); the Mercantile Trust Co., at the northeast corner of Eighth and Locust Streets (with vaults closed by a circular steel door of marvelous mechanism weighing four and one-half tons); the St. Louis Union Trust Co., at the northwest corner of Fourth and Locust Streets; the Mercantile Club, southeast corner of Seventh and Locust Streets; the Public Library, Locust Street, corner of Ninth Street; the Lincoln Trust and Wainwright Buildings, corner of Seventh and Chestnut Streets; and the Missouri Pacific Building, northwest corner of Market and Seventh Streets.

On the block between Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Olive and St. Charles Streets is the new Carnegie Central Library, erected at a cost of one million dollars.

At the corner of Locust and Nineteenth Streets is the handsome School of Fine Arts, which is connected with Washington University.

The Episcopal Cathedral, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, old and new, and many of the new Protestant churches in the West End are architecturally striking.

The parks of St. Louis are among the most notable in the United States, and their area (two thousand three hundred acres) is exceeded by those of Philadelphia alone. The finest are Forest Park (one thousand three hundred and seventy acres); Tower Grove Park (two hundred and sixty-six acres); Carondelet Park, O’Fallon Park, and the Missouri Botanical Garden, which is one of the foremost in North America.

To the west of Forest Park is the new home of Washington University, forming one of the most [622] successful and appropriate groups of collegiate buildings in the New World. They were designed by Messrs. Cope & Stewardson in a Tudor-Gothic style and enclose several quadrangles. The material is red Missouri granite. Among the buildings already completed are University Hall, the Chemical and Physical Laboratories, the Architectural and Engineering Buildings, the Chapel (resembling King’s College Chapel at Cambridge, England), the library (with a fine reading room), various dormitories, and the gymnasium. The university grounds are one hundred and ten acres in extent.

The other institutions of higher education are St. Louis University, the College of the Christian Brothers, Maria Consilia Convent, training school for nurses, several medical colleges, dental college, the theological seminaries, manual training school, the State School for the Blind, and the St. Louis Day School for Deaf Mutes.

In Forest Park, not far from the University, is the handsome Museum of Fine Arts, originally erected as the Fine Arts Building of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. In front of the entrance is a colossal equestrian bronze statue of St. Louis.

The great St. Louis or Eads Bridge, across the Mississippi, is deservedly one of the monuments of the city. It was designed by Capt. James B. Eads and was constructed in 1869-1874 at a cost of ten million dollars. It consists of three steel spans (center five hundred and twenty feet, others five hundred and two feet each) resting on massive limestone piers. The total length is two thousand and seventy yards. The bridge is built in two stories, the lower for the railway, the upper for the roadway and foot passengers. Trains enter the lower track by a tunnel, one thousand six hundred and thirty yards long, beginning near the corner of Twelfth and Cerre Streets. The highest part of the arches is fifty-five feet above the water.

The Merchants’ Bridge, three miles farther up the river, is a steel truss bridge, and was built in 1889-1890, at a cost of three million dollars. It is used by railways only. It has three spans, each five hundred feet long and seventy feet high.

St. Louis ranks fourth among the manufacturing cities of the United States. It is the largest tobacco manufacturing city in the world, and also has a large production of malt liquors, flour, boots and shoes, hardware, stoves, railways and electric cars, woodenware, brick, biscuit, crackers, etc. The city is also the largest mule mart in the world, and noted as a drug market.

Founded from New Orleans in 1764, by Pierre Làclede-Liguest and Auguste Chouteau, St. Louis remained a fur-trading post until the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Its first era of marked development began with the arrival of the first steamboat, 1817. Steam navigation of its river connection made it the most important point in the settlement of the trans-Mississippi West. It had repeatedly doubled its population before the first period of German immigration, following the German revolution of 1848. In 1875 St. Louis was separated from the County of St. Louis and given an independent government of its own. In 1896 the city was swept by a destructive tornado. In 1903 an exposition was held in St. Louis to celebrate the Louisiana Purchase.

Its population of American birth heavily predominates, but its German population is large and every element of European population is represented, with a recent increase from Southern Europe and Russia in excess of all other elements.

St. Paul, Minn. [Named from the Chapel of St. Paul, a log chapel erected here by Roman Catholics. Indian name, imnijaska, “white rock,” a reference to the sandstone bluff on which the city stands.]

It is the capital of Minnesota, and located on both banks of the Mississippi River, immediately below Minneapolis, the suburbs of the “Twin Cities” being contiguous.

It has a picturesque site at an elevation of six hundred and seventy to eight hundred and eighty feet above sea level on a series of terraces, the highest of which is two hundred and sixty-six feet above the river. The two divisions of the city are connected by three municipal bridges. In addition to these there are a number of railway bridges and scores of smaller bridges over ravines, valleys, railway crossings, etc. The municipal limits include the suburbs of Merriam, St. Anthony, Union, Groveland, Macalester, and Desnoyer Parks, Arlington Hills, and others.

Of the three plateaus, the first contains the railway yards, Union Station, wholesale houses and factories. Above the flats are the business section and part of the residential district; still higher are the bluffs, the most fashionable residential quarter, with extensive views of the river and the lower terraces.

The business part of the town is well built and regularly laid out, and the suburban quarters contain many fine streets and handsome residences.

The new State Capitol, erected in 1898-1906, at a cost of four million five hundred thousand dollars, is a large and handsome edifice of granite and Georgia marble, with an unusually successful central dome.

The most impressive parts of the interior are the central rotunda, the two great staircases, the Supreme Court, and the Senate Chamber. The dominant note in the color scheme is furnished by Minnesota yellow limestone. The mural paintings are by La Farge, Simmons, Blashfield, Garnsey, Kenyon Cox, and H. O. Walker. In the Governor’s reception room are paintings by F. P. Millet, Howard Pyle, Douglas Volk, and others. The State Law Library and that of the State Historical Society are both housed in the Capitol.

Four blocks to the south of the Old Capitol are the Custom House and the City Hall, the latter a handsome building erected at a cost of one million dollars. Among other important buildings in the business quarter are the Public Library; the Auditorium, a hall for meetings and theatrical performances; the new Y. M. C. A. Building; the New York Life Insurance Building, corner Sixth and Minnesota Streets; the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Paul, Sixth Street, corner of St. Peter Street; the High School, corner Tenth and Minnesota Streets; the Globe Building, Fourth Street, corner Cedar Street; the Germania Life Insurance Office; the former Bank of Minnesota, now used for various offices; the Manhattan Building, corner of Fifth and Robert Streets; the Gilfillan Building; the Endicott Arcade; the Central Presbyterian Church; the Bethel Hotel, resembling the Mills House of New York; the Minnesota Club House; the People’s Church; the Field, Mahler & Co. Building, Fourth Street; and the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific Railway Offices.

The finest residence street is Summit Avenue. It begins at Wabasha Street and runs from Summit Park along a high ridge. The most prominent dwelling is the large brown stone mansion of the late James J. Hill, containing a good collection of paintings by Corot, Delacroix, Courbet, Troyon, Decamps, etc.

A Roman Catholic Cathedral is being erected at Summit Park; and to the west of the town, near the west end of Summit Avenue, by the river, is the extensive Roman Catholic Seminary of St. Thomas Aquinas. On the bluff above, at the end of Grand Avenue (parallel to Summit Avenue) are the various buildings of the Hill Seminary.

It is also the seat of Hamline University (Methodist Episcopal), Concordia College (Lutheran), Macalester College (Presbyterian), several medical colleges, a State Reform School, and an Academy of Natural Sciences.

St. Paul has a park system of remarkable beauty. Como and Phalen Parks have picturesque lakes, and Indian Mound Park is said to have views unsurpassed anywhere else on the Mississippi River. Harriet Island, in the river opposite the business district, is provided with public baths. There are twenty-two miles of park and boulevard driveways, not including the River Boulevard. The total park area is one thousand two hundred and four acres. Fort Snelling, attractively located at the mouth of the Minnesota River, occupies a large tract adjacent to the city on the southwest.

The manufactures of St. Paul include machinery, farming implements, furniture, carriages, boots and shoes, and malt liquors. Here also are located the extensive meat packing plants of Swift & Co., and quarries of fine limestone. It is the center of the wholesale grocery and dry-goods business in Minnesota. It is also an important printing and publishing center, and has large car shops, lumber and planing mills, and breweries.

In 1841 Father Galtier, a French Canadian, induced the settlers, chiefly French Catholic hunters and traders in furs and whiskey, to build a log church which was dedicated to St. Paul. In 1849 the town became the capital of the newly organized territory of Minnesota, and was incorporated. It received its city charter in 1854.

WASHINGTON, AMERICA’S CITY BEAUTIFUL

1. THE CAPITOL
2. MEMORIAL TO LINCOLN 3. THE WHITE HOUSE, (SOUTH FRONT)
4. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

Washington, D. C. [The “City of Magnificent Distances,” from its being laid out on a large and regular scale; originally named Georgetown, but when selected in 1790 as the Federal Capital was re-named Washington in honor of the first President of the United States.]

The City of Washington, the Capital of the United States, lies on the left bank of the Potomac River, in the District of Columbia, one hundred and fifty-six miles from Chesapeake Bay, one hundred and eighty-five miles from the Atlantic Ocean, two hundred and twenty-six miles southwest of New York, one hundred and thirty-six miles of Philadelphia, and forty miles of Baltimore.

The city lies on a plain with slight elevations and surrounded by hills, and is generally accepted as the most beautiful in the United States, being finely laid out, with wide asphalted streets, opening up vistas of handsome public buildings, monuments, or leafy squares, with the Capitol and the Washington Monument dominating the entire view.

The original plan of Washington City was made by L’Enfant, a French engineer, who had adopted America as his residence. Based largely upon the topography of Versailles, its characteristic features are the crossing of the rectangular streets by frequent broad transverse avenues, one hundred and twenty to one hundred and sixty feet wide, lined with trees and named for various States of the Union. The streets running north and south are numbered, those running east and west are named by the letters of the alphabet. The circles formed by the intersection of the streets and avenues are one of the most charming features of the city.

Pennsylvania Avenue, between the Capitol and the White House (a distance of one and one-third miles), is the chief thoroughfare, and other important business streets are Seventh Street, Fourteenth Street, Ninth Street, and F Street. Among the finest residence streets are New Hampshire Avenue, Massachusetts Avenue, Vermont Avenue, Connecticut Avenue, and Sixteenth Street.

The new Union Railway Station, completed in 1908 at a cost of fifteen million dollars, including grounds and tunnels, is undoubtedly one of the most successful buildings in the country. It is situated at the junction of Massachusetts and Delaware Avenues, about one-third of a mile, and in full view of the Capitol. In front is a large plaza, embellished with shrubbery, fountains, and the finely sculptured Columbus monument.

The Capitol, splendidly situated on a hill ninety feet above the level of the Potomac, dominates the entire city with its soaring dome and ranks among the most beautiful buildings in the world. It stands in a park of about fifty acres, is seven hundred and fifty-one feet in length and one hundred and twenty-one to three hundred and twenty-four feet wide, and consists of a main edifice of sandstone, painted white, and of two wings of white marble. The building covers an area of three and one-half acres.

The cornerstone was laid by Washington in 1793. The main building, with its original low-crowned dome, was completed in 1827; the wings and the new iron dome were added in 1851-1865. The general style is classic, with Corinthian details. The principal facade looks towards the east, as the city was expected to spread in that direction, and the Capitol thus turns its back upon the main part of the city and on the other government buildings.

A fine marble terrace, eight hundred and eighty-four feet long, approached by two broad flights of steps, has been constructed on the west side of the Capitol and adds great dignity to this view of the building. The dome, which is two hundred and sixty-eight and one-half feet high, is surmounted by a figure of Liberty, nineteen and one-half feet high. The total cost of the building has been sixteen million dollars.

The front or east facade is preceded by three porticos, the main entrance being in the center. To the right of the central portico is the Settlement of America, a marble group by Greenough; to the left is the Discovery of America, a figure of Columbus by Persico. In the pediment above the portico is a relief of the Genius of America, by Persico; and in the pediment above the north portico is a group representing the Civilization of the United States, by Crawford.

The inauguration of the Presidents of the United States takes place on the broad steps in front of the main doorway.

In the interior beside the rotunda with its historical paintings, are the Senate Chamber in the north wing; the House of Representatives in the south wing, the Supreme Court in the central building, and the old Hall of Representatives, now used for historical statues.

To the north and south of the Capitol and connected with it by subways are the Senate and House of Representatives office buildings, two white marble edifices in a classic style, containing offices for senators and representatives.

To the southeast of the Capitol stands the Library of Congress, an enormous structure in the Italian renaissance style, four hundred and seventy feet long and three hundred and forty feet wide, erected in 1888-1897, at a cost of six million one hundred and eighty thousand dollars. It is in the form of a quadrangle, enclosing four courts and a central rotunda surmounted by a flat gilded dome and lantern. The main entrance, on the west side, is preceded by a broad flight of steps and a granite terrace, against the retaining wall of which is an effective fountain.

The interior of the Congressional Library is sumptuously adorned with paintings, sculptures, colored marbles, and gilding. To the right and left are massive marble staircases, richly adorned with sculptures and with bronze figures as lamp-bearers. The ceiling of the hall, seventy-two feet above the marble flooring, is resplendent in blue, green, and yellow.

The reading room rotunda is perhaps the finest and most thoroughly satisfactory part of the whole building. The chamber, which is one hundred feet in diameter and one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, accommodates about three hundred readers, is richly adorned [624] with dark marble from Tennessee, red marble from Numidia, and yellow marble from Siena. The eight massive piers are surmounted by symbolical female figures.

At the foot of the flights of steps descending from the terrace on the west side of the Capitol is an heroic statue of Chief Justice Marshall, by Story. The broad walk to the north leads to the Naval or Peace Monument, by Simmons. The walk to the south leads to the statue of President Garfield, by J. Q. A. Ward.

Diagonally to the southwest and northwest extend two grand avenues as far as eye can see—Maryland Avenue to the left leading down to the Potomac and carrying the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad to the river, where it crosses over the Long Bridge into Virginia; and Pennsylvania Avenue to the right stretching to the distant colonnade of the Treasury Building and the tree covered park south of the Executive Mansion. Between these diverging avenues and extending to the Potomac, more than a mile away, is the Mall, a broad inclosure of lawns and gardens. Upon it in the foreground is the government Botanical Garden, and behind this the spacious grounds surrounding the Smithsonian Institution; and the National Museum; while beyond, near the river bank, rises the tall, white shaft of the Washington Monument with its pointed apex; on either side spreads out the city, the houses bordering the foliage lined streets and having at frequent intervals the tall spires of churches and the massive marble, granite, and brick edifices that are used for government buildings.

The Smithsonian Institution is a red stone building in the late Norman style, erected in 1847-1856 at a cost of four hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The loftiest of the nine towers is one hundred and forty-five feet high. In front of it is a statue of Prof. Joseph Henry, the first secretary of the Institution, by Story.

CORCORAN ART GALLERY, WASHINGTON

New buildings for the National Museum, on the Mall between Ninth and Twelfth Streets, and the new one million five hundred thousand dollar marble building of the Department of Agriculture, west of the Smithsonian grounds, are notable. The former, originally established to exhibit the rich contributions given to the government by various countries from the Centennial at Philadelphia in 1876, has become a most extensive and instructive collection of antiquities, ethnology, geology, and natural history generally; and there are many museums, libraries and art galleries.

The Bureau of Engraving and Printing, where the paper money, bonds and stamps of the United States are printed, is at the corner of B Street and the Mall, southwest.

The national monument to Washington, popularly known as the “Washington Monument,” is a towering obelisk of white marble, on the bank of the Potomac, erected at a cost of one million two hundred and thirty thousand dollars. It has a total height of five hundred and fifty-five feet, an area at the foundation of sixteen thousand feet, and a weight of thirty-six thousand nine hundred and twelve gross tons. The apex has an aluminum point, and there is an elevator and an iron stairway of nine hundred steps in the interior of the shaft.

From the Washington Monument the Treasury Department at Pennsylvania Avenue and Fifteenth Street comes into full view. It is an immense edifice, five hundred and ten feet long and two hundred and eighty feet wide, with an Ionic colonnade on the east front and porticos on the other three sides. The materials are freestone and granite, and it cost seven million dollars to erect the edifice. Among the chief objects of interest are the United States Cash Room, in the north corridor; the Redemption Division, in the basement; the Silver Vaults, containing bullion and coin to the value of hundreds of millions of dollars; and the Secret Service Division, with its collection of forged money and portraits of forgers.

On the south, opposite the Treasury, is the fine equestrian monument of General Sherman, by Rohl-Smith, erected in 1903. The pedestal is embellished with bronze reliefs, medallions, and figures of Indian women, and at the corners are four sentinels.

Following Pennsylvania Avenue towards the west, Lafayette Square, is approached. Here are bronze statues of General Andrew Jackson, by Clark Mills; the Rochambeau Monument, by F. [625] Hamar; and the Lafayette Monument, by Falguiére and Mercié. On the east side of the square is the Belasco Theater, occupying the site of the house in which an attempt was made to assassinate Secretary Seward in 1865.

Opposite Lafayette Square is the entrance to the White House or Executive Mansion of the President of the United States. The White House is a two-story stone building, painted white, one hundred and seventy feet long and eighty-six feet deep, with an Ionic portico. It was first built in 1792, occupied by President Adams in 1800, burned by the British in 1814, and rebuilt in 1818. In 1902-1903 the whole building was admirably restored, within and without. The esplanade or terrace on the west side connects the house with the new Executive Offices and Cabinet Room. The large East Room (eighty by forty by twenty-two feet) is open to the public from ten to two. The Reception Rooms, which contain portraits of Presidents and valuable gifts, and the handsome Dining Room are shown by special order only. The rest of the house is private. The grounds surrounding the house are seventy-five acres in extent.

To the west of the White House is the huge building of the State, War, and Navy Departments, enclosing two courts and measuring five hundred and sixty-seven feet in length by three hundred and forty-two feet in breadth. It is a granite building, in Renaissance style, the largest public edifice in Washington, covering four and one-half acres, has five hundred and sixty-six rooms, and cost eleven million dollars. The north and west wings are occupied by the War Department. The Navy Department is in the eastern part of the building.

The Department of State occupies the southern part of the building. Among the finest rooms are the Diplomatic Reception Rooms, containing portraits of the Secretaries of State from 1789 to the present day, and the Library, with Jefferson’s original draft of the Declaration of Independence and other relics.

In Seventeenth Street, to the southwest of the State Building, between New York Avenue and E Street, is the Corcoran Gallery of Art, built and endowed by the late W. W. Corcoran. The present building, erected in 1894-1897, is a handsome white marble structure in a Neo-Grecian style, by Ernest Flagg. The semicircular hall at the north end is used for occasional exhibitions, while the rest of this part of the building is occupied by a School of Art. The steps to the main entrance are flanked by colossal bronze lions, modeled after those by Canova at the tomb of Pope Clement XIII. The Gallery contains more than two hundred paintings, the finest collection of Barye bronzes, Power’s Greek Slave, and Vela’s Dying Napoleon in marble.

Also in Seventeenth Street, south of the Corcoran Gallery, are the new Continental Hall, built by the Daughters of the American Revolution, and the new building of the International Bureau of the American Republics, erected at a cost of one million dollars by Andrew Carnegie.

The Interior Department occupies an entire square in the heart of the city, and is constructed of white marble in pure Doric, costing three million dollars. The General Land Office opposite is a Corinthian marble edifice.

In Judiciary Square on the north side stands the Pension Office, an enormous structure of brick, four hundred feet long and two hundred feet wide. It is surrounded by a terra cotta frieze illustrating military and naval operations. The interior, with its mammoth columns (seventy-five feet high), can accommodate about twenty thousand people at an inauguration ball, or other occasions.

ST. JOHN’S CHURCH, WASHINGTON

Nearby, in B Street, is the large Census Bureau, in which a large staff is constantly at work. The enumerating machines are especially interesting.

To the northeast of this point, at the corner of North Capitol and H Streets, is the Government Printing Office, a twelve-story building erected at a cost of two million dollars.

Ford Theater, in which President Lincoln was assassinated by Booth on April 14, 1865, is in Tenth Street. A house opposite bears a tablet stating that Lincoln died there, and contains a collection of Lincoln relics.

On the south side of Pennsylvania Avenue, between Eleventh and Twelfth Streets, is the Post Office Department, with a tower three hundred feet high. At the corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and Fourteenth Streets is the new District or Municipal Building, a fine marble structure completed in 1908, and occupied by the District Commissioners and other officials of the local government.

At the intersection of Massachusetts Avenue and New York Avenue is Mt. Vernon Square, containing the Public Library, a white marble building, presented by Mr. Andrew Carnegie.

Beyond the Capitol to the southeast are the Washington Barracks, at the junction of the Potomac and its Eastern Branch, an artillery post, and the War College, a fine brick building, erected 1903-1908. In front of the latter is a statue of Frederick the Great by T. Uphues, presented to the United States by Emperor William II.

About one mile to the northeast, on the Anacostia River, is the Washington Navy Yard, with a museum, an important gun foundry, and manufactories of naval stores.

There are more than two hundred and fifty churches in Washington, of which the more important are St. John’s (the “President’s [626] Church”), and St. Thomas’ Episcopal; the New York Avenue, and Church of the Covenant, Presbyterian; the Metropolitan and Foundry, Methodist; St. Matthew’s and St. Aloysius’, Roman Catholic; Calvary, Baptist; Garfield Memorial, Christian; and Mount St. Sepulchre, with its reproduction of the sacred places of the Holy Land.

The National Soldiers’ Home, two miles above the city, founded in 1851, has six hundred acres of park and forest, which serve as a public driving park and rural resort. To the north lies the National Military Cemetery, with the graves of General Logan, General Kearney, and seven thousand soldiers. On the west this is adjoined by Rock Creek Cemetery, containing Saint-Gauden’s beautiful monument to Mrs. Henry Adams. To the east of the Soldiers’ Home Park is the important Catholic University of America, around which has grown up a somewhat remarkable group of ecclesiastical establishments, including a Franciscan Convent, houses of the Dominicans, Paulists and Marists, and Trinity College for young women. The university has a number of fine stone buildings of striking architectural effect. The other colleges of note are: George Washington University, with academic, scientific, graduate, medical, and technological departments, and a famous law school; Georgetown University, a Jesuit institution with academic and professional schools; American University, for graduate instruction only; and the National Deaf-Mute College, founded in 1864, a government institution for the education of deaf and dumb pupils from the army, the navy, and the District of Columbia. Its fine stone buildings lie just north of the city.

Among the more important private buildings may be mentioned those of the Washington Post and Evening Star, and the Munsey buildings, all on Pennsylvania Avenue; the Riggs National Bank, American Security and Trust Company, Washington Loan and Trust, Union Trust and Storage Company, and the National Metropolitan Bank. The larger office buildings are the Bond, the Colorado, the Ouray, the Southern, and Woodward buildings. The Masonic Temple, the Scottish Rite Temple, and the Y. M. C. A. buildings, are important structures.

More and more Washington is becoming the home of a class of wealthy Americans, many of whom have erected beautiful residences, and among those of conspicuous architectural value are the Leiter, Townsend, Walsh, McLean, Belmont, Hale, Anderson, Boardman, Patterson, Thomas Nelson Page, Wayne McVeagh, Henderson, and Gale houses. Of similar interest are the embassy buildings of the British, Chinese, French, Russian, and other nations. The Metropolitan, the Cosmos, the Army and Navy, University, National Press, and the Washington (for women) are the principal clubs, and have homes of their own.

An elaborate park system is in course of development, which will ultimately surround the city with parks and connecting boulevards. The principal park is Rock Creek Park, to the north of the city, containing two thousand acres extending along both sides of Rock Creek. Its natural beauties are very great. On Mt. St. Alban, near Woodley, to the northwest of Georgetown, is the Peace Cross, a large Celtic cross erected at the close of the war with Spain (1898) on the grounds of the new Episcopal Cathedral, of which the cornerstone was laid in 1907. It affords a fine view of Washington. On the Chevy Chase Road, to the northwest of the Zoölogical Park, are the National Bureau of Standards and the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, the administration building of which latter is in Sixteenth Street.

South of Rock Creek Park, on Rock Creek, lies the National Zoölogical Park of one hundred and seventy acres, reached from Washington in a half hour.

On a commanding site overlooking Rock Creek, north of Georgetown, in handsome grounds, is the United States Naval Observatory, of white marble, with its twenty-six-inch equatorial telescope.

Scattered throughout the city are numerous squares, circles, and small parks, nearly all of which contain statues.

Of bronze statues erected in honor of famous men, Washington has an abundance—mainly to military characters. Equestrian statues of Washington, Jackson, Greene, Scott, Thomas, and McPherson are erected, besides full-length statues of Lafayette, Luther, Franklin, Chief Justice Marshall, Lincoln, Garfield, Professor Henry Farragut, General Rawlins, and Admiral Dupont.

ARLINGTON HOUSE, HOME OF GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE

At Arlington, across the river from Washington, on commanding heights, is the National Cemetery containing the graves of about sixteen thousand soldiers. Arlington House, in the middle of the grounds, two hundred feet above the river, was once the residence of George Washington Parke Custis (step-grandson of Washington) and afterwards of General Robert Lee, who married Miss Custis. Near the house are the graves of General Sheridan, Admiral Porter, General Lawton, General Wheeler, and other distinguished officers.

To the south is a tomb containing the remains of two thousand one hundred and eleven unknown soldiers. The sailors destroyed by the blowing up of the “Maine” in 1898 and other victims [627] of the war with Spain are buried in the southern part of the cemetery.

The cornerstone of a splendid military memorial or Hall of Fame was laid here in 1916, to be erected in classic style, of marble, and to cost several millions of dollars.

MOUNT VERNON

WASHINGTON’S TOMB, MT. VERNON

Mount Vernon, Washington’s home and burial place, is in Fairfax County, Va., about fifteen miles below the city. It is in full view, standing among the trees on the top of a bluff rising about two hundred feet above the river. As the steamboat approaches, its bell is tolled, this being the universal custom on nearing or passing Washington’s tomb. The estate was originally a domain of about eight thousand acres, and Augustine Washington, dying in 1743, bequeathed it to Lawrence Washington, who, having served in the Spanish wars under Admiral Vernon, named it Mount Vernon in his honor. General Washington, in 1752, inherited Mount Vernon from Lawrence. After his death the estate passed to his nephew, Bushrod Washington, subsequently descending to other members of the family.

Congress repeatedly endeavored to have Washington’s remains removed to the crypt under the rotunda of the Capitol, originally constructed for their reception, but the family always refused, knowing it was his desire to rest at Mount Vernon.

In 1856 the mansion and surrounding property were saved from the auctioneer’s hammer, and secured as a national possession by the Ladies’ Mount Vernon Association, assisted principally by Edward Everett, at a cost of two hundred thousand dollars.

Washington, originally called Federal City, was named after Washington in 1791, and became the capital in 1800. In 1814 the Capitol, White House, and other public buildings, were burned by the British.

LEADING EVENTS IN THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE FORM OF PARALLEL OUTLINES

I. PERIOD OF AUTHENTIC DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION, FROM 1492 TO 1607

Preceding this Period there are some legendary accounts of discoveries by Norsemen, Irish missionaries and even Asiatics. Little importance attaches to any except those of the Norse discoverers, chief of which was Lief Ericsson and his brother Thorwald who came upon the mainland of North America about 1000 to 1004. The discoveries of Columbus and Vasco da Gama opened a new era, during which the Spaniards explored and settled the West Indies, Mexico, and the southern part of the present United States; while the English and French explored, claimed, and made unsuccessful attempts at settlement in the North.

DatesSpanish Explorers and RulersPortuguese Explorers and RulersEnglish Explorers and RulersEuropean EventsDates
Ferdinand and Isabella, 1474-1516.Emanuel I., the Great, 1469-1521.Henry VII., 1485-1509
14921492. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, an Italian, supported by Ferdinand and Isabella, set sail from Palos,Spain (August 3), and discovered America (October 12), landing at one of the Bahamas, which he named San Salvador. During the followingthree months he visited the islands of Cuba and Hayti. 1492. End of the Moorish dominion in Spain. Death of Lorenzo de Medici, the “Magnificent” atFlorence.1492
1494. Beginning of a series of Italian wars, lasting till 1539.
1497. JOHN CABOT, an Italian in the service of Henry VII. of England discovered the coast of NORTH AMERICA,probably at Labrador. He was accompanied by his son, Sebastian.
1498. Columbus made a THIRD voyage, discovering the island of Trinidad and themainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco River.1498. Sebastian Cabot, on a SECOND voyage, probably explored the Atlanticcoast from Labrador to Carolina. These voyages were not followed by any attempt at colonization.
1499-1507. Amerigo Vespucci wrote a letter to a friend claiming to have discovered a part of the South Americancoast in 1499, and an account of this voyage was published. The new continent, therefore, was named after him by the German geographerWaldseemüller, who had read the account.1499. Vasco Da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope and reached India. Another route toIndia was thus revealed.1499. The Swiss gain their independence from the Emperor Maximilian.
1500 1500. Cortereal, a Portuguese, explored the coast from Labrador to Nova Scotia. 1500
1502. Columbus made a FOURTH voyage. He explored the coast of Central America andPanama, returned to Spain discouraged and died four years later in the belief that he had discovered India by sailing west.1502. Outbreak of war between France and Spain in Italy.
1510 Henry VIII., 1509-1547. 1510

1512. Ponce De Leon, seeking a legendaryfountain of youth, discovered Florida, so named because he landed on Easter Sunday, the Spanish “Feast ofFlowers.”		1511. Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League against France and Spain.
1513. Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific, which he took possession of, with its coast and islands, for Spain.
Charles I. of Spain and Charles V. of Germany, Emperor. 1516-1556.		French Explorers and Rulers1513. James IV. of Scotland invades England, and is killed at battle of Flodden Field.
Francis I., 1515-1547.
1515. Wolsey appointed Chancellor by Henry VIII. of England.
1519-1521. Cortez conquered Mexico for Spain. This conquest led to the establishmentof Spain’s Empire in the new world. The mines brought great wealth to Spain and formed thebasis of Spanish prosperity in thefollowing years.1519. The German Empire, Spain, Netherlands, Two Sicilies and the Spanish Indies united under Charles V.
15201520. Magellan, a Portuguese in Spain’s service, discovered the strait namedafter him. He reached and named the Pacific Ocean. 1520
1521. Magellan discovered the Philippine Islands. His followers, after hisdeath, continued westward and completed the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1522.
1524. Verrazano, sailing inthe service of France, traced the American coast northward from Cape Fear, and discovered New York harbor.		1521. Beginning of the wars between Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France.
1527. Captain John Rut explores the coast of North America.1527. Expulsion of the Medici from Florence.
1530

1539. Coronado and a force of Spaniardsmarched northward from Mexico to Colorado and Kansas and discovered the Grand Canon of the ColoradoRiver.
De Soto, at the same time, led an army of about a thousand intonorthwest Florida. He reached the Mississippi in 1541.
1535. Cartier, in search of a northwest passage, ascended the St.Lawrence to Lachine Rapids and Mont Réal (Montreal).
1535. Henry VIII. of England assumes the title of supreme head of theChurch in England.		1530
1540
1541. Roberval and Cartier made an unsuccessful attempt to establisha French colony on the St. Lawrence.

1543. England enters into an alliance with Charles V.against France.		1540
1550
Philip II., 1556-1598.		 Elizabeth 1558-1603. 1550
1560Charles IX., 1560-1574. 1560
1562. Jean Ribault establishes a Huguenot settlement at Port Royal.1562. Beginning of the Huguenot wars.
1565. The Spaniards, under MENENDEZ, founded ST. AUGUSTINE, Florida.1565. The Huguenot settlement destroyed by Menendez.
1570 1570
1576-1578. Frobisher, in the interest of England, made three attempts to find anorthwest passage to Asia.
1578. Drake explored the Pacific coast as far north as the state of Washington. He hadpreviously doubled Cape Horn. He claimed the land for England.
1580

1582. Spanish monks planted missions in NewMexico and Arizona.
1581. Declaration of independence by the Dutch.		1580
1583. Humphrey Gilbert landed at St. John’s, Newfoundland, and took possessionof the country for England.Queen Elizabeth was financially interested in many of the expeditions whichfollowed, and she knighted most of the men who commanded expeditions.
1584. Sir Walter Raleigh sent out an expedition under Captain Arthur Barlow. Theexpedition landed at Pamlico Sound and the region was named Virginia in honor of Elizabeth.
Henry IV., 1589-1610.1587. Raleigh despatched another expedition, consisting of two ships with one hundred and fifty menand women, to Roanoke Island. John White was the Governor. Virginia Dare, the first white child born in America, was born here.1587. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots.
1588. Battle of the SpanishArmada.
1590

1598. A Spanish settlement was planted by Oñate near Santa Fe, New Mexico.
1595. France declares war against Spain.		1590
1600
1602. Gosnold, an English merchant, made asettlement at Buzzard’s Bay, R. I.
James I., 1603-1625.		 1600
1603. Champlain entered the St. Lawrence. The French occupation ofCanada began with Champlain. His maps, reports, and settlements stimulated French enterprise.1603. Martin Pring enters the present harbor of Plymouth.
1604. Charles IX. ascends throne of Sweden.
1605. Champlain founded Port Royal (Annapolis, N. S.), and sailed in an exploringexpedition as far south as Cape Cod.
1606. In England there was organized the Virginia Company for the purpose of establishing trading colonies in America.
DatesSpanish Explorers and RulersPortuguese Explorers and RulersEnglish Explorers and RulersEuropean Events
Ferdinand and Isabella, 1474-1516.Emanuel I., the Great, 1469-1521.Henry VII., 1485-1509
14921492. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, an Italian, supported by Ferdinand and Isabella, set sail from Palos, Spain (August 3), and discovered America (October 12), landing at one of the Bahamas, which he named San Salvador. During the following three months he visited the islands of Cuba and Hayti. 1492. End of the Moorish dominion in Spain. Death of Lorenzo de Medici, the “Magnificent” at Florence.
1494. Beginning of a series of Italian wars, lasting till 1539.
1497. JOHN CABOT, an Italian in the service of Henry VII. of England discovered the coast of NORTH AMERICA, probably at Labrador. He was accompanied by his son, Sebastian.
1498. Columbus made a THIRD voyage, discovering the island of Trinidad and the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco River. 1498. Sebastian Cabot, on a SECOND voyage, probably explored the Atlantic coast from Labrador to Carolina. These voyages were not followed by any attempt at colonization.
1499-1507. Amerigo Vespucci wrote a letter to a friend claiming to have discovered a part of the South American coast in 1499, and an account of this voyage was published. The new continent, therefore, was named after him by the German geographer Waldseemüller, who had read the account.1499. Vasco Da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope and reached India. Another route to India was thus revealed. 1499. The Swiss gain their independence from the Emperor Maximilian.
1500 1500. Cortereal, a Portuguese, explored the coast from Labrador to Nova Scotia.
1502. Columbus made a FOURTH voyage. He explored the coast of Central America and Panama, returned to Spain discouraged and died four years later in the belief that he had discovered India by sailing west. 1502. Outbreak of war between France and Spain in Italy.
1510

1512. Ponce De Leon, seeking a legendary fountain of youth, discovered Florida, so named because he landed on Easter Sunday, the Spanish “Feast of Flowers.”		 1511. Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League against France and Spain.
1513. Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific, which he took possession of, with its coast and islands, for Spain.
Charles I. of Spain and Charles V. of Germany, Emperor. 1516-1556.		French Explorers and Rulers 1513. James IV. of Scotland invades England, and is killed at battle of Flodden Field.
Francis I., 1515-1547.
1515. Wolsey appointed Chancellor by Henry VIII. of England.
1519-1521. Cortez conquered Mexico for Spain. This conquest led to the establishment of Spain’s Empire in the new world. The mines brought great wealth to Spain and formed thebasis of Spanish prosperity in the following years. 1519. The German Empire, Spain, Netherlands, Two Sicilies and the Spanish Indies united under Charles V.
15201520. Magellan, a Portuguese in Spain’s service, discovered the strait named after him. He reached and named the Pacific Ocean.
1521. Magellan discovered the Philippine Islands. His followers, after his death, continued westward and completed the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1522.
1524. Verrazano, sailing in the service of France, traced the American coast northward from Cape Fear, and discovered New York harbor.		Henry VIII., 1509-1547.1521. Beginning of the wars between Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France.
1527. Captain John Rut explores the coast of North America.1527. Expulsion of the Medici from Florence.
1530

1539. Coronado and a force of Spaniards marched northward from Mexico to Colorado and Kansas and discovered the Grand Canon of the Colorado River.
De Soto, at the same time, led an army of about a thousand into northwest Florida. He reached the Mississippi in 1541.
1535. Cartier, in search of a northwest passage, ascended the St. Lawrence to Lachine Rapids and Mont Réal (Montreal).
1535. Henry VIII. of England assumes the title of supreme head of the Church in England.
1540
1541. Roberval and Cartier made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a French colony on the St. Lawrence.

1543. England enters into an alliance with Charles V. against France.
1550
Philip II., 1556-1598.		 Elizabeth 1558-1603.
1560 Charles IX., 1560-1574.
1562. Jean Ribault establishes a Huguenot settlement at Port Royal. 1562. Beginning of the Huguenot wars.
1565. The Spaniards, under MENENDEZ, founded ST. AUGUSTINE, Florida.1565. The Huguenot settlement destroyed by Menendez.
1570
1576-1578. Frobisher, in the interest of England, made three attempts to find a northwest passage to Asia.
1578. Drake explored the Pacific coast as far north as the state of Washington. He had previously doubled Cape Horn. He claimed the land for England.
1580

1582. Spanish monks planted missions in New Mexico and Arizona.
1581. Declaration of independence by the Dutch.
1583. Humphrey Gilbert landed at St. John’s, Newfoundland, and took possession of the country for England.Queen Elizabeth was financially interested in many of the expeditions which followed, and she knighted most of the men who commanded expeditions.
1584. Sir Walter Raleigh sent out an expedition under Captain Arthur Barlow. The expedition landed at Pamlico Sound and the region was named Virginia in honor of Elizabeth.
Henry IV., 1589-1610.1587. Raleigh despatched another expedition, consisting of two ships with one hundred and fifty men and women, to Roanoke Island. John White was the Governor. Virginia Dare, the first white child born in America, was born here.1587. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots.
1588. Battle of the Spanish Armada.
1590

1598. A Spanish settlement was planted by Oñate near Santa Fe, New Mexico.
1595. France declares war against Spain.
1600
1602. Gosnold, an English merchant, made a settlement at Buzzard’s Bay, R. I.
James I., 1603-1625.
1603. Champlain entered the St. Lawrence. The French occupation of Canada began with Champlain. His maps, reports, and settlements stimulated French enterprise.1603. Martin Pring enters the present harbor of Plymouth.
1604. Charles IX. ascends throne of Sweden.
1605. Champlain founded Port Royal (Annapolis, N. S.), and sailed in an exploring expedition as far south as Cape Cod.
1606. In England there was organized the Virginia Company for the purpose of establishing trading colonies in America.

II. THE COLONIAL PERIOD OF UNITED STATES HISTORY, INCLUDING ITS SETTLEMENT (1607 TO 1689); AND ITS CONSOLIDATION (1689 TO 1763)

The real history of the United States begins with this period. Within it the original Thirteen Colonies were established; New England and Virginia grew in influence and population; the Indian power in the East was subdued; the Colonies increased in strength and self-reliance, and the struggle between England and France for control of the New World was settled in favor of the English.

THE SOUTHERN COLONIESNEW ENGLAND COLONIESTHE MIDDLE COLONIESProgress and PopulationEnglish Rulers and Events
VirginiaMassachusettsNew York
1603-1625. James I.
1603. Union of England andScotland.
1607. The London Company made THE FIRST PERMANENT ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA, ATJAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA (May 13). Jamestown was named after the English King, James I.1607. The Plymouth Company established a colony on the Kennebec River, in Maine under SirFerdinando Gorges. The colony failed.
1609. Henry Hudson, employedby the Dutch East India Company, sailed up the Hudson River searching for a passage to the Indies.
1614. The Dutch established trading stations on Manhattan Island and atFort Orange (Albany) on the Hudson. They called their possessions New Netherland.
1616. Tobacco first cultivated by the English inVirginia.
1619. Virginia settlers establish the FIRST REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY IN AMERICA, calledThe House of Burgesses.
The FIRST SLAVES were sold in Virginia.
1620. The Pilgrim Fathers landed at Cape Cod November 11,and formed the FIRST SETTLEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND AT PLYMOUTH (December 22), under the FIRST REPUBLICAN FORM OF GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA.
1622. An Indian attack was made on Jamestown. New Hampshire New Jersey

1624. Virginia was made into a royalcolony.		 1623. First settlement on Piscataqua River, by John Mason.1623. The Dutch founded a settlement on Manhattan Island which they called NEW AMSTERDAM (laterNew York City).1623. Ft. Nassau (now Gloucester, N. J.) established by the Dutch.

1625-1649. Charles I.
1626. Peter Minuit, director-general of New Netherland, purchased Manhattan Islandfrom the Indians for $24.Delaware

1628. The permanent settlement of Massachusetts BayColony began by the settlement of Salem under John Endicott.		1627. Swaanendael (now Lewis, Del.) founded.1627. War with France, over the Huguenots.
Maryland1629-1640. The “Great Migration” of Puritans to Massachusetts. 1629. Establishment of the patroon system to encourage settlement in NewNetherland.
1630. BOSTON WAS FOUNDED by the English Puritans. The first general court in NewEngland met there October 19.Connecticut
1632. Lord Baltimore obtained a charter to Maryland.
1633. Settled at Windsor by Pilgrims.
1633-1636. Colonization of Connecticut River valley.
1634. First permanent settlement made at St. Mary’s by Calvert. Rhode Island
1636. Roger Williams settles at Providence.
1637. Pequot Indian War.		 1636. Wealthy colonists from Holland settle at Ft. Orange. 1636. First college in America founded by Massachusetts. Two years later it is named Harvard in honor of John Harvard.
1638. Ann Hutchinson settled in Rhode Island. 1638. A Swedish settlement was made near Wilmington, on the Delaware.
1639. Newport founded.1639. First press in America set up at Cambridge. Stephen Daye was the printer, and the firstAmerican Book was The Bay Psalm Book.
1640. Provisional government established at Dover. 1640. English settlements begun on Salem Creek.1640. Whole number of emigrants to New England previous to this time about 21,200.1640. Meeting of the Long Parliament.

1642-1652. William Berkeley governorof Virginia, which became a refuge for Cavaliers from England.		1641. Massachusetts Bay Colony adopted laws known as the Body of Liberties.
1642. Civil war begins.
1643. THE FIRST INTER-COLONIAL UNION IN New England. It was formed for protection.
1645. Maryland Catholics and Virginia Puritans engaged in rebellion.
1647-1664. Peter Stuyvesant governor of NewNetherland.		 1645. Massachusetts established free schools supported by the State.
1649. The Maryland Assembly passed a TOLERATION Act. 1649. Execution of Charles I.
1649-1660. The Commonwealth underCromwell.
1652. Puritan Commissioners with an army compelled Virginia to accept the rule of the PuritanCommonwealth.Carolinas
1653. Settlement of Albemarle, North Carolina, by Virginiapioneers.


1658. Massachusetts made it a capitaloffense for Quakers to return to the colony after expulsion.
1657. Proclamation issued against the Quakers.		1655. The Swedish settlements on the Delaware conquered by the Dutch.
1660. The restoration of Charles II. in England brought about the return of Berkeley inVirginia.
The restoration was welcomed by the Cavaliers of Virginia, but the Massachusetts Puritansdelayed a year before proclaiming Charles king. A second influx of Puritan immigrants followed therestoration.


1663. Carolina granted to a company ofproprietors.
1661. Charles Calvert appointed governor.


1663. Charter granted to RhodeIsland.

1662. Charter granted to Connecticut.
1661. Eliot’s “Indian Testament” printed atCambridge.		1660. Restoration of the Stuarts.
1660-1685. Charles II.


1669. John Locke drafts a constitution forCarolina.		 1664. Delaware passes under English rule.1664. New Jersey granted to Berkeley and Carteret.1664. Eliot’s “Indian Bible” printed at Cambridge.
1668. Triple alliance of England, Sweden and Hollandagainst France.
1670. Charleston, S. C., settled and territory divided into North andSouth Carolina. 1670. Staten Island purchased from the Indians.
1675. KING PHILIP’S WAR broke out in New England.
Pennsylvania
1676. BACON’S REBELLION broke out in Virginia.
1677. Maine became part of Massachusetts bypurchase.		 1676. Population of New England estimated at 60,000.
1680. New Hampshire declared a royal province.
1681. Grant of Pennsylvania to William Penn.		1680. John Buckner brings a printing press to Virginia and prints the session laws.


1684. Massachusetts becomes a royal colony.
1683. First Assembly in New York under English rule.		1682. Philadelphia laid out by Penn, and Quaker emigration encouraged.
Penn’s treaty with the Indians.		1682. Delaware becomes part of Pennsylvania.


1685-1689. James II.
1686-1689. Andros governor of all New England by royal appointment.

1689-1690. Leisler’s rebellion in New York.

1689. First American newspaper published inBoston; suppressed by Massachusetts government.
1688-1689. The “GloriousRevolution.”
1689-1702. William III. and Mary.
1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. Thismarked the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America.
1691-1693. Salem witchcraft.
1692. The College of William and Mary wasestablished in Virginia.
1700. Population of colonies about 260,000.
1701. Penn granted a Charter of Privileges to Pennsylvania which remained in forceuntil 1776.1701. Yale College was established in Connecticut.1701. War of the Spanish succession.
1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR beganbetween France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French attacking New England, and the New Englandersretaliating.
1702. Joseph Dudley appointed governor.
1703. Delaware is made a separate colony.		1702. New Jersey becomes a royal province under the governor of New York.

1704. Appearance of “The Boston News Letter,”the first newspaper in America.		1702-1714. Queen Anne.
1702. Queen Anne war against France andSpain.
1710. First post office in America at New York.
1714-1727. George II.

1719. First Spinning-wheel and cultivation of potatoesintroduced by the settlers of Londonderry, N. H.		1718. War with Spain.

1721-1729. The Carolinas are royal colonies.		1720. Tea begins to be used in New England.

1728. Boundary established between Virginia and NorthCarolina.

1729. North and South Carolina permanently dividedinto two provinces.

1729. Baltimore founded.
1728-1731. Final boundaries established with New York and RhodeIsland.

1729. “Pennsylvania Gazette” started byFranklin.		1727-1760. George II.
Georgia
1733. Last of the thirteen original colonies settled by Oglethorpe at Savannah.
1734. Assembly meets for first time at Greenwich.

1735. Zenger’s trial and acquittalin New York, establishes freedom of the press.		1733. Treaty with the “Six Nations.”1733. Delaware boundaries defined after twenty years’ litigation.


1736. Appearance of “The VirginiaGazette,” first newspaper in the South.


1740. Boundaries of New Hampshiredetermined.		1738. Separate charter granted to New Jersey.

1740. University of Pennsylvania founded.
1739. War with Spain.

1742. Spaniards attacked Georgia; defeated by Oglethorpe.
1742. Peter Faneuil builds “Faneuil Hall.”

1743. Sir George Clinton, governor.		1741. Moravians first settle in United States at Bethlehem.
1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR brokeout between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists.
1744. Treaty with the “Six Nations.”
1745. One thousand men sent against Louisburg.		1744. George Whitefield preaches in New Hampshire.

1746. Thomas and Richard Penn soleproprietors of Pennsylvania.

1746. New Jersey College, afterwards Princeton.		1744. War between England, France and Austria.
1749. First English ship reaches Georgia.1749. Famous Indian treaty renewed at Falmouth.
1750. Trenton public library founded.		1749. White population of the colonies 1,046,000.

1753. GEORGE WASHINGTON was sent by Governor Dinwiddie toorder the French out of the Ohio valley.
1753. The Potomac River explored to its source.

1754. Providence library chartered.

1754. Convention at Albany to consider a colonialconfederacy.		1752. English Bible first printed in America.
Franklin experiments inelectricity.
1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY OF PARIS in1763.1754. King’s College (now Columbia), New York City, founded.
1756-1763. Seven Years’ war.
THE SOUTHERN COLONIES
Virginia
1607. The London Company made THE FIRST PERMANENT ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA, ATJAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA (May 13). Jamestown was named after the English King, James I.
1619. Virginia settlers establish the FIRST REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY IN AMERICA, calledThe House of Burgesses.
The FIRST SLAVES were sold in Virginia.
1622. An Indian attack was made on Jamestown.
1624. Virginia was made into a royalcolony.
Maryland
1632. Lord Baltimore obtained a charter to Maryland.
1634. First permanent settlement made at St. Mary’s by Calvert.
1642-1652. William Berkeley governorof Virginia, which became a refuge for Cavaliers from England.
1645. Maryland Catholics and Virginia Puritans engaged in rebellion.
1649. The Maryland Assembly passed a TOLERATION Act.
1652. Puritan Commissioners with an army compelled Virginia to accept the rule of the PuritanCommonwealth.Carolinas
1653. Settlement of Albemarle, North Carolina, by Virginiapioneers.
1660. The restoration of Charles II. in England brought about the return of Berkeley inVirginia.
The restoration was welcomed by the Cavaliers of Virginia, but the Massachusetts Puritansdelayed a year before proclaiming Charles king. A second influx of Puritan immigrants followed therestoration.

1663. Carolina granted to a company ofproprietors.
1661. Charles Calvert appointed governor.
1669. John Locke drafts a constitution forCarolina.
1670. Charleston, S. C., settled and territory divided into North andSouth Carolina.
1676. BACON’S REBELLION broke out in Virginia.
1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. Thismarked the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America.
1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR beganbetween France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French attacking New England, and the New Englandersretaliating.
1721-1729. The Carolinas are royal colonies.
1728. Boundary established between Virginia and NorthCarolina.
1729. North and South Carolina permanently dividedinto two provinces.
1729. Baltimore founded.
Georgia
1733. Last of the thirteen original colonies settled by Oglethorpe at Savannah.
1742. Spaniards attacked Georgia; defeated by Oglethorpe.
1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR brokeout between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists.
1744. Treaty with the “Six Nations.”
1749. First English ship reaches Georgia.
1753. GEORGE WASHINGTON was sent by Governor Dinwiddie toorder the French out of the Ohio valley. 1753. The Potomac River explored to its source.
1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY OF PARIS in1763.
NEW ENGLAND COLONIES
Massachusetts
1607. The Plymouth Company established a colony on the Kennebec River, in Maine under SirFerdinando Gorges. The colony failed.
1620. The Pilgrim Fathers landed at Cape Cod November 11,and formed the FIRST SETTLEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND AT PLYMOUTH (December 22), under the FIRST REPUBLICAN FORM OF GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA.
New Hampshire
1623. First settlement on Piscataqua River, by John Mason.
1628. The permanent settlement of Massachusetts BayColony began by the settlement of Salem under John Endicott.
1629-1640. The “Great Migration” of Puritans to Massachusetts.
1630. BOSTON WAS FOUNDED by the English Puritans. The first general court in NewEngland met there October 19.Connecticut
1633. Settled at Windsor by Pilgrims.
1633-1636. Colonization of Connecticut River valley.
Rhode Island
1636. Roger Williams settles at Providence.
1637. Pequot Indian War.
1638. Ann Hutchinson settled in Rhode Island.
1639. Newport founded.
1640. Provisional government established at Dover.
1641. Massachusetts Bay Colony adopted laws known as the Body of Liberties.
1643. THE FIRST INTER-COLONIAL UNION IN New England. It was formed for protection
1658. Massachusetts made it a capitaloffense for Quakers to return to the colony after expulsion.

1663. Charter granted to RhodeIsland.		1662. Charter granted to Connecticut.
1675. KING PHILIP’S WAR broke out in New England.
1677. Maine became part of Massachusetts bypurchase.
1680. New Hampshire declared a royal province.
1684. Massachusetts becomes a royal colony.
1686-1689. Andros governor of all New England by royal appointment.
1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. Thismarked the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America.
1691-1693. Salem witchcraft.
1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR beganbetween France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French attacking New England, and the New Englandersretaliating.
1702. Joseph Dudley appointed governor.
1728-1731. Final boundaries established with New York and RhodeIsland.
1734. Assembly meets for first time at Greenwich.
1740. Boundaries of New Hampshiredetermined.
1742. Peter Faneuil builds “Faneuil Hall.”
1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR brokeout between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists.

1745. One thousand men sent against Louisburg.		1744. George Whitefield preaches in New Hampshire.
1749. Famous Indian treaty renewed at Falmouth.
1754. Providence library chartered.
1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY OF PARIS in1763.
THE MIDDLE COLONIESProgress and PopulationEnglish Rulers and Events
New York
1603-1625. James I.
1603. Union of England andScotland.
1609. Henry Hudson, employedby the Dutch East India Company, sailed up the Hudson River searching for a passage to the Indies.
1614. The Dutch established trading stations on Manhattan Island and atFort Orange (Albany) on the Hudson. They called their possessions New Netherland.
1616. Tobacco first cultivated by the English inVirginia.
New Jersey
1623. The Dutch founded a settlement on Manhattan Island which they called NEW AMSTERDAM (laterNew York City).1623. Ft. Nassau (now Gloucester, N. J.) established by the Dutch.
1625-1649. Charles I.
1626. Peter Minuit, director-general of New Netherland, purchased Manhattan Islandfrom the Indians for $24.Delaware
1627. Swaanendael (now Lewis, Del.) founded. 1627. War with France, over the Huguenots.
1629. Establishment of the patroon system to encourage settlement in NewNetherland.
1636. Wealthy colonists from Holland settle at Ft. Orange. 1636. First college in America founded by Massachusetts. Two years later it is named Harvard in honor of John Harvard.
1638. A Swedish settlement was made near Wilmington, on the Delaware.
1639. First press in America set up at Cambridge. Stephen Daye was the printer, and the firstAmerican Book was The Bay Psalm Book.
1640. English settlements begun on Salem Creek.1640. Whole number of emigrants to New England previous to this time about 21,200.1640. Meeting of the Long Parliament.

1642. Civil war begins.

1647-1664. Peter Stuyvesant governor of NewNetherland.		 1645. Massachusetts established free schools supported by the State.
1649. Execution of Charles I.
1649-1660. The Commonwealth underCromwell.

1657. Proclamation issued against the Quakers.		1655. The Swedish settlements on the Delaware conquered by the Dutch.

1661. Eliot’s “Indian Testament” printed atCambridge.		1660. Restoration of the Stuarts.
1660-1685. Charles II.
1664. Delaware passes under English rule.1664. New Jersey granted to Berkeley and Carteret.1664. Eliot’s “Indian Bible” printed at Cambridge.
1668. Triple alliance of England, Sweden and Hollandagainst France.
1670. Staten Island purchased from the Indians.
Pennsylvania
1676. Population of New England estimated at 60,000.

1681. Grant of Pennsylvania to William Penn.		 1680. John Buckner brings a printing press to Virginia and prints the session laws.

1683. First Assembly in New York under English rule.		1682. Philadelphia laid out by Penn, and Quaker emigration encouraged.
Penn’s treaty with the Indians.		1682. Delaware becomes part of Pennsylvania.

1685-1689. James II.

1689-1690. Leisler’s rebellion in New York.
1689. First American newspaper published inBoston; suppressed by Massachusetts government.		1688-1689. The “GloriousRevolution.”
1689-1702. William III. and Mary.
1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. Thismarked the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America.
1692. The College of William and Mary wasestablished in Virginia.
1700. Population of colonies about 260,000.
1701. Penn granted a Charter of Privileges to Pennsylvania which remained in forceuntil 1776. 1701. Yale College was established in Connecticut.1701. War of the Spanish succession.
1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR beganbetween France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French attacking New England, and the New Englandersretaliating.

1703. Delaware is made a separate colony.		1702. New Jersey becomes a royal province under the governor of New York.

1704. Appearance of “The Boston News Letter,”the first newspaper in America.		1702-1714. Queen Anne.
1702. Queen Anne war against France andSpain.
1710. First post office in America at New York.
1714-1727. George II.

1719. First Spinning-wheel and cultivation of potatoesintroduced by the settlers of Londonderry, N. H.		1718. War with Spain.
1720. Tea begins to be used in New England.


1729. “Pennsylvania Gazette” started byFranklin.		1727-1760. George II.

1735. Zenger’s trial and acquittalin New York, establishes freedom of the press.		1733. Treaty with the “Six Nations.”1733. Delaware boundaries defined after twenty years’ litigation.

1736. Appearance of “The VirginiaGazette,” first newspaper in the South.
1738. Separate charter granted to New Jersey.

1740. University of Pennsylvania founded.
1739. War with Spain.

1743. Sir George Clinton, governor.		 1741. Moravians first settle in United States at Bethlehem.
1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR brokeout between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists.

1746. Thomas and Richard Penn soleproprietors of Pennsylvania.
1746. New Jersey College, afterwards Princeton.		1744. War between England, France and Austria.

1750. Trenton public library founded.		1749. White population of the colonies 1,046,000.

1754. Convention at Albany to consider a colonialconfederacy.		 1752. English Bible first printed in America.
Franklin experiments inelectricity.
1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY OF PARIS in1763.1754. King’s College (now Columbia), New York City, founded.
1756-1763. Seven Years’ war.

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES

When first visited by Europeans, the country now comprised within the United States was exclusively inhabited by the race commonly called American Indians.

Period of Discovery.—According to the Scandinavian sagas, Leif, a Norwegian, sailed about 1001 from Iceland for Greenland, but was driven southward by storms till he reached a country called Vinland, which is supposed to have been Rhode Island or some other part of the coast of New England.

It is possible that some vague rumors of the Norse journeys had come to Christopher Columbus when he set out on Friday, August 3, 1492, to discover the western route to India. He sighted one of the Bahama Islands on October 12, and landed the following day. After cruising about for some time, he returned to Spain. He made in all four voyages to the New World for treasure-getting and discovery. His discoveries, it should be remembered, did not extend to the territory now occupied by the United States, but were confined to certain of the West India Islands, and parts of Central, and possibly, South America. (See further, under [Outlines of American History].)

Among the earliest of his followers was Amerigo Vespucci, who in 1497-1498 explored the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, and who has given his name to the whole continent.

In 1497, about five years after the discovery of America by Columbus, John Cabot sailed westward from Bristol, England, and on June 24 discovered land (Labrador), along which he coasted to the southwest nearly one thousand miles. In 1498 his son, Sebastian Cabot, sailed from the same port in search of a northwest passage to China, but finding the ice impenetrable, he turned to the south and coasted as far as Chesapeake Bay.

In 1513 the Spaniard Ponce de Leon discovered Florida. In 1539 took place the expedition of the Spaniard De Soto, who in the course of two years penetrated overland from Tampa Bay on the west coast of Florida to a point two hundred miles beyond the Mississippi.

FOREFATHERS’ ROCK, PLYMOUTH, MASS.

Plymouth is of abiding interest as the landing place of the Pilgrim Fathers (December 21st, 1620) and the site of the first settlement in New England. Pilgrim Hall contains numerous interesting relics of the Pilgrims, paintings of their embarkation and landing, old portraits, etc. North Street leads to the so-called Plymouth Rock, a granite boulder enclosed by a railing and covered with a canopy. This, however, is only a fragment (broken off in 1774) of the flat rock where the Pilgrims landed, which lies nearer the sea and is now covered by a wharf. Cole’s Hill, opposite the rock, was the burial-place of the early settlers (1620-1621). Leyden Street was the site of the first house. From the Town Square a path ascends to the right to the ancient Burial Hill, with the graves of many of the early settlers, including Governor Bradford. A fortified church was erected here in 1622. To the south is Watson’s Hill, where the Pilgrims made a treaty with Massasoit in 1621. The National Monument to the Pilgrims, consisting of a granite pedestal forty-five feet high, surmounted by a figure of Faith, thirty-six feet high, and surrounded by seated figures twenty feet high, representing Law, Morality, Freedom and Education is about one-fourth mile from the railway station, on Allerton Street. The three hundredth anniversary of the landing of the Pilgrims will be elaborately celebrated here in 1920.

Period of Settlement.—In 1565 the Spaniards founded St. Augustine, the first permanent settlement in the United States. In 1585 an expedition sent by Sir Walter Raleigh made a settlement on Roanoke Island, N. C., which failed. In 1607 the English founded Jamestown on James River, Virginia, their first permanent settlement.[11] The master spirit of this enterprise was Captain John Smith. Plymouth, Mass., was founded in 1620 by the “Pilgrim Fathers,” a body of Puritans led by John Carver and others, who sailed from England in the Mayflower. Salem was settled by John Endicott in 1628. In 1630 John Winthrop settled Boston. In 1692 Plymouth colony was united to Massachusetts. Portsmouth and Dover, in New Hampshire, were settled in 1623. The first permanent English settlements in Maine were made about the same time. These settlements ultimately fell under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. Connecticut was colonized in 1635-1636 by emigrants from Massachusetts, who settled at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. Rhode Island was first settled at Providence in 1636 by Roger Williams. In 1623 permanent settlements were made by the Dutch at Fort [635] Orange (now Albany) and at New Amsterdam on the present site of New York. The Swedes settled on the Delaware in 1638, and were expelled in 1655 by the Dutch army. The English seized New Amsterdam in 1664, and with it the whole of New Netherland, which they named New York from the Duke of York, to whom it had been granted by Charles II. New Jersey at this time acquired its distinctive name. In 1681 the territory west of the Delaware was granted to William Penn, who colonized it chiefly with Friends or Quakers, and founded Philadelphia in 1682. Maryland was settled in 1634 by Roman Catholics sent out by Lord Baltimore. The first permanent settlement in North Carolina appears to have been made about 1663, on Albemarle Sound, by emigrants from Virginia. The first permanent settlement in South Carolina was made in 1670 by colonists from England on the Ashley River, near the site of Charleston, which began to be settled about the same time. Georgia was settled by General James Oglethorpe, who in 1733 founded Savannah.

[11] Jamestown is seven miles from Williamsburg, formerly the ancient capital of Virginia and seat of the colonial governor. The only remains of the ancient town are the tower of the church (in which Pocahontas was married in 1614; church itself rebuilt in 1907) and a few tombstones.

How Europe First Divided the American Colonies.—It will thus be seen that what is now the territory of the United States has been derived from six European nations. Resting on the discovery by Columbus and the bulls of the popes, Spain claimed the whole continent, but has been in actual possession only of the Gulf coast from Florida to Texas, and of the interior from the Mississippi to the Pacific. The Swedes once had settlements on the Delaware. The Dutch, following up the voyage of Hudson to the river bearing his name, claimed and held the country from the Delaware to the Connecticut. The French discovered the St. Lawrence and explored and held military possession of the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio and the Great Lakes. The English, by virtue of the voyages of the Cabots, claimed the Atlantic coast, and there founded the colonies which grew into the thirteen United States.

In the course of the struggle, sometimes peaceful, often bloody, by which the rule of these nations has been thrown off, the Dutch conquered the Swedes; the English conquered the Dutch and the French; the United States expelled the English, and in time, by purchase or conquest, drove out the Spaniards and the Mexicans.

Struggle of England and France for America.—The first serious struggle for possession occurred in the middle of the eighteenth century, when the English, moving westward, met the French moving eastward at the source of the river Ohio. In that struggle, which has come down to us as the “French and Indian war,” France was worsted, and, retiring from this continent, divided her possessions between England and Spain. To England she gave Canada and the islands and shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and, entering what is now the United States, drew a line down the middle of the Mississippi River, and gave all to the east of that line (save the island on which is the city of New Orleans) to Great Britain, and all to the west of it to Spain; Spain at the same time gave Florida to England as the price of Cuba.

Oppression of the Colonies under British Rule.—Having thus come into possession of all the country to the east of the Great River, King George determined to send out an army of ten thousand men to defend the colonies, and have the latter bear a part of the expense. This part he attempted to collect by duties on goods imported, and by a Stamp Tax (1765) on legal documents and printed matter. No tax for revenue had before been laid on America by act of Parliament. The colonists, therefore, resisted this first attempt, and raising the cry, “No taxation without representation,” they forced Parliament to repeal the Stamp Tax in 1766. The right to tax was at the same time distinctly asserted, and in 1767 was again used, and duties laid on paints, oils, lead, glass, and tea. Once more the colonists resisted, and, by refusing to import any goods, wares, or merchandise of English make, so distressed the manufacturers of England that Parliament repealed every tax save that on tea. All the tea needed in America was now smuggled in from Holland. The East India Company, deprived of the American market, became embarrassed, and, calling on Parliament for aid, was suffered to export tea, a privilege never before enjoyed.

Selecting commissioners in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, cargoes of tea were duly consigned to them by the East India Company; but the people agreed not to buy any of this tea or allow it to be sold. At Boston men disguised as Indians boarded the tea ships, overcame the guards, and destroyed the tea by throwing the boxes into the harbor. This has gone down in history as the “Boston Tea Party.”

The Continental Congress and the Revolution.—As a punishment for this, Parliament shut the port of Boston and deprived the people of Massachusetts of many functions of local government. The Assembly of Massachusetts thereupon called for a General Congress to meet at Philadelphia on September 5, 1774. The colonies gladly responded and this congress, having issued a Declaration of Rights and Addresses to the king, to Parliament, and to the people of England, adjourned to await the result.

The day for the reassembling of Congress was May 10, 1775; but, before that day came, the attempt of General Gage to seize military stores brought on a fight at Lexington, April 19, 1775. The fight at Lexington was followed by the siege of the British in Boston, by the formation of the “Continental Army,” by the appointment of George Washington to command it, by the battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775, and by an expedition against Quebec, which came to naught, on the last day of the year.

General William Howe meantime had succeeded Gage in command of the British at Boston, and, finding himself hard pressed by Washington, evacuated the city and sailed for Halifax. Believing New York was to be attacked, Washington now hurried to Long Island, where, August 27, 1776, Howe defeated him, took possession of New York, and drove him first up the Hudson and then southward across New Jersey.

American Independence Declared.—Congress, which, July 4, 1776, at Philadelphia, had declared the colonies to be free and independent states, now fled from that city to Baltimore. But Washington, turning in his retreat, surprised and captured the British outpost at Trenton. Cornwallis instantly hurried toward that town, but Washington, passing around the British rear, attacked and captured at Princeton, January 3, 1777, a detachment on its march to Trenton, and then went into winter quarters at Morristown.

With the return of spring Howe, finding that he could not reach Philadelphia by land without passing in front of the Continental army stretched out on a strongly intrenched line across New Jersey, went by sea. Washington met him at Chadd’s Ford on the Brandywine, was defeated, and on September 25, 1777, Howe entered Philadelphia. In the attempt to dislodge him Washington fought and lost the battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777; the loss of Philadelphia was more than made good by the capture of Burgoyne and his army at Saratoga, October 17, 1777, while on his way from Canada to New York City.

The fruits of this victory were the recognition of the independence of the United States by France, the treaty of alliance with France, February 8, 1778, and the evacuation of Philadelphia by General Clinton, who had succeeded Howe. Washington, who had spent the winter at Valley Forge, instantly followed, and overtaking Clinton at Monmouth fought and won the battle at that place, June 29, 1778. Clinton escaped to New York, and Washington, drawing his army in a circle about the city from Morristown on the south to West Point on the north, awaited further movements.

PRINCIPAL CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
The leading battles are indicated in bold-face; successful commanders in italics

Names, Dates and Places
of Campaigns and Battles		CommandersEngaged
AmericanBritishAmer.British
1775-1776
Campaign in New England
Lexington, Concord (April 19, 1775)Barret and ButterickSmith and Lord Percy...1,700
Ticonderoga (May 10, 1775)Ethan Allen and EatonDelaplace8348
Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775)Warren, Prescott and PutnamHowe and Pigot3,0004,500
Quebec (December 6-31, 1775)Schuyler, Montgomery and ArnoldM’Lean and Carleton9001,200
Norfolk, Va. (Dec. 9, 1775)WoodfordLord Dunsmore......
Boston (March 17, 1776)The British evacuate the city and harbor.......
Charleston (Ft. Moultrie) (June 28, 1776)Moultrie, Lee and ArmstrongClinton4004,000
1776-1778
Campaign in Middle States
Brooklyn, L. I. (Aug. 26, 1776)Green and SullivanHowe, Clinton, and Cornwallis10,00020,000
Harlem Plains, N. Y. (Sept. 16, 1776)Washington.........
White Plains, N. Y. (Oct. 28, 1776)WashingtonHowe1,6002,000
Fort Washington, N. Y. (Nov. 16, 1776)MagawHowe3,0005,000
Trenton, N. J. (Dec. 26, 1776)WashingtonLord Cornwallis and Rahl2,4001,000
Princeton, N. J. (Jan. 3, 1777)WashingtonMawhood3,0001,800
Bennington, Vt. (Aug. 15, 16, 1777)Stark and WarnerBaum and Beyman...1,200
Brandywine, Pa. (Sept. 11, 1777)WashingtonHowe11,00018,000
Bemis Heights, N. Y. (Sept. 19, 1777)GatesBurgoyne2,5003,000
Germantown, Pa. (Oct. 4, 1777)WashingtonHowe11,00015,000
Stillwater (Saratoga) (Oct. 7, 1777)GatesBurgoyne8,0006,000
Monmouth, N. J. (June 28, 1778)WashingtonSir Henry Clinton12,00011,000
1778-1781
Campaign in the South
Savannah, Ga. (Dec. 29, 1778)Robert HoweCampbell9002,000
Brier Creek, Ga. (Mar. 3, 1779)AshePrevost1,2001,800
Stony Point, N. Y. (July 16, 1779)WayneClinton1,200600
Chemung, N. Y. (Aug. 29, 1779)SullivanBrant4,0001,500
Savannah, Ga. (Oct. 9, 1779)LincolnPrevost4,5002,900
Charleston, S. C. (May 12, 1780)LincolnClinton3,7009,000
Camden, S. C. (Sanders Creek) (Aug. 15, 1780)GatesCornwallis3,0002,200
King’s Mountain, S. C. (Oct. 7, 1780)CampbellFerguson9001,100
Cowpens, S. C. (Jan. 17, 1781)MorganCornwallis and Tarleton9001,100
Guilford C. H., N. C. (Mar. 15, 1781)GreeneCornwallis4,4002,400
Hobkirk’s Hill, S. C. (April 25, 1781)GreeneRawdon1,200900
New London, Conn., Fort Griswold (Sept. 6, 1781)LedyardBenedict Arnold and Eyre150800
Eutaw Springs, S. C. (Sept. 8, 1781)GreeneLord Rawdon2,0002,800
Yorktown, Va. (Oct. 17-19, 1781)WashingtonCornwallis16,0007,500

Treason of Arnold and Execution of André.—Turning towards the Southern states, the British commander now dispatched an expedition which took Savannah and overran the State of Georgia. The year which followed (1779) is memorable for the capture of Stony Point by Anthony Wayne; for the treason of Benedict Arnold; for the execution of Major John André; for the capture of the “Serapis” by Paul Jones after one of the most desperate naval battles on record, and by the failure of an attempt by the Americans to retake Savannah. In 1780 Clinton led an expedition from New York to Charleston, took the city, swept over South Carolina, and, leaving Cornwallis in command, hurried back to New York. Gates, who now attempted to dislodge the British, was beaten. Greene now succeeded Gates, and Morgan, the commander of his light troops, won the battle of the Cowpens, January 17, 1781. This victory brought up Cornwallis, who chased Greene across the State of North Carolina to Guilford Court House, where Greene was beaten and Cornwallis forced to retreat to Wilmington. Moving southward, Greene was again beaten in two pitched battles, but forced the British to withdraw within their lines at Charleston and Savannah.

Cornwallis meantime moved from Wilmington into Virginia and took possession of Yorktown. And now Washington, who had long been watching New York, again took the offensive, hurried across New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and, while a French fleet closed the Chesapeake Bay, he besieged Cornwallis by land, till, October 19, 1781, the British general surrendered. This practically ended the war.

The treaty of peace, at Paris, in 1783, actually ended it, secured the independence of the United States, and fixed her boundaries, roughly speaking, as the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the Mississippi on the west, New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence, and the Great Lakes on the north, and the parallel of thirty-one degrees on the south.

Articles of Confederation and their Weakness.—While the war was still raging Congress had framed an instrument of government, which the states ratified and put in force on March 1, 1781. This instrument of government which bound the thirteen states in perpetual union was known as the Articles of Confederation, and established a government as bad as any yet devised by man. There was no executive, no judiciary, and only the semblance of a legislature. The Congress consisted of not more than seven nor less than two delegates from each state; sat in secret session; was presided over by a president elected from its own members; and could not pass any law unless the delegates of nine states assented. It could wage war, make treaties, and borrow money; but it could not lay a tax of any kind whatsoever; nor regulate commerce between the states, or with foreign powers; and was dependent entirely on the liberality of the states for revenues. This defect proved fatal. Inability to regulate foreign commerce by duties stripped the country of its specie. Lack of specie forced the states to issue paper money. Paper money was followed by tender acts and force acts, and in some places by a violent stoppage of justice to the debtor class. A commercial and financial crisis followed and the people of the states, reduced to desperation, gladly acceded to a call for a national trade convention, which met in Philadelphia in May, 1787. The instructions of the delegates bade them suggest amendments to the Articles of Confederation. But the convention, considering the Articles too bad to be mended, framed the Constitution, which the people, acting through conventions in the various states, ratified during 1787 and 1788.

Adoption of the Constitution and Organization of Parties.—On March 4, 1789, the Constitution became the supreme law of the land. In the first Congress no trace of party lines is visible. But the work of establishing government had not gone far when differences of opinion sprang up; when the cry of partial legislation was raised, and the people all over the country began to divide into two great parties—those who favored and those who opposed a liberal construction of the language of the Constitution and the establishment of a strong national government.

The friends of national government took the name of Federalists, and under the lead of Alexander Hamilton, who as Secretary of the Treasury marked out the financial policy of the administration, they funded the foreign and domestic debt occasioned by the war for independence, assumed the debts incurred by the states in that struggle, set up a national bank with branches, and laid a tax on distilled liquors.

Each one of these acts was met with violent opposition, as designed to benefit a class, as unconstitutional, and as highly detrimental to the interests of the South. Against the Federalists were now brought charges of a leaning towards monarchy and aristocracy. Great Britain, it was said, has a funded debt, a bank, and an excise. These things are, therefore, monarchial institutions. But the Federalists have introduced them into the United States. The Federalists, therefore, are aristocrats, monarchists, and monopolists.

Of all who believed these charges, none believed them more sincerely than Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State. Seeing in these acts a wide departure from the true principles of democracy, he set himself to work to organize a party of opposition, and was soon looked up to as the recognized leader of the Federal Republicans.

Hardly had the two parties thus been called into existence by difference of opinion on questions of home affairs, when they were parted yet more widely, and the dispute between them intensely embittered by questions of foreign affairs.

Effect of the French and English Affairs Upon the New Nation.—In 1793 the French Republic declared war against England, and sent a minister to the United States. As the [638] United States was bound to France by the treaty of alliance and by a treaty of amity and commerce, and was not bound to Great Britain by any commercial treaty whatever, it seemed not unlikely that she would be dragged unwillingly into the war. But Washington, with the advice of his secretaries, proclaimed neutrality, and from that time every Republican was the firm friend of France and every Federalist the ally of England. Then began a seven years’ struggle for neutrality. France threw open her colonial ports to neutral commerce; Great Britain asserting the “Rule of the War of 1756,” a rule prescribing that no neutral should have in time of war a trade it did not have in peace, declared this trade was contraband, and seized the ships of the United States engaged in it. The Republicans denounced neutrality and attempted to force a war. The Federalists in alarm dispatched John Jay, the Chief Justice, to London, with offers of a commercial treaty. England responded and on February 29, 1796, the first treaty of amity and commerce between her and the United States became law. At this France took offense, rejected the new minister (C. C. Pinckney) from the United States, and drove him from her soil, suspended the treaties, insulted a special commission (sent out in the interest of peace), with demands for bribes and tribute, and almost brought on war.

Never since the days of Bunker Hill had the country been so stirred as this act of the French Directory stirred it in the summer of 1798. Then was written our national song, “Hail Columbia.” Then was established the department of the navy. Then, under the cry, “Millions for defense; not a cent for tribute,” went forth that gallant little fleet which humbled the tri-color in the West Indies and brought France to her senses.

Causes and Events of the War of 1812.—With the elevation of Napoleon to the First Consulship came peace in 1800. In that same year the Federalists fell from power, never to return. Once in power, the Republicans began to carry out the principles they had so long preached. They reduced the national debt; they repealed the internal taxes. They sold the navy; boldly assaulted the Supreme Court; and in 1811, when the charter of the National Bank expired, refused to renew it. Their doctrine of strict construction, however, was ruined, when, in 1803, they bought the Province of Louisiana from France and added to the public domain that splendid region which lies between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains.

At that moment it seemed as if the people were about to enter on a career of unwonted prosperity. But Napoleon suddenly made war on England, and by 1806 the United States was involved in a desperate struggle of nine years, both with France and England, for commercial independence. Great Britain searched our ships, impressed our sailors, violated the neutrality of our ports, and by the decisions of her admiralty courts and by orders in council sought to ruin our neutral commerce with Europe, unless carried on through her ports and under her license. Napoleon attacked us with his decrees of Berlin and Milan, and sought to ruin our neutral commerce with England. The United States retaliated by means of the embargo and non-intercourse, and, in 1812, declared war.

CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES OF THE WAR OF 1812-1815

Principal Land Battles

1812.—August 16, the surrender of Detroit by Hull to Brock.

October 13, defeat of Van Rensselaer by Brock at Queenstown.

1813.—January 18-22, the Americans were defeated at Frenchtown by General Proctor, whose Indians massacred the wounded Americans.

April 27, York (Toronto) was captured by the Americans under General Pike.

October 5, General Harrison forced General Proctor to retreat into Canada, and October 5 at the battle of the Thames routed the British and their Indian allies. Tecumseh was killed, the territory lost by Hull regained, and Upper Canada was retained to the end of the war.

November 11, the Americans moved on Montreal, but were defeated at Chryslers Field, and retreated.

1814.—July 25, Winfield Scott again invaded Canada and gained victories at Chippewa (July 5) and at Lundy’s Lane.

August 24, capture of Washington and burning of the Capitol, the White House, and other buildings.

1815.—January 8, a large body of English veterans were landed in Louisiana, and attacked New Orleans; in this battle, which took place before the news of the treaty of peace reached the combatants, Jackson won a decisive victory.

Principal Naval Battles

1812.—August 19, the Constitution destroys the British Guerriere, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

October 18, the American Wasp captures the Frolic.

October 25, Captain Decatur in the United States took the Macedonian.

December 29, the Constitution captures the Java.

1813.—February 24, the American Hornet captures the Peacock.

June 1, the Chesapeake is captured by the British Shannon.

September 10, Commodore Perry with a fleet of nine vessels destroys the British squadron of six vessels on Lake Erie.

1814.—September 3, naval attack on Fort McHenry by the British fails.

September 11, Captain Macdonough, on Lake Champlain, completely defeated a British fleet stronger than his own; this checked a serious invasion of the enemy.

Treaty and Results of the War

December 24, 1814, a treaty of peace was made at Ghent, the end of the Napoleonic wars having removed the cause for England’s offensive policy at sea.

The provisions included:

(1) A return of captured territory.

(2) Nothing was said about impressment.

(3) No compensation was secured by the Americans for ships captured previous to 1812.

The results of the war were:

(1) An increase of debt.

(2) An outburst of national patriotism.

(3) The removal of America from participation in European politics.

(4) The development of manufacturing.

(5) The establishment of the protective tariff policy.

With the Cessation of Hostilities Another Epoch in Our History Begins.—From the day when Washington proclaimed neutrality in 1793, to the day when the people celebrated, with bonfires and with fireworks, and with public dinners, the return of peace, in 1815, the political and industrial history of the United States is deeply affected by the political history of Europe. It was questions of foreign policy, not of domestic policy, that divided the two parties, that took up the time of Congress, that raised up and pulled down politicians. But after 1815 foreign affairs sank into insignificance, and for the next thirty years the history of the United States is the history of political and economic development of the country to the east of the Mississippi River.

Fall of the Federalists, or Pro-British Party.—The opposition which the Federalists made to the war completed their ruin. In 1816 for the last time they put forward a presidential candidate, carried three states out of nineteen, and expired in the effort. During the eight years of Monroe’s administration (1817-1825) but one great and harmonious party ruled the political destinies of the country. This remarkable period has come down to us in history as the “era of good feelings.” It was indeed such an era, and so good were the feelings that in 1820 when Monroe was re-elected no competitor was named to run against him. Every state, every electoral vote save one was his. Even that one was his. But the elector who controlled it threw it away on John Quincy Adams lest Monroe should have the unanimous vote of the presidential electors, an honor which has been bestowed on no man save Washington.

Rise of the Protective Tariff Policy.—In the midst of this harmony, however, events were fast ripening for a great schism. Under the protection offered by the commercial restrictions which began with the embargo and ended with the peace, manufactures had sprung up and flourished. If they were to continue to flourish they must continue to be protected, and the question of free trade and protection rose for the first time into really national importance.

The rush of population into the West led to the admission of Indiana (1816), Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), Alabama (1819), and Missouri (1820) into the Union, and brought up for serious discussion the uses to be made of public lands lying within them.

The steamboat, which had been adopted far and wide, had produced a demand for some improved means of communication by land to join the greater water highways of the country and opened the era of internal improvements.

The application of Missouri for admission into the Union brought up the question of the admission of slavery to the west of the Mississippi. A series of decisions of the Supreme Court, setting aside acts of the state legislatures, gave new prominence to the question of state rights.

A Decade of Great Political Contests.—The Missouri question was settled by the famous Compromise of 1820 (the first great political compromise), which drew the line thirty-six degrees thirty minutes from the Mississippi to the hundredth meridian, and pledged all to the north of it, save Missouri, to freedom. But the others were not to be settled by compromise, and in the campaign of 1824 the once harmonious Republican party was rent in pieces. Each of the four quarters of the Republic put a candidate in the field and “the scrub-race for the presidency” began.

The new manufacturing interests of the East put forward John Quincy Adams. The West, demanding internal improvements at public expense, had for its candidate Henry Clay. William H. Crawford of Georgia (nominated by a caucus of Congressmen) represented the old Republican party of the South. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee stood for the new Democracy, for the people, with all their hatred of monopolies and class control, their prejudices, their half formed notions, their violent outbursts of feeling.

Behind none of them was there an organized party. But taking the name of “Adams men” and “Clay men,” “Crawford men” and “Jackson men,” the friends of each entered the campaign and lost it. No candidate secured a majority of the electoral college, and the House of Representatives chose John Quincy Adams.

The Triumph of Democracy and Industrial Expansion.—Under the administration of Adams (1825-1829) the men who wished for protection and the men who wished for internal improvements at government expense united, took the name first of National Republicans, and then of Whigs, and, led on by Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, carried through the high protection tariffs of 1828 and 1832. The friends of Jackson and Crawford took the name of Democrats, won the election of 1829, and during twelve years governed the country.

In the course of these years the population of the United States rose to seventeen million, and the number of states to twenty-six. Steam navigation began on the ocean; two thousand miles of railroad were built in the land; new inventions came into use; and the social and industrial life of the people was completely revolutionized. The national debt was paid; a surplus accumulated in the Treasury; the sale of public lands rose from three million dollars in 1831 to twenty-five million dollars in 1836; and the rage for internal improvements burned more fiercely than ever. A great financial panic spread over the country; the charter of the National Bank expired, a hundred “wild-cat banks” sprang up to take its place, and the question of the abolition of slavery became troublesome.

Early Troubles in Our System of Public Finance.—On the great questions which grew out of this condition of affairs the position of the two parties was well defined. The Democrats demanded a strict construction of the Constitution; no internal improvements at public expense; a surrender of the public lands to the state in which they lay; no tariff for protection; no National Bank; no agitation of the question of the abolition of slavery; the establishment of subtreasuries for the safe [640] keeping of the public funds, and the distribution of the surplus revenue. The Whigs demanded a recharter of the National Bank; a tariff for protection; the expenditure of the surplus on internal improvements; the distribution of the money derived from the sale of public lands; a limitation of the veto power of the President; and no removals from office for political reasons.

The Democrats, true to their principles, and having the power, carried them out. They destroyed the Bank; they defeated bill after bill for the construction of roads and canals; they distributed thirty-eight million dollars of the surplus revenue among the states, and by the cartage of immense sums of money from the East to the far distant West, hastened that inevitable financial crisis known as the “panic of 1837.”

Andrew Jackson had just been succeeded in the presidency by Martin Van Buren (1837-1841) and on him the storm burst in all its fury. But he stood it bravely, held to a strict construction of the Constitution, insisted that the panic would right itself without interference by the Government, and stoutly refused to meddle. Since the refusal of Congress to recharter the Bank of the United States, whose charter expired in 1836, the revenue of the Government had been deposited in certain “pet banks” designated by the Secretary of the Treasury. Every one of them failed in the panic of 1837. Van Buren therefore recommended “the divorce of Bank and State,” and after a struggle of three years his friends carried the “subtreasury” scheme in 1840. This law cast off all connection between the state banks and the Government, put the collectors of the revenue under heavy bonds to keep the money safely till called for by the Secretary of the Treasury, and limited payments to or by the United States to specie.

National Conventions and Rise of Slavery Issue.—The year 1840 was presidential year, and is memorable for the introduction of new political methods; for the rise of a new and vigorous party; and for the appearance of a new political issue. The new machinery consisted in the permanent introduction of the national convention for the nomination of a president, now used by the Democrats for the second time, and by the Whigs for the first; in the promulgation of a party platform by the convention, now used by the Democrats for the first time; and in the use of mass meetings, processions, songs, and all the paraphernalia of a modern campaign by the Whigs.

The new party was the Liberty Party, and the new issue the “absolute and unqualified divorce of the general Government from slavery, and the restoration of equality of rights among men.” The principles of that party were: slavery is against natural right, is strictly local, is a state institution, and derives no support from the authority of Congress, which has no power to set up or continue slavery anywhere; every treaty, every act, establishing, favoring, or continuing slavery in the District of Columbia, in the territories, on the high seas, is, therefore, unconstitutional.

The Short-lived Era of the Whigs.—The candidate of this party was James Gillespie Birney. The Democrats nominated Martin Van Buren. The Whigs put forward William Henry Harrison and elected him. Harrison died one month after his inauguration, and John Tyler, the Vice-President and a Democrat of the Calhoun wing, became President.

The Whig policy as sketched by Clay was the repeal of the Subtreasury Act; the charter of a National Bank; tariff for protection; and the distribution of the sales of public lands. To the repeal of the Subtreasury Act Tyler gladly assented. To the establishment of a bank even when called “Fiscal Corporation,” he would not assent, and, having twice vetoed such bills, was read out of the party by a formal manifesto issued by Whig congressmen.

It mattered little, however, for the question of the hour was not the bank, nor the tariff, nor the distribution of the sales of lands, but the annexation of the republic Texas. Joined to the demand for the reoccupation of Oregon, it became the chief plank in the Democratic platform of 1844. The Whig platform said not a word on the subject, and the Liberty Party, turning with loathing from the cowardice of Clay, voted again for Birney, gave the State of New York to the Democrats, and with it the presidency.

The Annexation of Texas, and Wilmot Proviso.—Accepting the result of the election as “instruction from the people,” Congress passed the needed act and Tyler in the last hours of his administration declared Texas annexed.

The boundary of the new state was ill-defined. Texas claimed to the Rio Grande. Mexico would probably have acknowledged the Nueces River. The United States attempted to enforce the claim of Texas, sent troops to the Rio Grande, and so brought on the Mexican war.

At the close of the Mexican war the boundary of the United States was carried south from forty-two degrees to the Gila River, and what is now California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and more than half of Wyoming and Colorado were added to the public domain. While the war was still raging, Polk, who had succeeded Tyler, asked for two million dollars to aid him in negotiating peace. Well knowing that the money was to be used to buy land from Mexico, David Wilmot moved in the House of Representatives that from all territory bought with the money slavery should be excluded. This was the famous Wilmot proviso. It failed of adoption and the territory was acquired in 1848, with its character as to slavery or freedom wholly undetermined.

The Preliminary Struggle over the Slave Problem.—And now the old parties began to break up. Democrats who believed in the Wilmot proviso, and Whigs who detested the annexation of Texas, the war with Mexico, and the extension of slavery went over in a body to the Liberty Party, formed with it the Freesoil Party, nominated Martin Van Buren, and gave him three hundred thousand votes. In their platform they declared that Congress had no more power to make a slave than to make a king; that they accepted the issue thrust on them by the South; that to the demand for more slave states and more slave territories they answered, no more slave states, no more slave territories; and that on their banner was inscribed “Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men.” As the defection of Whigs to the Liberty Party in 1844 gave New York state to the Democrats and elected Polk, so the defection of Democrats to the Free Soilers in 1848 gave New York to the Whigs and elected Taylor. As Harrison, the first Whig president, died one month after taking office, so Taylor, the second Whig president, died suddenly when a little over one year in office, just as the great Whig compromise of 1850 was closing. The imperative need of civil government in the new territory, the discovery of gold in California, the rush of men from all parts of the earth to the Pacific Coast forced Congress to establish organized territories. The question was: shall they be opened or closed to slavery? But, as the soil had been free when acquired from Mexico, the question really was: shall the United States establish slavery?

THE MEXICAN WAR, 1846-1848

Causes of the War

(1) Long-standing irritation over claims of American citizens upon Mexico, which the latter refused to pay.

(2) The annexation by the United States of Texas, which Mexico claimed as still a part of her territory.

(3) Disputes as to whether the Rio Grande or Nueces River was the boundary of Texas.

Results of the War

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in 1848, closed the war. Its chief provisions were:

(1) The Rio Grande was made the boundary between Texas and Mexico.

(2) California and New Mexico were ceded to the United States.

(3) The United States paid Mexico $15,000,000, and assumed $3,500,000 due American citizens.

The slavery question was intensified in American politics.

PRINCIPAL BATTLES
NOTE: The Americans were victorious in every conflict.

Place of BattleDatesCommandersEngaged
AmericanMexicanAmericanMexican
BraciteDec.25,1846DoniphanPonce de Leon5001,200
Buena VistaFeb.23,1847TaylorSanta Anna4,70017,000
Cerro GordoApril18,1847ScottSanta Anna8,50012,000
ChapultepecSept.13,1847ScottSanta Anna7,20025,000
ContrerasAug.20,1847ScottValencia4,0007,000
ChurubuscoAug.20,1847ScottSanta Anna8,00025,000
HuamantlaOct.9,1847LaneSanta Anna5001,000
MexicoSept.14,1847ScottSanta Anna6,000...
Molino del ReySept.8,1847WorthAlverez3,50014,000
MontereySept.24,1846TaylorAmpudia6,60010,000
Palo AltoMay8,1846TaylorArista2,3006,000
Resaca de la PalmaMay9,1846TaylorArista2,0005,000
SacramentoFeb.28,1847DoniphanTrias9004,000
Vera CruzMar.27,1847ScottLandero12,0006,000
The only naval engagements of importance during the war with Mexicowere the bombardment
ofVera Cruz, by Commodore Conner, which lasted four days, and the bombardment of Monterey,
CommodoreSloat, both cities being forced to surrender.

The Democrats, holding that slaves were property, claimed the right to take them into any territory, and asserting the principle of “squatter sovereignty,” claimed the right of the people living in any territory to settle for themselves whether it should be slave or free. The Free Soilers demanded that the soil having been free when a part of Mexico, should be free as a part of the United States. Between these two Clay now stepped in to act as pacificator. Taking up the grievances of each side, he framed and carried through the measure known as the Compromise of 1850, the third great political compromise in our history. The fruit of this was the admission of California as a free state; the passage of a more stringent law for the recovery of fugitive slaves; the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; and the organization of Utah and New Mexico on the basis of “squatter sovereignty.”

This done, senators and representatives of all parties joined in a manifesto declaring that the issues resting on slavery were dead issues, and that they would neither vote for, nor work for any man who thought otherwise. But thousands did think otherwise. The action of Clay pleased none. Anti-slavery men deserted him in the North; pro-slavery men deserted him in the South; and in 1852 the Whig party carried but four states out of thirty-one and perished. Even its two great leaders, Clay and Webster, were, by that time, in their graves.

Excited by such success, the Democrats, led on by Stephen A. Douglas, now broke through the compromise of 1820 and in 1854 applied “squatter sovereignty” to the organization of the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Against this violation state legislatures, the people, the pulpit, and the press protested vigorously, for every acre of Kansas and Nebraska lay to the north of 36° 30′ and was solemnly pledged to freedom. But the Democratic leaders would not listen and drove from their ranks another detachment of voters. The effect was soon manifest. The little parties began to unite and when, in 1856, the time came to elect another president, the Republican Party of to-day was fully organized and ready. Once more and for the last time for twenty-eight years the Democrats won.

Buchanan’s Administration the Prelude to the Civil War.—The administration of James Buchanan (1857-1861) marks an epoch. The question before the country was that of the extension of slavery into the new territories. Hardly had he been inaugurated when the Supreme Court handed down a decision on the case of Dred Scott, which denied the right of Congress to legislate on slavery, set aside the compromises of 1820 and 1850 as unconstitutional, and opened all the territories to slavery.

Rise of the Republican Party and Election of Lincoln.—From that moment the Whig and Democratic parties began to break up rapidly till, when 1860 came, four parties and four presidential candidates were in the field. The Democratic party, having finally split at the national convention for nominating a president and vice-president, the southern wing put forward Breckenridge and Lane and demanded that Congress should protect slavery in the territories. The northern wing nominated Stephen A. Douglas and declared for squatter sovereignty and the compromise of 1850. A third party, taking the name of “Constitutional Union,” declared for the Constitution and the Union at any price and no agitation of slavery, nominated Bell and Everett, and drew the support of the old Whigs of the Clay and Webster school. The Republicans, declaring that Congress should prohibit slavery in the territories, nominated Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin and won the election.

Secession, and the Formation of the Confederacy.—The State of South Carolina immediately seceded and before the end of February, 1861, was followed by Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Taking the name of the Confederate States of America, they formed first a temporary and then a permanent government, elected Jefferson Davis president, raised an army, and besieged Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. The attempt to relieve the fort brought on the bombardment and surrender (April 19, 1861). The Confederate States were now joined by Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Richmond was made the capital, and the Civil war opened.

Civil War between the Union and the Confederacy.—The line of separation between the states then became the Potomac River, the Ohio River, and a line across southern Missouri and Indian Territory to New Mexico. Along this line the troops of the Union were drawn up in many places under many commanders. Yet there were in the main but three great armies. That of the East or Potomac under General McClellan, that of the Center or the Ohio under General Buell, that of the West or Missouri under General Halleck. In command of all as Lieutenant-General was Winfield Scott. Confronting them were the troops of the Confederacy, drawn up in three corresponding armies: that of North Virginia under Johnston and Lee, that of the Cumberland under Albert Sidney Johnston, and that of the trans-Mississippi under McCulloch and Price.

Yielding to the demand of the North for the capture of Richmond before the Confederate Congress could meet there (July 20, 1861), McDowell went forth with thirty-eight thousand three-months volunteers to the ever memorable field of Bull Run.

The Union Successes in the Southwest.—But the serious campaigning did not begin until January, 1862. Then the whole line west of the Alleghanies (made up of the armies of Ohio and Missouri), turning on Pittsburgh as a center, swept southward, captured Forts Henry and Donelson, defeated the Confederates at Shiloh, captured Corinth, took Island Number 10, and drove them from Fort Pillow. Meantime Farragut entered the Mississippi from the Gulf, passed Forts Jackson and St. Philip, captured New Orleans, and sent Commodore Davis up the river to take Memphis. Memphis fell June 6, 1862, and, save for Vicksburg, the Mississippi was open for navigation. When the year closed the Confederates had been driven to the east into the mountains of Tennessee, where, December 31, 1862 to January 2, 1863, was fought the desperate and bloody battle of Murfreesboro. The Union troops won, and the Confederate army fell back to Chattanooga.

The Peninsular Campaign Favors Confederate Arms.—With the Army of the Potomac meantime all had gone ill. The affair at Bull Run in July, 1861, had been followed by the transfer of the army to McClellan. But McClellan wasted time, wore out the patience of the North, and forced Lincoln to issue General Order Number One for the forward movement of all armies on February 22, 1862. Obedient to this McClellan began his Peninsular Campaign against Richmond, was out-generaled by Lee, and in the second battle of Bull Run suffered so crushing a defeat that Lee ventured to cross the Potomac and enter Maryland, and encountered McClellan, on the field of Antietam. In that battle Lee was beaten and fled across the Potomac. But McClellan failed to follow up the victory and was removed, the command of the Army of the Potomac passing to Burnside. Burnside led it across the Potomac and the Rappahannock and on December 13, 1862, lost the battle of Fredericksburg. For this he was replaced by Hooker, who, May 1-4, 1863, fought and lost the battle of Chancellorsville.

The Turning Point of the War.—Lee now again took the offensive, crossed the Potomac, entered Pennsylvania, and at Gettysburg met the Army of the Potomac under Meade. On that field was fought the decisive battle of the war. Then (July 1-4, 1863) the backbone of the Confederacy was broken, and the two armies returned to their old positions in Virginia.

While Meade was beating Lee at Gettysburg, Grant captured Vicksburg, July 1-3, 1863. For this he was sent to command the army of Rosecrans, then besieged by Bragg at Chattanooga. Again success attended him, and in November he stormed Lookout Mountain, defeated Bragg in the famous “Battle above the Clouds,” and drove him in disorder through the mountains. For these signal victories he was raised to the rank of Lieutenant General in 1864, and placed in command of the armies of the United States.

That year is memorable for the great march [643] of Sherman to the east from Chattanooga to the sea, for the victories of Sheridan in the valley of the Shenandoah, for the Wilderness Campaign of Grant, the shutting up of Lee in Richmond, and by the re-election of Lincoln. His competitor was General McClellan, whom the northern Democrats put forward on the platform that the war was a failure, and that peace should be made with the South. In the spring of 1865 came the retreat of Lee from Richmond, and, on April 9, his surrender at Appomattox Court House.

THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865

Causes of the WarInfluencing EventsResults of the War
Real, but remote:The invention of the cotton gin, 1793.
(1) The doctrine of popular
sovereignty. Differentcon-
structionsof the Constitution.		Fugitive slave laws, 1793 and 1850.The Union was preserved.
Protective tariff laws.
Missouri compromise, 1820.Slavery was abolished.
Nullification act in South Carolina, 1832.
(2) Slavery. Different systems
of labor in the North andthe
South.		Annexation of Texas, 1845.Secession as a working
program was shown to be
impracticable.
Omnibus bill, 1850.
Kansas-Nebraska bill, 1854
Dred Scott decision, 1857.
(3) Lack of intercourse between
the North and the South.		Personal liberty bills, 1857.The war cost the lives of
nearly one million able-
bodiedmen.
John Brown raid, 1859.
Anti-slavery papers, books, and speeches.
(4) The increase of territory.New England Anti-Slavery Society was
organized, 1832.		The national debt was in-
creased to $2,750,000,000.
Anti-slavery parties:
Immediate:Liberty party, 1840-1848.An incalculable amount of
property was destroyed.
The secession of the states.Free-Soil party, 1848-1856.
Republican party, 1854.

CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES
Naval engagements are printed in italics; names of victorious commanders in bold-face type.

LAND AND SEA ENGAGEMENTS

Name, Location and Date of BattleCommandersCasualties
UnionConfederate
KilledWoundedKilledWounded
1861
Bombardment of Fort Sumter (April 13-14)Gen. Beauregard vs. Maj. Anderson.No casualties on either side
Bull Run, Virginia (July 21)Gen. Beauregard and Gen. Johnston vs. Gen. McDowell.4811,0113621,390
Wilson Creek, Missouri (August 10)Gen. Price vs. Gen. Lyon.223721331764
1862
Pea Ridge, Arkansas (March 6-8)Gen. Curtis and Gen. Franz Sigel vs. Gen. Van Dorn.2039721,0403,638
Monitor and Merrimac, Hampton Roads, Virginia (March 9)Lt. J. L. Worden vs. Capt. Franklin Buchanan.0102
Fort Donelson, Tennessee (February 15)Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Floyd, Gen. Pillow and Gen. Buckner.5607464661,534
Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee (April 6-7)Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Johnston and Gen. Beauregard.1,7357,8821,1288,012
Drury’s Bluff, Virginia (May 15)Gen. Beauregard vs. Gen. Butler.4222,3805141,086
Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks, Virginia (May 31)Gen. Johnston vs. Gen. McClellan.8913,6271,9872,233
Gaines Mill, Virginia (June 27)Gen. A. Elzey vs. Gen. F. J. Porter.3,0004,5002,0004,000
Malvern Hill, Virginia (July 1)Gen. McClellan vs. Gen. Lee.2,8603,5003,0234,077
Cedar Mountain, Virginia (August 8-9)Gen. Jackson vs. Gen. Banks.4506602231,060
Bull Run No. 2, or Manassas, Virginia (August 29-30)Gen. Lee and Gen. Jackson vs. Gen. Pope.7984,0231,0906,154
Antietam, Maryland (September 16-17)Gen. McClellan vs. Gen. Lee.2,0109,4161,8429,399
Corinth, Mississippi (October 3-4)Gen. Rosecrans vs. Gen. Van Dorn.3151,8121,4235,692
Perrysville, Kentucky (October 8)Gen. Buell vs. Gen. Bragg.9162,9439801,520
Fredericksburg, Virginia (December 11-13)Gen. Lee vs. Gen. A. E. Burnside.1,1529,1015054,061
Murfreesboro, or Stone River, Tennessee (December 30, 1862, to January 2, 1863)Gen. Rosecrans vs. Gen. Bragg1,5337,2451,3846,892
1863[644]
Chancellorsville, Virginia (April 30 to May 4)Gen. Lee and Gen. Jackson vs. Gen. Hooker.1,5129,5181,71810,563
Vicksburg, Mississippi (May 19-25)Gen. Pemberton vs. Gen. Grant.1,8482,3781,4202,151
Gettysburg, Pennsylvania (July 1-3)Gen. George G. Meade vs. Gen. Lee.2,83413,7094,00014,000
Chickamauga, Georgia (September 18-20)Gen. Bragg vs. Gen. Rosecrans.1,6449,2626,00010,000
Chattanooga, including Orchard Knob, Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, Tennessee (November23-25)Gen. Grant, Gen. Sherman and Gen. Hooker vs. Gen. Bragg.7574,5298502,150
1864
Wilderness, Virginia (May 5-7)Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee.2,30912,1881,95610,444
Spottsylvania, Virginia (May 8-11)Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee.3,28819,2783,34220,187
Spottsylvania, Virginia (May 18)Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee.2,0317,9561,7527,248
Bermuda Hundreds, Virginia (May 26-30)Gen. Butler, vs. Gen. D. H. Hill.2019988642,136
Cold Harbor, Virginia (June 2-3)Gen. Lee vs. Gen. Grant.1,90510,5703641,336
Petersburg, Virginia (June 15-19)Gen. Lee vs. Gen. Smith, Gen. Hancock and Gen. Burnside.1,2987,4749846,721
Petersburg, Virginia (June 20-30)Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee.1125068011,417
Peach Tree Creek, Georgia (July 20)Gen. Thomas vs. Gen. Hood.3011,4118803,916
Atlanta, Georgia, Hood’s First Sortie (July 22)Gen. Logan vs. Gen. Hood.4992,1421,1627,337
Petersburg, Virginia (from July 1, exclusive of losses at the Crater and Deep Bottom) (July 31)Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee.4192,0767994,023
Petersburg, Virginia (August 1-31)Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee.87484101605
Opequan, Virginia (September 19)Gen. Sheridan vs. Gen. Early.6533,7191,6323,868
Cedar Creek, Virginia (October 19)Gen. Sheridan vs. Gen. Early.5883,5169613,239
Fair Oaks, Virginia (October 27-28)Gen. McClellan vs. Gen. Johnston.120783150301
Petersburg, Virginia (Sept. 1 to Oct. 30)Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee.170822240761
Franklin, Tennessee (November 30)Gen. Hood vs. Gen. Schofield.1891,0331,1415,113
Nashville, Tennessee (December 15-16)Gen. Thomas vs. Gen. Hood.3991,7415843,021
1865
Petersburg, Virginia (April 2)Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee.2982,5653413,092
Appomattox, Virginia (April 9)Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee.203297189386

Lincoln Assassinated, and Beginning of Reconstruction.—On April 14, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated and Andrew Johnson became president. With the succession of Johnson the era of reconstruction, political and social, begins. The outcome of political reconstruction was the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments to the Constitution of the United States, the impeachment of Andrew Johnson, and a long list of acts to protect and assist the freedmen of the South. The outcome of social reconstruction was the rise of the Ku Klux Klan, the passage and use of the Force Act, and the dreadful condition of affairs which ruined the South for a decade.

In the North the effect of such measures was to split the Republican party and put seven presidential candidates in the field in 1872. One represented the Temperance party; another the Labor party, denouncing Chinese labor and the non-taxation of Government land; a third was the Liberal Republican, demanding union, amnesty, and civil rights, accusing Grant of packing the Supreme Court in the interests of corporations, and calling for a repeal of the Ku Klux laws. The Liberal [645] Republicans having chosen Horace Greeley as their candidate, the Democrats accepted and indorsed him. But he pleased neither party, and the discontented Liberals and the discontented Democrats each chose a candidate of their own. The Republicans nominated Grant and elected him.

Election of Hayes Decided by an Electoral Commission.—His second term (1873-1877) was the nadir of our politics, both state and national, and ended with the disputed election and the rise of the Independent or “Greenback party,” demanding the repeal of the act for the resumption of specie payments and the issue of the United States “greenback” notes, convertible into bonds, as the currency of the country. Double returns and doubtful returns from the Southern states put the votes of thirteen electors in dispute. As the House was Democratic and the Senate Republican, the joint rule under which the electoral votes had been counted since 1865 could not be adopted. A compromise was necessary, and on January 29, 1877, the Electoral Commission of five Senators, five Representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court was created to decide on the doubtful returns. Of the fifteen, eight were Republicans and seven Democrats, and by a strict party vote the thirteen electoral votes were given to the Republicans and Rutherford B. Hayes declared elected.

Resumption of Specie Payments by the Government.—The memorable events of his term (1877-1881) were the resumption of specie payments on January 1, 1879; the passage of the Bland Silver Bill, restoring the silver dollar to the list of coins, making it legal tender, and providing for the coinage of not less than two million nor more than four million each month; and the rapid growth of the National or Greenback Labor party. Hayes was followed in 1881 by James A. Garfield, whose contest with the Senators from New York over the distribution of patronage led to his assassination by the hand of a crazy applicant for office. Chester A. Arthur then became President, was followed in 1885 by Grover Cleveland, who was succeeded in 1889 by Benjamin Harrison, who was in turn succeeded in 1893 by Grover Cleveland.

The presidential campaign of 1896 was one of the most exciting and important that has ever taken place. It was a contest respecting principles, and party platforms never received more attention. The amount of financial and political literature distributed and read was enormous, and political speeches, almost without number, were delivered. The cooperation of very many gold standard Democrats greatly increased the Republican strength and McKinley and Hobart were elected by a large majority of the electoral votes and by a plurality of over six hundred thousand of the popular vote.

McKinley and the Spanish-American War.—The administration of President McKinley was notable in many respects, and marked a new era in the foreign policy of the United States. Chief of the events was the Spanish-American war, which was precipitated in 1898, largely through the cruel treatment of the Cuban people by the mother country, Spain. Public opinion in the United States had been much divided in regard to the Cuban difficulties, but the division was in no sense sectional and a majority believed that war was not only justifiable but inevitable.

On February 15, 1898, the United States battleship Maine was destroyed in Havana harbor, and many believed this to have been the work of the Spaniards. Thereupon a congress was held, and a resolution passed demanding the withdrawal of Spain from Cuba. But before the message could be delivered, the American minister in Madrid received his passports and the Spanish government declared war. On April 22, Rear-Admiral Sampson began the blockade of Havana and the northern coast of Cuba with his North Atlantic squadron.

Meanwhile Dewey, who had been stationed at Hong-Kong with the American squadron, was ordered to begin operations, and sailed to Manila Bay in the Philippines. He entered Manila Bay early Sunday morning, May 1, 1898. The Spanish fleet lying in the harbor was protected by the guns of the batteries at Cavité, a few miles from Manila.

The Spaniards knew that he had left Hong-Kong, but he came sooner than he was expected and caught them unawares. He had planned to do this so that he might choose his own time for attack. As soon as he reached Manila Bay he opened upon the Spanish fleet a terrible fire of shot and shell. His fire was answered vigorously from the war vessels and the shore batteries, but the guns of the enemy were not well aimed and their shot did little damage. After a sharp fight of about two hours Dewey withdrew his fleet, in order, it is said, to give his men time for breakfast, but more likely to see how his ammunition was holding out.

After three hours he returned to the attack. By this time most of the Spanish vessels were in flames. An hour later the Spanish batteries “were silenced and the ships sunk or burned and deserted.” In the conflict the Spaniards lost every vessel and hundreds of men were killed, wounded, and missing. No American was killed and but seven wounded; while no American vessel was seriously damaged.

The battle of Manila is one of the great naval actions of history; never before had so much been won with so little loss of life and ships. Congress made Dewey a Rear Admiral, gave him a vote of thanks, and voted him a sword. Soon after the war he was made Admiral, the highest rank in the navy.

About the same time the Spanish Admiral, Cervera, had left the Cape Verde Islands en route for Santiago, where he arrived on May 19. Strict watch was kept by Sampson to prevent the escape of the enemy, and the Merrimac was sunk at night to block the Spanish squadron in the harbor, but the ship drifted too far to prevent Cervera’s exit. This difficult feat was intrusted to Ensign Richmond P. Hobson and six men. They performed their dangerous task, notwithstanding a severe fire from the Spanish land batteries. They were captured, but Admiral Cervera was so moved by their bravery that he sent word to the Americans that they were safe and would be well treated.

SUMMARY OF SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898

Causes

Underlying:

Sympathy for the oppressed Cubans. The “reconcentrados,” people driven into the towns by Weyler, died by thousands, and Americans who aided them are arrested and their property destroyed.

The proximity of Cuba and its geographical position make its situation of great importance to the United States.

Destruction of American property.

Publication of a letter of the Spanish Minister, in which he speaks slightingly of President McKinley.

Immediate:

The blowing up of the battleship Maine.

Treaty and Results

The Treaty of Paris, December 10, 1898, stipulated as follows:

Spain gives up title to Cuba.

Spain cedes Porto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the United States.

The United States gives Spain $20,000,000.

The direct cost of the war to the United States is about $130,000,000.

Soldiers killed, 430. A large number die of disease.

The United States becomes the guardian of Cuba.

An increase in our navy and standing army.

The war in the Philippines.

The question of territorial expansion in our politics.

LAND AND SEA ENGAGEMENTS

Name, Location and Date of BattleCommandersCasualties
United StatesSpanish
KilledWoundedKilledWounded
THE ARMY
Guantanamo (June 11-20, 1898)...616......
Bombardment of Santiago (June 22, 1898)...............
Las Guasimas, Cuba (June 24, 1898)Gen. Wheeler vs. Gen. Linares.165028124
El Caney, Cuba (July 1, 1898)Gen. Lawton and Gen. Chaffee vs. Gen. Vara de Rey.88356120400
San Juan, Cuba (July 1-3, 1898)...1511,0072041,340
Santiago, Cuba (July 10-12, 1898)Gen. Shafter.213......
Santiago Campaign (June 21 to July 17, 1898)Gen. Shafter vs. Gen. Toral.2601,341......
Porto Rico Campaign (July 25-28, 1898)Gen. Miles.340......
The Reduction of Manila (August 13, 1898)Gen. Merritt.17106......
THE NAVY
Manila Bay, Philippine Islands (May 1, 1898).American Commander: Geo. Dewey.
Spanish Commander:Admiral Montijo.		American Casualties:
Seven men slightlyinjured.
No damage to ships.
Spanish Casualties:
All ships destroyed.450 men killed and wounded.
American Vessels:
Olympia, Baltimore, Raleigh, Boston, Concord,Petrel.
Spanish Vessels:
Reina Cristina, Castella, Don Antonio de Ulloa, Isla deLuzon, Isla de Cuba, General Lezo, Marquis de Duero, Cano Velasco, Isla de Mindanao,Sandoval, José Garcia, Leyte and torpedo boat Barcelona.
Bombardment of Cienfuegos, Cuba (May 11, 1898).By torpedo boat Winslow.111......
Bombardment of San Juan (May 12, 1898)Admiral Sampson.17......
Before Santiago (July 3, 1898)American Commander: Winfield Schley.
SpanishCommander: Admiral Cervera.		American Casualties:
One man killed.
Brooklyn struck thirteen times, Texas once, but neither badly damaged.
Spanish:
Allships destroyed, more than 600 men killed and wounded, and rest surrendered.
American Vessels:
Brooklyn, Texas, Oregon, Iowa, Gloucester.
Spanish Vessels:
Almirante, Oquendo, Christobal Colon, Vizcaya,Infanta Maria Teresa, and torpedo boats Pluton and Furor.
The total number of vessels captured from Spain during the war of 1898 was 58.

On June 21, Major-General Shafter arrived off Santiago and successfully landed his troops at Baiquiri, and three days later the Spaniards were driven back from Sevilla. General Shafter then began his attack on Santiago, whither the Spaniards had retreated. Operations began on July 1. The severest fighting took place at San Juan Hill and El Caney, a garrisoned post, where a body of five hundred Spaniards offered a desperate resistance for some hours. By sundown the hills on which the enemy were posted, including San Juan, were occupied by the Americans. The attacking force consisted of regular infantry and dismounted cavalry, with an irregular corps of mounted men known as the Rough Riders. The latter, under the command of Colonels Leonard Wood and Roosevelt, took a prominent part in the fight. On July 4 the city was summoned to surrender, but without success. In the meanwhile Admiral Cervera’s squadron had been ordered to sea by the Madrid government. He accordingly left Santiago harbor the same day at nine a. m. with the object of [647] effecting its escape by keeping close to the western shore. The American fleet, temporarily under Schley’s command, at once engaged the Spaniards, and by two o’clock succeeded in burning, beaching, or capturing all the enemy’s vessels. After this Santiago surrendered, July 17, and Spain sued for peace. It was arranged that Spain should evacuate Cuba, should cede Porto Rico to the United States, as well as her islands in the Antilles, and one of the Ladrones, and should leave the United States in the possession of Manila. In 1899 a treaty was signed, and Spain evacuated Cuba, the Philippines, and other islands for an indemnity of twenty million dollars.

Insurrection in the Philippine Islands.—A day or two after the final vote on the treaty a body of Philippines under Amilio Aguinaldo, a native of great ability, attacked the American defenses at Manila. The next day the Americans returned the attack, and for nearly a year there was a resistance to the American rule on the part of the tribes which Aguinaldo represented. These tribes belonged to the Tagals, a Malay race. They are in a minority as regards the whole population, but are among the most intelligent. By the close of the year 1899 the organized resistance on the part of the Tagals appeared to be nearly ended, and the army of Aguinaldo reduced to marauders and bandits, and the insurrection against the authority and sovereignty of the United States was ended in July, 1902, after the capture and surrender of the insurgent leader.

Assassination of McKinley and Succession of Roosevelt.—Shortly after his re-election to a second term, on September 6, 1901, the country was shocked by the assassination of President McKinley by an anarchist named Czolgosz. This was the third time in the history of the country that the chief executive was stricken down by the hand of an assassin. The Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt, then succeeded to the presidency and continued, in all essential details, the policy of his lamented predecessor.

Under President Roosevelt, a champion of administrative reform and the regulation of commercial trusts, the status of Cuba was settled; progress was made in the Philippines; the navy was very greatly strengthened; the Isthmian Canal question was solved in favor of the Panama route, and the Republic of Panama recognized; and the President reasserted with emphasis the Monroe Doctrine as the key to foreign policy. The Alaska boundary was fixed by a mixed commission. The United States took part with the European powers in armed intervention at Peking in 1899; and an arbitration treaty with Great Britain and other countries was arranged for.

In a second term (1905-1909) President Roosevelt maintained his popularity by the same policy. In 1906 an insurrection broke out in Cuba, and in October American troops again took possession of the island. When confidence had been restored the United States authorities withdrew.

President Taft and the Rise of the Progressives.—In 1908 the Republican, Taft, defeated Bryan, the Democratic candidate. Mr. Roosevelt had refused to be a candidate again and was instrumental in securing Mr. Taft’s nomination. President Taft was elected on a Rooseveltian programme of anti-trust legislation and promises of a reduced tariff. In 1910-1911 attempts were made at a Reciprocity of Duties Treaty with Canada, so as to establish freer trade between the two countries. The Canadian general election of 1911 gave an emphatic negative to the proposal.

During the latter part of 1912 a renewed insurrection in Mexico brought about strained diplomatic relations with that country.

In Ohio, Minnesota, and Indiana, however, Democratic governors were elected, and these results pointed to a political reaction in the West, largely owing to supposed inequities in the tariff and to the dominance of trusts.

In 1910 an “insurgent” or progressive section, to which Mr. Roosevelt adhered, formed itself within the Republican party; and the state elections in November resulted in a Democratic triumph without a parallel since that of the year 1890.

Democrats Restored to Power under Leadership of Woodrow Wilson.—In 1913 Woodrow Wilson swept the country on a Democratic programme, having a clear majority over the two Republican ex-presidents (Roosevelt and Taft) opposed to him. His election was fought chiefly on the tariff question, his main argument being that some industries were receiving unfair protection at the expense of others.

Shortly after the inauguration of President Wilson (May 31, 1913), the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, providing for the direct election of Senators by the people of the states, instead of by their respective legislatures, became effective. On October 3, of the same year, the Underwood Tariff Act became a law. Following this, on December 23, the Currency and Banking Bill, providing regional reserve banks throughout the country, was signed.

In 1914 the continued insurrectionary conditions in Mexico led to the seizure of the custom house at Vera Cruz by a United States fleet, resulting in an American loss of eighteen marines killed and seventy wounded. Subsequently diplomatic representatives of the republics of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (popularly known as the “A B C powers”) offered their services as mediators, were accepted by the United States and the troops withdrawn. The temporary lull, however, thus brought about was soon succeeded by a series of struggles between the provisional Mexican government and the insurrectionists, led by Francisco Villa, which have ever since continued with little abatement. In 1916 the border raids of the Mexican bandits resulted in so many outrages upon American lives and property that the President was compelled to order United States troops to the Rio Grande for the protection of our citizens, and finally a detachment under General Pershing was sent into Mexican territory.

The important La Follette Seaman’s bill, to promote the welfare of American seamen and provide for their safety at sea, was approved [648] March 4, 1915; and, in the same year (February 20), the Panama-Pacific Exposition was opened at San Francisco. On November 12, the United States assumed a protectorate of the Republic of Hayti.

PRESIDENT WILSON LEAVING THE EXECUTIVE OFFICES

During 1916 the Republic of Santo Domingo likewise passed under an American protectorate and the Rural Credits Bill became a law, whereby a system of Farm Loan Banks was created.

From the very beginning of the European war the administration of President Wilson was brought face to face with numerous intricate and several critical diplomatic situations growing out of that titanic conflict. The relationship of the United States, as a neutral nation, to the belligerent countries engaged in this war gave rise to more difficult and significant issues than any other president was compelled to meet since the time of Lincoln, if indeed, it has not been unprecedented in our entire history.

President Wilson Re-elected and His Policies Approved.—At the national election, in November, 1916, President Wilson was re-elected over his opponent, Charles E. Hughes. Following his re-election (December, 1916) the President proffered the services of this government to the belligerent powers of Europe in an effort to re-establish peace between these great contending coalitions. In spite of foreign complications, the year 1916 closed a period of unparalleled industrial and commercial prosperity for the United States, and more than ever confirmed its position as a great world power, with an immense field of new possibilities and corresponding duties.

On January 2, 1917, Congress re-assembled and began the consideration of important questions of national defense, railroads, and foreign policy growing out of the European war. In February, diplomatic relations were severed by the United States with Germany, and was succeeded in March by a declaration of armed neutrality on the part of our government.

Meanwhile great activity characterized all departments of the national government along lines of military preparedness, supported by unprecedented appropriations by Congress.

The supreme national industrial event of the Wilson administration, however, was the opening of the Panama Canal for navigation on August 14, 1914, and its use since that time as an instrumentality of world traffic.

Panama Canal.—This gigantic engineering project was designated by Count de Lesseps, of France, in 1879, and actual work began by the French Panama Canal Company, in 1881. Negotiations extending from 1901 to 1904 resulted in the taking over of the holdings of the French company by the United States, and work was started by United States government engineers in May of the latter year. Since that time the project has been steadily carried forward to completion.

The Canal is about fifty miles in length from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to deep water in the Pacific Ocean. The channel ranges in width from three hundred to one thousand feet. The average bottom width of the channel in this project is six hundred and forty-nine feet, and the minimum width is three hundred feet. The Canal has a minimum depth of forty-one feet. The time required for the passage of a ship of medium size through the entire length of the Canal is estimated at from nine and one-half to ten hours, and for larger vessels from ten and one-half to eleven hours.

The actual construction cost at present estimated for completing the Canal is $325,201,000, which includes $20,053,000 for sanitation and $7,382,000 for civil administration. These figures do not include the $50,000,000 paid to the New French Canal Company and to the Republic of Panama for property and franchises. Hence it is estimated that the total construction cost of the Canal to the United States will approximate $375,000,000.

CONTOUR MAP OF THE PANAMA CANAL AND CONNECTIONS

This map shows the general direction of the canal to be north and south; how it is brought into direct communication with the ports of the United States; and how it facilitates shipping to all parts of the world.

[Large map] (535 kB)

TABLE OF STATE AND TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT

In all the States except Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming and the Territory of Alaska, the right to vote at general elections is restricted to males of twenty-one years of age and upward. Women in Illinois, Iowa and Michigan have a restricted vote and in several States may vote at school elections.

States and Popular NameRequirements as to Citizenship
Persons Excluded from Suffrage (in italic)		Previous Residence RequiredGovernorsLegislaturesMembers’ Terms Elec-
toral Vote, 1916
In StateIn Co.In TownIn Pre-
cinct		SalariesLength Term YearsAnn. or Bien.Limit of SessionSalaries of MembersSena-
tors		Repre-
senta-
tives
Alabama
“Lizard”		Citizen of United States or alien who has declared intention.
Convictedof treason or other felonies, idiots, vagrants, insane.		2 years1 year3 mos.3 mos.$ 7,5004Quad.50 days$4.00 per diem4412
AlaskaCitizen of the United States, male or female.
Aliens and Indians.		1 year...30 days30 days7,0004Bien.60 days$15.00 per diem420
ArizonaCitizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiot, insane,felon* (b).		1 year30 days30 days30 days4,0002Bien.60 days$7.00 per diem223
Arkansas
“Bear”		Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Idiots,insane, convicted of felony, failure to pay poll tax.		1 year6 mos.30 days30 days5,0002Bien.60 days$6.00 per diem429
California
“Golden”		Citizen, male or female, by nativity, naturalization 90 days prior to election (d).
Idiots, insane, embezzlers of public moneys, convicted of infamous crime.*		1 year90 days...30 days10,0004Bien.None$1,000 term4213
Colorado
“Centennial”		Citizen, native or naturalized, male or female.
Felons, insane.		1 year90 days30 days10 days5,0002Bien.90 days$1,000 term426
Connecticut
“Nutmeg”		Citizen of the United States.
Convicted of heinous crime.		1 year...6 mos....5,0002Bien.None$300 term227
Delaware
“Diamond”		Citizen of the United States.
Insane, paupers, felons.*		1 year3 mos....30 days4,0004Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem423
Dist. of Col.See [foot note] on following page..................................0
Florida
“Flower”		Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, duelists, felons.		1 year6 mos.6 mos.6 mos.6,0004Bien.60 days$6.00 per diem426
Georgia
“Cracker”		Citizen of the United States.
Felons, idiots and insane.		6 mos.6 mos.......5,0002Ann.50 days$4.00 per diem2214
HawaiiCitizen of the United States.
Idiots, insane, felons (j).		1 year......3 mos.7,0004Bien.60 days$600 session420
IdahoCitizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons,bigamists.		6 mos.30 days......5,0002Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem224
Illinois
“Prairie”		Citizen of the United States (e).
Convicted of crime.		1 year90 days30 days30 days12,0004Bien.None$3,500 annum4229
Indiana
“Hoosier”		Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention (g).
Convicted of infamous crime. (b)		6 mos....60 days30 days8,0004Bien.61 days$6.00 per diem4215
Iowa
“Hawkeye”		Citizen of the United States (k).
Idiots, insane, felons.		6 mos.60 days10 days10 days5,0002Bien.None$1,000 session4213
Kansas
“Sunflower”		Citizen of the United States, male or female, or alien who has declared intention.
Convicted of treason or felony, insane.		6 mos.30 days30 days10 days5,0002Bien.50 days$3.00 per diem4210
Kentucky
“Blue Grass”		Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, idiots and insane.		1 year6 mos....60 days6,5004Bien.60 days$10.00 per diem4213
Louisiana
“Creole”		Citizen of United States (c).
Idiots, insane, felons.*		2 years1 year...6 mos.5,0004Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem4410
Maine
“Pine Tree”		Citizen of the United States.
Paupers, insane, Indians.*‡		3 mos.3 mos.3 mos.3 mos.3,0002Bien.None$300 annum226
Maryland
“Old Line”		Citizen of the United States.
Felons, lunatics, bribers.		1 year6 mos.6 mos.1 day4,5004Bien.90 days$5.00 per diem428
Massachusetts
“Bay”		Citizen (a).
Paupers.*		1 year6 mos.6 mos.6 mos.10,0001Ann.None$1,000 annum1118
Michigan
“Wolverine”		Citizen of the United States or alien who declared intention two years and six months prior to November 8,1894 (c).
Indians with tribal relations.		6 mos.20 days20 days20 days5,0002Bien.None$800 annum2215
Minnesota
“North Star”		Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, insane,Indians.‡		6 mos.30 days30 days30 days7,0002Bien.90 days$1,000 session4212
Mississippi
“Bayou”		Citizen of the United States.
Insane, idiots, Indians not taxed, felons,bigamists.*		2 years1 year1 year1 year5,0004Bien.None$500 session4410
MissouriCitizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Felons(b).		1 year60 days60 days...5,0004Bien.70 days$5.00 per diem4218
Montana
“Mountain”		Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Felons, idiots,insane‡ (b).		1 year30 days......5,0004Bien.60 days$10.00 per diem424
NebraskaCitizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention (a).
Felons, insane.		6 mos.40 days10 days10 days2,5002Bien.60 days$10.00 session228
Nevada
“Silver”		Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane,felons.		6 mos.30 days30 days30 days7,0004Bien.60 days$600 term2-423
New Hampshire
“Granite”		Citizen of United States (a).
Paupers, insane, idiots,felons.		6 mos.6 mos.6 mos.6 mos.3,0002Bien.None$200 term224
New Jersey
“Jersey Blue”		Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, paupers, insane,felons (b).		1 year5 mos.......10,0003Ann.None$500 annum3114
New MexicoCitizen of United States (a).
Idiots, insane,felons.†		1 year90 days...30 days5,0005Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem423
New York
“Empire”		Citizen who shall have been a citizen for ninety days prior to election.1 year4 mos.30 days30 days10,0002Ann.None$1,500 annum2145
North Carolina
“Old North”		Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, lunatics, felons.		2 years6 mos.4 mos.4 mos.5,0004Bien.60 days$4.00 per diem2212
North Dakota
“Sioux”		Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, insane, tribalIndians.		1 year6 mos.90 days90 days5,0002Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem425
Ohio
“Buckeye”		Citizen of United States (a).
Idiots, insane, and felons(b).		1 year30 days20 days20 days10,0002Bien.None$1,000 annum2224
OklahomaCitizen of United States (a).
Felons, idiots,insane*‡		1 year6 mos....30 days4,5004Bien.60 days$6.00 per diem4210
Oregon
“Sunset”		Citizen of the United States, male or female, or alien who declared intention more than one year prior toelection.
Idiots, insane, convicted of felony, U. S. soldiers and sailors.		6 mos.30 days...30 days5,0004Bien.40 days$3.00 per diem425
Pennsylvania
“Keystone”		Citizen of the United States at least one month.
Felons,non-taxpayers.		1 year......2 mos.10,0004Bien.None$1,500 session2238
Porto RicoCitizen of United States (f).
Felons, insane (b).		1 year...1 year...8,0004Ann.60 days$5.00 per diem420
Rhode Island
“Little Rhody”		Citizen of the United States.
Paupers, lunatics, felons.		2 years...6 mos....3,0002Ann.60 days$5.00 per diem225
South Carolina
“Palmetto”		Citizen of United States (h).
Felons, insane, paupers.		2 years1 year4 mos.4 mos.3,0002Ann.40 days$200 term429
South Dakota
“Coyote”		Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Insane,felons, U. S. soldiers, seamen and marines.		6 mos.30 days10 days10 days3,0002Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem225
Tennessee
“Volunteer”		Citizen of the United States.
Felons, failure to pay poll tax.		1 year6 mos.......4,0002Bien.75 days$4.00 per diem2212
Texas
“Lone Star”		Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Idiots,lunatics, felons, U. S. soldiers, marines and seamen.		1 year6 mos.6 mos....4,0002Bien.90 days$5.00 per diem4220
UtahCitizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons(b).		1 year4 mos....60 days6,0004Bien.60 days$4.00 per diem424
Vermont
“Green Mountain”		Citizen of the United States.
Those lacking approbation of local board ofcivil authority.		1 year3 mos.3 mos.3 mos.2,5002Bien.None$4.00 per diem224
Virginia
“Old Dominion”		Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, lunatics, paupers (b)(i).		2 years1 year1 year30 days5,0004Bien.60 days$500 session4212
Washington
“Evergreen”		Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, lunatics,felons.‡		1 year90 days30 days30 days6,0004Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem427
West Virginia
“Panhandle”		Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, lunatics, felons.		1 year60 days60 days...5,0004Bien.45 days$4.00 per diem428
Wisconsin
“Badger”		Citizen of United States (a).
Insane, felons, tribalIndians.		1 year...10 days10 days5,0002Bien.None$500 annum4213
WyomingCitizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons,unable to read State Constitution.		1 year60 days10 days10 days4,0004Bien.40 days$8.00 per diem423
States and Popular NameRequirements as to Citizenship
Persons Excluded from Suffrage (in italic)		Previous Residence Required
In StateIn Co.In TownIn Precinct
Alabama
“Lizard”		Citizen of United States or alien who has declared intention.
Convictedof treason or other felonies, idiots, vagrants, insane.		2 years1 year3 mos.3 mos.
AlaskaCitizen of the United States, male or female.
Aliens and Indians.		1 year...30 days30 days
ArizonaCitizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiot, insane,felon* (b).		1 year30 days30 days30 days
Arkansas
“Bear”		Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Idiots,insane, convicted of felony, failure to pay poll tax.		1 year6 mos.30 days30 days
California
“Golden”		Citizen, male or female, by nativity, naturalization 90 days prior to election (d).
Idiots, insane, embezzlers of public moneys, convicted of infamous crime.*		1 year90 days...30 days
Colorado
“Centennial”		Citizen, native or naturalized, male or female.
Felons, insane.		1 year90 days30 days10 days
Connecticut
“Nutmeg”		Citizen of the United States.
Convicted of heinous crime.		1 year...6 mos....
Delaware
“Diamond”		Citizen of the United States.
Insane, paupers, felons.*		1 year3 mos....30 days
Dist. of Col.See [foot note] on following page.............
Florida
“Flower”		Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, duelists, felons.		1 year6 mos.6 mos.6 mos.
Georgia
“Cracker”		Citizen of the United States.
Felons, idiots and insane.		6 mos.6 mos.......
HawaiiCitizen of the United States.
Idiots, insane, felons (j).		1 year......3 mos.
IdahoCitizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons,bigamists.		6 mos.30 days......
Illinois
“Prairie”		Citizen of the United States (e).
Convicted of crime.		1 year90 days30 days30 days
Indiana
“Hoosier”		Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention (g).
Convicted of infamous crime. (b)		6 mos....60 days30 days
Iowa
“Hawkeye”		Citizen of the United States (k).
Idiots, insane, felons.		6 mos.60 days10 days10 days
Kansas
“Sunflower”		Citizen of the United States, male or female, or alien who has declared intention.
Convicted of treason or felony, insane.		6 mos.30 days30 days10 days
Kentucky
“Blue Grass”		Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, idiots and insane.		1 year6 mos....60 days
Louisiana
“Creole”		Citizen of United States (c).
Idiots, insane, felons.*		2 years1 year...6 mos.
Maine
“Pine Tree”		Citizen of the United States.
Paupers, insane, Indians.*‡		3 mos.3 mos.3 mos.3 mos.
Maryland
“Old Line”		Citizen of the United States.
Felons, lunatics, bribers.		1 year6 mos.6 mos.1 day
Massachusetts
“Bay”		Citizen (a).
Paupers.*		1 year6 mos.6 mos.6 mos.
Michigan
“Wolverine”		Citizen of the United States or alien who declared intention two years and six months prior to November 8,1894 (c).
Indians with tribal relations.		6 mos.20 days20 days20 days
Minnesota
“North Star”		Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, insane,Indians.‡		6 mos.30 days30 days30 days
Mississippi
“Bayou”		Citizen of the United States.
Insane, idiots, Indians not taxed, felons,bigamists.*		2 years1 year1 year1 year
MissouriCitizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Felons(b).		1 year60 days60 days...
Montana
“Mountain”		Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Felons, idiots,insane.‡ (b).		1 year30 days......
NebraskaCitizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention (a).
Felons, insane.		6 mos.40 days10 days10 days
Nevada
“Silver”		Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane,felons.		6 mos.30 days30 days30 days
New Hampshire
“Granite”		Citizen of United States (a).
Paupers, insane, idiots,felons.		6 mos.6 mos.6 mos.6 mos.
New Jersey
“Jersey Blue”		Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, paupers, insane,felons (b).		1 year5 mos.......
New MexicoCitizen of United States (a).
Idiots, insane,felons.†		1 year90 days...30 days
New York
“Empire”		Citizen who shall have been a citizen for ninety days prior to election.1 year4 mos.30 days30 days
North Carolina
“Old North”		Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, lunatics, felons.		2 years6 mos.4 mos.4 mos.
North Dakota
“Sioux”		Citizen of United States (a).
Felons, insane, tribalIndians.		1 year6 mos.90 days90 days
Ohio
“Buckeye”		Citizen of United States (a).
Idiots, insane, and felons(b).		1 year30 days20 days20 days
OklahomaCitizen of United States (a).
Felons, idiots,insane*‡		1 year6 mos....30 days
Oregon
“Sunset”		Citizen of the United States, male or female, or alien who declared intention more than one year prior toelection.
Idiots, insane, convicted of felony, U. S. soldiers and sailors.		6 mos.30 days...30 days
Pennsylvania
“Keystone”		Citizen of the United States at least one month.
Felons,non-taxpayers.		1 year......2 mos.
Porto RicoCitizen of United States (f).
Felons, insane (b).		1 year...1 year...
Rhode Island
“Little Rhody”		Citizen of the United States.
Paupers, lunatics, felons.		2 years...6 mos....
South Carolina
“Palmetto”		Citizen of United States (h).
Felons, insane, paupers.		2 years1 year4 mos.4 mos.
South Dakota
“Coyote”		Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Insane,felons, U. S. soldiers, seamen and marines.		6 mos.30 days10 days10 days
Tennessee
“Volunteer”		Citizen of the United States.
Felons, failure to pay poll tax.		1 year6 mos.......
Texas
“Lone Star”		Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention.
Idiots,lunatics, felons, U. S. soldiers, marines and seamen.		1 year6 mos.6 mos....
UtahCitizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons(b).		1 year4 mos....60 days
Vermont
“Green Mountain”		Citizen of the United States.
Those lacking approbation of local board ofcivil authority.		1 year3 mos.3 mos.3 mos.
Virginia
“Old Dominion”		Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, lunatics, paupers (b)(i).		2 years1 year1 year30 days
Washington
“Evergreen”		Citizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, lunatics,felons.‡		1 year90 days30 days30 days
West Virginia
“Panhandle”		Citizen of the United States.
Idiots, lunatics, felons.		1 year60 days60 days...
Wisconsin
“Badger”		Citizen of United States (a).
Insane, felons, tribalIndians.		1 year...10 days10 days
WyomingCitizen of the United States, male or female.
Idiots, insane, felons,unable to read State Constitution.		1 year60 days10 days10 days
States and Popular NameGovernorsLegislaturesMembers’ Terms Elec-
toral Vote, 1916
SalariesLength Term YearsAnn. or Bien.Limit of SessionSalaries of MembersSenatorsRepre-
sentatives
Alabama
“Lizard”		$ 7,5004Quad.50 days$4.00 per diem4412
Alaska7,0004Bien.60 days$15.00 per diem420
Arizona4,0002Bien.60 days$7.00 per diem223
Arkansas
“Bear”		5,0002Bien.60 days$6.00 per diem429
California
“Golden”		10,0004Bien.None$1,000 term4213
Colorado
“Centennial”		5,0002Bien.90 days$1,000 term426
Connecticut
“Nutmeg”		5,0002Bien.None$300 term227
Delaware
“Diamond”		4,0004Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem423
Dist. of Col......................0
Florida
“Flower”		6,0004Bien.60 days$6.00 per diem426
Georgia
“Cracker”		5,0002Ann.50 days$4.00 per diem2214
Hawaii7,0004Bien.60 days$600 session420
Idaho5,0002Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem224
Illinois
“Prairie”		12,0004Bien.None$3,500 annum4229
Indiana
“Hoosier”		8,0004Bien.61 days$6.00 per diem4215
Iowa
“Hawkeye”		5,0002Bien.None$1,000 session4213
Kansas
“Sunflower”		5,0002Bien.50 days$3.00 per diem4210
Kentucky
“Blue Grass”		6,5004Bien.60 days$10.00 per diem4213
Louisiana
“Creole”		5,0004Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem4410
Maine
“Pine Tree”		3,0002Bien.None$300 annum226
Maryland
“Old Line”		4,5004Bien.90 days$5.00 per diem428
Massachusetts
“Bay”		10,0001Ann.None$1,000 annum1118
Michigan
“Wolverine”		5,0002Bien.None$800 annum2215
Minnesota
“North Star”		7,0002Bien.90 days$1,000 session4212
Mississippi
“Bayou”		5,0004Bien.None$500 session4410
Missouri5,0004Bien.70 days$5.00 per diem4218
Montana
“Mountain”		5,0004Bien.60 days$10.00 per diem424
Nebraska2,5002Bien.60 days$10.00 session228
Nevada
“Silver”		7,0004Bien.60 days$600 term2-423
New Hampshire
“Granite”		3,0002Bien.None$200 term224
New Jersey
“Jersey Blue”		10,0003Ann.None$500 annum3114
New Mexico5,0005Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem423
New York
“Empire”		10,0002Ann.None$1,500 annum2145
North Carolina
“Old North”		5,0004Bien.60 days$4.00 per diem2212
North Dakota
“Sioux”		5,0002Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem425
Ohio
“Buckeye”		10,0002Bien.None$1,000 annum2224
Oklahoma4,5004Bien.60 days$6.00 per diem4210
Oregon
“Sunset”		5,0004Bien.40 days$3.00 per diem425
Pennsylvania
“Keystone”		10,0004Bien.None$1,500 session2238
Porto Rico8,0004Ann.60 days$5.00 per diem420
Rhode Island
“Little Rhody”		3,0002Ann.60 days$5.00 per diem225
South Carolina
“Palmetto”		3,0002Ann.40 days$200 term429
South Dakota
“Coyote”		3,0002Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem225
Tennessee
“Volunteer”		4,0002Bien.75 days$4.00 per diem2212
Texas
“Lone Star”		4,0002Bien.90 days$5.00 per diem4220
Utah6,0004Bien.60 days$4.00 per diem424
Vermont
“Green Mountain”		2,5002Bien.None$4.00 per diem224
Virginia
“Old Dominion”		5,0004Bien.60 days$500 session4212
Washington
“Evergreen”		6,0004Bien.60 days$5.00 per diem427
West Virginia
“Panhandle”		5,0004Bien.45 days$4.00 per diem428
Wisconsin
“Badger”		5,0002Bien.None$500 annum4213
Wyoming4,0004Bien.40 days$8.00 per diem423

Note.—Residents of the District of Columbia never had the right to vote therein for national officers, or on other matters of national concern after the territory embraced in it was ceded to the United States and became the seat of the general Government.

* Or persons unable to read and write in English. † Or citizens of Mexico who desire to become citizens of Arizona under treaties of 1848 and 1854. ‡ Indians who have not severed tribal relations. (a): Women can vote in school elections. (b): Also soldiers, sailors and marines in United States service. (c): Women taxpayers can vote on tax propositions. (d): Or by Queretaro treaty. (e): Women can vote in all elections except those pertaining to Constitutional officers or Constitutional propositions. (f): Males born in Porto Rico who formally renounced allegiance to a foreign power. (g): One year’s residence in the United States prior to election is required. (h): Who has paid six months before election all taxes then due, and can read and write any section of the State Constitution, or can show that he owns and has paid all taxes due the previous year on property in the State assessed at $300 or more. (i): Failure to pay poll tax. (j): Or those unable to speak, read and write the English or Hawaiian language. (k): Women can vote in school and city elections. (l): Offenders against elective franchise rights, guilty of bribery, betting on elections, and persons convicted of a felony and not restored to citizenship by the Executive. Convicts in House of Refuge or Reformatory not disqualified. (m): All of the States and Territories pay mileage also, except New Jersey, but free transportation is accorded in New Jersey by all railroads to members by law.

GOVERNMENTS OF THE UNITED STATES, BRITISH EMPIRE, GERMANY, AND FRANCE ARRANGED IN PARALLEL COLUMNS

UNITED STATESBRITISH EMPIREGERMANYFRANCE
Form of Government: Republic. The general plan of the government of the United States is determined by theConstitution. The central government is limited to the exercise of the powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution, or impliedtherein, while the remaining governmental powers, not denied to the states by the Constitution, are reserved to the states. The generalgovernment is in three fairly well defined parts, the legislative, executive, and judicial.Form of Government.—Monarchy in form, but republic in practice. The monarchy is constitutional andlimited.
The British Empire consists of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Empire ofIndia, and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, including the self-governing Dominions, and the Crown Colonies, Protectorates, and otherDependencies, the whole forming one Empire.		Form of Government.—The Empire, according to the Constitution of April 16, 1871, is a ConfederateLeague, bearing the name German Empire, under the hereditary presidentship of the King of Prussia, who holds the title of German Emperor,and whose eldest son is styled His Imperial and Royal Highness.Form of Government.—France, since the overthrow of Napoleon III., in 1870, has been a republicgoverned by a President and two Chambers under the Constitution.
I. Constitution.—The present Constitution was adopted September 17, 1787.
Ratification of the Constitution.—The Constitution was ratified by the thirteen original States in thefollowing order:
Delaware, Dec. 7, 1787, unanimously.
Pennsylvania, Dec.12, 1787, vote 46 to 23.
New Jersey, Dec. 18, 1787, unanimously.
Georgia,Jan 2, 1788, unanimously.
Connecticut, Jan 9, 1788, vote 128 to 40.
Massachusetts, Feb. 6, 1788, vote 187 to 168.
Maryland, April 28, 1788, vote 63 to12.
South Carolina, May 23, 1788, vote 149 to 73.
New Hampshire, June 21,1788, vote 57 to 46.
Virginia, June 25, 1788, vote 89 to 79.
New York,July 26, 1788, vote 30 to 28.
North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1789, vote 193 to 75.
Rhode Island, May 29, 1790, vote 34 to 32.		I. Constitution.—The British Constitution is mainly unwritten and customary, but itsdevelopment is marked by certain outstanding and fundamental laws, of which the principal are: Magna Charta, 1215; the Habeas Corpus Act,1679; the Act of Settlement, 1701; the Act of Union with Scotland, 1707; the Act of Union with Ireland, 1800; and the Parliament Act,1911. The first secured annual parliaments and the equal administration of justice; the second established the liberty of the person; thethird provided for the Protestant succession to the throne; the fourth and fifth created the United Kingdom; and the last enabled theCommons to pass certain Acts without the adherence of the other Chamber.I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted April16, 1871. The Constitution of the German Empire is substantially that of the North German Confederation, which came into force in 1867,and which was adopted by the Empire in 1871, after the southern states of Germany had combined with the northern.		I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted February25, 1875. It has undergone but slight modifications. The present French Constitution remains a mixture of monarchical and republicaninstitutions, and it has fully maintained its strong and old-established centralization. The Constitution of 1875 is based on universalsuffrage. It was revised in 1875, 1884, 1885 and 1889.
Amendments.—Congress may, by two-thirds vote of both Houses, proposeamendments to the Constitution, or upon application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention forproposing amendments, which, in either case, must be ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or byconventions in three-fourths thereof.Amendments.—Amendments to the Constitution can be proposed by either of thelegislative bodies, are passed by ordinary legislative process, requiring for their passage a majority simply of the votes of theReichstag, but they fail if fourteen votes are cast against them in the Bundesrath.Amendments.—Whenever the two Houses agree that revision is necessary, andalso agree upon particular points that should be revised, the National Assembly, composed of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies,sitting as one body, convenes at Versailles, and acts upon the amendments proposed, the vote of an absolute majority being decisive. TheNational Assembly also elects the President of the republic.
II. The President.
How Elected.—The several steps in theelection of the President are:
State Electors are chosen at a General Election held on the Tuesdayfollowing the first Monday of November of every fourth year; the number of Electors of each State being equal to the number ofSenators and Representatives to which the State is entitled in Congress.
The Electors meet in theirrespective States on the second Monday in January following their election, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President;and at the same time make certificates of their vote and transmit the same to the President of the Senate.
The Senate and House of Representatives meet together on the second Wednesday of February next ensuing, andcount the votes of the State Electors, when, if there is an election, the President of the Senate declares who is elected President andVice-President.
In case there is no choice by the State Electors, the President is elected by the House ofRepresentatives from the three candidates who received the most electoral votes for President; in which election the vote is taken byStates, each State having but one vote, and a majority of all the States being necessary to a choice.
Term of Office.—Four years.
Eligibility.—A natural borncitizen; resident of the United States fourteen years; minimum age thirty-five years.		II. The Sovereign.
How Designated.—The King’s legal titlerests upon the Act of Settlement, in 1701, under William III., by which the succession to the Crown of Great Britain and Ireland wassettled on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and the “heirs of her body, being Protestants.” The throne is hereditary in theEnglish house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha with mixed succession, the sons of the Sovereign and their descendants having precedence of daughters,but daughters and their descendants preference over lateral lines. The Sovereign is designated King (or Queen) of Great Britain andIreland, and Emperor (or Empress) of India.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life, byhereditary title, and cannot be removed.		II. Chief magistrate, styled the Deutscher Kaiser.
HowDesignated.—The election of Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as German Emperor (1871) was by vote of the Reichstag of the NorthGerman Confederation, on the initiative of all the reigning Princes of Germany. The Imperial dignity is hereditary in the House ofHohenzollern, and follows the law of primogeniture in the male line. He must be occupant of the throne of Prussia under the provisions ofPrussian law.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life,and cannot be removed.		II. Chief Magistrate, or President of the Republic.
Term ofOffice.—Elected for seven years by the National Assembly, and is re-eligible.
The NationalAssembly meets for the purposes of this election, as for the revision of the Constitution, at Versailles. The revision of the Constitutionand the election of President are its only functions.
Qualifications.—Must be a citizen, nota member of any family which has occupied the throne of France.
Salary.—Fixed by law at $75,000 per year.Salary or Civil List.—The Civil List Act, 1910, gave the King $2,350,000. Provision for other membersof the Royal Family, $730,000. The Prince of Wales, as the income of the Duchy of Cornwall, $435,000. The King in addition to his CivilList receives the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster amounting to $320,000.Salary or Income.—Royal Civil List of Emperor, $3,700,000.Salary.—$140,000.
Responsibilities.—May be impeached bythe Chamber of Deputies, and tried by the Senate, in case of high treason.
Powers and Duties of the President.—Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. Communicates withCongress by message. Approves or disapproves Acts of Congress. Makes treaties with advice and consent of the Senate. Appoints PublicOfficers with the advice and consent of the Senate. Commissions Public Officers of the United States. Grants reprieves and pardons foroffenses against the United States.
The Vice-President.—Elected by State Electors the same asthe President; or by the Senate, in case there is no choice by the State Electors. Term of office same as for the President. Eligibilitysame as required of the President. Salary fixed by law at twelve thousand dollars per year.
ThePresidential Succession.—In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of the President, the Vice-President takes thePresident’s place.
In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of both President andVice-President the heads of the Executive Departments succeed to the Presidency in the order in which the Executive Departments are namedbelow; but such officer must be constitutionally eligible to the Presidency, must have been appointed to the cabinet by the advice andwith the consent of the Senate, and be not under impeachment. The Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor areineligible to the presidency by reason of the fact that these two cabinet offices were created subsequent to the passage of the act of theforty-ninth Congress in which provision was made for the presidential succession.		Powers and Duties.—Has command of army and navy.
Parliament cannot beassembled, prorogued, or dissolved except by the express command of the Sovereign.
At the commencement ofa new Parliament must deliver, either in person or by a commission authorized for that purpose, a speech declaring the cause of thesummons.
Bills passed by Parliament must receive the assent of the Sovereign in order to becomelaw.
Has legally a veto power; but, because the influence of the Executive over legislation has passedinto the hands of the Ministers, the veto of the Crown has been disused since 1707.
Has power to appointall officers in the army and navy, judges, ambassadors, colonial governors, bishops and archbishops of the Established Church, and grantsall degrees of nobility.
May make treaties of any kind.
May grant pardonto any particular offender.
The Privy Council.—The King in Council is the supreme executiveauthority in the realm. The Privy Council meets as a whole at the beginning of a new reign and on other occasions of state and ceremony,possesses certain administrative powers, and is the Supreme Court of the Empire. Its personnel includes the royal princes and thearchbishops, Members of the Cabinet and of the royal household, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the ambassadors, the principalcolonial governors, colonial statesmen, certain judges, and members of both political parties who have never been in office.
The important functions of the Council are the bringing into operation by means of orders in council of theprovisions of many statutes which Parliament leaves to the executive to enforce, temporarily or permanently, at such time or times as itmay deem necessary and desirable. These orders have all the force and validity of law.		Powers and Duties.—Commander-in-Chief of the imperial army.
Summons,opens, adjourns, and closes the two Houses. He may dissolve the Reichstag upon advice of the Bundesrath.
All measures passed by the Bundesrath are presented to the Reichstag in the name of the Emperor.
Bills passed by the two Houses must be promulgated by the Emperor.
In cases where heregards them as involving a change in the Constitution, he need not promulgate them if fourteen votes have been cast against them in theBundesrath.
All official acts of the Emperor require the counter-signature of the Chancellor.
Appoints and may, at his pleasure, remove the Imperial Chancellor. Appoints and may, with the counter-signature ofthe Chancellor, remove all minor officers in the imperial service.
May declare war if defensive, and maketreaties and peace; but for declaring offensive war the consent of the Bundesrath must be obtained.
Haspower to grant pardons.		Powers and Duties.—Has command of the army and navy.
May convene theChambers on extraordinary occasions.
May adjourn the Chambers at any time for a period not exceeding onemonth. Can close a regular session of the Chambers at his discretion after it has continued five months; an extra session when he pleases.Can with the consent of the Senate dissolve the Chamber of Deputies even before the expiration of five months. This puts an end to thesession of the Senate also, but not to its life. The President must order a new election in case of dissolution.
At the commencement of a new session of the Chambers the President of the republic sends a message, which is read byone of the Ministers.
Bills passed by the Chambers must be signed by the President, and countersigned byone of his Ministers.
Has no veto power, but is authorized to demand a reconsideration of any measure bythe Chambers.
Has power to appoint and remove all officers of the public service, subject to thecounter-signature of the Minister whose department is affected in each case.
May make treaties of peace,alliance and commerce, but cannot declare war without the advice of the Chambers.
Has power to grantpardons.
Succession.—In case of his death, resignation, or removal, the Council of Ministersact until the National Assembly can meet and elect a new President.
The Executive DepartmentsThe Executive DepartmentsThe Executive DepartmentsThe Executive Departments
Acts of Congress become laws:— When signed (approved) by the President; or, by his failure to makeobjection in writing (veto) within ten days after any act is submitted to him, unless Congress by adjournment within that time preventsits return; but Congress has power to pass a law over the President’s veto by a vote of two-thirds of each House.
The CabinetThe MinistryImperial Chancellor.—He has no counterpart in any other constitutional government. He isthe Emperor’s responsible proxy, controlling the politics of the Empire.
Appointment and Tenureof Office.—Appointed by the Emperor. Must be one of Prussia’s seventeen representatives in the Bundesrath. His term isdependent upon the pleasure of the Emperor.
Responsibility.—Does not consist in a liabilityto be forced to resign, but consists simply in amenability to the laws.
Powers andDuties.—Must give an account of the administration to the Reichstag, and submits the annual budget. He is the center and sourceof all the administrative departments, dominating the entire imperial service. He superintends the administration of the laws of theEmpire by the States. As chairman of the Bundesrath he is simply a Prussian representing the King of Prussia, as the Emperor has no placein the Bundesrath.
The army and navy, however, are not directly controlled by him, but by the GeneralField-Marshal.
The following are the imperial authorities or Secretaries of State; they do not form aMinistry or Cabinet, but act independently of each other, under the general supervision of the Chancellor:
Chancellor of the Empire.
Secretary for Foreign Affairs.
Imperial Home Office and Representative of the Chancellor.
ImperialAdmiralty.
Imperial Secretary of Justice.
ImperialTreasury.
Imperial Post-Office.
Secretary for theColonies.
And, in addition, the following presidents of imperial bureaus:
Railways.
Imperial Exchequer.
ImperialBank.
Imperial Debt Commission.
Administration of ImperialRailways.
Imperial Court Martial.
Acting under the direction ofthe Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundesrath represents also a supreme administrative and consultative board, and as such has twelvestanding committees—namely, for army and fortifications; for naval matters; tariff, excise and taxes; trade and commerce; railways,posts and telegraphs; civil and criminal law; financial accounts; foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine; for the Constitution; for thestanding orders; and for railway tariffs.		Powers and Duties.—As a Cabinet, the Ministers represent the administration in theChambers; as a Council, they exercise a general oversight of the administration of the laws, with a view of giving unity of direction tothe affairs of the State. The President may be present at all Council meetings.
Cabinet and Council ofMinisters.—Both the Cabinet and the Council consist of the same persons. The Cabinet is a political body; the Council, anadministrative body.
Appointment.—Chosen by the President, generally from among the membersof the Chambers.
Members of the Cabinet.—Membership may vary somewhat:
Premier and Foreign Minister.
Ministers of State.
Minister of Justice and Vice-President of the Council.
Minister ofWar.
Minister of Marine.
Minister of theInterior.
Minister of Finance.
Minister ofAgriculture.
Minister of Public Works.
Minister ofCommerce.
Minister of Colonies.
Minister of Instruction andMinister of Inventions affecting National Defense.
Council of State.—Gives advice on allprojects of law which the Chambers or the Government wish to submit to it, and on administrative regulations and by-laws. Its decision isfinal in all disputes arising in matters of administration.
Is presided over by the Minister of Justice,and is composed of Councillors, Masters of Requests, and Auditors, all appointed by the President of the republic.
Relations to the Chambers.—Are the leaders of the Chambers.
Whether membersof the Chambers or not, they have as Ministers the right to attend all sessions of the Chambers and take a specially privileged part inthe debate.
Composed of the heads of the executive departments.
Appointed by thePresident with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Salary.—Secretary of State, $12,000; allother cabinet members, twelve thousand dollars annually.		The Cabinet, or Inner Council, under the presidency of the Prime Minister, consists of Ministers, drawn fromthe ranks of the party in power and appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister.
Heads of Departments
Members (As reconstituted in June, 1915) and their salaries.
Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury$25,000
Lord High Chancellor (and $20,000 as speaker of the House of Lords)50,000
Minister without Portfoliounpaid
Lord President of the Council10,000
Lord Privy Sealunpaid
First Lord of the Admiralty22,500
Secretaries of State:
Home Affairs25,000
Foreign Affairs25,000
Colonies25,000
War25,000
India25,000
Chancellor of the Exchequer25,000
Minister of Munitions25,000
Secretary for Scotland10,000
Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland21,125
Presidents of Committees of the Council:
Board of Trade25,000
Local Government Board25,000
Board of Education10,000
First Commissioner of Works10,000
Attorney-General35,000
Board of Agriculture10,000
Department of State.—Has charge of foreign affairs.
Treasury Department.—Has charge of fiscal affairs.
Department ofWar.—Has charge of the Army and military affairs.
Department of Justice.—Has chargeof the legal affairs of the Government.
Post-office Department.—Has charge of postalaffairs.
Navy Department.—Has charge of the Navy and naval affairs.
Department of the Interior.—Has charge of domestic affairs, including public lands, pensions, patents,Bureau of Education, etc.
Department of Agriculture.—Has charge of agricultural affairs,including Weather Bureau, etc.
Department of Commerce and Labor.—Has charge of domestic andforeign affairs, relating to commerce, transportation, Department of Labor, etc.
Relations to Parliament.—The Chief of the Cabinet and of the Ministry iscalled the Prime Minister or Premier. He is the leader of the House of Parliament of which he is a member. He dispenses the greaterportion of the patronage of the Crown. Other members of the Cabinet are the leaders of Parliament, shaping and directing the business ofthe Houses.
Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the will or favor of the President.Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the House of Commons; for if not sustained, they mustall resign. When a Ministry resigns it is the function of the sovereign to call upon some statesman to form another administration. Thereis no restriction upon the Royal choice, but the statesman usually selected is the leader of the opposing party in one of the twoHouses.Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the Chambers; for, if not sustained, theymust all resign.
Powers and Duties.—As stated above, but under the direction of the President.Powers and Duties.—All real authority is with the Cabinet. The executive government is nominally inthe Crown, but practically in the Cabinet. The Ministers are at the heads of the administrative departments. The Sovereign does not sitwith the Cabinet.
Other Ministers.—The Ministry includes a number of minor posts whoseoccupants have no seat in the Cabinet.
III. Congress.—Consisting of both the Senate and the House ofRepresentatives as co-ordinate bodies.
Duration.—The term of each Congress is for two years,commencing March 4th of the odd years.
Regular Sessions.—Annual, beginning the first Mondayin December.
Special Sessions.—At the call of the President.
Membership.—Each House is the judge of the elections and qualifications of its own members.
Congress has General Powers of Legislation.—To provide for the raising and disbursement of revenue. Toborrow money; to coin money and to regulate its value; and to fix the standard of weights and measures. To regulate foreign and interstatecommerce. To declare war, and to maintain an army and navy. To establish post-offices and post roads. To enact patent and copyright laws.To enact uniform naturalization and bankruptcy laws. To provide for the punishment of crimes against the United States. To establishcourts inferior to the Supreme Court. To provide for organizing and calling out the militia. To admit new States into the Union. Toprovide for the governments of the Territories. To exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the District of Columbia, public lands, publicbuildings, forts, and navy yards. To enact all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution all the powers vested by theConstitution in the government of the United States.		III. Parliament.—Parliament consists of two Houses, the House of Lordsand the House of Commons. The Sovereign alone has the power of summoning or proroguing or dissolving Parliament, and gives the RoyalAssent to measures which have passed both Houses. Unless it be dissolved by the Crown, Parliament exists five years from the date on whichit was first to meet. The demise of the Crown does not dissolve Parliament, but, on the contrary, renders an immediate assembling of thetwo Houses necessary; and if there be no Parliament in existence, the old Parliament must reassemble, and may sit again for six months, ifit be not within that time dissolved by the new Sovereign.
All British dominions are subject (except asregards taxation) to the legislation of the British Parliament; but no Act of Parliament affects a colony unless that colony is speciallymentioned. If the legislature of a colony enacts a law which is repugnant to an imperial law affecting the colony, it is to the extent towhich it is repugnant absolutely void.		III. The Government.
The legislativefunctions of the Empire are vested jointly in the Bundesrath or Federal Council which represents the several states, and by the Reichstagor Diet of the Realm, which represents the German nation. The Emperor has no veto on laws passed by these bodies. All laws for the Empiremust receive the votes of an absolute majority.
The consent of the Federal Council and Reichstag isnecessary in regard to certain specified treaties. The Emperor has the right to summon, open, adjourn, and close the Reichstag. TheFederal Council and Reichstag must be summoned to meet every year; the Reichstag cannot be summoned without the adherence of the FederalCouncil.		III. The Chambers.—Consist of the Senate and House of Deputies.
THE SENATE.—Composed of two Senators from each State (ninety-six in1917), chosen by popular vote for six years, one-third retiring every two years.THE HOUSE OF LORDS.—The House at present consists of three Princes ofthe Blood, two Archbishops, twenty-one Dukes, twenty-six Marquesses, one hundred and twenty-one Earls, forty-six Viscounts, twenty-fourBishops, three hundred and fifty-six Barons, sixteen Scottish Representative Peers elected for each Parliament, and twenty-seven IrishRepresentative Peers elected for life. The members hold their seats by virtue of hereditary title; by creation of the Sovereign; by virtueof office (English bishops); by election for life (Irish peers); by election for duration of Parliament (Scottish peers).BUNDESRATH, or Federal Council, is composed of sixty-one votes representingthe individual states. They are appointed by the governments (i. e. the Executives) of the States for each session.
The apportionments of representation in the Bundesrath among the States of the Empire is as follows: Prussiaseventeen votes, Bavaria six, Saxony and Würtemberg four each, Baden, Hesse and Alsace-Lorraine each three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin andBrunswick each two, the other States (seventeen) one apiece.		THE SENATE is composed of three hundred members chosen by the Departmentsand Colonies for nine years, one-third of the members retiring every three years.
Until 1884 the Senatecontained seventy-five life members, the life list having been originally made up by election by the National Assembly of 1875, andvacancies being filled by the Senate itself. In 1884 this arrangement was abolished, and since that year vacancies in the life roll havebeen filled by ordinary nine-year Senators.
Qualifications.—Must be at least thirty years of age, must have been a citizen of the United Statesfor nine years, and must be an inhabitant of the State which he represents.Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age. Qualifications.—Must be a Frenchman, and at least forty years of age.
Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars, with mileage.Remuneration.—Receive no pay.Remuneration.—Receive no pay.Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).
Organization.—The Vice-President of the United States is the President of the Senate. Is elected bythe Electoral College. Votes only in case of a tie.
Quorum.—A majority of members.		Organization—Quorum.—Three, including the Lord Chancellor; thirty for final vote on abill. The Lord Chancellor, who is a member of the Cabinet, presides. He is appointed by mere delivery of the Great Seal to him by theSovereign and is principal legal adviser of the Crown. His patronage is very extensive. He nominates the puisne judges and county courtjudges; the holder of the office may not be a Roman Catholic.Organization—Quorum.—The Imperial Chancellor or his substitute (at regular meeting). TheImperial Chancellor presides. Votes with the other Prussian representatives, whose votes must be undivided; and, in case of a tie,Prussia’s vote decides.Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own President andVice-Presidents.
Committees.—Members are divided into standing committees, chosen by the Senate itself, which act inthe preliminary examination, and shaping of measures to be voted on.Committees.—Special committees are appointed to make investigations, and report on matters which couldnot be undertaken by the whole House.Committees.—There are three standing committees and eight commissions, two of which are appointed bythe Emperor, five wholly by the Bundesrath, and one in part by the Bundesrath, being made up principally of membersex-officio.
Each commission consists of representatives of at least five States of the Empire.		Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lots into “Bureaux.” These select allthe special committees to which bills are referred, except when the House chooses itself to elect a committee.
Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Representatives, it makes the laws. It also haspower to confirm or reject all appointments to office by the President of the United States, and all treaties. The members constitute ahigh court for the trial of impeachments. Elects Vice-President of the United States if regular election fails.Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Commons, makes the laws, having a revising powerover all bills proposed by the House of Commons, except those relating to public revenue and expenditure, which it must pass or rejectwithout amendment.
It is the highest appellate court of the United Kingdom. It may in certain cases trymembers of its own body; it tries any person who may be impeached by the House of Commons, and it also decides claims to the peerage.		Powers and Duties.—May originate bills to be sent to the Reichstag. Its consent is indispensable tothe validity of all legislation. Members may speak on the floor of the Reichstag. Acting under the direction of the Imperial Chancellor,it is the supreme administrative board. It is in some cases the highest court of the Empire. Is the court of appeal between two or moreStates of the Empire.Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the Chamber of Deputies, makes the laws, and has in law-makingthe same prerogatives as the Chamber, except that bills relating to revenue originate with the Chamber. It is a court of justice fortrying the President of the republic and the Ministers. It may originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills;but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of therepublic and the Ministers.
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.—Composed (in 1917) of four hundred and thirty-five members elected everysecond year for two years by the people of the States in the proportion of one Representative for every 211,877 inhabitants. Each State,however, is entitled to at least one member, whatever its population.HOUSE OF COMMONS.—This body consists of six hundred and seventy elected members representing county,borough, and university constituencies. Roughly speaking, about one-sixth of the population are electors.REICHSTAG, or Imperial Diet, is composed (in 1917) of three hundred and ninety-seven members, and electedfor five years by universal suffrage.THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES is composed (in 1917) of five hundred and eighty-four Deputies, distributed amongthe Departments and certain colonies in the proportion of one Deputy to seventy thousand inhabitants. The Deputies are chosen for a termof four years by universal suffrage, the Arrondissements serving as electoral districts.
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, must have been seven years a citizen of theUnited States, and must be an inhabitant of the State from which he is chosen.Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age. Clergymen are disqualified from sitting asmembers, also English and Scottish peers, government contractors, and sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which theyact.Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, and have lived at least one year in one ofthe German States.Qualifications.—Must be a citizen of France, and at least twenty-five years of age.
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who iscalled the Speaker, salary twelve thousand dollars per year.Organization—Quorum.—Forty members, including the Speaker. Elects its own presidingofficer, who is called the Speaker, who has a residence in the Palace of Westminster, and receives a salary of $25,000 per annum.Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who iscalled the President.Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Chooses its own President, Vice-President andother officers.
Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars and mileage.Remuneration.—$2,000 per year (since 1911).Remuneration.—3,000 marks ($750) per session, with deduction of twenty marks ($5.00) for eachday’s absence; they have free passes over German railways during session.Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).
Powers of the House of Representatives.—Elects its Speaker (presiding officer) and its other officers.Elects President of the United States if the regular election fails. Prosecutes impeachments before the Senate. Originates all bills forraising revenue.Powers and Duties.—May originate and, in concurrence with the House of Lords, pass resolutions andbills; but bills relating to the imposition of taxes and the granting of supplies for the service of the State must be originated in theHouse of Commons.Powers and Duties.—Has power to originate and, with the advice and consent of the Bundesrath, to enactthe laws. It also exerts a controlling influence through its power to give or withhold its sanction to certain ordinances to whosevalidity the Constitution makes its concurrence necessary, through its right to inquire into the conduct of affairs; and in many otherways not susceptible of enumeration.Powers and Duties.—May originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; butbills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of therepublic and Ministers.
Committees.—Almost all the acts of the House are under the control of Standing Committees, appointedby the Speaker.Committees.—The business of the House is almost entirely under the direction of the Ministry; however,commissions and select committees are from time to time appointed to make investigations and report on matters which could not beundertaken by the House.Committees.—There are no standing committees, but select committees are occasionally appointed byelection from the seven “Sections” into which the members are divided by lot for committee work.Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lot into eleven “Bureaux,” which selectall the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the Chamber chooses to appoint a committee directly.
IV. The Judicial Department.IV. Judicial Departments, or Courts of Law.IV. Judicial Department.IV. Judicial Department.
Judges of the United States CourtsPrivy Council.—The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (which hears appeals fromColonial and Indian Courts, and also from Ecclesiastical Courts) consists of the Lord Chancellor, Lord President, ex-Lords President, theLords of Appeal in Ordinary, and such other members of the Privy Council as shall from time to time hold or have held “high judicialoffice.” No dissenting judgments are allowed, but the Judicial Committee can grant special leave to appeal.
The English courts of law having jurisdiction in actions between parties are:		The laws of the Empire take precedence of the Federated States within the scope of the Constitution ofthe Empire; they are compulsory on all Governments of the Empire.
A uniform system of law courts existsthroughout the Empire, though, with the exception of the Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the Government of the specialState in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the Imperial Government. The appointment of the judges is also a State and not anImperial function. The Empire enjoys uniform codes of commercial and criminal law.		The judicial system is under direct control of the government. All Judges are nominated by thePresident of the republic. They can be removed only by a decision of the Court of Cassation constituted as the ConseilSupérieur of the magistracy.
Appointed by the President with the advice and consent of theSenate.
Tenure of Office.—During life or good behavior; but may retire on full salary afterreaching the age of seventy years, and after ten years’ service on the bench.
The Supreme Court of the United StatesHouse of LordsImperial Supreme Court.The Court of Cassation.
Members.—A Chief Justice and Eight Associate Justices.
Salaries.—Chief Justice, fifteen thousand dollars; Associate Justices, each fourteen thousand five hundreddollars.
Terms of Court.—One each year, beginning on the second Monday inOctober.
Original Jurisdiction.—In all cases affecting Ambassadors, Ministers, and Consuls.In all cases in which a State is a party.
Appellate Jurisdiction.—In cases of law and equitywhere the Inferior Courts have original jurisdiction, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.
The Chief Justice.—Presides over the Senate when it sits as a Court of Impeachment for the trial of thePresident.		Lord High Chancellor and such peers of Parliament as are holding or have held high judicial office. This isthe ultimate Court of Appeal from all the courts in the United Kingdom.Reichsgericht (Imperial Supreme Court), to which there is a right of appeal from all inferior courts, sitsat Leipzig, and consists of one hundred judges, appointed by the Kaiser on the recommendation of the Bundesrath.The Court of Cassation, which sits at Paris, is the highest court for all criminal cases tried by jury,sofar as regards matters of law.
Courts of Appeal.—The highest courts are the twenty-sixCourtsof Appeal, composed each of one president and a variable number of members, for all criminal cases which have been tried without ajury.
Inferior CourtsThere are two Courts of Appeal below these divisions:
Lords ofAppeal in Ordinary.— Consisting of six Justices.
Court of Appeal.—Ex-OfficioJudges, the Lord High Chancellor, the Lord Chief Justice of England, the Master of the Rolls, and the President of the Probate, Divorceand Admiralty Division.
The High Court comprises the King’s Bench, Chancery, and Probate,Divorce and Admiralty Divisions.
High Court of Justice, Chancery Division.—(Administration oftrusts, company cases, mortgages, patents, etc.). Consists of the Lord High Chancellor and six other Justices.
High Court of Justice, King’s Bench Division.—(Contracts, torts, bankruptcy, etc.). Consists of theLord Chief Justice of England and fifteen other Justices.
High Court of Justice, Probate, Divorce andAdmiralty Division.—(Wills, matrimonial cases, and maritime cases). Consists of two Justices.
Court of Criminal Appeal.—All the Judges of King’s Bench Division.
Court of Arches.—An ecclesiastical court unites the powers of the jus canonicum with new powersconceded by the Church Discipline Act, 1841, and the similar statute of 1874, exercising authority in both provinces. The JudicialCommittee of Privy Council is the Court of Final Appeal in ecclesiastical causes.
BankruptcyCourt.—Consisting of one Justice.		The Oberlandesgerichte (Supreme Court), which are the first courts of the second instance, haveoriginal jurisdiction in serious offenses, and are presided over by seven judges.
The Landgericht(County Courts) have a fairly extensive jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases and in divorce proceedings. There are five judges in thecriminal chamber of a Landgericht, four votes being required to make a conviction valid. Three judges from such a court preside atintervals over jury courts (Schwurgerichte), and juries do not, therefore, form a permanent part of the system.
Not the least important work of the Landgerichte is to revise the decisions of the Amtsgerichte, which are the lowestcourts of the first instance, being controlled by single judges, who are competent to hear only petty civil and criminalcases.
The Amtsgerichte (Police or District Courts) are the lowest courts, each with a single judgecompetent to try petty civil and criminal cases, divorce cases, etc.		Court of Assizes.—In all cases of a délit or a crime the preliminary inquiryis made in secrecy by an examining magistrate (juge d’instruction), who may either dismiss the case or send it for trialbefore a court where a public prosecutor (procureur) endeavors to prove the charge. The Court of Assizes is assisted by twelve jurors, whodecide by simple majority on the fact with respect to offenses amounting to crimes.
Justices of thePeace (juges de paix) are the courts of lowest jurisdiction in France. They try small civil cases and act also as judges ofPolice Courts, where all petty offenses (contraventions) are disposed of. The Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver offenses(délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to five years. They have no jury, and consist of three judges belongingto the civil tribunals of first instance.
For commercial cases there are, in two hundred and twenty-sixtowns, Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of Experts (prud’hommes). In the towns are police courts.
Jurisdiction.—In cases between citizens of different States. In cases in which the United States is aparty. In cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. In trials for crimes against the United States; but the trial of crimes must be byjury, and must be held in the State where the crime was committed.
Appeals to the Supreme Court maybe had in all cases of law and equity, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.
Kinds of Inferior Courts
United States Circuit Courts of Appeals.—Organized in 1891 to relieve theUnited States Supreme Court in Appellate Cases. Number: One in each Judicial Circuit. Members: Three judges selected from the DistrictCourts.
Number.—One in each Judicial Circuit.
Members.—Three judges selected from the District Courts.
United StatesCircuit Courts.—
Number of Circuits.—Nine.
Number of Judges.—Each Circuit has two, three, or four Circuit Judges, and a Justice of the Supreme Courtis assigned to each Circuit. The District Judge also may sit in a Circuit Court.
Salary of CircuitJudges.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars per year.
United States DistrictCourts.—
Number of Districts.—One or more in each State. At present there areseventy-threeJudicial Districts.
Salary of District Judge.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars peryear.
United States Court of Claims.—
Jurisdiction.—Claims against the United States, including all claims which may be referred to it byCongress.
Members.—One Chief Justice and four Associate Justices.
Salaries.—Chief Justice, six thousand five hundred dollars; Associate Justices, each six thousanddollars.
In addition to the above named courts, Congress has established courts of local jurisdiction inthe District of Columbia and in the Territories.
UNITED STATES
Form of Government: Republic. The general plan of the government of the United States is determined by theConstitution. The central government is limited to the exercise of the powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution, or impliedtherein, while the remaining governmental powers, not denied to the states by the Constitution, are reserved to the states. The generalgovernment is in three fairly well defined parts, the legislative, executive, and judicial.
I. Constitution.—The present Constitution was adopted September 17, 1787.
Ratification of the Constitution.—The Constitution was ratified by the thirteen original States in thefollowing order:
Delaware, Dec. 7, 1787, unanimously.
Pennsylvania, Dec.12, 1787, vote 46 to 23.
New Jersey, Dec. 18, 1787, unanimously.
Georgia,Jan 2, 1788, unanimously.
Connecticut, Jan 9, 1788, vote 128 to 40.
Massachusetts, Feb. 6, 1788, vote 187 to 168.
Maryland, April 28, 1788, vote 63 to12.
South Carolina, May 23, 1788, vote 149 to 73.
New Hampshire, June 21,1788, vote 57 to 46.
Virginia, June 25, 1788, vote 89 to 79.
New York,July 26, 1788, vote 30 to 28.
North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1789, vote 193 to 75.
Rhode Island, May 29, 1790, vote 34 to 32.
Amendments.—Congress may, by two-thirds vote of both Houses, proposeamendments to the Constitution, or upon application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention forproposing amendments, which, in either case, must be ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or byconventions in three-fourths thereof.
II. The President.
How Elected.—The several steps in theelection of the President are:
State Electors are chosen at a General Election held on the Tuesdayfollowing the first Monday of November of every fourth year; the number of Electors of each State being equal to the number ofSenators and Representatives to which the State is entitled in Congress.
The Electors meet in theirrespective States on the second Monday in January following their election, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President;and at the same time make certificates of their vote and transmit the same to the President of the Senate.
The Senate and House of Representatives meet together on the second Wednesday of February next ensuing, andcount the votes of the State Electors, when, if there is an election, the President of the Senate declares who is elected President andVice-President.
In case there is no choice by the State Electors, the President is elected by the House ofRepresentatives from the three candidates who received the most electoral votes for President; in which election the vote is taken byStates, each State having but one vote, and a majority of all the States being necessary to a choice.
Term of Office.—Four years.
Eligibility.—A natural borncitizen; resident of the United States fourteen years; minimum age thirty-five years.
Salary.—Fixed by law at $75,000 per year.
Powers and Duties of the President.—Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. Communicates withCongress by message. Approves or disapproves Acts of Congress. Makes treaties with advice and consent of the Senate. Appoints PublicOfficers with the advice and consent of the Senate. Commissions Public Officers of the United States. Grants reprieves and pardons foroffenses against the United States.
The Vice-President.—Elected by State Electors the same asthe President; or by the Senate, in case there is no choice by the State Electors. Term of office same as for the President. Eligibilitysame as required of the President. Salary fixed by law at twelve thousand dollars per year.
ThePresidential Succession.—In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of the President, the Vice-President takes thePresident’s place.
In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of both President andVice-President the heads of the Executive Departments succeed to the Presidency in the order in which the Executive Departments are namedbelow; but such officer must be constitutionally eligible to the Presidency, must have been appointed to the cabinet by the advice andwith the consent of the Senate, and be not under impeachment. The Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor areineligible to the presidency by reason of the fact that these two cabinet offices were created subsequent to the passage of the act of theforty-ninth Congress in which provision was made for the presidential succession.
The Executive Departments
Acts of Congress become laws:— When signed (approved) by the President; or, by his failure to makeobjection in writing (veto) within ten days after any act is submitted to him, unless Congress by adjournment within that time preventsits return; but Congress has power to pass a law over the President’s veto by a vote of two-thirds of each House.
The Cabinet
Composed of the heads of the executive departments.
Appointed by thePresident with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Salary.—Secretary of State, $12,000; allother cabinet members, twelve thousand dollars annually.
Heads of Departments
Department of State.—Has charge of foreign affairs.
Treasury Department.—Has charge of fiscal affairs.
Department ofWar.—Has charge of the Army and military affairs.
Department of Justice.—Has chargeof the legal affairs of the Government.
Post-office Department.—Has charge of postalaffairs.
Navy Department.—Has charge of the Navy and naval affairs.
Department of the Interior.—Has charge of domestic affairs, including public lands, pensions, patents,Bureau of Education, etc.
Department of Agriculture.—Has charge of agricultural affairs,including Weather Bureau, etc.
Department of Commerce and Labor.—Has charge of domestic andforeign affairs, relating to commerce, transportation, Department of Labor, etc.
Relations to Parliament.—The Chief of the Cabinet and of the Ministry iscalled the Prime Minister or Premier. He is the leader of the House of Parliament of which he is a member. He dispenses the greaterportion of the patronage of the Crown. Other members of the Cabinet are the leaders of Parliament, shaping and directing the business ofthe Houses.
Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the will or favor of the President.
Powers and Duties.—As stated above, but under the direction of the President.
III. Congress.—Consisting of both the Senate and the House ofRepresentatives as co-ordinate bodies.
Duration.—The term of each Congress is for two years,commencing March 4th of the odd years.
Regular Sessions.—Annual, beginning the first Mondayin December.
Special Sessions.—At the call of the President.
Membership.—Each House is the judge of the elections and qualifications of its own members.
Congress has General Powers of Legislation.—To provide for the raising and disbursement of revenue. Toborrow money; to coin money and to regulate its value; and to fix the standard of weights and measures. To regulate foreign and interstatecommerce. To declare war, and to maintain an army and navy. To establish post-offices and post roads. To enact patent and copyright laws.To enact uniform naturalization and bankruptcy laws. To provide for the punishment of crimes against the United States. To establishcourts inferior to the Supreme Court. To provide for organizing and calling out the militia. To admit new States into the Union. Toprovide for the governments of the Territories. To exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the District of Columbia, public lands, publicbuildings, forts, and navy yards. To enact all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution all the powers vested by theConstitution in the government of the United States.
THE SENATE.—Composed of two Senators from each State (ninety-six in1917), chosen by popular vote for six years, one-third retiring every two years.
Qualifications.—Must be at least thirty years of age, must have been a citizen of the United Statesfor nine years, and must be an inhabitant of the State which he represents.
Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars, with mileage.
Organization.—The Vice-President of the United States is the President of the Senate. Is elected bythe Electoral College. Votes only in case of a tie.
Quorum.—A majority of members.
Committees.—Members are divided into standing committees, chosen by the Senate itself, which act inthe preliminary examination, and shaping of measures to be voted on.
Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Representatives, it makes the laws. It also haspower to confirm or reject all appointments to office by the President of the United States, and all treaties. The members constitute ahigh court for the trial of impeachments. Elects Vice-President of the United States if regular election fails.
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.—Composed (in 1917) of four hundred and thirty-five members elected everysecond year for two years by the people of the States in the proportion of one Representative for every 211,877 inhabitants. Each State,however, is entitled to at least one member, whatever its population.
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, must have been seven years a citizen of theUnited States, and must be an inhabitant of the State from which he is chosen.
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who iscalled the Speaker, salary twelve thousand dollars per year.
Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars and mileage.
Powers of the House of Representatives.—Elects its Speaker (presiding officer) and its other officers.Elects President of the United States if the regular election fails. Prosecutes impeachments before the Senate. Originates all bills forraising revenue.
Committees.—Almost all the acts of the House are under the control of Standing Committees, appointedby the Speaker.
IV. The Judicial Department.
Judges of the United States Courts
Appointed by the President with the advice and consent of theSenate.
Tenure of Office.—During life or good behavior; but may retire on full salary afterreaching the age of seventy years, and after ten years’ service on the bench.
The Supreme Court of the United States
Members.—A Chief Justice and Eight Associate Justices.
Salaries.—Chief Justice, fifteen thousand dollars; Associate Justices, each fourteen thousand five hundreddollars.
Terms of Court.—One each year, beginning on the second Monday inOctober.
Original Jurisdiction.—In all cases affecting Ambassadors, Ministers, and Consuls.In all cases in which a State is a party.
Appellate Jurisdiction.—In cases of law and equitywhere the Inferior Courts have original jurisdiction, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.
The Chief Justice.—Presides over the Senate when it sits as a Court of Impeachment for the trial of thePresident.
Inferior Courts
Jurisdiction.—In cases between citizens of different States. In cases in which the United States is aparty. In cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. In trials for crimes against the United States; but the trial of crimes must be byjury, and must be held in the State where the crime was committed.
Appeals to the Supreme Court maybe had in all cases of law and equity, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.
Kinds of Inferior Courts
United States Circuit Courts of Appeals.—Organized in 1891 to relieve theUnited States Supreme Court in Appellate Cases. Number: One in each Judicial Circuit. Members: Three judges selected from the DistrictCourts.
Number.—One in each Judicial Circuit.
Members.—Three judges selected from the District Courts.
United StatesCircuit Courts.—
Number of Circuits.—Nine.
Number of Judges.—Each Circuit has two, three, or four Circuit Judges, and a Justice of the Supreme Courtis assigned to each Circuit. The District Judge also may sit in a Circuit Court.
Salary of CircuitJudges.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars per year.
United States DistrictCourts.—
Number of Districts.—One or more in each State. At present there areseventy-threeJudicial Districts.
Salary of District Judge.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars peryear.
United States Court of Claims.—
Jurisdiction.—Claims against the United States, including all claims which may be referred to it byCongress.
Members.—One Chief Justice and four Associate Justices.
Salaries.—Chief Justice, six thousand five hundred dollars; Associate Justices, each six thousanddollars.
In addition to the above named courts, Congress has established courts of local jurisdiction inthe District of Columbia and in the Territories.
BRITISH EMPIRE
Form of Government.—Monarchy in form, but republic in practice. The monarchy is constitutional andlimited.
The British Empire consists of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Empire ofIndia, and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, including the self-governing Dominions, and the Crown Colonies, Protectorates, and otherDependencies, the whole forming one Empire.
I. Constitution.—The British Constitution is mainly unwritten and customary, but itsdevelopment is marked by certain outstanding and fundamental laws, of which the principal are: Magna Charta, 1215; the Habeas Corpus Act,1679; the Act of Settlement, 1701; the Act of Union with Scotland, 1707; the Act of Union with Ireland, 1800; and the Parliament Act,1911. The first secured annual parliaments and the equal administration of justice; the second established the liberty of the person;thethird provided for the Protestant succession to the throne; the fourth and fifth created the United Kingdom; and the last enabled theCommons to pass certain Acts without the adherence of the other Chamber.
Amendments.—Amendments to the Constitution can be proposed by either of thelegislative bodies, are passed by ordinary legislative process, requiring for their passage a majority simply of the votes of theReichstag, but they fail if fourteen votes are cast against them in the Bundesrath.
II. The Sovereign.
How Designated.—The King’s legal titlerests upon the Act of Settlement, in 1701, under William III., by which the succession to the Crown of Great Britain and Ireland wassettled on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and the “heirs of her body, being Protestants.” The throne is hereditary in theEnglish house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha with mixed succession, the sons of the Sovereign and their descendants having precedence of daughters,but daughters and their descendants preference over lateral lines. The Sovereign is designated King (or Queen) of Great Britain andIreland, and Emperor (or Empress) of India.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life, byhereditary title, and cannot be removed.
Salary or Civil List.—The Civil List Act, 1910, gave the King $2,350,000. Provision for other membersof the Royal Family, $730,000. The Prince of Wales, as the income of the Duchy of Cornwall, $435,000. The King in addition to his CivilList receives the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster amounting to $320,000.
Powers and Duties.—Has command of army and navy.
Parliament cannot beassembled, prorogued, or dissolved except by the express command of the Sovereign.
At the commencement ofa new Parliament must deliver, either in person or by a commission authorized for that purpose, a speech declaring the cause of thesummons.
Bills passed by Parliament must receive the assent of the Sovereign in order to becomelaw.
Has legally a veto power; but, because the influence of the Executive over legislation has passedinto the hands of the Ministers, the veto of the Crown has been disused since 1707.
Has power to appointall officers in the army and navy, judges, ambassadors, colonial governors, bishops and archbishops of the Established Church, and grantsall degrees of nobility.
May make treaties of any kind.
May grant pardonto any particular offender.
The Privy Council.—The King in Council is the supreme executiveauthority in the realm. The Privy Council meets as a whole at the beginning of a new reign and on other occasions of state and ceremony,possesses certain administrative powers, and is the Supreme Court of the Empire. Its personnel includes the royal princes and thearchbishops, Members of the Cabinet and of the royal household, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the ambassadors, the principalcolonial governors, colonial statesmen, certain judges, and members of both political parties who have never been in office.
The important functions of the Council are the bringing into operation by means of orders in council of theprovisions of many statutes which Parliament leaves to the executive to enforce, temporarily or permanently, at such time or times as itmay deem necessary and desirable. These orders have all the force and validity of law.
The Executive Departments
The Ministry
The Cabinet, or Inner Council, under the presidency of the Prime Minister, consists of Ministers, drawn fromthe ranks of the party in power and appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister.
Members (As reconstituted in June, 1915) and their salaries.
Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury$25,000
Lord High Chancellor (and $20,000 as speaker of the House of Lords)50,000
Minister without Portfoliounpaid
Lord President of the Council$10,000
Lord Privy Sealunpaid
First Lord of the Admiralty22,500
Secretaries of State:
Home Affairs25,000
Foreign Affairs25,000
Colonies25,000
War25,000
India25,000
Chancellor of the Exchequer25,000
Minister of Munitions25,000
Secretary for Scotland10,000
Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland21,125
Presidents of Committees of the Council:
Board of Trade25,000
Local Government Board25,000
Board of Education10,000
First Commissioner of Works10,000
Attorney-General35,000
Board of Agriculture10,000
Relations to Parliament.—The Chief of the Cabinet and of the Ministry iscalled the Prime Minister or Premier. He is the leader of the House of Parliament of which he is a member. He dispenses the greaterportion of the patronage of the Crown. Other members of the Cabinet are the leaders of Parliament, shaping and directing the business ofthe Houses.
Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the House of Commons; for if not sustained, they mustall resign. When a Ministry resigns it is the function of the sovereign to call upon some statesman to form another administration. Thereis no restriction upon the Royal choice, but the statesman usually selected is the leader of the opposing party in one of the twoHouses.
Powers and Duties.—All real authority is with the Cabinet. The executive government is nominally inthe Crown, but practically in the Cabinet. The Ministers are at the heads of the administrative departments. The Sovereign does not sitwith the Cabinet.
Other Ministers.—The Ministry includes a number of minor posts whoseoccupants have no seat in the Cabinet.
III. Parliament.—Parliament consists of two Houses, the House of Lordsand the House of Commons. The Sovereign alone has the power of summoning or proroguing or dissolving Parliament, and gives the RoyalAssent to measures which have passed both Houses. Unless it be dissolved by the Crown, Parliament exists five years from the date on whichit was first to meet. The demise of the Crown does not dissolve Parliament, but, on the contrary, renders an immediate assembling of thetwo Houses necessary; and if there be no Parliament in existence, the old Parliament must reassemble, and may sit again for six months, ifit be not within that time dissolved by the new Sovereign.
All British dominions are subject (except asregards taxation) to the legislation of the British Parliament; but no Act of Parliament affects a colony unless that colony is speciallymentioned. If the legislature of a colony enacts a law which is repugnant to an imperial law affecting the colony, it is to the extent towhich it is repugnant absolutely void.
THE HOUSE OF LORDS.—The House at present consists of three Princes ofthe Blood, two Archbishops, twenty-one Dukes, twenty-six Marquesses, one hundred and twenty-one Earls, forty-six Viscounts, twenty-fourBishops, three hundred and fifty-six Barons, sixteen Scottish Representative Peers elected for each Parliament, and twenty-seven IrishRepresentative Peers elected for life. The members hold their seats by virtue of hereditary title; by creation of the Sovereign; by virtueof office (English bishops); by election for life (Irish peers); by election for duration of Parliament (Scottish peers).
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age.
Remuneration.—Receive no pay.
Committees.—Special committees are appointed to make investigations, and report on matters which couldnot be undertaken by the whole House.
Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Commons, makes the laws, having a revising powerover all bills proposed by the House of Commons, except those relating to public revenue and expenditure, which it must pass or rejectwithout amendment.
It is the highest appellate court of the United Kingdom. It may in certain cases trymembers of its own body; it tries any person who may be impeached by the House of Commons, and it also decides claims to the peerage.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.—This body consists of six hundred and seventy elected members representing county,borough, and university constituencies. Roughly speaking, about one-sixth of the population are electors.
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age. Clergymen are disqualified from sitting asmembers, also English and Scottish peers, government contractors, and sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which theyact.
Organization—Quorum.—Forty members, including the Speaker. Elects its own presidingofficer, who is called the Speaker, who has a residence in the Palace of Westminster, and receives a salary of $25,000 per annum.
Remuneration.—$2,000 per year (since 1911).
Powers and Duties.—May originate and, in concurrence with the House of Lords, pass resolutions andbills; but bills relating to the imposition of taxes and the granting of supplies for the service of the State must be originated in theHouse of Commons.
Committees.—The business of the House is almost entirely under the direction of the Ministry; however,commissions and select committees are from time to time appointed to make investigations and report on matters which could not beundertaken by the House.
IV. Judicial Departments, or Courts of Law.
Privy Council.—The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (which hears appeals fromColonial and Indian Courts, and also from Ecclesiastical Courts) consists of the Lord Chancellor, Lord President, ex-Lords President, theLords of Appeal in Ordinary, and such other members of the Privy Council as shall from time to time hold or have held “high judicialoffice.” No dissenting judgments are allowed, but the Judicial Committee can grant special leave to appeal.
The English courts of law having jurisdiction in actions between parties are:
House of Lords
Lord High Chancellor and such peers of Parliament as are holding or have held high judicial office. This isthe ultimate Court of Appeal from all the courts in the United Kingdom.
There are two Courts of Appeal below these divisions:
Lords ofAppeal in Ordinary.— Consisting of six Justices.
Court of Appeal.—Ex-OfficioJudges, the Lord High Chancellor, the Lord Chief Justice of England, the Master of the Rolls, and the President of the Probate, Divorceand Admiralty Division.
The High Court comprises the King’s Bench, Chancery, and Probate,Divorce and Admiralty Divisions.
High Court of Justice, Chancery Division.—(Administration oftrusts, company cases, mortgages, patents, etc.). Consists of the Lord High Chancellor and six other Justices.
High Court of Justice, King’s Bench Division.—(Contracts, torts, bankruptcy, etc.). Consists of theLord Chief Justice of England and fifteen other Justices.
High Court of Justice, Probate, Divorce andAdmiralty Division.—(Wills, matrimonial cases, and maritime cases). Consists of two Justices.
Court of Criminal Appeal.—All the Judges of King’s Bench Division.
Court of Arches.—An ecclesiastical court unites the powers of the jus canonicum with new powersconceded by the Church Discipline Act, 1841, and the similar statute of 1874, exercising authority in both provinces. The JudicialCommittee of Privy Council is the Court of Final Appeal in ecclesiastical causes.
BankruptcyCourt.—Consisting of one Justice.
GERMANY
Form of Government.—The Empire, according to the Constitution of April 16, 1871, is a ConfederateLeague, bearing the name German Empire, under the hereditary presidentship of the King of Prussia, who holds the title of German Emperor,and whose eldest son is styled His Imperial and Royal Highness.
I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted April16, 1871. The Constitution of the German Empire is substantially that of the North German Confederation, which came into force in 1867,and which was adopted by the Empire in 1871, after the southern states of Germany had combined with the northern.
Amendments.—Amendments to the Constitution can be proposed by either of thelegislative bodies, are passed by ordinary legislative process, requiring for their passage a majority simply of the votes of theReichstag, but they fail if fourteen votes are cast against them in the Bundesrath.
II. Chief magistrate, styled the Deutscher Kaiser.
HowDesignated.—The election of Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as German Emperor (1871) was by vote of the Reichstag of the NorthGerman Confederation, on the initiative of all the reigning Princes of Germany. The Imperial dignity is hereditary in the House ofHohenzollern, and follows the law of primogeniture in the male line. He must be occupant of the throne of Prussia under the provisions ofPrussian law.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life,and cannot be removed.
Salary or Income.—Royal Civil List of Emperor, $3,700,000.
Powers and Duties.—Commander-in-Chief of the imperial army.
Summons,opens, adjourns, and closes the two Houses. He may dissolve the Reichstag upon advice of the Bundesrath.
All measures passed by the Bundesrath are presented to the Reichstag in the name of the Emperor.
Bills passed by the two Houses must be promulgated by the Emperor.
In cases where heregards them as involving a change in the Constitution, he need not promulgate them if fourteen votes have been cast against them in theBundesrath.
All official acts of the Emperor require the counter-signature of the Chancellor.
Appoints and may, at his pleasure, remove the Imperial Chancellor. Appoints and may, with the counter-signature ofthe Chancellor, remove all minor officers in the imperial service.
May declare war if defensive, and maketreaties and peace; but for declaring offensive war the consent of the Bundesrath must be obtained.
Haspower to grant pardons.
The Executive Departments
Imperial Chancellor.—He has no counterpart in any other constitutional government. He isthe Emperor’s responsible proxy, controlling the politics of the Empire.
Appointment and Tenureof Office.—Appointed by the Emperor. Must be one of Prussia’s seventeen representatives in the Bundesrath. His term isdependent upon the pleasure of the Emperor.
Responsibility.—Does not consist in a liabilityto be forced to resign, but consists simply in amenability to the laws.
Powers andDuties.—Must give an account of the administration to the Reichstag, and submits the annual budget. He is the center and sourceof all the administrative departments, dominating the entire imperial service. He superintends the administration of the laws of theEmpire by the States. As chairman of the Bundesrath he is simply a Prussian representing the King of Prussia, as the Emperor has no placein the Bundesrath.
The army and navy, however, are not directly controlled by him, but by the GeneralField-Marshal.
The following are the imperial authorities or Secretaries of State; they do not form aMinistry or Cabinet, but act independently of each other, under the general supervision of the Chancellor:
Chancellor of the Empire.
Secretary for Foreign Affairs.
Imperial Home Office and Representative of the Chancellor.
ImperialAdmiralty.
Imperial Secretary of Justice.
ImperialTreasury.
Imperial Post-Office.
Secretary for theColonies.
And, in addition, the following presidents of imperial bureaus:
Railways.
Imperial Exchequer.
ImperialBank.
Imperial Debt Commission.
Administration of ImperialRailways.
Imperial Court Martial.
Acting under the direction ofthe Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundesrath represents also a supreme administrative and consultative board, and as such has twelvestanding committees—namely, for army and fortifications; for naval matters; tariff, excise and taxes; trade and commerce; railways,posts and telegraphs; civil and criminal law; financial accounts; foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine; for the Constitution; for thestanding orders; and for railway tariffs.
III. The Government.
The legislativefunctions of the Empire are vested jointly in the Bundesrath or Federal Council which represents the several states, and by the Reichstagor Diet of the Realm, which represents the German nation. The Emperor has no veto on laws passed by these bodies. All laws for the Empiremust receive the votes of an absolute majority.
The consent of the Federal Council and Reichstag isnecessary in regard to certain specified treaties. The Emperor has the right to summon, open, adjourn, and close the Reichstag. TheFederal Council and Reichstag must be summoned to meet every year; the Reichstag cannot be summoned without the adherence of the FederalCouncil.
BUNDESRATH, or Federal Council, is composed of sixty-one votes representingthe individual states. They are appointed by the governments (i. e. the Executives) of the States for each session.
The apportionments of representation in the Bundesrath among the States of the Empire is as follows: Prussiaseventeen votes, Bavaria six, Saxony and Würtemberg four each, Baden, Hesse and Alsace-Lorraine each three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin andBrunswick each two, the other States (seventeen) one apiece.
Remuneration.—Receive no pay.
Organization—Quorum.—The Imperial Chancellor or his substitute (at regular meeting). TheImperial Chancellor presides. Votes with the other Prussian representatives, whose votes must be undivided; and, in case of a tie,Prussia’s vote decides.
Committees.—There are three standing committees and eight commissions, two of which are appointed bythe Emperor, five wholly by the Bundesrath, and one in part by the Bundesrath, being made up principally of membersex-officio.
Each commission consists of representatives of at least five States of the Empire.
Powers and Duties.—May originate bills to be sent to the Reichstag. Its consent is indispensable tothe validity of all legislation. Members may speak on the floor of the Reichstag. Acting under the direction of the Imperial Chancellor,it is the supreme administrative board. It is in some cases the highest court of the Empire. Is the court of appeal between two or moreStates of the Empire.
REICHSTAG, or Imperial Diet, is composed (in 1917) of three hundred and ninety-seven members, and electedfor five years by universal suffrage.
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, and have lived at least one year in one ofthe German States.
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who iscalled the President.
Remuneration.—3,000 marks ($750) per session, with deduction of twenty marks ($5.00) for eachday’s absence; they have free passes over German railways during session.
Powers and Duties.—Has power to originate and, with the advice and consent of the Bundesrath, to enactthe laws. It also exerts a controlling influence through its power to give or withhold its sanction to certain ordinances to whosevalidity the Constitution makes its concurrence necessary, through its right to inquire into the conduct of affairs; and in many otherways not susceptible of enumeration.
Committees.—There are no standing committees, but select committees are occasionally appointed byelection from the seven “Sections” into which the members are divided by lot for committee work.
IV. Judicial Department.
The laws of the Empire take precedence of the Federated States within the scope of the Constitution ofthe Empire; they are compulsory on all Governments of the Empire.
A uniform system of law courts existsthroughout the Empire, though, with the exception of the Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the Government of the specialState in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the Imperial Government. The appointment of the judges is also a State and not anImperial function. The Empire enjoys uniform codes of commercial and criminal law.
Imperial Supreme Court.
Reichsgericht (Imperial Supreme Court), to which there is a right of appeal from all inferior courts, sitsat Leipzig, and consists of one hundred judges, appointed by the Kaiser on the recommendation of the Bundesrath.
The Oberlandesgerichte (Supreme Court), which are the first courts of the second instance, haveoriginal jurisdiction in serious offenses, and are presided over by seven judges.
The Landgerichte(County Courts) have a fairly extensive jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases and in divorce proceedings. There are five judges in thecriminal chamber of a Landgericht, four votes being required to make a conviction valid. Three judges from such a court preside atintervals over jury courts (Schwurgerichte), and juries do not, therefore, form a permanent part of the system.
Not the least important work of the Landgerichte is to revise the decisions of the Amtsgerichte, which are the lowestcourts of the first instance, being controlled by single judges, who are competent to hear only petty civil and criminalcases.
The Amtsgerichte (Police or District Courts) are the lowest courts, each with a single judgecompetent to try petty civil and criminal cases, divorce cases, etc.
FRANCE
Form of Government.—France, since the overthrow of Napoleon III., in 1870, has been a republicgoverned by a President and two Chambers under the Constitution.
I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted February25, 1875. It has undergone but slight modifications. The present French Constitution remains a mixture of monarchical and republicaninstitutions, and it has fully maintained its strong and old-established centralization. The Constitution of 1875 is based on universalsuffrage. It was revised in 1875, 1884, 1885 and 1889.
Amendments.—Whenever the two Houses agree that revision is necessary, andalso agree upon particular points that should be revised, the National Assembly, composed of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies,sitting as one body, convenes at Versailles, and acts upon the amendments proposed, the vote of an absolute majority being decisive. TheNational Assembly also elects the President of the republic.
II. Chief Magistrate, or President of the Republic.
Term ofOffice.—Elected for seven years by the National Assembly, and is re-eligible.
The NationalAssembly meets for the purposes of this election, as for the revision of the Constitution, at Versailles. The revision of the Constitutionand the election of President are its only functions.
Qualifications.—Must be a citizen, nota member of any family which has occupied the throne of France.
Salary.—$140,000.
Responsibilities.—May be impeached bythe Chamber of Deputies, and tried by the Senate, in case of high treason.
Powers and Duties.—Has command of the army and navy.
May convene theChambers on extraordinary occasions.
May adjourn the Chambers at any time for a period not exceeding onemonth. Can close a regular session of the Chambers at his discretion after it has continued five months; an extra session when he pleases.Can with the consent of the Senate dissolve the Chamber of Deputies even before the expiration of five months. This puts an end to thesession of the Senate also, but not to its life. The President must order a new election in case of dissolution.
At the commencement of a new session of the Chambers the President of the republic sends a message, which is read byone of the Ministers.
Bills passed by the Chambers must be signed by the President, and countersigned byone of his Ministers.
Has no veto power, but is authorized to demand a reconsideration of any measure bythe Chambers.
Has power to appoint and remove all officers of the public service, subject to thecounter-signature of the Minister whose department is affected in each case.
May make treaties of peace,alliance and commerce, but cannot declare war without the advice of the Chambers.
Has power to grantpardons.
Succession.—In case of his death, resignation, or removal, the Council of Ministersact until the National Assembly can meet and elect a new President.
The Executive Departments
Powers and Duties.—As a Cabinet, the Ministers represent the administration in theChambers; as a Council, they exercise a general oversight of the administration of the laws, with a view of giving unity of direction tothe affairs of the State. The President may be present at all Council meetings.
Cabinet and Council ofMinisters.—Both the Cabinet and the Council consist of the same persons. The Cabinet is a political body; the Council, anadministrative body.
Appointment.—Chosen by the President, generally from among the membersof the Chambers.
Members of the Cabinet.—Membership may vary somewhat:
Premier and Foreign Minister.
Ministers of State.
Minister of Justice and Vice-President of the Council.
Minister ofWar.
Minister of Marine.
Minister of theInterior.
Minister of Finance.
Minister ofAgriculture.
Minister of Public Works.
Minister ofCommerce.
Minister of Colonies.
Minister of Instruction andMinister of Inventions affecting National Defense.
Council of State.—Gives advice on allprojects of law which the Chambers or the Government wish to submit to it, and on administrative regulations and by-laws. Its decision isfinal in all disputes arising in matters of administration.
Is presided over by the Minister of Justice,and is composed of Councillors, Masters of Requests, and Auditors, all appointed by the President of the republic.
Relations to the Chambers.—Are the leaders of the Chambers.
Whether membersof the Chambers or not, they have as Ministers the right to attend all sessions of the Chambers and take a specially privileged part inthe debate.
Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the Chambers; for, if not sustained, theymust all resign.
III. The Chambers.—Consist of the Senate and House of Deputies.
THE SENATE is composed of three hundred members chosen by the Departmentsand Colonies for nine years, one-third of the members retiring every three years.
Until 1884 the Senatecontained seventy-five life members, the life list having been originally made up by election by the National Assembly of 1875, andvacancies being filled by the Senate itself. In 1884 this arrangement was abolished, and since that year vacancies in the life roll havebeen filled by ordinary nine-year Senators.
Qualifications.—Must be a Frenchman, and at least forty years of age.
Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own President andVice-Presidents.
Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lots into “Bureaux.” These select allthe special committees to which bills are referred, except when the House chooses itself to elect a committee.
Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the Chamber of Deputies, makes the laws, and has in law-makingthe same prerogatives as the Chamber, except that bills relating to revenue originate with the Chamber. It is a court of justice fortrying the President of the republic and the Ministers. It may originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills;but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of therepublic and the Ministers.
THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES is composed (in 1917) of five hundred and eighty-four Deputies, distributed amongthe Departments and certain colonies in the proportion of one Deputy to seventy thousand inhabitants. The Deputies are chosen for a termof four years by universal suffrage, the Arrondissements serving as electoral districts.
Qualifications.—Must be a citizen of France, and at least twenty-five years of age.
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Chooses its own President, Vice-President andother officers.
Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).
Powers and Duties.—May originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; butbills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of therepublic and Ministers.
Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lot into eleven “Bureaux,” which selectall the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the Chamber chooses to appoint a committee directly.
IV. Judicial Department.
The judicial system is under direct control of the government. All Judges are nominated by thePresident of the republic. They can be removed only by a decision of the Court of Cassation constituted as the ConseilSupérieur of the magistracy.
The Court of Cassation.
The Court of Cassation, which sits at Paris, is the highest court for all criminal cases tried by jury,sofar as regards matters of law.
Courts of Appeal.—The highest courts are the twenty-sixCourtsof Appeal, composed each of one president and a variable number of members, for all criminal cases which have been tried without ajury.
Court of Assizes.—In all cases of a délit or a crime the preliminary inquiryis made in secrecy by an examining magistrate (juge d’instruction), who may either dismiss the case or send it for trialbefore a court where a public prosecutor (procureur) endeavors to prove the charge. The Court of Assizes is assisted by twelve jurors, whodecide by simple majority on the fact with respect to offenses amounting to crimes.
Justices of thePeace (juges de paix) are the courts of lowest jurisdiction in France. They try small civil cases and act also as judges ofPolice Courts, where all petty offenses (contraventions) are disposed of. The Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver offenses(délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to five years. They have no jury, and consist of three judges belongingto the civil tribunals of first instance.
For commercial cases there are, in two hundred and twenty-sixtowns, Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of Experts (prud’hommes). In the towns are police courts.

IMPORTANT BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS RELATING TO THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES

TABLE I. BIRTH AND PARENTAGETABLE II. EDUCATION, PROFESSION, RELIGION AND POLITICS
NAMES OF PRESIDENTSBORNPARENTSPaternal AncestryFather’s BusinessEducational AdvantagesEarly VocationProfessionReligious ConnectionPolitics
DateBirthplaceFatherMother
1.George WashingtonFri.,Feb.22,1732Bridges Creek, near Fredericksburg, Va.AugustineMary BallEnglishPlanterCommon SchoolSurveyorPlanterEpiscopalianFederalist
2.John AdamsWed.,Oct.30,1735Quincy, Mass.JohnSusanna BoylstonEnglishFarmerHarvard College, 1755TeacherLawyerUnitarianFederalist
3.Thomas JeffersonTues.,April13,1743Shadwell, Va.PeterJane RandolphWelshPlanterCollege of William and Mary, 1762LawyerLawyerLiberalRepublican[12]
4.James MadisonFri.,Mar.16,1751Port Conway, Va.JamesNellie ConwayEnglishPlanterPrinceton College, 1771LawyerLawyerEpiscopalianRepublican
5.James MonroeFri.,April28,1758Westmoreland Co., Va.SpenceEliza JonesScotchPlanterEntered College, William and MaryLawyerPoliticianEpiscopalianRepublican
6.John Quincy AdamsSat.,July11,1767Quincy, Mass.JohnAbigail SmithEnglishLawyerHarvard College, 1787LawyerLawyerUnitarianRepublican
7.Andrew JacksonSun.,Mar.15,1767Union County, N. C.AndrewElizabeth HutchinsonScotch-IrishFarmerSelf TaughtLawyerLawyerPresbyterianDemocrat
8.Martin Van BurenThurs.,Dec.5,1782Kinderhook, N. Y.AbrahamMaria HoesDutchFarmerAcademyLawyerLawyerReformed DutchDemocrat
9.William Henry HarrisonTues.,Feb.9,1773Berkeley, Va.BenjaminElizabeth BassettEnglishStatesmanEntered Hampden-Sidney CollegeMedicineArmyEpiscopalianWhig
10.John TylerMon.,Mar.29,1790Charles City Co., Va.JohnMary ArmisteadEnglishJuristCollege, William and Mary, 1806LawyerLawyerEpiscopalianDemocrat
11.James Knox PolkMon.,Nov.2,1795Mecklenburg Co., N. C.SamuelJane Knox...FarmerUniversity of North CarolinaLawyerLawyerPresbyterianDemocrat
12.Zachary TaylorTues.,Nov.24,1784Orange Co., Va.RichardSarah StrotherScotch-Irish...Common SchoolSoldierArmyEpiscopalianWhig
13.Millard FillmoreTues.,Jan.7,1800Summerhill, N. Y.NathanielPhebe MillardEnglishFarmerPublic SchoolTailorLawyerUnitarianWhig
14.Franklin PierceFri.,Nov.23,1804Hillsborough, N. H.BenjaminAnna KendrickEnglishFarmerBowdoin College, 1824LawyerLawyerEpiscopalianDemocrat
15.James BuchananSat.,April23,1791Cove Gap, Pa.JamesElizabeth SpeerScotch-IrishMerchantDickinson College, 1809LawyerLawyerPresbyterianDemocrat
16.Abraham LincolnSun.,Feb.12,1809Nolin Creek, Ky.ThomasNancy HanksEnglishFarmerSelf TaughtFarmerLawyerLiberalRepublican
17.Andrew JohnsonThurs.,Dec.29,1808Raleigh, N. C.JacobMary McDonoughEnglishSextonSelf TaughtTailorPoliticianLiberalRepublican
18.Ulysses Simpson GrantSat.,April27,1822Point Pleasant, OhioJesse RootHarriet SimpsonScotchFarmerWest Point Military Academy, 1843TannerArmyMethodistRepublican
19.Rutherford Birchard HayesFri.,Oct.4,1822Delaware, OhioRutherfordSophia BirchardScotchMerchantKenyon College, Ohio, 1842LawyerLawyerMethodistRepublican
20.James Abram GarfieldSat.,Nov.19,1831Orange Township, OhioAbramEliza BallouEnglishFarmerWilliams College, 1856TeacherLawyerDisciplesRepublican
21.Chester Alan ArthurTues.,Oct.5,1830Fairfield, Vt.WilliamMalvina StoneScotch-IrishClergymanUnion College, 1848TeacherLawyerEpiscopalianRepublican
22.Grover ClevelandSat.,Mar.18,1837Caldwell, N. J.Richard FalleyAnne NealeEnglishClergymanCommon SchoolTeacherLawyerPresbyterianDemocrat
23.Benjamin HarrisonTues.,Aug.20,1833North Bend, OhioJohn ScottElizabeth Findlay IrwinEnglishFarmerMiami University, Ohio, 1851LawyerLawyerPresbyterianRepublican
24.Grover ClevelandSat.,Mar.18,1837Caldwell, N. J.Richard FalleyAnne NealeEnglishClergymanCommon SchoolTeacherLawyerPresbyterianDemocrat
25.William McKinleySun.,Jan.29,1843Niles, OhioWilliamNancy C. AllisonScotch-IrishIron Mnfr.Entered Allegheny CollegeLawyerLawyerMethodistRepublican
26.Theodore RooseveltWed.,Oct.27,185828 East 20th St., New York CityTheodoreMartha BullockDutchMerchantHarvard, 1880PublicistPublicistReformed DutchRepublican
27.William Howard TaftTues.,Sept.15,1857Cincinnati, OhioAlphonsoLouise M. TorreyEnglishLawyerYale, 1878LawyerLawyerUnitarianRepublican
28.Woodrow WilsonSun.,Dec.28,1856Staunton, Va.Jos. RugglesJessie WoodrowScotch-IrishClergymanPrinceton, 1879LawyerEducatorPresbyterianDemocrat

[12] The first Republican party, founded by Jefferson, later developed into the Democratic party of today.

TABLE I. BIRTH AND PARENTAGE
NAMES OF PRESIDENTSBORNPARENTSPaternal AncestryFather’s Business
DateBirthplaceFatherMother
1.George WashingtonFri.,Feb.22,1732Bridges Creek, near Fredericksburg, Va.AugustineMary BallEnglishPlanter
2.John AdamsWed.,Oct.30,1735Quincy, Mass.JohnSusanna BoylstonEnglishFarmer
3.Thomas JeffersonTues.,April13,1743Shadwell, Va.PeterJane RandolphWelshPlanter
4.James MadisonFri.,Mar.16,1751Port Conway, Va.JamesNellie ConwayEnglishPlanter
5.James MonroeFri.,April28,1758Westmoreland Co., Va.SpenceEliza JonesScotchPlanter
6.John Quincy AdamsSat.,July11,1767Quincy, Mass.JohnAbigail SmithEnglishLawyer
7.Andrew JacksonSun.,Mar.15,1767Union County, N. C.AndrewElizabeth HutchinsonScotch-IrishFarmer
8.Martin Van BurenThurs.,Dec.5,1782Kinderhook, N. Y.AbrahamMaria HoesDutchFarmer
9.William Henry HarrisonTues.,Feb.9,1773Berkeley, Va.BenjaminElizabeth BassettEnglishStatesman
10.John TylerMon.,Mar.29,1790Charles City Co., Va.JohnMary ArmisteadEnglishJurist
11.James Knox PolkMon.,Nov.2,1795Mecklenburg Co., N. C.SamuelJane Knox...Farmer
12.Zachary TaylorTues.,Nov.24,1784Orange Co., Va.RichardSarah StrotherScotch-Irish...
13.Millard FillmoreTues.,Jan.7,1800Summerhill, N. Y.NathanielPhebe MillardEnglishFarmer
14.Franklin PierceFri.,Nov.23,1804Hillsborough, N. H.BenjaminAnna KendrickEnglishFarmer
15.James BuchananSat.,April23,1791Cove Gap, Pa.JamesElizabeth SpeerScotch-IrishMerchant
16.Abraham LincolnSun.,Feb.12,1809Nolin Creek, Ky.ThomasNancy HanksEnglishFarmer
17.Andrew JohnsonThurs.,Dec.29,1808Raleigh, N. C.JacobMary McDonoughEnglishSexton
18.Ulysses Simpson GrantSat.,April27,1822Point Pleasant, OhioJesse RootHarriet SimpsonScotchFarmer
19.Rutherford Birchard HayesFri.,Oct.4,1822Delaware, OhioRutherfordSophia BirchardScotchMerchant
20.James Abram GarfieldSat.,Nov.19,1831Orange Township, OhioAbramEliza BallouEnglishFarmer
21.Chester Alan ArthurTues.,Oct.5,1830Fairfield, Vt.WilliamMalvina StoneScotch-IrishClergyman
22.Grover ClevelandSat.,Mar.18,1837Caldwell, N. J.Richard FalleyAnne NealeEnglishClergyman
23.Benjamin HarrisonTues.,Aug.20,1833North Bend, OhioJohn ScottElizabeth Findlay IrwinEnglishFarmer
24.Grover ClevelandSat.,Mar.18,1837Caldwell, N. J.Richard FalleyAnne NealeEnglishClergyman
25.William McKinleySun.,Jan.29,1843Niles, OhioWilliamNancy C. AllisonScotch-IrishIron Mnfr.
26.Theodore RooseveltWed.,Oct.27,185828 East 20th St., New York CityTheodoreMartha BullockDutchMerchant
27.William Howard TaftTues.,Sept.15,1857Cincinnati, OhioAlphonsoLouise M. TorreyEnglishLawyer
28.Woodrow WilsonSun.,Dec.28,1856Staunton, Va.Jos. RugglesJessie WoodrowScotch-IrishClergyman
TABLE II. EDUCATION, PROFESSION, RELIGION AND POLITICS
NAMES OF PRESIDENTSEducational AdvantagesEarly VocationProfessionReligious ConnectionPolitics
1.George WashingtonCommon SchoolSurveyorPlanterEpiscopalianFederalist
2.John AdamsHarvard College, 1755TeacherLawyerUnitarianFederalist
3.Thomas JeffersonCollege of William and Mary, 1762LawyerLawyerLiberalRepublican[12]
4.James MadisonPrinceton College, 1771LawyerLawyerEpiscopalianRepublican
5.James MonroeEntered College, William and MaryLawyerPoliticianEpiscopalianRepublican
6.John Quincy AdamsHarvard College, 1787LawyerLawyerUnitarianRepublican
7.Andrew JacksonSelf TaughtLawyerLawyerPresbyterianDemocrat
8.Martin Van BurenAcademyLawyerLawyerReformed DutchDemocrat
9.William Henry HarrisonEntered Hampden-Sidney CollegeMedicineArmyEpiscopalianWhig
10.John TylerCollege, William and Mary, 1806LawyerLawyerEpiscopalianDemocrat
11.James Knox PolkUniversity of North CarolinaLawyerLawyerPresbyterianDemocrat
12.Zachary TaylorCommon SchoolSoldierArmyEpiscopalianWhig
13.Millard FillmorePublic SchoolTailorLawyerUnitarianWhig
14.Franklin PierceBowdoin College, 1824LawyerLawyerEpiscopalianDemocrat
15.James BuchananDickinson College, 1809LawyerLawyerPresbyterianDemocrat
16.Abraham LincolnSelf TaughtFarmerLawyerLiberalRepublican
17.Andrew JohnsonSelf TaughtTailorPoliticianLiberalRepublican
18.Ulysses Simpson GrantWest Point Military Academy, 1843TannerArmyMethodistRepublican
19.Rutherford Birchard HayesKenyon College, Ohio, 1842LawyerLawyerMethodistRepublican
20.James Abram GarfieldWilliams College, 1856TeacherLawyerDisciplesRepublican
21.Chester Alan ArthurUnion College, 1848TeacherLawyerEpiscopalianRepublican
22.Grover ClevelandCommon SchoolTeacherLawyerPresbyterianDemocrat
23.Benjamin HarrisonMiami University, Ohio, 1851LawyerLawyerPresbyterianRepublican
24.Grover ClevelandCommon SchoolTeacherLawyerPresbyterianDemocrat
25.William McKinleyEntered Allegheny CollegeLawyerLawyerMethodistRepublican
26.Theodore RooseveltHarvard, 1880PublicistPublicistReformed DutchRepublican
27.William Howard TaftYale, 1878LawyerLawyerUnitarianRepublican
28.Woodrow WilsonPrinceton, 1879LawyerEducatorPresbyterianDemocrat

[12] The first Republican party, founded by Jefferson, later developed into the Democratic party of today.

TABLE III. MARRIAGE, CHILDREN AND ELECTION TO THE PRESIDENCYTABLE IV. TERM OF OFFICE, DEATH AND PLACE OF BURIAL
TermsNameMarriedWife’s NameChildrenElected Presi-
dent		Residence When ElectedAge When Inaugu-
rated		Term of OfficeDiedCause of DeathAge at DeathPlace of DeathPlace of Burial
BoysGirls
1-2Washington1759Martha (Dandridge) Custis (1732-1802), widow with two children00 1789Mt. Vernon, Va.57April30,1789-Mar.4,17971799Pneumonia67Mt. Vernon, Va.Mt. Vernon, Va.
3Adams1764Abigail Smith (1744-1818)32 1796Quincy, Mass.62Mar.4,1797-Mar.4,18011826Natural decline90Quincy, Mass.Unitarian ch., Quincy, Mass.
4-5Jefferson1772Martha (Wayles) Skelton (1748-1782), widow of Bathurst Skelton06 1800Monticello, Va.58Mar.4,1801-Mar.4,18091826Chronic diarrhœa83Monticello, Va.Monticello, Albemarle Co., Va.
6-7Madison1794Dolly (Payne) Todd (1772-1849), widow00 1808Montpelier, Va.58Mar.4,1809-Mar.4,18171836Natural decline85Montpelier, Va.Montpelier, Hanover Co., Va.
8-9Monroe1786Elisa Kortwright (1768-1830)02 1816Oakhill, Va.59Mar.4,1817-Mar.4,18251831Natural decline73New York CityHollywood, Richmond, Va.
10Adams, J.Q.1797Louisa Catherine Johnson (1775-1852)31 1824Quincy, Mass.58Mar.4,1825-Mar.4,18291848Paralysis80Washington, D. C.Unitarian, Quincy, Mass.
11-12Jackson1791Rachel (Donelson) Robards (1767-1828), divorced wife of Captain Robards30 1828Hermitage, Tenn.62Mar.4,1829-Mar.4,18371845Consumption78Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn.Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn.
13Van Buren1807Hannah Hoes (1783-1819)40 1836Kinderhook, N. Y.55Mar.4,1837-Mar.4,18411862Asthma79Kinderhook, N. Y.Kinderhook, N. Y.
14Harrison1795Anna Symmes (1775-1864)64 1840North Bend, Ohio68Mar.4,1841-April4,18411841Pleurisy fever68White House, Washington, D. C.North Bend, Ohio
14Tyler1813(1) To Letitia Christian (1790-1842)34 -...Williamsburg, Va.51April6,1841-Mar.4,18451862Bilious attacks with bronchitis71Ballard House, Richmond, Va.Hollywood, Richmond, Va.
1844(2) To Julia Gardiner (1820-1889)42
15Polk1824Sarah Childress (1803-1891)00 1844Nashville, Tenn.50Mar.4,1845-Mar.4,1849...Chronic diarrhœa53Nashville, Tenn.Nashville, Tenn.
16Taylor1810Margaret Smith (1788-1852)13 1848Baton Rouge, La.65Mar.4,1849-July10,18501850Cholera morbus and typhoid fever65White House, Washington, D. C.Springfield, Ky.
Fillmore1826(1) Abigail Powers (1798-1853)11 -...Buffalo, N. Y.50July10,1850-Mar.4,18531874Paralysis74Buffalo, N. Y.Forest Lawn, Buffalo, N. Y.
1858(2) Caroline (Carmichael) McIntosh (1813-1881), a widow00
17Pierce1834Jane Means Appleton (1806-1863)30 1852Concord, N. H.49Mar.4,1853-Mar.4,18571869Dropsy and inflammation of stomach64Concord, N. H.Concord, N. H.
18Buchanan...Unmarried...... 1856Wheatland, Pa.66Mar.4,1857-Mar.4,18611868Rheumatic gout77Lancaster, Pa.Woodward Hill, Lancaster, Pa.
19-20Lincoln1842Mary Todd (1818-1882)40 1860Springfield, Ill.52Mar.4,1861-April15,18651865Assassinated by Booth56Washington, D. C.Oak Ridge, Springfield, Ill.
20Johnson1827Eliza McCardle (1810-1876)32 ...Greeneville, Tenn.57April15,1865-Mar.4,18691875Paralysis66Greeneville, Tenn.Greeneville, Tenn.
21-22Grant1848Julia Dent (1826-1902)31 1868Washington, D. C.47Mar.4,1869-Mar.4,18771885Cancer of the tongue63Mt. McGregor, N. Y.Riverside, New York City
23Hayes1852Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889)71 1876Fremont, Ohio54Mar.4,1877-Mar.4,18811893Neuralgia of heart70Fremont, OhioFremont, Ohio
24Garfield1858Lucretia Rudolph (1832- ——)41 1880Mentor, Ohio49Mar.4,1881-Sept.19,18811881Assassinated by Guiteau49Elberon, Long Branch, N. J.Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland, Ohio
24Arthur1859Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837-1880)11 ...New York City51Sept.20,1881-Mar.4,18851886Bright’s disease56New York, N. Y.Rural Cemetery, Albany, N. Y.
25Cleveland1886Frances Folsom (1864- ——)23 1884Buffalo, N. Y.48Mar.4,1885-Mar.4,1889...............
26Harrison1853(1) Caroline Scott (1832-1892)11 -1888Indianapolis, Ind.55Mar.4,1889-Mar.4,18931901Pneumonia67Indianapolis, Ind.Crown Hill Cemetery, Indianapolis, Ind.
1896(2) Mary Scott (Lord) Dimmick (1858- ——)01
27Cleveland...Frances Folsom (1864- ——)...... 1892Buffalo, N. Y.56Mar.4,1893-Mar.4,18971908Heart failure71Princeton, N. J.Princeton, N. J.
28-29McKinley1871Ida Saxton (1844-1907)02 1896Canton, Ohio54Mar.4,1897-Sept.14,19011901Assassinated by Czolgosz58Buffalo, N. Y.Cemetery, Canton, Ohio
29-30Roosevelt1883(1) Alice Lee (1861-1884)01 -1904Oyster Bay, N. Y.43Sept.14,1901-Mar.4,1909...............
1886(2) Edith Kermit Carow (1861- ——)41
31Taft1886Helen Herron (1861- ——)21 1908Cincinnati, Ohio51Mar.4,1909-Mar.4,1913...............
32Wilson1885(1) Helen Louise Axsen (1860-1914)03 1912Princeton, N. J.56Mar.4,1913-..................
1915(2) Edith Bolling Galt (1872- ——)......
TABLE III. MARRIAGE, CHILDREN AND ELECTION TO THE PRESIDENCY
TermsNameMarriedWife’s NameChildrenElected Presi-
dent		Residence When ElectedAge When Inaugu-
rated
BoysGirls
1-2Washington1759Martha (Dandridge) Custis (1732-1802), widow with two children00 1789Mt. Vernon, Va.57
3Adams1764Abigail Smith (1744-1818)32 1796Quincy, Mass.62
4-5Jefferson1772Martha (Wayles) Skelton (1748-1782), widow of Bathurst Skelton06 1800Monticello, Va.58
6-7Madison1794Dolly (Payne) Todd (1772-1849), widow00 1808Montpelier, Va.58
8-9Monroe1786Elisa Kortwright (1768-1830)02 1816Oakhill, Va.59
10Adams, J.Q.1797Louisa Catherine Johnson (1775-1852)31 1824Quincy, Mass.58
11-12Jackson1791Rachel (Donelson) Robards (1767-1828), divorced wife of Captain Robards30 1828Hermitage, Tenn.62
13Van Buren1807Hannah Hoes (1783-1819)40 1836Kinderhook, N. Y.55
14Harrison1795Anna Symmes (1775-1864)64 1840North Bend, Ohio68
14Tyler1813(1) To Letitia Christian (1790-1842)34 -...Williamsburg, Va.51
1844(2) To Julia Gardiner (1820-1889)42
15Polk1824Sarah Childress (1803-1891)00 1844Nashville, Tenn.50
16Taylor1810Margaret Smith (1788-1852)13 1848Baton Rouge, La.65
Fillmore1826(1) Abigail Powers (1798-1853)11 -...Buffalo, N. Y.50
1858(2) Caroline (Carmichael) McIntosh (1813-1881), a widow00
17Pierce1834Jane Means Appleton (1806-1863)30 1852Concord, N. H.49
18Buchanan...Unmarried...... 1856Wheatland, Pa.66
19-20Lincoln1842Mary Todd (1818-1882)40 1860Springfield, Ill.52
20Johnson1827Eliza McCardle (1810-1876)32 ...Greeneville, Tenn.57
21-22Grant1848Julia Dent (1826-1902)31 1868Washington, D. C.47
23Hayes1852Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889)71 1876Fremont, Ohio54
24Garfield1858Lucretia Rudolph (1832- ——)41 1880Mentor, Ohio49
24Arthur1859Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837-1880)11 ...New York City51
25Cleveland1886Frances Folsom (1864- ——)23 1884Buffalo, N. Y.48
26Harrison1853(1) Caroline Scott (1832-1892)11 -1888Indianapolis, Ind.55
1896(2) Mary Scott (Lord) Dimmick (1858- ——)01
27Cleveland...Frances Folsom (1864- ——)...... 1892Buffalo, N. Y.56
28-29McKinley1871Ida Saxton (1844-1907)02 1896Canton, Ohio54
29-30Roosevelt1883(1) Alice Lee (1861-1884)01 -1904Oyster Bay, N. Y.43
1886(2) Edith Kermit Carow (1861- ——)41
31Taft1886Helen Herron (1861- ——)21 1908Cincinnati, Ohio51
32Wilson1885(1) Helen Louise Axsen (1860-1914)03 1912Princeton, N. J.56
1915(2) Edith Bolling Galt (1872- ——)......
TABLE IV. TERM OF OFFICE, DEATH AND PLACE OF BURIAL
TermsNameTerm of OfficeDiedCause of DeathAge at DeathPlace of DeathPlace of Burial
1-2WashingtonApril30,1789-Mar.4,17971799Pneumonia67Mt. Vernon, Va.Mt. Vernon, Va.
3AdamsMar.4,1797-Mar.4,18011826Natural decline90Quincy, Mass.Unitarian ch., Quincy, Mass.
4-5JeffersonMar.4,1801-Mar.4,18091826Chronic diarrhœa83Monticello, Va.Monticello, Albemarle Co., Va.
6-7MadisonMar.4,1809-Mar.4,18171836Natural decline85Montpelier, Va.Montpelier, Hanover Co., Va.
8-9MonroeMar.4,1817-Mar.4,18251831Natural decline73New York CityHollywood, Richmond, Va.
10Adams, J.Q.Mar.4,1825-Mar.4,18291848Paralysis80Washington, D. C.Unitarian, Quincy, Mass.
11-12JacksonMar.4,1829-Mar.4,18371845Consumption78Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn.Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn.
13Van BurenMar.4,1837-Mar.4,18411862Asthma79Kinderhook, N. Y.Kinderhook, N. Y.
14HarrisonMar.4,1841-April4,18411841Pleurisy fever68White House, Washington, D. C.North Bend, Ohio
14TylerApril6,1841-Mar.4,18451862Bilious attacks with bronchitis71Ballard House, Richmond, Va.Hollywood, Richmond, Va.
15PolkMar.4,1845-Mar.4,1849...Chronic diarrhœa53Nashville, Tenn.Nashville, Tenn.
16TaylorMar.4,1849-July10,18501850Cholera morbus and typhoid fever65White House, Washington, D. C.Springfield, Ky.
FillmoreJuly10,1850-Mar.4,18531874Paralysis74Buffalo, N. Y.Forest Lawn, Buffalo, N. Y.
17PierceMar.4,1853-Mar.4,18571869Dropsy and inflammation of stomach64Concord, N. H.Concord, N. H.
18BuchananMar.4,1857-Mar.4,18611868Rheumatic gout77Lancaster, Pa.Woodward Hill, Lancaster, Pa.
19-20LincolnMar.4,1861-April15,18651865Assassinated by Booth56Washington, D. C.Oak Ridge, Springfield, Ill.
20JohnsonApril15,1865-Mar.4,18691875Paralysis66Greeneville, Tenn.Greeneville, Tenn.
21-22GrantMar.4,1869-Mar.4,18771885Cancer of the tongue63Mt. McGregor, N. Y.Riverside, New York City
23HayesMar.4,1877-Mar.4,18811893Neuralgia of heart70Fremont, OhioFremont, Ohio
24GarfieldMar.4,1881-Sept.19,18811881Assassinated by Guiteau49Elberon, Long Branch, N. J.Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland, Ohio
24ArthurSept.20,1881-Mar.4,18851886Bright’s disease56New York, N. Y.Rural Cemetery, Albany, N. Y.
25ClevelandMar.4,1885-Mar.4,1889...............
26HarrisonMar.4,1889-Mar.4,18931901Pneumonia67Indianapolis, Ind.Crown Hill Cemetery, Indianapolis, Ind.
27ClevelandMar.4,1893-Mar.4,18971908Heart failure71Princeton, N. J.Princeton, N. J.
28-29McKinleyMar.4,1897-Sept.14,19011901Assassinated by Czolgosz58Buffalo, N. Y.Cemetery, Canton, Ohio
29-30RooseveltSept.14,1901-Mar.4,1909...............
31TaftMar.4,1909-Mar.4,1913...............
32WilsonMar.4,1913-..................
TABLE V. LATER CAREER, WRITINGS AND SOBRIQUETS
NameCareer After Leaving the PresidencyWritings of the PresidentsPresidential Sobriquets
WashingtonAgricultural pursuits; appointed commander-in-chief (1798) because of threatened war with France.Maxims; Transcripts of Revolutionary Correspondence.“Father of his Country;” “American Fabius.”
AdamsMember of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1820.Essay on Canon and Feudal Laws; Defense of the American Constitution.“Colossus of Independence;” “Son of Liberty.”
JeffersonRetired to his plantation at Monticello, Va.; devoted much time to the University of Virginia.A Summary View of the Rights of America; The Declaration of Independence; Act for Freedom ofReligion.“Sage of Monticello,” “Long Tom.”
MadisonRetired to Montpelier, Va.; contributed large service to University of Virginia; served in the VirginiaConstitutional Convention, 1829.Reports of Debates During the Congress, of the Confederation and Federal Congress; Essays.“Father of the Constitution.”
MonroeRetired to private life in Virginia; served as a member of the Virginia Constitutional Convention in 1830.A View of the Conduct of the Executive; The People; The Sovereign.“Last Cocked Hat.”
Adams, J.Q.Was returned to Washington as a member of the House of Representatives; served from 1830 to his death.Poems of Religion and Society; Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory; Criticisms of Paine’s“Rights of Man;” Defense of Washington’s Policy of Neutrality“Old Man Eloquent.”
JacksonRetired to the “Hermitage,” near Nashville, Tenn.; always took a deep interest in public affairs....“Old Hickory;” “Cæsar of the White House.”
Van BurenWas renominated in 1840, 1844, and 1848 for the presidency.Inquiry Into the Origin and Causes of Political Parties in the United States.“Little Magician;” “Wizard of Kinderhook.”
HarrisonDied in office.A Discourse on the Aborigines of the Valley of the Ohio.“Tippecanoe.”
TylerRetired to his estate in Virginia; presided at the peace convention held in Washington in 1861....“Young Hickory.”
PolkDied in office....Also “Young Hickory.”
Taylor......“Rough and Ready;” “Old Buena Vista.”
FillmoreWas candidate for president in 1852 and in 1856; spent his remaining years at Buffalo, N. Y....“The American Louis Philippe.”
PierceTraveled in Europe; retired to Concord, N. H....“Purse.”
BuchananRetired to Lancaster, Pa.; devoted himself to writing defense of his administration.Résumé of My Administration.“Old Public Functionary;” “Bachelor President.”
LincolnDied in office.Orations.“Honest Old Abe;” “Rail-splitter;” “Great Emancipator.”
JohnsonRetired to home in Greeneville, Tenn.; chosen United States Senator in 1875.Speeches.“Sir Veto.”
GrantMade tour of the world and retired to private life in New York.Shiloh; Vicksburg; Chattanooga; The Wilderness; The Personal Memoirs of U. S.Grant.“Unconditional Surrender;” “Old Three Stars.”
HayesWas president of the Board of Freedmen, and president of the National Prison association....“President de Facto.”
GarfieldDied in office.Discovery and Ownership of the Northwestern Territory; Garfield’s Words.“The Martyr President;” “The Dark Horse.”
ArthurDied the year following his retirement....“Our Chet;” “America’s First Gentleman.”
ClevelandRetired to New York to practice law; at the end of second term retired to Princeton, N. J.Writings and Speeches.“Man of Destiny;” “The Claimant.”
HarrisonProfessor of International law at Leland Stanford University, California; afterward practiced law.Speeches; This Country of Ours; Views of an Ex-President.“Son of His Grandfather;” “Hoosier President.”
McKinleyDied in office.Speeches.“Prosperity’s Advance Agent;” “Bonaparte of Politics.”
RooseveltIn March, 1909, headed a scientific expedition to Africa, organized in the interest of the SmithsonianInstitution; resumed literary work and politics.The Naval War of 1812; Essays on Practical Politics; The Winning of the West; Hero TalesFrom American History; American Ideals; Life of Oliver Cromwell; African Game Trails.“Teddy;” “The Rough Rider;” “T. R.;” “Our Strenuous President.”
TaftKent Professor of Law at Yale University....“The Globe Trotter;” “The Judicial President.”
Wilson...Congressional Government; The State; An Old Master, and Other Political Essays; MereLiterature and Other Essays; George Washington; A History of the American People.“The Scholar in Politics.”

CANADA

CANADA.—What is known as the Dominion of Canada is a confederation of the colonies of British North America, constituted in 1867 by the British North America Act of that year. Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were the first to unite under the provisions of that statute, and the Dominion of Canada now includes the whole of the British North American possessions excepting Newfoundland.

Canada is nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and about 750,000 square miles larger than the United States without Alaska. The census figures for 1911 were:

Area
sq. mi.		Popu-
lation
Prince Edward Island2,18493,728
Nova Scotia21,428492,338
New Brunswick27,985351,889
Quebec351,8732,002,712
Ontario260,8622,523,274
Manitoba73,732455,614
British Columbia355,855392,480
Alberta255,285374,663
Saskatchewan251,700492,432
Yukon (Territory)207,0768,512
Northwest Territories1,921,68517,196
Total3,729,6657,204,838

In 1912 parts of the Northwest Territories were transferred to Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec.

Newfoundland.—The island of Newfoundland, on the northeast side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, has a total area of 42,750 square miles, with a population (1911) of 238,670. Attached to the government of the island is a coastal strip of the Labrador peninsula 120,000 square miles (population 3,949).

Physical Features.—Both the Atlantic and Pacific shores abound in deep indentations forming magnificent harbors and sheltered bays. On the Atlantic the principal bay is the Bay of Fundy, remarkable for its high and rushing tide, the water rising from twelve to seventy feet. There is also the Hudson Bay, connected with the Atlantic by Hudson Straits, really an inland sea with an area of three hundred and fifty thousand square miles, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, eighty thousand square miles in extent.

The most striking physical features of Canada are the Rocky Mountains, the Laurentian Range, and the chain of immense fresh water lakes forming part of the boundary with the United States.

The Laurentian Range extends along the north side of the St. Lawrence, the Ottawa River, and then stretches away to Lake Superior and the north, the length of the range being about three thousand five hundred miles. It forms the watershed between Hudson Bay and the St. Lawrence, and varies in height from one to three thousand feet.

The eastern portions of Canada are generally well timbered, and the same is true of British Columbia, and the region north of the Saskatchewan. Westward of the Red River, between the forty-ninth and fifty-fifth parallels, there is an immense fertile plain, suitable for general agriculture and grazing, extending nearly to the Rocky Mountains.

This range consists of triple chains with valleys between; the most easterly has the greatest elevation near the fifty-second parallel, the highest peaks being Mounts Brown, Murchison, Hooker, Columbia, Forbes, Bryce, Alberta, and Freshfield. The average height of the chain is from seven thousand to eight thousand feet. In the north, adjoining Alaska, is Mt. Logan, and, on the dividing line, St. Elias. (See [Mountains of the World] for elevations.)

Lakes and Rivers.—Canada is well watered, the country presenting a network of lakes and rivers. The system of the St. Lawrence alone, with the great lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario (between the last are the celebrated falls of Niagara), drains an area in Canada of three hundred and thirty thousand square miles. (See [North America] and [United States].)

Other important lakes are Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, Manitoba, Lake of the Woods, Great Slave, Great Bear, and Athabasca.

Next to the St. Lawrence the chief rivers are the Saskatchewan and the Winnipeg, flowing into Lake Winnipeg, and the Nelson, flowing from it into Hudson Bay; the Assiniboine and the Red River, which join their waters to flow into Lake Winnipeg; the Albany and the Churchill, emptying into Hudson Bay; the Athabasca and the Peace Rivers, flowing into Lake Athabasca, and the Slave River, from it into Great Slave Lake; the Mackenzie, fed from both the Great Slave and the Great Bear lakes, and emptying into the Arctic Ocean; the Fraser and Thompson, in British Columbia, emptying into the Pacific; and in the eastern provinces, the Ottawa, chief tributary of the St. Lawrence, itself fed by the Gatineau and Matawan; the Saguenay, emptying Lake St. John into the St. Lawrence; and the St. John, which flows into the Bay of Fundy, in New Brunswick, which it partly separates from the State of Maine.

The principal islands of the Dominion are: on the east, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Magdalen Islands, and Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and on the west coast, Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte Island. Lying along the north in the great Arctic Archipelago are immense islands, all of which, excepting Greenland, belong to Canada.

Climate.—The cold winter and the heat in summer are frequently extreme, but the climate is a healthy one. The winter may be said to continue from the middle of November to the end of March, or about four and a half months. British Columbia probably possesses the finest climate in North America.

In some inland parts of Canada the maximum temperature may be from ninety to ninety-six degrees, and the minimum from twenty to twenty-six degrees below zero. But although there are these extremes, the air is always dry, bracing, and exhilarating.

Products and Industries.—The chief industries of Canada are those of agriculture, stock-raising, dairy-farming, “lumbering” or timber trade and forestry, shipbuilding, fisheries, and mining. An extensive trade is maintained with the United States and England, the exports being timber, fish, and furs, with [667] dairy produce and live stock; wheat and wheat flour, barley, and other agricultural products, cod and other fish, coal, and minerals.

The minerals are chiefly coal, silver, nickel, gold, copper, iron, asbestos, lead, salt, mineral oils and gypsum. Gold is or has been worked in Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario, and largely in Yukon (Klondike) and British Columbia, where there are yet immense fields to open up. Silver mines are worked in Ontario; those at Cobalt (producing also cobalt, nickel and arsenic) have been the richest yet discovered in Canada. Iron ore is found all over the Dominion. Copper has been mined to a considerable extent both in Quebec and Ontario, and the deposits of the ore are of great extent. There are very large coal deposits in Nova Scotia. The coast of British Columbia is rich in coal of a good quality. Coal is known to exist over a vast region, stretching from one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles east of the Rocky Mountains, and north from the frontier for about one thousand miles.

The forest products of Canada constitute one of her most important sources of wealth. They find their way to all parts of the world—to the United States, to the United Kingdom, and to the Australian commonwealth.

Great progress has recently been made in the development of manufactures. The “national policy” comprises a high protective system, but since 1901 gives a preference to Britain.

Quebec has tanning industries and manufactures boot and shoes, the manufactures of woolen and cotton goods are increasing, and there are sugar refineries in Halifax and Montreal. Such wooden articles as doors, window sashes, etc., are manufactured in large numbers.

People.—The province of Ontario is thickly settled on the south, along the river and the lake shores, by a population which is mainly of British descent, with a considerable infusion of Germans. The province of Quebec is peopled in great part by descendants of the original French settlers; they are called habitans; many of them speak an archaic French dialect and keep up peculiar manners and customs, and they are Roman Catholic in religion.

The principal nationalities represented are English, Irish, Scotch, French, German and Indian, though there are also some few Dutch, Russian, Chinese, Welsh, Italians, Jews, half-breeds, etc.

Though English is the general language of Canada, the French language is by statute an official language in the Dominion parliament and in Quebec, but not now in any other province. Members of the Quebec and Manitoba parliaments may also address the House in either English or French.

Religion and Education.—There is no state religion in Canada, and absolute toleration is there an accomplished fact. Roman Catholics, Methodists, Presbyterians, the Church of England, Baptists, Lutherans, and Congregationalists are all represented.

Canada has long been in the enjoyment of free education, and the control of the system is in the hands of the provinces, except where the Act of Confederation secures the permanence of the denominational schools which existed at the time of confederation. Teachers are trained at provincial normal schools.

In Ontario and Quebec there are separate schools for Protestants and Roman Catholics.

The principal universities of Canada with the dates of their foundation are as follows:

PRINCIPAL UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF CANADA

OrganizedCollegesLocationControlPresident or Chairman
of Faculty		In-
struc-
tors		Stu-
dents		Volumes
in
Library
1881Alma CollegeSt. Thomas, Ont.MethodistRobt. I. Warner, D.D.212002,500
1838Arcadia UniversityWolfville, N.S.BaptistGeo. Barton Cutten, D.D.242502,500
1818DalhousieHalifax, N.S.Non-Sect.A. Stanley MacKenzie, B.A.8641728,000
1894Havergal Ladies’ CollegeToronto, Ont....N. W. Hoyles, Kc.653501,000
1789Kings UniversityWindsor, Ont.Prot.Epis.Rev. T.W. Powell. D.D.1391...
1844Knox Theo. CollegeToronto, Ont.Presbyt’n.Rev. Alfred Gandier, D.D.914022,000
1907Macdonald CollegeA. de Bellevue, Q.Non-Sect.F.C. Harrison, D.Sc.504079,000
1906McGill Univ. Col.Vancouver, B.C.Non-Sect.Geo. E. Robinson (Act.)243401,600
1821McGill UniversityMontreal, Can.Indepen.Wm. Peterson, M.A.2802,104140,000
1887McMaster UniversityToronto, Ont.BaptistA.L. McCrimman, M.A.3030020,000
1873Montreal Diocesan Theo.Montreal, Can.Prot.Epis.E.I. Rexford, M.A.5307,000
1863Mt. Allison UniversitySackville, N.B.MethodistByron C. Borden, D.D.2125012,000
1874Ontario Ladies’ CollegeWhitby, Ont.MethodistRev. J.J. Hare, M.A.221857,000
1867Presbyterian CollegeMontreal, Can.Presbyt’n.John Scringer, D.D.218020,000
1855Provincial Nor. CollegeTruro, N.S.StateDavid Soloam, LL.D.204254,000
1847Queen’s UniversityKingston, Ont.Non-Sect.Very Rev. D.M. Gordon1251,61067,000
1888Ridley CollegeSt. Cath’n’s. Ont.AnglicanRev. J.O. Miller, M.A.151602,500
1899St. Andrew’s CollegeToronto, Ont....Rev. D.B. Macdonald, M.A.18250...
1851Trinity CollegeToronto, Ont.Prot.Epis.Rev. T.C.S. Macklem2418015,000
1845Univ. of Bishop’s Col.Lennoxville, Que.Prot.Epis.Rev. R.A. Parrock96011,500
1912Univ. of CalgaryCalgary, Alb.Non-Sect.F.H. Dougall (Act.)11268...
1852Universite Laval U.QuebecNon-Sect.Mgr. Amedee Gosselin, M.A.70474100,000
1877Univ. of ManitobaWinnipeg, Man.StateJames A. MacLean, Ph.D.4388112,790
1800Univ. of New BrunswickFredericton, N.B.StateCecil C. Jones (Chan.)1816510,000
1907Univ. of SaskatchewanSaskatoon, Sask.StateWalter C. Murray, M.A.41381...
1855U. of St. Fran. Xav. Col.Antigonish, N.S.CatholicH.P. MacPherson, D.D.1922522,000
1841Victoria Col. and Univ.Toronto, Ont.MethodistRev. R.P. Bowles, M.A.2861025,080
1873Wesleyan Theo. Col.Montreal, Can.MethodistRev. J. Smyth, B.A.41005,000
1877Wycliffe CollegeToronto, Ont.Prot.Epis.Thos. R. O’Meara, LL.D.8118...

Government.—Canada is a self-governing dominion created by an Act of the British Parliament in March, 1867, known as the British North America Act. The Act provides that the Constitution of the Dominion shall be similar in principal to that of the United Kingdom; that the executive authority shall be vested in the Sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland, and carried on in his name by a Governor-General and Privy Council; and that the legislative power shall be exercised by a Parliament of two Houses, called the “Senate” and the “House of Commons.”

Therefore, the executive government of Canada is vested in the king, who is represented by a Governor-General appointed by him for a term of five years. The emoluments of the Governor-General are, however, paid out of Canadian revenues.

The Governor-General has a right, which is, of course, very seldom exercised, to disallow or reserve bills for imperial consent. The Constitution of Canada cannot be altered save by the Imperial Parliament, but to all intents and purposes Canada has complete autonomy.

The Legislature.—The legislative power is a Parliament, consisting of an Upper House, styled the Senate, and a House of Commons.

The Senate consists at present of eighty-seven members, distributed between the various provinces thus: twenty-four for Ontario, twenty-four for Quebec, ten for Nova Scotia, ten for New Brunswick, four for Prince Edward Island, three for British Columbia, four for Manitoba, four for Alberta, and four for Saskatchewan. The members of the Senate are appointed for life by the Crown on the nomination of the Ministry for the time being; each nominee must be thirty years old, a resident in the province for which he is appointed, a natural born or naturalized subject of the king, and the owner of property amounting to four thousand dollars.

The House of Commons is chosen every five years at longest, and consists of two hundred and thirty-one members, elected as follows: eighty-two being elected for Ontario, sixty-five for Quebec, sixteen for Nova Scotia, eleven for New Brunswick, fifteen for Manitoba, eleven for British Columbia, three for Prince Edward Island, twelve for Alberta, fifteen for Saskatchewan, and one for Yukon. The House of Commons is also composed of natural born or naturalized subjects of the king; no property qualification is necessary, and its members are elected upon a very wide suffrage. The members of the House themselves elect their Speaker, and twenty, including the Speaker, form a quorum.

Each province has also a separate Legislature and administration, with a Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the Governor-General, at the head of the Executive.

The Judicature.—Justice is administered, as in England, by judges, police magistrates, and justices of the peace, of whom the first named are appointed by the Governor-General, for life, from among the foremost men at the Bar in the several provinces. The highest court is the Supreme Court of Canada, composed of a Chief Justice and five associate judges, and holding three sessions in the year at Ottawa. The only other Dominion Court, viz., the Exchequer Court of Canada, is presided over by a separate judge, and its sittings may be held anywhere in Canada. The Provincial Courts include the Court of Chancery, Court of King’s Bench, Court of Error and Appeal, Superior Courts, County Courts, General Sessions, and Division Courts. The duties of coroners are generally analogous to those in force in England, as are also methods of civil and criminal procedure, while trial by jury prevails.

Cities.—The capital and seat of government of the Canadian Dominion is at Ottawa, population, 1911, 87,062.

Montreal, however, is the largest city of Canada, 470,480. It has extensive trade and manufactures, and from it the magnificent Victoria tubular bridge carries the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada across the St. Lawrence, which is here two miles wide.

Quebec, 79,910, the capital of the lower province, is the great shipping place for the Lower St. Lawrence, and is a picturesque old town, with walls and fortifications. Near it are the memorable Plains of Abraham.

Toronto, 376,538, on the northwest shore of Lake Ontario, is the local capital of the western provinces and the educational center of the Dominion, possessing a university and numerous schools.

Other cities include: Winnipeg, Man., 136,035; Vancouver, B. C, 100,401; Hamilton, Ont., 81,969; Quebec, Que., 78,910; Halifax, N. S., 46,619; London, Ont., 46,300.

Ottawa is situated upon the south bank of the Ottawa River, one hundred and twenty miles from its junction with the St. Lawrence at Montreal. The river here forms the splendid Chaudière Falls (two hundred yards wide and forty feet high), above which a suspension bridge spans the river, and which supply the motive-power for the numerous lumber mills, flour mills and factories.

East of the city the River Rideau forms a second fall. The Rideau Canal passes through the center of the city, and connects with the Rideau Lakes, and so with the great lakes beyond. Opposite the city, to the northeast, the Gatineau River joins the Ottawa.

It is a city of stately public buildings, of turfed drives and wooded pleasure grounds, and there is a constant round of social and official events connected with the meetings of Parliament and other public functions. The Grand Trunk system has added to the attractions of the city by building the Chateau Laurier, which enjoys a continent-wide reputation as being in the first rank of famous hotels.

The parliamentary buildings, constructed in the Italian Gothic style after 1860, are on a bluff on the river bank. They include the handsome library building and the Victoria Tower (one hundred and eighty feet). Adjoining buildings on Parliament Hill are devoted to departments of the Dominion government. The residence of the Governor-General—an old fashioned building, called Rideau Hall—is about a mile from the city. The post-office, city hall, banks and telegraph offices are handsomely built of stone.

Ottawa is the place of residence of the bishop of Ontario (Church of England), and of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ottawa, who has a cathedral here. There are a normal school and a collegiate institute, a very large college conducted by the Oblate Fathers, a ladies’ college, a musical academy, an art school, a well-equipped geological museum, and the parliamentary library, with three hundred thousand volumes.

The industries of Ottawa are mostly connected with lumber. In the winter thousands of men are engaged in cutting timber and drawing it to the streams, and in the spring the freshets carry the rafts down to the mills. Flour, iron wares, bricks, leather, and matches are also manufactured.

The city was begun in the last years of the eighteenth century by a settler named Wright, of Boston, Massachusetts, who built a residence near the Chaudière, and called the village which he founded Hull. The construction of the Rideau Canal stimulated the settlement, which was called Bytown. In 1854 its name was changed to Ottawa, and the town was created a city. In 1858 Ottawa was chosen as the administrative capital of Canada. The first parliament met here in 1865.

History.—In 1534 Jacques Cartier landed on the Gaspé coast of Quebec, of which he took possession in the name of Francis I., king of France. Little was done by way of settlement till 1608, when Champlain founded Quebec. From this time till 1763 Canada, from Acadia (Nova Scotia) to Lake Superior and down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, was held to be French territory.

The struggle between Great Britain and France for supremacy was long and bitter, but ended in 1763 with the treaty of Paris, by which all the French dominions in Canada were ceded to Britain, save the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, retained by France as fishing stations. Hudson Bay territory, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland had passed to England by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.

Through the American War of Independence, what is now Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois was lost in 1783 to the United States, no longer British colonies. Quebec was in 1791 divided into Lower and Upper Canada. A rebellion took place in 1837-1838, and the provinces were reunited in 1840. Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick were separated from Nova Scotia in 1770 and 1784. British Columbia was made a crown colony in 1858, and Vancouver Island joined to it in 1866. The confederation of all the British North American provinces—except Newfoundland—took place in 1867-1871, and the prosperity of the Dominion was only temporarily disturbed by the Red River rebellion of 1869.

The fishery rights have repeatedly been a source of controversy between Canada and Great Britain on the one hand and the United States on the other, and the dispute about sealing in Behring Sea and off the Alaskan coasts was only settled by arbitration in 1893. The Alaska boundary dispute was settled in 1903.

A proposed reciprocity agreement with the United States in the year 1911 saw the decisive defeat at the polls of the Laurier policy and the Liberal party. In October Robert L. Borden took over the reins of government, as Premier, and Earl Grey was succeeded as Governor-General by the Duke of Connaught. In 1916 the Duke of Devonshire succeeded as Governor-General.

The great European war of 1914 and following brought Canada to the vigorous support of Great Britain and the Entente Allies, and has done much toward the political, military and economic solidarity of the Dominion.

MEXICO

MEXICO (or Méjico; Span. pron. Meh´hē-co, from a native word), a federal republic of North America, embraces twenty-seven states, a federal district, and four territories. It extends between the United States and Guatemala, with an extreme length of nearly two thousand miles; its breadth varies between one thousand and (in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec) one hundred and thirty miles. It has a coast-line of almost six thousand miles, but with scarcely a safe harbor beyond the noble haven of Acapulco. On the Atlantic side, with its sand banks and lagoons, there are only open roadsteads, or river-mouths generally closed to ocean vessels by bars and shallows; harbor works, however, have been constructed at Vera Cruz and Tampico.

From the southeast and northwest extremities of the republic there extend the peninsulas of Yucatan and Lower California, enclosing the Gulfs of Campeche and California, respectively. In area (751,300 square miles) Mexico almost equals Great Britain and Ireland, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary together.

Surface.—For the most part Mexico consists of an immense tableland, which commences in the United States, and rises to over eight thousand one hundred feet at Marquez, seventy-six miles north by west of Mexico City; at El Paso, on the northern frontier, the elevation is only three thousand seven hundred and seventeen feet. The most important mountain range is the Sierra Madre (over ten thousand feet, and extending from Tehuantepec into the United States); parallel with this run the Sierras of the east coast and of Lower California.

The surface of the country is also much broken up by short cross-ridges and detached peaks. There are numerous volcanoes, but only a few of them are more or less active. The more prominent are Orizaba (Citlaltepetl, “star mountain”), Popocatepetl (“smoking mountain”); Ixtaccihuatl (“white woman”); Nevada de Toluca, and Malinche.

On the Atlantic side the plateau descends abruptly to the narrow strip (about sixty miles) of gently sloping coast land; toward the Pacific, where the coast lands vary in width from forty to seventy miles, the descent is more gradual.

Rivers and Lakes.—From their rapid fall the rivers of such a mountainous region could never be of value for transport or communication. The Rio Grande del Norte, the boundary river, is only navigable for sixty miles up from the Gulf of Mexico, and the largest interior river—the Rio Grande de Santiago, flowing west to the Pacific—is barred across by many waterfalls, though its upper course expands to form Lake Chapála, the largest sheet of water in Mexico, fully fifty miles in length.

Climate and Landscape.—Though Mexico lies just on the border of the torrid zone, the climate is governed to a far greater extent by elevation than by position in latitude, and distinct climates are recognized at different stages just as in the plateau of Abyssinia.

The low coast land and the maritime region below an elevation of two thousand feet, called the Tierra Caliente, presents all the characteristics of tropical lands.

Above an elevation of two thousand feet, and up the slopes of the mountains to a height of about five thousand feet, a climate is found in which the landscape takes the aspect of that of the temperate zone.

This stage is known as the Tierra Templada.

NATIONAL PALACE, CITY OF MEXICO

Still higher, above five thousand feet, a cool region is reached, which is known as the Tierra Fria. This includes the summit of the tableland and the pine covered slopes of the mountains up to the height at which some of the peaks are capped with perennial snows. Much of this high tableland is valuable only for pasture; towards the north and northeast, where the plateau is wider, the landscape becomes bare and dry, and salt lakes like those of the plateau region of the western United States appear. Deeply cut “cañons” or “barrancas,” gorges with steep walls furrowed out by the mountain torrents, are characteristic of the plateau.

Production and Industry.—The vegetation of Mexico has the same wide range as the climate. In the lowlands dye woods and valuable timbers abound in the virgin forests, as well as medicinal plants, india rubber, palms, etc.; and oranges and bananas, many varieties of cactus, agave, sisal, olives, sugar, coffee, cocoa, rice, indigo, cotton and tobacco, besides the omnipresent maize, all thrive. The vine flourishes in some districts, especially near El Paso, Durango, and Parras, in Coahuila, where a good wine is made; and mulberry plants have been imported from Europe to develop the silk industry. In Lower California a good deal of archil is collected, and chicle gum is extracted and prepared in the forests along the coast.

Agriculture in Mexico is steadily developing. Silver mining has been an important industry ever since the conquest. Gold is also produced. Copper is largely mined in some sections, being found in a pure state in Chiapas and Guanajuato, and elsewhere associated with gold. Other important minerals are iron, including enormous masses of meteoric iron ore, and the mountain a mile from Durango, the Cerro de Mercado, a solid mass of magnetic iron ore; lead, found associated with silver; and sulpher, zinc, quicksilver, platinum, cinnabar, asphalt and petroleum, besides salt, marble, alabaster, gypsum, and rock salt in great quantities. There are also said to be large deposits of coal, some of excellent quality.

Mexico is the original home of the “cattle range” business, and there vast herds of horses, cattle, and sheep form the principal wealth of the people.

Woolen and cotton spinning and weaving, and other branches of industry are encouraged by high protective duties.

People.—The population of Mexico consists mainly of the indigenous Indian race, and of the dominant Spaniards or their descendants. Spaniards born in Europe are now very few in number, but the government of the country is in the hands of the “Creoles,” or people of Spanish descent born in Mexico. They number about twenty per cent, mixed Hispano-Americans, or mestizos, forty-three per cent, and full blood Indians thirty-five per cent of the whole population. The mestizos are the farmers and rancheros, the muleteers and servants. Whites and mestizos speak Spanish.

The Roman Catholic is the religion of the country, but all beliefs are tolerated, and education, now free and compulsory, is making steady progress.

Government.—The Mexican constitution is closely modeled upon that of the United States. The president, who is assisted by secretaries of state, is elected for four years, and can be re-elected for a second term. The [671] legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of a Senate of fifty-six members, and a Chamber of Deputies of two hundred and thirty-three members. The judicial system occupies the same position as that of the United States; and the several states have elective governors and legislatures.

Owing to revolutionary conditions the civil government was practically suspended in September, 1914. (See under [History of Mexico].)

THE CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO

Cities.—The principal cities are Mexico City, the capital, population 470,000. Puébla, east of the capital, among the mountains, is the second town and the most industrious place in Mexico. Guadalajara, northwest, is also a city of magnificent palaces and churches. Vera Cruz, founded by Cortez, is the only port on the Atlantic. On the Pacific side the chief seaports are Mazatlan and Acapulco, with a fine harbor. Other important towns are Oaxaca, Puebla, and Durango.

The railway system joins that of the United States at El Paso on the Rio Grande.

Mexico City is situated seven thousand four hundred and ten feet above the sea at the lowest level of the great basin (fourteen hundred square miles) of the Anahuac plateau.

All the main streets converge on the Plaza Mayor, where the site of the old teocalli is occupied by the no less famous Cathedral. The walls of this imposing building, forming a cross four hundred and twenty-six by two hundred and three feet, alone cost nearly two million dollars, and the interior with its twenty chapels and elaborate ornamentation, much more. Built into the foot of one of the two open towers (two hundred and eighteen feet) is the famous “Aztec” (Toltec) calendar stone.

Facing the cathedral is the Municipal Palace, and on the sides of the plaza are the National Palace (the old vice-regal residence), the national Monte de Piedad, the postoffice, and the national museum.

Other noteworthy buildings are the national picture gallery and library (two hundred and fifty thousand volumes), the national observatory, the school of mines, the mint, the Iturbide hotel, and the former palace of the Inquisition, now a medical college; and, mostly in secularized ecclesiastical edifices, there are also schools of law and engineering, a conservatory of music, and an academy of fine arts.

Among the monuments of the city are the noble Columbus monument, the statue of Cuauhtemotzin, the last of the Aztec emperors, and that of the engineer Martinez.

The principal streets are broad, clean, and well paved and lighted, with houses of stone gaily painted in bright colors. In addition to the alameda, with its stately beaches, Mexico is remarkable for the extent and beauty of its paseos, or raised paved roads, planted with double rows of trees, which diverge far into the country from every quarter; and there are still on Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco, where a line of steamers runs, a few of the floating gardens for which the ancient city was so celebrated.

Attempts had long been made to drain the valley of Mexico. The federal government finally undertook the work, and operations begun in 1890 were completed in 1898 at a cost of about sixteen million dollars. Extensive drainage and sanitation works have since been carried out at a cost of five million seven hundred and fourteen thousand nine hundred and eighty-two dollars.

In 1905 a sumptuous legislative palace, a national Pantheon for the ashes of the great men of Mexico, and a monument to perpetuate the heroes of the independence were under construction, at a cost of thirty million dollars.

The trade of Mexico is chiefly a transit trade, but it has now extensive cotton and linen factories, paper mills, tobacco and cigars, gold and silver work, pottery, silverware, cork, bricks, and soap—many of them due to foreign enterprise.

History of Mexico.—The history of ancient Mexico exhibits two distinct and widely differing periods—that of the Toltecs and that of the Aztecs. Both were Nahua nations, speaking a language which survives in Mexico to this day.

The eighth century is the traditional date when the Toltecs are related to have come from the north, from some undefined locality, bringing to Anahuac, or Mexico, its oldest and its highest native civilization, about 1325. A [672] hundred years later, under the reign of Montezuma II., they had attained a suzerainty over all the tribes from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

On the coming of the Spaniards under Cortez in 1519, Aztec rule was finally overthrown, chiefly by means of the assistance the Spaniards received from those peoples whom the Aztecs had held in cruel bondage.

In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories—at one time all the country from Panama to Vancouver’s Island—under the name of New Spain, and governed by viceroys (fifty-seven in all) appointed by the mother country, Spain. For nearly three centuries it may be said to have lain in sullen submission beneath its cruel conqueror’s heel, till in 1810 the discontent, which had been gaining ground against the vice-regal power during the war of Spain with Napoleon, broke into open rebellion under the leadership of a country priest named Hidalgo.

In 1822 General Iturbide had himself proclaimed emperor; but the guerilla leader Guerrero, his former ally, and General Santa Anna raised the republican standard, and in 1823 he was banished to Italy with a pension. Returning the following year he was taken and shot, and the federal republic of Mexico was finally established.

For more than half a century after this (till 1876) the history of Mexico is a record of chronic disorder and civil war. In 1836 Texas secured its independence, for which it had struggled for several years, and which Mexico was compelled to recognize in 1845. In that year Texas was incorporated with the United States, and after the Mexican war of 1848 Mexico ceded half a million square miles to the United States.

The Emperor Napoleon III. declared war against the president, Juarez, in 1862; the Austrian Emperor of Mexico, Maximilian, imposed by the French, was executed in 1867, and the republic re-established. Diaz was re-elected president for the eighth time in 1910, but, being too autocratic, had to resign under pressure of revolution in 1911. In the ensuing welter of revolts and conspiracies President Madero was set aside and killed, and the United States applied pressure to eliminate President Huerta. From this time on the relations of the United States with Mexico became more strained. During 1915-1916, following repeated attacks made by bands of Mexican bandits upon American border towns and assaults by Mexicans upon Americans and other foreigners in Mexico, the relations between the two countries approached a crisis. Early in 1916 nineteen men, nearly all of them Americans, were taken from a train near Chihuahua and killed by a band of bandits.

Conditions became still more tense when, on March 9, several hundred bandits led by Villa raided and burned the town of Columbus, N. M., killing nine American civilians and eight United States soldiers. On March 10 President Wilson ordered five thousand United States troops into Mexico to catch Villa, and two days later the first troops crossed the border. On March 16 the first clash occurred between Villa outposts and the American expeditionary force. On June 18 the war department ordered all the state militia mobilized, and within the next two weeks fifty thousand of the state soldiers had been rushed to the border.

President Wilson later in the year named an American commission at the suggestion of General Carranza, which, jointly with a Mexican commission, began its sessions at New London, Conn. The sessions continued until November 24, when a protocol was signed providing for the withdrawal of the United States troops from Mexico in forty days, conditioned upon the Carranza Government showing within that time that it could protect the border and prevent raids by bandits upon American territory.

Two days before the signing of this protocol Villa, at the head of a strong force, attacked Chihuahua City, and after a battle lasting several days captured the city.

Carranza forces regained control of Chihuahua City December 3, and Villa’s forces fled to the mountains west of the city, where they were later reported to be gathering new recruits in preparation for more extensive operations.

The year 1917 was ushered in with the struggle between the Carranza and Villa factions still in progress.

LEADING COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA

ARGENTINA, or ARGENTINE REPUBLIC

ARGENTINA, or ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, takes its name from the river La Plata (“River of Silver”). After Brazil, it is the largest state of South America. Its territory reaches from the Pilcomayo River, on the borders of Bolivia, southward for two thousand four hundred miles to Staten Island, off the southeastern extremity of Tierra del Fuego; and from the slope of the Andes on the west to the Uruguay River and the Atlantic in the east.

Physical Features.—Excepting on the northwest, where the spurs of the Andes reach down into the state, the surface of Argentina presents vast monotonous and level plains, broken only by the detached ridges of Córdova and San Luis, in the western interior. In the north the portion of the region called the Gran Chaco, within the frontier, is partly forest covered, but all the central and southern region presents only vast treeless plains or “pampas,” covered at most seasons with coarse grass, which is green in the winter months, but which dries up in summer so as to give an aspect of aridity to the plains. Some portions of the interior, called “Salinas,” are barren and white throughout the year.

Rivers.—The great watercourse of the country is the Paraná, formed by the union of the Upper Paraná and Paraguay rivers near the northeastern corner of the state. This is a noble river, in all parts of its course through Argentine territory scarcely ever less than a mile in width, and in some places spreading out in lateral channels, or “riachos,” to a breadth of ten miles.

The Pilcomayo, which forms part of the northern boundary, has now been explored throughout its length, and is navigable at high water; the Vermejo, the next river southward, has of late years become a regularly navigated highway from the Paraguay up to the northeastern provinces; the Salado, farther south, flowing directly to the Paraná, is also an important river; but the remaining streams which tend eastward to the Paraná have not strength of water sufficient to resist evaporation in crossing the dry plains, and terminate for the most part in marshes and salt lakes.

Climate.—The climate in the extreme north is very hot, for it lies north of the tropic of Capricorn. The more remote southern territories have an extremely disagreeable climate, but are not really so cold as might be expected from their relatively high latitude. But the country in general enjoys an equable, temperate, and healthful climate. Stormy southwest winds, called “pamperos,” sweep over the plains at times, and raise great clouds of dust, which fly across the plains.

Production and Industry.—The principal productions are wheat, maize, oats, linseed, sugar, wool, hides, cattle, sheep, and horses.

The great wealth of the state, however, lies in its countless herds of cattle and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the “pampas,” and which multiply there very rapidly. The rearing and tending of these herds is the great and characteristic industry of the country; these also yield enormous quantities of hides, horns, and salted beef.

The northwestern provinces of the Argentine Republic, crossed by the lower ramifications of the Andes, are rich in metals, including gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and iron, as well as in several kinds of marble, jasper, and precious stones. On the Rio Vermejo petroleum wells have recently been discovered.

The export of frozen beef and mutton is an important industry. The exports are made up entirely of pastoral and agricultural products, with the exception of quebracho, copper, manganese, and wolfram.

People.—The people of the country are mostly Spanish in their language and descent, although there are many Italians, French, Americans, Swiss, and Germans. The Gauchos, or herdsmen of the plains, are a hardy and spirited, but ignorant race, often of partial Indian descent. Some of the Indians of the remote districts have become skilled in the rearing of flocks and herds.

The religion is Roman Catholic. The government is closely modeled upon that of the United States.

Education.—Primary education is secular, free and nominally compulsory from the ages of six to fourteen. Schools are maintained by provincial taxation, and controlled by provincial boards (except in the capital, where there is a National Council), with grants from the Federal Government. Secondary education is controlled by the Federal Government in lyceums and normal schools. There are also Special Government Schools—one naval, one military, one mining, and one agriculture. There are National Universities at Cordoba and Buenos Aires, and Provincial Universities at La Plata, Santa Fé, and Paraná.

Government.—The Constitution vests the executive power in the hands of a President, who is also Commander-in-chief of the troops, elected by representatives of the provinces for six years, not being immediately re-eligible; and the legislative authority in that of a Senate of thirty members, two chosen by the capital and two by the legislature of each province, and a House of Deputies of one hundred and twenty members elected for four years by the people, one-third of the Senate retiring every three years, and one-half of the House retiring every two years.

The Judicial system consists, like that of the United States, of a Federal Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal, with Provincial Courts in each state for non-national or single state cases.

Cities.—The chief seaport is Buenos Aires, the capital and largest city, with a population of 1,315,000 in 1911. La Plata lies twenty-five miles to the southeast of the Federal capital, and, although founded in only 1882, already numbers 80,000 inhabitants. A canal joins it to the vast docks of Ensenada.

Córdova (53,000), nearly in the center of the state, is the seat of the chief observatory of the Republic.

Rosario (135,000), on the right bank of the Paraná, more than two hundred miles up from the La Plata inlet, is a substantially built town, and a great outlet of the animal produce of the interior plains.

Tucuman (55,000) and Salta in the northwestern mountain region, and Mendoza (32,000) at the eastern base of the Andes, where they are crossed to enter Chile, with Corrientes (18,000) on the Paraná, are other important places.

Buenos Aires (bwā´nōs ī´rez; Sp. pron. bwā´nōs ī´res; Eng. pron. usually Bonos Ai´rez) stands on the right bank of the Plata, which here, at a distance of one hundred and fifty miles from the open sea, is twenty-eight miles across.

The city is partitioned into blocks of about one hundred and fifty yards square. The streets are regularly laid out at right angles to each other and well lighted. Many are planted with trees, and there are numerous open squares and several fine parks, the most famous being Palermo Park (eight hundred and forty acres). The main buildings are the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the chapel of Santa Felicitas, the Casa Rosada, or Government House, the university, the Opera House, and various government and municipal buildings. Much of the town has lately been rebuilt on European lines. It is the terminus of six railway lines, and has excellent street car, cable, and telephone services. There are manufactories of furniture, machinery, carriages, leather, hats, textiles, boots, tobacco, liquors, etc., and the trade is very large.

An elaborate system of harbor works was carried out between the years 1887 and 1895 at a cost of twenty million dollars; it includes an advanced river wall, a north and south basin, and a series of four docks, which connects two channels of the Rio de La Plata, and so brings large vessels up to the wharfs. About half of the inhabitants are of European birth or descent. Among the Europeans the vast majority are Italian; the rest are principally Spanish, French and British. Newspapers are published in French, English, Italian, and German, as well as in Spanish.

History.—The river La Plata was visited by the Spaniards in 1516, and the country was [674] colonized in 1535, when Buenos Aires was founded. For many years the country was regarded as a part of Peru. The progress of the colony was not more hindered by the bloody wars which prevailed with the natives for a hundred years than by unwise legislation at Madrid.

In 1776 Buenos Aires became the capital of a new viceroyalty. In 1806 that capital was occupied by a British force under General Beresford, but the town was soon besieged and compelled to surrender. In 1808 the British forces under Whitlock assaulted the town, but after very severe loss were themselves compelled to capitulate.

In 1810 the colonists founded a local provisional government. A sanguinary war for independence followed, which did not cease till 1824. Spain acknowledged the independence of the country in 1842. The first half-century of Argentine autonomy was much disturbed by revolutions.

The Brazilian-Argentine war against Paraguay (1865-1870) was interrupted and followed by renewed revolts at home. For a time the great material progress of the country was accompanied by an equally remarkable movement in favor of stability of government and the repression of factions. But once more dissensions and an insurrection in Buenos Aires led to civil war (1890), which again was followed by a disastrous financial panic (1891); and political and commercial crises, with riots and risings in various parts of the country, continued to succeed one another and to prevent progress. In May, 1910, the Argentine celebrated its centenary of independence.

BRAZIL

BRAZIL (brä-zil´; Portuguese pron. brä-zēl´), a republic of South America, of which it covers nearly half, is little less in area than the whole of Europe, its area being 3,300,000 square miles, including the Acrá territory bought from Bolivia in 1902. It has a length of 2,660 miles, and a breadth of 2,705 miles between extreme points. It borders on every state in South America except Chile. The name was given by early explorers from thinking that the red dyewood (brazil-wood) found here was identical with the East Indian dyewood known to them as Brasil.

Surface.—This vast territory presents two contrasted regions. First, the wide, low lying, and humid forest plain of the Amazon River in the north; second, the uplands in the south, which are traversed by radiating hills and mountain ridges, and which present wide grass plains between woods and bush-covered country.

The northern coast is bordered by low, alluvial bottom lands and sandy plains, full of lakes, and in places very sterile; while the southern angle of the country is rolling campo land, bordered by a low sandy coast. Above its eastern angle a large area of coastlands and neighboring plateau is subject to periodical devastating drought.

The highest mountain ranges of Brazil rise in the center of the southeastern uplands, where the Montes Pyrenéos rise to nine thousand five hundred feet, but the coast range, or Serra do Mar, to the south of the beautiful Gulf of Rio de Janeiro, hardly yield to these, for within it the Itatiaiossu is scarcely six hundred feet lower, while the Organ Mountains, at the back of Rio, have summits which reach up to seven thousand five hundred feet.

Rivers.—Brazil possesses three great river-systems—the Amazon, La Plata, and San Francisco.

The Amazon and its tributaries drain fully a half of the country. To the east of the Madeira these tributaries are tableland rivers, broken by rapids and freely navigable for comparatively short distances. West of the Madeira they are lowland rivers, sluggish, bordered by extensive flood plains, and afford free navigation for long distances. The La Plata system drains nearly one-fifth of the country through its three branches—the Paraguay, Paraná, and Uruguay.

The first of these is a lowland river, freely navigable for a long distance, while the other two are tableland rivers, full of obstructions, and without free outlets for their upper level navigation.

The San Francisco is a tableland river, flowing northeast between the Goyaz and maritime mountains, and then, breaking through the latter, southeast to the Atlantic. It is not freely navigable because of the Paulo Affonso Falls. The other coast rivers are generally short.

Climate.—Brazil lies almost wholly within the tropics, and is still in great part unexplored and unsettled. The climate of Brazil varies greatly—the lowlands of the Amazon and a great part of the coast being hot, humid, and unhealthy, while the tablelands and some districts of the coast swept by the trade winds are temperate and healthy.

Production and Industry.—The minerals are very considerable and valuable, comprising gold, silver, iron, diamonds, topazes, and other precious stones. Its forests are immense, abounding in the greatest variety of useful and beautiful woods adapted for dyeing, cabinet work, or ship-building; among these are mahogany, logwood, rosewood, brazil-wood, etc.

Its agricultural produce is abundant; maize, beans, cassava root, and nuts are very generally cultivated; also, in some parts, wheat and other European cereals.

Cattle raising is an important industry, the number being computed at eighteen million. Cotton is being largely cultivated for export, and is being used for home manufactures. Sugar cane is grown in large and increasing quantities in the northern provinces, Pernambuco being the center of the sugar-producing zone.

India rubber comes from the more northern provinces, especially the valley of the Amazon, and is shipped from Pará and Manáos; and coffee, though also grown in the north, comes chiefly from Rio de Janeiro, Minas, São Paulo, and Esperito Santo. Tobacco and cocoa are grown largely, especially in Bahia. The exports consist solely of the raw produce of the soil.

People.—The inhabitants of Brazil, as of other parts of South America, present three great elements—that of the aboriginal Indians, that of the European conquerors and colonists and their descendants, and that of the Africans introduced as slaves. The most important section of the Brazilians are the descendants of the Portuguese settlers. There are, however, several flourishing German and Italian colonies in the southern states.

The number of pure white people is very small in proportion to those who have some mixture of Indian or African blood, and the Brazilians themselves have developed into a number of more or less distinct physical types in the widely separated provinces of the republic. Formerly about one-half of the entire population of Brazil was formed of negro slaves.

The Roman Catholic is the established religion, and is supported by the state; but all other sects are tolerated. There are, however, very few Brazilians who are not Roman Catholics.

Education is still in a very backward condition. The language is Portuguese, with dialectal varieties.

Government.—According to the new Constitution of 1890, the empire was abolished and the Brazilian nation is constituted a Federal Republic under the title of the United States of Brazil, each of the twenty provinces forming a separate state with local self-government. At the head of the federation is a president with executive authority, elected by the people for six years. The National Congress with legislative functions comprises a Senate and Chamber of Deputies, the senators being chosen three for each state, for nine years, the deputies for three years in the proportion of one to every seventy thousand of the population. The franchise extends to all citizens not under twenty-one years of age.

Cities.—The capital city is Rio de Janeiro, the second largest in South America. Next in importance is the city and seaport of Bahia (230,000), finely placed on an inlet of the Atlantic, the oldest city of Brazil. Pernambuco, also called Recife from a reef of rock which forms the natural breakwater of its harbor, is the fourth in population, being now surpassed by São Paulo, which ranks next to the capital (332,000). Maranhão, on an island of the north coast; Pará, in the Tocantins estuary; Rio Grande, and Santos are the other notable places along the Atlantic. In the interior the principal towns are Ouro Preto, in the gold mining region, and Diamantina, the center of the diamond fields. Cuyabá, in the interior, is important as being at the head of the regular navigation into Brazil by way of the Paraná and Paraguay rivers.

Rio de Janeiro (Ree´o deh Zha-nay´e-ro) stands on the west side of one of the most magnificent natural harbors in the world. An inlet of the Atlantic, the bay of Rio de Janeiro runs fifteen miles northwards, varying in width from two miles to seven; it is girdled on all sides by picturesque mountains (one thousand five hundred to three thousand feet), covered with tropical vegetation. The entrance, less than a mile wide, passes between two bold headlands, one of them called the Sugar-loaf (one thousand two hundred and seventy feet).

The city and its suburbs stretch nearly ten miles along the shore. About three miles southwest of the city stands the precipitous cone of Corcovado (two thousand three hundred and thirty-six feet), with a cog-railway up to the top. Public institutions are the vast hospital of La Misericordia; the national library with three hundred thousand volumes; the national museum; the large lunatic asylum; the botanical gardens, with a celebrated avenue of palms; the observatory; the Geographical and Historical institute; the former royal palace at Sāo Christovão, the arsenal, the naval dockyards, the academy of fine arts, a cadet-school, a school of medicine, a conservatory of music, a polytechnic school, etc. A good water supply, chiefly by an aqueduct twelve miles long, and a new system of sewage draining, much improved the city health; but surrounding hills shut out the breezes, and the heat grows intense in summer.

The population includes many foreigners: Portuguese, British, French, and Germans.

Rio de Janeiro is also the commercial capital, sending out one-sixth of the total exports of Brazil, and bringing in forty-five per cent of the imports. The chief export is coffee.

The whole sea frontage of the city is lined with quays, and has been improved by extensive new harbor works, embracing a dock of seventy-five acres, a breakwater three thousand two hundred yards long, an elevated railway, hydraulic cranes, warehouses, etc.

The city possesses cotton, jute, and silk mills, tobacco and hat factories, machine shops and tanneries.

History of Brazil.—As early as 1480, expeditions sailed from Europe in search of the island of Brasil, rumored to exist in the western seas. Brazil was discovered on January 26, 1500, by Vincent Yañez Pinzon, who landed at Cape St. Augustine, near Pernambuco, and then followed the coast north to the Orinoco. In the same year a Portuguese expedition to the East Indies, under Pedro Alvarez Cabral, discovered the Brazilian coast near Porto Seguro on April 25 (April 22, Cazal). Cabral took formal possession, and named his new discovery “Terra de Vera Cruz.” Two Portuguese expeditions were sent out in 1501 and 1503, the first exploring the coast, and the second planting a colony and bringing back a rich cargo of brazil-wood, which gave a name to Portugal’s new possession.

In 1530 the Portuguese government resolved upon the definite settlement of Brazil. Many of the earliest colonies failed through lack of means, and from inability to hold their ground against the natives. In 1567 a Huguenot colony, established on the bay of Rio de Janeiro twelve years before, was overthrown by the Portuguese, who then founded the present capital of Brazil.

The discovery of gold in Minas Geraes in 1693, and of diamonds in 1729, gave a new impetus to the growth of the country, one result of which was the removal of the colonial capital from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. The cultivation of cotton, tobacco, and sugar cane had already attained great prominence and prosperity.

In 1808 the royal family of Portugal was expelled by the French and took refuge in Brazil, and the very first act of Dom João VI. was to open Brazilian ports to foreign commerce. He then removed various restrictions on domestic industries, founded a printing office and library, created new courts, and opened various schools and public institutions. All these acts greatly stimulated the growth of the country.

In 1821 he returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son in Brazil as prince regent. Personal ambition, and the advice of men opposed to government from Lisbon, led the young prince to declare for Brazilian independence, September 7, 1822. He was proclaimed and crowned emperor as Dom Pedro I. before the end of the year, the small Portuguese force in the country being quickly and easily expelled. The constitution was ratified and sworn to early in 1825, and some amendments were added in 1835.

The new empire, however, did not start smoothly, nor was the reign of Dom Pedro I. a fortunate one. Vexed with the opposition encountered, he in 1831 voluntarily abdicated in favor of his eldest son, and withdrew to Portugal. During the next nine years Brazil was governed by regencies, but in 1840 a popular agitation led to the declaration of the young prince’s majority, at fifteen years of age, and to his coronation the following year as Dom Pedro II. The reign was one of almost unbroken peace, interrupted by two wars—one with Buenos Aires in 1852, and the other with Paraguay in 1865-1870.

At the revolution of November, 1889, the empire became a republic, and Dom Pedro and his family were exiled. Under the new and enlightened constitution and a succession of patriotic presidents, Brazil has enjoyed a season of peace and prosperity such as it has not experienced since its colonial times. In 1904 the third Pan-American congress was held in Brazil, and did much to bind closer the bonds existing between her and the other American republics.

CHILE

CHILE (Tchee´lee; Span. Chile, pron. Tchee´lay), is one of the republics of South America, on the west coast, and borders on Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina. It reaches from the southern boundary of the coast line of Peru to the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego, through a distance of about two thousand eight hundred miles, rising inland to the summits of the Andes, which here form a single chain at a distance of about one hundred miles from the ocean. The Strait of Magellan is by treaty considered neutral as between Chile and Argentina. Its breadth varies from forty to two hundred miles.

Physical Features.—The range of the Andes, visible from the sea all along the coast of Chile, towers up in a series of volcanic cones and snowclad peaks; the loftiest summit, that of Aconcagua, being probably the highest point of all the South American continent.

Numbers of streams descend from the range, and have furrowed deep valleys across the width of the country. The most considerable of these are the Maypú near the center of Chile, and the Maule and Biobio in the south, both of which are to some extent navigable.

In the south are also many deep lakes. Mineral waters, chiefly saline and sulphureous, are abundant. The most important islands are those constituting the southern province of Chiloé; Juan Fernandez also belongs to Chile.

Climate.—This long strip of maritime country presents remarkable gradations of climate from north to south. Nearest the Peruvian frontier the coast-land of Tacna, Tarapacá and Atacama is a hot, rainless, sandy desert without sign of vegetation. Southward is found a temperate climate which enjoys a moderate rainfall. This central belt is the most valuable and the most productive agricultural region of Chile. Farther south the westerly winds blow toward the mountains from over the wide Pacific and bring with them such quantities of moisture that the rainfall is excessive; here, in southern Chile, in consequence of the abundant moisture, the mountain slopes are densely covered with evergreen forest.

Production and Industry.—Agriculture and mining are the principal occupations. Wheat, maize, barley, oats, beans, peas, lentils, wines, tobacco, flax, hemp, Chile pepper, and potatoes are grown extensively; the vine and all fruit trees flourish. The live stock includes cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and pigs. The mineral wealth is considerable, the country being extremely rich in copper ore, and some rich gold mines have been discovered. The rainless north yields more especially nitrate of soda, iodine, borate of soda, gold and silver, a large number of mines yielding both being in actual work in Tarapacá, Guanaco, and Cachinal in Atacama, and Caracoles in Antofagasta; the center, copper and silver; and the south, iron and coal. The nitrate exports are extremely valuable. There are smelting works for copper and silver, tanneries, corn and saw mills, starch, soap, biscuit, rope, cloth, cheese, furniture, candle, and paper factories, breweries and distilleries; and the domestic industry furnishes cloth, embroideries, baskets, and pottery. The many ports favor commerce, and six lines of steamers connect the country with Panama and the Magellan Strait. The staple articles of export are nitrate of soda, iodine, copper bars and ores, silver ores, corn, flour, hides, and guano.

People.—The inhabitants of northern and central Chile are, for the most part, descendants of the intermixed Spaniards and native Indians. In the upper classes the race has been kept more purely Spanish than in any other South American country.

Chile is a Roman Catholic country, but other religions are tolerated. Education receives much attention. There is a first class university at Santiago, and a lyceum in every provincial capital. The language spoken in Chile is Spanish, but with many local words of Indian origin.

Government.—Under the constitution voted in 1833, Chile is governed by a president who is elected for five years by delegates nominated by ballot, who is not re-eligible. A Senate and Chamber of Deputies form the legislature. The Senate, of thirty-two members, is elected by the provinces for six years; the Chamber, of ninety-four members, by the departments for three years, by electors over twenty-one, and able to read and write.

Cities.—Santiago, the capital, has 350,000 inhabitants; Valparaiso, 180,000; Concepcion, Iquique, Talca, Chillan, Antofagasta, over 30,000.

Santiago (San-tee-âh´go) stands near the western base of the Andes, one thousand seven hundred feet above sea-level, and one hundred and fifteen [677] miles by rail east by southeast of Valparaiso. The snow-capped mountains seem to enclose it on the north and east; while in the east of the city rises the picturesque park, Cerro de Santa Lucia (eight hundred feet above the plain), dotted with grottoes, statues, kiosks, restaurants, an historical museum, and an observatory. The small but turbulent stream, the Mapocho, is crossed by five bridges.

The city is regularly laid out, lighted with gas and electric light, and has electric railways in all directions. Most of the houses are of one story only, owing to the earthquakes (the most serious occurred in 1575, 1647, 1730, 1822, 1835, 1906).

On the great Plaza Independencia are the government palaces, the Grand English Hotel, the cathedral, and the archbishop’s palace. On the site of the Jesuit church, burned down in 1863, a monument was erected in memory of the two thousand worshipers who perished in the fire.

Santiago boasts a noble Alameda, or boulevard, adorned with four rows of poplars and statues. Facing it are the University and the National Institute. The city has also a military school, schools of arts and agriculture, a conservatory, a national library with one hundred and two thousand volumes; botanical and zoological gardens, etc.

The manufactures include cloth, ship’s biscuits, beer, brandy, etc., and it has also an ice factory, a fruit-conserving establishment, and copper-smelting works.

Santiago was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in 1541.

History of Chile.—The name Chile is supposed to be derived from an ancient Peruvian word signifying “snow.” The first European to land in Chile was the Portuguese discoverer Magellan, after his famous voyage through the strait which now bears his name. He landed at Chiloé in 1520.

After the conquest of Peru by Pizarro, an expedition was made to Chile from that country overland under the leadership of Diego de Almagro in 1535. This expedition penetrated as far as the Rio Clano, but returned unsuccessful. Another was sent under command of Pedro Valdivia in 1540, which succeeded in annexing the territory as far as the River Maipu. Santiago, the capital, was founded by Valdivia in 1542. During the colonial period the governors of Chile were appointed by the viceroys of Peru.

In 1810 a revolt against the Spanish power broke out, in which Don Bernardo O’Higgins, son of one of the last viceroys of Peru, but a native of Chile, played a conspicuous part, and finally became the first dictator of the new republic. The first constitutional president was General Blanco Encalada. The government was unsettled until 1847. A revolution broke out in 1851, but since then there has been no serious attempt to overturn the government by force of arms.

In 1864 Chile gave Peru very valuable support in her war with Spain. Valparaiso was bombarded by the Spaniards in 1866. In 1879 Chile declared war against Bolivia, and immediately thereafter against Peru, with which Bolivia was allied. For a time the Peruvian fleet kept the Chileans in check, but in August, 1879, the Peruvian ironclad Huascar was captured by the Chilean men-of-war Cochrane and Blanco Encalada, both armor plated. After this event the success of the Chileans was uninterrupted—Peruvian towns were bombarded, warships captured, and Lima taken by storm June 21, 1881. The Chileans occupied Lima and Callao until 1883, when a treaty of peace was signed.

President Balmaceda’s unconstitutional government led to civil war in 1891, when the congressionalists were victorious. The decisive battle was fought near Valparaiso on August 28, and Balmaceda committed suicide.

In September, 1910, the centennial celebration of the first declaration of independence from the Spanish crown took place, many foreign governments sending special delegations.

LEADING COUNTRIES OF ASIA

CHINA

CHINA, or more accurately the Chinese Republic, is an extensive dominion of Eastern Asia of which China proper constitutes the principal portion. For centuries this dominion has been known as the Chinese Empire, and it is still frequently referred to as such, although the form of government is now republican. China includes a number of dependencies or subject territories, viz.: Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, East Turkestan, and the small territories between Mongolia and Tibet.

By its natives China is never so called, but usually by the Chinese words for “The Middle State,” or “The Republic of the Middle Flower.” The name China (Chi-na, land of Chin) comes to us from India through Buddhism. Various old names are Serica and Cathay, and in the Bible “Land of Sinim.”

China and its dependent territories have an area of 4,300,000 square miles. The population of the whole is variously estimated at from 300,000,000 to 440,000,000. The great bulk of this falls to the provinces of China proper: the population of all the dependencies (Manchuria, Tibet, Mongolia, East Turkestan), making but some 16,000,000 or 25,000,000 of the total.

Surface.—Occupying all the central and eastern portion of the continent of Asia, the limits are for the most part very distinctly marked out by great natural features. The boundary with Russian Siberia on the north runs along the Amur River and the crests of the Sayan and Altai Mountains; towards western Turkestan the alpine heights of the Thian Shan and the Pamir form the limit; the snow clad Himalaya range separates China from the hot plains of India in the south, and the mountains of Yunnan continue the natural frontier eastward again to the coasts of the Pacific.

Within these wide exterior limits China includes a number of regions, some of which are strongly contrasted with one another in their natural features and in the character of their population. Along the eastern or maritime border, where the rivers flowing down from the mountain region of the interior have spread out in wide alluvial plains next the sea, lie China proper and Manchuria, filled with a teeming population of busy agriculturists and townsfolk. Within, on the high plateau of Central Asia, the region of bare steppes and deserts, and the mountain skirts round it, are the countries of Mongolia, Eastern [678] Turkestan, and Tibet, thinly peopled for the most part by nomadic pastoral tribes.

China Proper may be described as sloping from the mountainous regions of Tibet and Nepal toward the shores of the Pacific on the east and south. The most extensive mountain range in it is the Nan Ling or Southern Range, a far extending spur of the Himalayas. Commencing in Yunnan, it bounds Kwangsi, Kwangtung, and Fukien, on the north, and, passing through Chekiang, enters the sea at Ningpo.

HUNCHBACK BRIDGE, NEAR PEKING, CHINA

North of this long range, and west of the one hundred and thirteenth meridian, on to the borders of Tibet, the country is mountainous, while to the east and from the great wall on the north to the Po-yang Lake in the south, there is the Great Plain, comprising the greater part of the provinces of Chihli, Shantung, Honan, Anhui, and Kiangsu. The Great Plain extends on both sides of the lower Hoang-ho, between the great cities of Peking and Nanking, over an area more than three times as extensive as England. Sedulously irrigated or drained, and cultivated in every corner, this great plain supports the densest agricultural population in the world.

BRIDGE AT YUEN-MING-YUEN, CHINA

In the provinces west from Chihli—Shansi, Shensi and Kansu—the soil is formed of what are called the loess beds, which are extremely fertile, the fields composed of it hardly requiring any other manure than a sprinkling of its own fresh loam. The husbandman in this way obtains an assured harvest two and even three times a year. This fertility, provided there be a sufficient rainfall, seems inexhaustible.

Seas, Rivers and Canals.—The semi-mediterranean seas and gulfs of the Pacific along the coasts of China are distinguished by separate names. In the north, between the Korean peninsula and the mainland of China, is the Hoang Hai or Yellow Sea, three hundred miles wide, named from the lemon color of its waters, filled with the alluvium brought down to it by the Hoang-ho, and so shallow that its muddy bed is frequently furrowed by passing vessels. Within or northward lie the Bay of Korea and the Gulfs of Pechihli and Liaotung, the two last separated almost entirely from the outer China Sea by the projecting promontories of Shantung and Liaotung. South of the Yellow Sea, between the mainland and southern Japan, with the chain of the Luchu Islands and Formosa, extends the wider Tunghai [679] or Eastern Sea; and from this the Fukien Channel, between Formosa and the coast of China, one hundred miles wide, leads into the great mediterranean called the Nanhai or South Sea of China, which is almost completely shut in by Borneo and the Philippine Islands. The coasts of the Yellow Sea bordering on the great plain are low and flat; southward thence to the Island of Hainan the shores of China rise steep, and are dotted round with rocky islets.

GREAT CHINESE WALL,

erected to protect the ancient empire from the inroads of nomadic Tartars about 214 B.C. The main substance of the wall is earth or rubbish, retained on each side by a strong casing of stone and brick, and terraced by a platform of square tiles. The thickness of the wall at the base is often as much as twenty-five feet. (See full description [below].)

The rivers of China—called for the most part ho in the north, and chiang (kiang) in the south, are one of its most distinguishing features.

Two of them stand out conspicuous among the great rivers of the world: the Ho, Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, and the Chiang, or Yang-tze-kiang. They rise not far from each other among the mountains of Tibet. The Ho pursues a tortuous course seaward through North China; the Chiang or Yang-tze through Central China. The terrible calamities caused by the inundations of the Hoang-ho have procured for it the name of “China’s Sorrow.” The Ho is not much under the Chiang in length—somewhat over three thousand miles.

Besides these may be noted the Pei-ho, which gathers the waters of the northern portion of the great plain, and forms a highway of communication between the capital city of Peking and the port of Tien-tsin, thirty-five miles above its mouth; the Min, the river of the province of Fukien, by which the Bohea teas are brought down to the port of Fu-chou; and the Si-kiang, the largest river of southern China, one of the delta branches of which forms the Chu-kiang, or river of the great port of Canton.

The three largest lakes of China lie immediately south of the course of the Yang-tze. The Tung-ting-hu, seventy miles long, and the Poyang-hu, nearly as large, are expansions of the mouths of the chief southern tributaries of the Yang-tze in Central China; the third, the Tai-hu, lies south of the estuary.

Canals.—Greatest of all the public works in China is the Grand Canal, which traverses the great plain for a distance of seven hundred miles, passing from Tientsin, on the Pei-ho, in the north, across the course of the Hoang-ho to the lower course of the Yang-tze, connecting a system of water communications which extends from the capital to the chief parts of the empire. It is but the greatest sample of the system of canals, great and small, which form a network over all parts of the lowlands of China. Steam communication, however, all along the eastern seaboard from Canton to Tientsin has now very much superseded its use.

The glory of making this canal is due to Kublai, the first sovereign of the Yüan dynasty.

PAGODA, NEAR PEKING, CHINA

The Pagoda, or “idol temple,” in China, usually distinguishes the Buddhist from the Confucian temple. It is a tapering tower, always with an odd number of stories. First-class pagodas have seven, nine, or thirteen stories, minor ones have three or five. The most famous was the Porcelain Tower of Nanking, erected in the beginning of the fifteenth century; only nine of the proposed thirteen stories, cased in white porcelain, were completed, and the height never exceeded about two hundred and sixty feet. It was destroyed by the Taipings in 1856.

After the Grand Canal, as a gigantic achievement, comes the Great Wall, on the north side next Mongolia. Not so useful as the canal, and having failed to answer the purpose for [680] which it was intended—to be a defense against the incursions of the northern tribes, there it still stands, the most remarkable artificial bulwark in the world.

It was in 214 B. C. that Shih Hwang Ti determined to erect a grand barrier all along the north of his vast empire. The wall commences at the Shanhai Pass and extends westward continuously almost into the heart of the continent for a distance of one thousand five hundred miles, over mountain and valley, and across rivers and ravines. It is a rampart of earth, ten to thirty feet high, broad enough at the top to admit of several horsemen passing abreast, and was formerly cased on the sides and top with bricks and stones, and was flanked by numerous projections or towers, gates being left at intervals for the passage of travelers and the collection of customs. Now it has fallen in many places, and its gates are negligently guarded, and northward of Peking the growing Chinese population has spread and settled the country to a considerable distance beyond its barrier.

Climate.—The climatic conditions naturally vary considerably over so large a stretch of country. In the lofty Tibetan plateau and the less elevated plains of Mongolia, the climate is exceedingly dry, and is marked by great extremes of hot and cold. The basins of the two great rivers, being nearer the Pacific, are moister and more equable. In this part of China proper the dry season lasts from November to February, the remaining months, particularly May, being extremely wet. The rainfall is of a copious tropical nature.

Generally speaking, China is a cold country in comparison with other regions in the same latitude. From July to September, however, the weather is intensely hot, and the heat is accompanied by typhoons, which are much dreaded for their violent and devastating effects.

Production and Industry.—Agricultural pursuits occupy the majority of the people, the chief products being tea, silk, indigo, cotton, cereals, rice, and sugar. Agriculture is held in higher estimation here than in any other land in the world. The land is freehold, and is held by families in small holdings.

There is much coal in all the provinces, and iron ore is also plentiful in Shansi. Copper ore is plentiful in Yunnan. Southern Yunnan also furnishes a variety of precious stones—rubies, amethysts, sapphires, topazes, opals, besides malachite, and the steatite or soapstone, in which the Chinese carve figures of all sorts.

The much prized Yu, or jade, brought formerly from Turkestan, comes now from the Hoang-ho valley; lapis lazuli (for the preparation of ultramarine) is found in the mountains of Che-kiang, in the east coast region. Large beds of porcelain clay occur in this province also, and in its neighboring one of Kiang-si.

About one-fourth of the world’s supply of new silk comes from China. Cotton and wool mills, flour and rice mills are important industries.

Before European manufactures had reached their higher development, fine “Nankeen” calico was largely imported from China to Europe. “China ware,” or porcelain, was first made by the Chinese, and so ignorant were the early Portuguese traders of its value, that they called it “porcellana,” believing it perhaps to be made of shells; the secret of its manufacture was not discovered till the beginning of the eighteenth century. In the province of Kiang-si, not far from Yao-chou, there are porcelain factories which were founded by an emperor in 1004 A. D.

The Chinese also excel in carpentry; paper [681] making from the bamboo was invented among them as early as the second century B. C. They are highly skilled in the use of metals; bronze vases exist which date from 1760 B. C., and the great bells on the towers of Peking, cast during the Ming dynasty, are still perfect; the sonorous gong metal alloy is as yet a Chinese secret; in their delicate embroideries, carvings in ivory, engravings on wood and stone, lacquered wares, and rich silks and satins, they show astonishing handicraft.

VIEW OF THE ROCK-HEWN TEMPLES AT LUNG-MEN

Here, as early as the seventh century, Chinese artists sculptured religious figures in the recesses of precipitous cliffs—similar to those of Upper Egypt—and turned them into hundreds of quarried temples. The huge Buddha and attendant figures in the central recess can be clearly seen. Many smaller figures and decorations in other recesses can also be discerned.

People, Religion and Education.—The Chinese, as we have seen in the [Book of Races], belong to the Mongolian race. They are stout and muscular as compared with other eastern peoples, temperate, industrious, cheerful, and easily contented; but they are addicted to gambling.

The dress of the poor is very much alike in both sexes; and though it is regulated for all classes by sumptuary laws, it is varied among the wealthy by the richness of the materials and the various ornamentation.

The three chief religions of China are Confucianism, Tâoism, and Buddhism. It is difficult to estimate the comparative number of their adherents. To claim a majority for those of any one of them is very absurd. As a matter of fact, Confucianism represents the intelligence and morality of China; Tâoism its superstitions; and Buddhism is ritualism and idolatry, while yet it acknowledges no God.

Besides these three national systems, Mohammedanism has numerous adherents in the northern and western provinces.

There are temples of Confucius in every great town, and twice a year, in spring and autumn, sacrifices of animals, fruit, and wine are offered in honor of the sage.

The majority of the Tâoists, or followers of Laotse, imitate the Buddhists in their monastic life, and many of them live as hermits in the mountain caves of the upper Yang-tze, or in the most romantic spots of the mountains of China.

The Grand Lama of Tibet is the pope of the Buddhist Church, but the priests in China have no political power, and are viewed with contempt by the literary and governing classes. In Peking, however, several large monasteries of Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhists are supported at the expense of the government.

The native Roman Catholics of China are said to number more than a million, but Protestants are very few.

In 1906, after the Russo-Japanese war, a new system of compulsory primary education was established. The curriculum is largely based upon the Japanese. Modern sciences, history, geography, and foreign languages are taught. Special schools have been established (technical, agricultural, normal, language, etc.). Thousands of temples have been converted to educational purposes. Old style examination [682] halls have been pulled down, and colleges built on the sites. The educational facilities are, however, very inadequate. Girls’ schools, formerly non-existent, are still very few in number. The only government medical school is an army one, but the government has recognized the Union Medical College, opened in Peking by the Protestant missions there. Many Chinese students have proceeded to Japan, America, and Europe to study there. The government is using the money returned by the American government from the Boxer indemnity to send students to America.

ROYAL OBSERVATORY, PEKING, CHINA

The Chinese were among the very earliest observers of the heavens, though the Hindus, Chinese, Chaldeans, and Egyptians each claim the honor of having been the first students of astronomy. The Chinese have astronomical annals claiming to go back two thousand eight hundred and fifty-seven years B. C. These record little but the appearance of comets and solar eclipses. Professional astronomers were compelled to predict every eclipse under pain of death. The popular idea was that an eclipse was a monster having evil designs on the sun, and it was customary to make a great noise, by shouting, etc., in order to frighten it away. At an early period the Chinese appear to have been acquainted with the luni-solar Metonic cycle of nineteen years, and they had also divided the year into three hundred and sixty-five and one-fourth days. To the burning of all scientific books by one of their princes (Tsin-Chi-Hong-Ti), 221 B. C., the Chinese attribute the loss of many theories and methods previously in use.

There is a university in Peking and a number of colleges under foreign management. In 1911 there were five hundred and forty-five foreigners employed in educational work.

Government.—Until February 12, 1912, China was a monarchy, in practice almost absolute. Since that day it has been a republic under a president who holds office for a term of five years. Many changes were made at the time of the revolution. A cabinet was substituted for the old grand council, grand secretariat, and government council; the cabinet being composed of a prime minister, two associate ministers, the various ministers of state, and the heads of various boards. A privy council was also formed. Administration is carried on by the following ministries: (1) Of Foreign Affairs; (2) Interior; (3) Finance; (4) Education; (5) War; (6) Marine; (7) Justice; (8) Agriculture, Works, and Commerce; (9) Posts and Communications; (10) Colonies. There are also a large number of minor boards and offices, divided into twenty-two provinces for local administration.

Cities.—There were in 1910 about twenty-three towns with populations exceeding 50,000, but all figures are based upon estimates.

Peking1,000,000
Canton1,250,000
Hankow900,000
Tientsin850,000
Shanghai700,000
Fuchow650,000
Chungking600,000
Suchow500,000
Ningpo450,000
Hangchow400,000
Nanking300,000
Changsha250,000
Chinkiang200,000
Antung150,000
Wuhu130,000
Amoy120,000
Wenchow100,000
Swatow90,000
Chefoo90,000
Shasi85,000
Ichang70,000
Kongmun60,000
Wuchow60,000
Niuchwang50,000

Peking, or Pei-Ching (“Northern Capital”) is situated in a sandy plain, and is surrounded by walls with sixteen gates, each surmounted by towers one hundred feet high; and it consists, in fact, of two cities—the inner and the outer—known also as the Manchu or Tartar and the Chinese, the northern and the southern.

The walls of the Manchu city average fifty feet in height, and are fully sixty feet wide at the [683] bottom; those of the Chinese city (rectangular in plan) are thirty feet high and twenty-five feet wide. The circuit of the two cities measures twenty-one miles, including an area of nearly twenty-six square miles.

The Manchu or Inner City is divided into three portions; and at the heart of it are two enclosures, into the innermost of which entrance is forbidden to all except such as have official claims to admission. It is called the “Purple Forbidden City,” is very nearly two and one-quarter miles in circuit, and in it are the palaces of the former emperors and other members of the imperial family.

The T’âi Ho, or “Hall of Grand Harmony,” is built of marble on a terrace twenty feet high, and rising itself an additional one hundred and ten feet; its principal apartment is two hundred feet long and ninety feet wide. Surrounding the Forbidden City is the “August City,” about six miles in circuit, and encompassed by a wall twenty feet high. In the western part of the “August City” is the “Western Park” with a large artificial lake, a summer-house, gardens, the copper statue of Buddha (sixty feet high), and the temple of “Great Happiness.”

In the General City are the principal offices of the government, the observatory, the Provincial Hall for literary examinations, the Colonial Office, and the “National Academy.” In the northeastern corner is the Russian mission, and west from it the “Palace of Everlasting Harmony,” a grand monastery for over a thousand Mongol and Tibetan monks. A little farther west stands, amidst cypresses, the temple of Confucius. To the “Temple of Emperors and Kings,” near the south wall, the emperors went to worship the spirits of nearly two hundred predecessors. The great Tutelary Temple of the capital is grimy, and full of fortune-tellers. All the foreign legations and Christian missions are within the Inner City. The new Roman Catholic Cathedral is conspicuous.

The Chinese or Outer City is very sparsely populated; much of the ground is under cultivation or wooded.

The “Altar to Heaven,” with its adjunct, the “Altar of Prayer for Grain,” and the “Altar of Agriculture,” are both near the southern wall. The “Altar to Heaven” stands on a splendid triple circular terrace of white marble, richly carved, in a grove of fine trees. The “Altar of Prayer for Grain,” was burned down in 1889.

The principal streets of the Chinese City are more than one hundred feet wide, but the side streets are mere lanes. The streets are seldom paved and are deep either in mud or in dust. In the smaller streets the houses are miserable shanties; in the main streets both private houses and shops are one-story brick edifices, the shops gay with paint and gilding.

There are three Catholic cemeteries (Portuguese, French, and native) and a Russian one; and there are mission buildings, Russian and others, and hospitals.

History.—Chinese historical documents begin with the reigns of Yâo and Shun. In 403 B. C. we find only seven great states, all sooner or later claiming to be “the kingdom,” and contending for the supremacy, till Ts’in (Ch’in) put down all the others, and in 221 B. C. its king assumed the title of Hwang Tî, or emperor. From that year dates the imperial form of the Chinese government, which thus existed for more than two thousand one hundred years.

The changes of dynasty were many, two or more sometimes ruling together, each having but a nominal supremacy over the whole nation. The greater dynasties have been those of Han (206 B. C.-220 A. D.), T’ang (618-906), Sung (960-1279), Yüan (the Mongol, 1280-1367), the Ming (1368-1643), and the Ch’ing (Manchû-Tartar, from the Manchû conquest of China in 1643 to the 1912 revolution).

It was not till after the Cape of Good Hope had been doubled, and the passage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama in 1497, that intercourse between any of the European nations and China was possible by sea. It was in 1516 that the Portuguese first made their appearance at Canton; and they were followed at intervals of time by the Spaniards, the Dutch, and the English in 1635. The Chinese received none of them cordially; and Chinese dislike of them was increased by their mutual jealousies and collisions with one another. In the meantime trade gradually increased, and there grew up the importation of opium from India. From the measures of the Chinese to prevent the import of opium came the first English war with China in 1840; the result of which was the opening of Canton, Amoy, Fûchâu, Ningpo, and Shanghâi to commerce, and the cession of Hongkong to Great Britain. A second war, in 1857, France being allied with Great Britain, ended in the opening of five more treaty ports. A third war (1860) and the march on Peking did even more to open China to the world.

After a war in 1884-1885 France secured permanent control of Tongking and Annam.

In 1894 Japan, reviving old claims on Korea, drove the Chinese out of Korea, and after victories on land and at sea, captured Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei. By the treaty of 1894 Japan secured as indemnity Formosa and the Liao-tung peninsula; but the protests of Russia, Germany, and France made Japan resign Liao-tung. Russia obtained a lease of Port Arthur and Talienwan, with railway and other privileges in Manchuria; Germany obtained Kiao-chau and concessions in Shantung; and Great Britain, as an offset, obtained a lease of Wei-hai-wei and sought to secure trading freedom in the Yang-tze-kiang valley.

Russia’s refusal to evacuate Manchuria and her movements in Korea led to war with Japan in 1903, the defeat of the Russian armies in Manchuria, the destruction of the Russian fleet, and the fall of Port Arthur (1905), China being nominally neutral. By the peace (1905) Japan secured dominance in Korea, the Russian leases in Liao-tung, and great influence in southern Manchuria and on China generally.

A series of far-reaching reforms, promoted by a nationalist reform party in 1898, were summarily cancelled by the dowager empress, who assumed supreme authority. The reactionary and anti-foreign “Boxer” association (“The Fist of Righteous Harmony”), encouraged by the court, made extermination of foreigners its war cry in that year, and besieged the legislations in Peking. After a two months’ siege by an army of Japanese, Russians, British, Americans, French, and Germans this condition was relieved. The constitutional movement began in 1911, followed by a revolution. The leader of the revolt at Han-kau was the able general, Li Yuan-hung, but the inspirer of the revolution was Dr. Sun Yat-sen, at that moment in America.

On October 13 the rebels proclaimed a republic in the province of Hu-peh, with Li Yuan-hung as president, and notified the foreign consuls that the property and persons of foreigners would be respected.

On February 12, 1912, the throne issued three edicts, in which it announced its will to abide by the decision of the National Convention and accept the republic, entrusting Yuan with the task of bringing about the new constitution in conjunction with the Nan-king government, and, after exhorting all to peacefully accept the new order, announced the abdication of the dynasty.

A constitution of seventy clauses was promulgated; the emperor was to retain his title and receive a pension, and be accorded the civility due to a foreign sovereign. On February 27 the Nan-king Assembly endorsed this decision by electing Yuan president, and he was formally installed on March 10.

Yuan’s administration was hampered by the movements in Mongolia and Tibet towards autonomy, movements countenanced by Russia and Great Britain respectively. Difficulties were also put in the way of China by the European powers in the matter of a development loan, but President Yuan, supported by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, seems to have laid securely the foundations of the largest republic the world has yet seen.

President Yuan Shi-ki was assassinated in 1916, and succeeded by Li Yuan-hung.

INDIA

INDIA, the Indian Empire of the British crown, is an extensive region of southern Asia, and next after China the most populous area in the world. It occupies the central peninsula of southern Asia, and has a length of some nineteen hundred miles, a breadth of sixteen hundred, and an area, inclusive of Burma, of 1,766,650 square miles. The natural boundaries of this vast region are, on the north, the range of the Himalaya Mountains, which separates it from Tartary, China, and Tibet; on the west, the mountainous frontiers of Afghanistan and, farther south, of Persia; on the southwest and south the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean; on the east the hill ranges which border upon Burma and the Bay of Bengal.

Surface.—The region presents a diversified surface and scenery. It has indeed been called “an epitome of the whole earth,” consisting as it does of mountains far above the level of perpetual snow, broad and fertile plains bathed in intense sunshine, arid wastes, and impenetrable forests.

The most prominent feature in the relief of India is the great range of snowy peaks named the Himalaya, or “abode of snow,” which rises on the edge of the Tibetan plateau, above the northern plains, stretching out in a continuous chain for nearly eighteen hundred miles. The mean height of this portion of the borders of the Tibetan plateau, defined very clearly by the channels of the Indus and the Bramaputra, is estimated at thirteen thousand feet; the mean breadth of its base is about one hundred and fifty miles. Its summits rise to twenty-nine thousand feet, and most of the difficult passes ascending from the valleys and gorges of the Indian side are not lower than about sixteen thousand feet.

Southward from the bases of the Himalaya and the Sulaiman mountains the great plain of northern India spreads out, reaching across the whole breadth of Hindustan from the Arabian Sea to the Gulf of Bengal.

Southward of the great plain the land begins to rise again. The first elevations reached in this direction are those of the long range of the Aravali hills, which extend for four hundred miles from northeast to southwest, marking the edge of the western section of the great plain. It is bold and precipitous on that side which falls toward the Indian desert, but less so on the southeast; its average height is about three thousand feet, Mount Abu, being the highest point.

Behind the Aravali hills lie the plateaus of Malwa and Bundelkhand, extending over the country generally termed central India; These are fertile tablelands of uneven surface elevated from one thousand five hundred to two thousand feet above the sea level, and traversed by a number of minor hill ridges.

The greater part of south India is occupied by the wide tableland of the Deccan. The name ghat was originally applied by the natives to the passes in the outer slopes of the ranges which run parallel with the two coasts of the southern portion of the great promontory of India enclosing the Deccan, and which had to be ascended to reach the high interior country from the coast; but this name Ghat has been transferred to these ranges or outer edges of the tableland themselves.

The western Ghats, about eight hundred miles in length, clothed with magnificent teak forests, form by far the boldest and most continuous escarpment of the Deccan plateau, ascending abruptly from a low base, generally at a distance of about thirty miles from the sea.

The eastern Ghats differ from the western in being much lower, in rising at a much greater distance from the coast of the Bay of Bengal, and with a gentle slope, giving access by wide openings to the interior. Their average height is about fifteen hundred feet, the highest point, near Madras, only about three thousand feet above the sea. The Deccan plateau between these supporting buttresses has thus a gradual eastward slope, and is characterized by undulating treeless plains, ridges and isolated flat-topped hills capped with basalt. Large portions of it are also covered with jungle, often overgrowing the ruins of former towns and temples, but there is no extent of forest.

Between the eastern Ghats and the sea lies the extensive maritime plain generally named the Karnatic, reaching back from the Coromandel coast for about fifty miles. The soil of this plain proves abundantly fertile when it is watered, but there are few streams, and a supply of water for irrigation has to be stored in reservoirs.

Rivers.—The river system of India consists of three great rivers: the Indus, the Ganges, the Bramaputra.

The Indus rises on the northern slopes of the Himalayas, sweeps round and enters at the western extremity of the range, and waters the Punjab.

The Ganges is formed by the amalgamation of the streams which drain the southernmost slopes of the Himalayas.

The Bramaputra rises also within easy distance of the Indus in the northern slopes of the Himalayas, flows east for some considerable distance, and then enters India at the extreme eastern point of the Himalayas. It is therefore to be noticed that the river system, of such vast importance to the people of India, is the drainage of both the northern and the southern slopes of the Himalayas.

The Ganges is the sacred river of the Hindus, rises in a snow-field of the southern face of the Himalayas at an elevation of nearly fourteen thousand feet above the sea, rushing down as a torrent to the highest accessible point on its banks (ten thousand three hundred feet), where the temple of Gangotri is built. To the Hindu a bath or a drink of the sacred water at this point has wonderful atoning virtues, and those who cannot themselves make the pilgrimage hither are supplied with flasks of the holy element bottled by the priests of Gangotri. At Allahabad the Jumna, which has followed a parallel course from the mountains, adds its strength; thence, by Benares and Patna, it passes eastward to weave its many mouths with those of the Bramaputra, and to wage a battle twice daily with the inflowing tide among the malarious islands of the Sundarbans. One of the westerly delta branches, the Hugli, on which Calcutta stands, is the most frequented highway to the sea.

Climate.—The whole country has three well-marked seasons—the cool, the hot, and the rainy. The cool months are November, December, January, and a part of February; the dry hot weather precedes, and the moist hot weather follows the periodical rains. The rainy season falls in the middle of summer and is called monsoon. It is the occasional failure of the monsoons that causes the periodical famines to which the country is liable.

The central tableland is cool, comparatively, but the alternations of heat and cold differ greatly elsewhere.

In the northwest there is burning heat with hot winds in summer, and frost at night in winter.

In the south the heat is more tempered, but the winter is cool only, and not cold.

The fall of rain varies greatly in different parts of the country. In the northeastern and other outlying parts it exceeds seventy-five inches. In the Deccan, in the upper basins of the Ganges and the Indus, it is thirty, and in the lower regions of the Indus less than fifteen inches. The remainder of India is placed between the extremes represented by these damp and dry belts.

Production and Industry.—The large majority of the population of India are engaged in agricultural pursuits, nearly 200,000,000 being either engaged in tilling the soil or dependent upon those so engaged. Great irrigation works have been carried out, the area irrigated being 42,486,724 acres.

The principal crops cultivated are rice, wheat, millet, pulse, and other food grains, oil-seeds, tea, cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco, and indigo.

Tea is grown largely under European supervision in the Eastern Himalayas, and already surpasses the China teas. Coffee is grown in the south, but with checkered success. Among the dyes, indigo and lac (red) are noteworthy. The indigenous flowers are not rich, the water lilies being the best; the flowering shrubs are very fine.

Of trees in the plains near the coasts the palm order with its several varieties strikes the observer. Inland the mango fruit-tree and the orange, the umbrageous banyan, the sacred peepul, and the bamboo are features in the landscape. In the hills the teak and other useful timber trees are obtained. In the Himalayas are the cedar, the pine, the fir, the juniper.

The cultivation of opium is a government monopoly and heavy duties are levied on the exports of opium, a duty being also paid to the Indian treasury.

Almost all the metals and minerals are represented in India, but of the useful metals, excepting iron, the quantity is not known to be large. Coal exists in many parts, especially in the northeast—at Bardwan, near Calcutta, and in Assam. Gold is found in Mysore, and in the sands of many streams; copper near Delhi and elsewhere; salt is obtained in large quantity from the mines in the northwest of the Punjab, and by evaporation from the coast lagoons all round India, and from salt lakes in Rajputana. Most of the precious gems, including diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds, are found, some abundantly, some rarely, though the supply of the once famous diamonds of Golconda seems to have ceased.

Metal and textile workers, glass and pottery workers, with their dependants, number close on twenty millions, and there are large numbers employed in service.

The textile manufactures of India were famous in long past centuries throughout the civilized world; such were the gold brocades of Delhi, brought thence to imperial Rome, the muslins of Dacca, made for the Mongol court, and the pattern colored cloths of Calicut (calico), the shawls of Kashmir, and the silks and carpets of Multan. All these home-made fabrics, however, have declined before the products of the great factories.

Peoples.—The broad division of the peoples of India includes a northern group of Aryan nations, occupying the great plains and the northern seaboard on each side, and the non-Aryan inhabitants of the Deccan plateau in southern India. This division also corresponds to that of the languages of India, separating those related to the Sanscrit, the language of the Aryan conquerors of the north, from the Dravidian and Kolarian of the south. (See Book of Races.)

Languages.—Though nearly a hundred and fifty languages, derived from nearly twenty linguistic families, are spoken in India, three of those families—the Aryo-Indian, the Dravidian, and the Tibeto-Burman—represent the speech of ninety-seven per cent of the inhabitants.

Hindustani, a dialect of Hindi, has become the literary language of Hindustan, and is the lingua franca of India. English is understood by many.

Religions.—The chief religions are Hinduism (218,000,000 in 1911), Mohammedans (66,000,000), Buddhists (11,000,000), Animists (10,000,000), and Christians (4,000,000).

Government.—India is a dependency of Great Britain, consisting partly of territory under the direct administration of British officials, and partly of native states, all subordinate, in varying degrees of relationship, to British authority.

The nine great provinces are Madras, Bombay, Bengal, the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, the Punjab, Burma, Eastern Bengal and Assam, the Central Provinces, and the Northwestern Frontier Province.

In accordance with the Royal Titles Act of 1876 the King of Great Britain and Ireland assumes the additional title of Emperor of India. The Parliament of the United Kingdom is supreme over India; but all the statutes relating to India are in the nature of either constitutional enactments or financial provisions.

In India the supreme authority, both executive and legislative, is vested in the governor-general in council. The governor-general, or viceroy, who generally holds office for five years, receives a salary of eighty-five thousand dollars a year, and has power to overrule his council in cases of emergency. The council is composed of six ordinary members, all appointed, like the governor-general himself, by the crown for a period of five years. Since 1909 one of the members has been a native of India.

The work of the council is distributed among the departments of finance, commerce, home and foreign affairs, revenue and agriculture, army, legislation, education, and public works. The foreign department is under the special care of the viceroy.

The seat of the supreme government of India is Delhi, with an annual migration to the hill-station of Simla for the hot season.

Cities.—The capital, Delhi, has a population (1911) of 391,828. The other chief cities are: Calcutta (1,216,514), Bombay (972,930), Madras (517,335), Hyberabad (499,840), Rangoon (293,316), Lucknow (260,621), Lahore (228,318), Ahmedabad (215,448), Benares (204,222). In addition there are twenty cities with populations exceeding 100,000.

Delhi (Del´lee), since 1912 the capital of the Indian Empire is located on the right bank of the Jumna, nine hundred and fifty-four miles northwest of Calcutta. It was the capital of the Afghan or Pathan, and afterwards of the Mogul, empire. It is the terminus of the East Indian and Rajputana railways, the former crossing the Jumna by a fine iron bridge.

Delhi is walled on three sides, has ten gates, and stands on high ground, the famous palace of Shah Jehan, now the fort, looking out over the river and a wide stretch of wooded and cultivated country. To the north, about a mile distant, rises the historic “ridge,” crowned with memorials of the Indian mutiny, and commanding a fine view of the city, the domes and minarets of which overtop the encircling groves.

The palace buildings comprise the cathedral-like entrance hall, the audience hall, and several lesser pavilions, covering in all an area of one thousand six hundred feet by three thousand two hundred feet, exclusive of gateways. The beautiful inlaid work and carving of these buildings are the admiration of the world, and is worthy of its famous inscription: “If there is a heaven on earth, it is this—it is this!”

In the heart of the city stands the Jama Masjid (“great mosque”), one of the largest and finest structures of the kind in India, which also owes its origin to Shah Jehan. Among the notable monuments in the neighborhood are the imperial tombs, including that of Hamayun, second of the Mogul dynasty; the old Kala Masjid, or black mosque; and the thirteenth century Kutab Minar, ten miles to the south, which is two hundred and thirty-eight feet high, and tapers gracefully from a diameter of forty-seven feet at the base to nine feet at the summit.

Modern Delhi is noted for its broad main streets, the chief being the Chandni Chauk, or Silver Street, with its high clock tower, and the institute and museum.

Delhi has a large trade in wheat and other produce, and its bazaars are noted for gold and silver work, precious stones, shawls, and costly fabrics.

Simla, since 1864 the summer headquarters of the British government in India, stands on the slopes (seven thousand feet) of the Himalayas, in a beautiful situation, one hundred and seventy miles north of Delhi. Its first house was built in 1819, and it was first visited officially by the Indian government in 1827. There are two vice-regal residences, handsome government buildings, and a fine town hall. Population sixteen thousand in winter, and considerably more in summer.

Calcutta, on the left bank of the Hughly, the largest and westernmost branch of the Ganges delta, is about eighty miles from the sea. The government buildings, Bishop’s College (now an engineering school), High Court, town hall, bank, museum, university, St. Paul’s cathedral, and many other English buildings have earned for it the name “City of Palaces.” The native quarters, though improved, are still squalid, the houses of mud or bamboo. An esplanade, numerous quays, an excellent water-supply, gas, and tramway services, add to the amenities. There are extensive dockyards, warehouses, ironworks, timber yards, and jute mills. Extensive railway and steamboat communications make it the chief emporium of commerce in Asia.

Bombay stands on an island, connected with the coast by a causeway, and has a magnificent harbor and noble docks. It is rapidly surpassing Calcutta in trade, and is one of the greatest of seaports; its position promises to make it the most important commercial center in the East, as it already is in the cotton trade of the world. It swarms with people of every clime, and its merchandise is mainly in the hands of the Parsees, the descendants of the ancient fire worshippers. It is the most English town in India. It came to England from Portugal as dowry with Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles II., who leased it to the East India Company for fifty dollars a year. Its prosperity began when the Civil war in the United States afforded it an opening for its cotton.

Benares, the most sacred city of the Hindus, and an important town in the Northwest Provinces, is on the Ganges, four hundred and twenty miles by rail northwest of Calcutta. It presents the amazing array of one thousand seven hundred temples and mosques with towers and domes and minarets innumerable. The bank of the river is laid with continuous flights of steps whence the pilgrims bathe; but the city itself is narrow, crooked, crowded, and dirty. Many thousands of pilgrims visit it annually. It is a seat of Hindu learning; there is also a government college. The river is spanned here by a magnificent railway bridge. There is a large trade in country produce, English goods, jewelry, and gems; while its brass work “Benares ware,” is famous.

Agra, a city in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, is on the Jumna, one hundred and thirty-nine miles southeast of Delhi by rail, and eight hundred and forty-one miles northwest of Calcutta. The ancient walls embrace an area of eleven square miles, of which about one-half is now occupied. The houses are mostly built of red sandstone, and, on the whole, Agra is the handsomest city in upper India.

Some of the public buildings, monuments of the house of Timur, are on a scale of striking magnificence. Among these are the fortress built by Akbar, within the walls of which are the palace and audience hall of Shah Jehan, the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque, and the Jama Masjid or Great Mosque.

Still more celebrated is the white marble Taj Mahal, situated without the city, about a mile to the east of the fort. This extraordinary and beautiful mausoleum was built by the Emperor Shah Jehan for himself and his favorite wife, who died in 1629, and is remarkable alike for the complexity and grace of the general design, and the elaborate perfection of the workmanship. In the center, on a raised platform, is the mausoleum, surmounted by a beautiful dome, with smaller domes at each corner, and four graceful minarets (one hundred and thirty-three feet high). Of British edifices the principal are the Government House, the Government College, three missionary colleges, the English church, and the barracks.

The climate, during the hot and rainy seasons (April to September), is very trying; but the average health of the city is equal to that of any other station in the United Provinces.

The principal articles of trade are cotton, tobacco, salt, grain, and sugar. There are manufactories of shoes, pipe stems, and gold lace, and of inlaid mosaic work, for which Agra is famous.

History.—It is impossible to speak positively as to the aboriginal prehistoric populations of India; probably the most primitive peoples now left—the Dravidian hill-tribes—represent waves of invasion from the north. The history of civilization in India may, however, be traced from the invasion—probably one thousand years or more B. C.—of the Aryan race from central Asia, a race of the Indo-Germanic type in physique and speech. Their language was Sanskrit, their religion and civilization that of the Vedas, or ancient Hindu scriptures.

Out of the union of the Aryans with the earlier inhabitants the modern races of India have sprung. Buddhism arose in India with the teaching of Budda about 500 B. C, and for a while superseded the Vedic faith, corrupted as it had been by the degraded aboriginal superstitions; and India was substantially Buddhist till the revival of Hinduism, in its modern or Brahmanic form (more idolatrous and superstitious than the ancient faith), in the sixth century A. D.

In 1001 A. D. came the first wave of Mohammedanism, and soon all India fell under Mohammedan domination, though the bulk of the people clung to the Hindu religion. By the beginning of the eighteenth century a new Hindu power, that of the Mahrattas, arose, and seriously weakened the Moslem emperor, the Grand Mogul. The Dutch, Portuguese, and French, as well as the British, established themselves in the empire; in the eighteenth century the French more than rivaled the British in power. But the power of the British East India Company, originally traders, became dominant after the battle of Plassey in 1757.

Gradually English power as represented by the company, its diplomatists, and its soldiers, extended over a great part of India, and the governors—Clive, Warren Hastings, Wellesley, Amherst, Bentinck, Dalhousie, Canning—consolidated what was really the empire of Great Britain in the East. Then in 1857 came the great mutiny, stamped out in blood, and the government was assumed by the British crown in 1858. British rule in India has been steadily consolidated, but no great annexation has since taken place, except that of Upper Burma in 1886.

After the mutiny, India settled down to a period of peace, broken only by the constant suspicion of Russian intrigue in Afghanistan. This led in 1878 to the second Afghan war. The Amir was deposed, and his successor promised to receive a British resident, who was in a short time murdered, as was also his escort. This resulted in the famous march of General Roberts from Kabul to Kandahar, and eventually an Amir who was favorable to the British was set up. This Amir reigned until 1901, and his successor remained friendly to the British.

Finally, in 1907, a convention between Russia and Britain was signed, and later an agreement as to the line of delimitation of their respective spheres of influence in Persia was arrived at in 1912. Quetta and the southeastern districts of Afghanistan were annexed after the second Afghan war, and the purchase of the Suez Canal was of great use in the defense of India. British supremacy over the Afghan tribes was also recognized.

After his coronation in 1911, George V. of Great Britain visited India and held a Coronation Durbar at the beginning of 1912 in India itself, this being the first visit of an English raj to the Indian empire, and the capital of India was officially proclaimed as Delhi.

JAPAN

JAPAN, an island empire off the east coast of Asia, separated from Siberia by the Sea of Japan. The name Japan is a corruption of Zipangu, itself a corruption of the Chinese pronunciation of the native name Nihon or Nippon (“Land of the Rising Sun”).

Japan comprises four large islands, Honshu (the Japanese mainland), Shikoku, Kiushu, and Yezo or Hakkaido; the Luchu Islands, Formosa, divided from China by the Formosa Channel; and Korea (annexed in 1910 and renamed Chosen). A small group of islands, Bonia, six hundred miles southeast of Tokio, also belongs to Japan.

The Kwantung province, including Port Arthur and Darien, was leased to Japan by Russia (with the consent of China) in 1905, while the southern portion of Sakhalin (ceded to Russia in 1875) became once more Japanese.

The empire includes also nearly four thousand small islands.

The islands comprising the Japanese Empire have been likened to the British Isles in their position relative to the Continent, the Sea of Japan and the Strait of Korea resembling the North Sea and Strait of Dover. In their general extent of surface the comparison also holds good. The three contiguous islands of Japan proper are, however, considerably larger than Great Britain, while the northern possession [688] of Yezo is three thousand square miles larger than Ireland.

The empire with its dependencies comprises an area of 235,886 square miles, with a population of 67,142,798.

Surface Characteristics.—The islands are eminently volcanic, and eighteen of the summits are still active; the chief of these, Fuji-san, or Fuji-yama, the loftiest and most sacred mountain of Japan, about sixty miles from Tokio, has been dormant since 1707. Japan is also liable to frequent, and occasionally disastrous, earthquakes.

The country is very mountainous, and not more than one-sixth of its area is available for cultivation. The numerous ranges extend in directions parallel to the length of the group, giving varied and picturesque landscapes of hill and valley. Their irregular coast-line is indented with splendid natural harbors, such as the Bay of Yedo on the southeast coast; the beautiful “inland sea” of Japan, with its intricate channel between hundreds of islets, separates the island of Shikoku from the larger one of Hondo, and the enclosed Suwonada and Bugo Channel, divide the southwestern island of Kiushu from both of these.

Lakes and Rivers.—From the mountainous character of the long narrow islands the rivers are generally impetuous, and of small economic importance, except for irrigation. Among the most important may be noted the Yodo-gawa, which flows from the fiddle-shaped Lake Biwa, the largest fresh water expanse in Japan, thirty-five miles long, to the “inland sea;” the broad and rapid Ten-riu-gawa, or “River of the Heavenly Dragon,” which flows south from the central mountains of Nippon; and the Tone-gawa, which enters the Pacific, but sends a branch to the Bay of Yedo, which is crossed within the capital by the Nippon Bassi, or bridge of Japan, from which, as a starting point, all distances throughout the kingdom are measured.

Climate.—The islands of Japan have a climate that may be compared with that of South Britain. The extremes, however, are greater, summer being hotter, and winter colder, than in England, increasing to almost Siberian rigor in the north. June, July, and August form the Satkasi, or rainiest period; the autumn succeeding is the pleasantest and most genial season of the year. Hurricanes, storms, and fogs, are frequent in the seas round Japan, where warm and cold ocean currents also bring about great differences of sea temperature.

Products and Industries.—The islands have a very beautiful flora, including many ornamental plants. The great feature of the vegetation is the intermixture of tropical growths, such as the bamboo, palms, tree-ferns, and bananas, with those of temperate regions, the pine, oak, beech, chestnut and maple. Characteristic are the paper mulberry, the vegetable-wax tree, the camphor and lacquer trees. The cultivated crops are rice, maize, wheat, barley, tobacco, tea, and cotton.

Japan is also very rich in minerals. Gold, silver, and copper are especially abundant in the north, and coal and iron beds seem to extend throughout the group. Petroleum is also being produced in large quantities, especially in the Province of Echigo.

People.—With the exception of the wilds of Yezo, peopled by eighteen thousand Ainos, the Japanese islands are inhabited by a single race speaking various dialects of the same tongue. Probably the Japanese are the issue of the intermarriage of victorious Tartar settlers, who entered Japan from the Korean peninsula, with Malays in the south and Ainos in the main island. See Book of Races.

There are two prevailing religions in Japan—Shintoism, the indigenous faith; and Buddhism, introduced from China in 552 and still the dominant religion among the people. Francis Xavier introduced Christianity in 1549, and the Roman Catholic Church and the Greek Church both carry on a flourishing work in Japan. Of the Protestant missions there are also many actively at work.

In education, as well as in matters of religion, enormous changes and advances have been made in recent years. Education is in the lower grades free and compulsory. Secondary schools are state aided, and prepare for a three years’ course at the universities, which is largely devoted to the study of European languages. There are high schools for girls, and the technical and special schools are well attended. There are three State Universities, at Tokio, Kyoto, and Tohoku.

Production and Industry.—Agriculture is the chief occupation of the Japanese, and they are excellent and careful farmers. In the mechanical arts also they excel; especially in the use of metals, in the manufacture of porcelain and glass lacquered wares, and silk fabrics. The chief manufactures are silk and cotton, cotton yarn, matches, paper, glass, lacquer ware, porcelain, and bronze, and ship building is an important industry in the yards.

The chief exports are silk, cotton, yarns, rice, tea, fish, copper, matches, coal, camphor, straw plaits, porcelain, earthenware, lacquer-ware, and marine products.

The commercial development of Japan has of late been marvelous. There were five thousand nine hundred and eighty-five miles of railroad open in 1914, in addition to eight hundred and thirty-six miles open in Korea, while the South Manchurian Railway (China) is under Japanese control.

Government and Administration.—The government is an hereditary monarchy, the succession being now exclusively in the male line. The Cabinet consists of ten Ministers of State, presided over by a Minister President.

The Upper House, or House of Peers, consists of about three hundred and thirty members—male members of the royal house, life peers, peers elected either for life or for seven years, and other persons nominated by the emperor. The lower house, or House of Representatives, has three hundred and sixty-nine members, who serve for four years, elected by citizens paying taxes of not less than ten yen (five dollars) per annum. The first general election took place in 1890.

Penal and civil codes have been drafted on a European basis, and with a commercial code were published in 1890, and came into force in 1893.

Cities.—The capital of the Japanese Empire, Tôkiô, formerly called Yedo, is the residence of the emperor; population, 2,186,079. Other cities are: Osaka, 1,226,590; Kiôto, the ancient capital, 442,462; Nagoya, 378,231; Kōbe, 378,197; Yokohama, 394,303; Hiroshima, 142,763; Nagasaki, 176,480; Kanazawa, 110,994; Kure, 100,679. The chief ports are Yokohama, Kōbe, Osaka, Nagasaki, and Hakodate.

Tokio, or Tokei (“Eastern Capital”), is the chief city of the Japanese Empire. Until 1868, when the emperor removed his court thither from Kyōtō, it was known as Yedo (“Estuary Gate”). Its position at the mouth of the rivers which drain the largest plain of Japan, fits it to be a national center. The lower portion of the city, which is flat and intersected by canals, stretches between the two parks of Ueno (north) and Shiba (south), famous for their shrines. Midway rises the castle or palace, a fine structure in Japanese style, furnished in European manner, and lighted with electricity, within a double ring of high walls and broad moats. In spring-time the city is gay with plum and cherry blossoms. The immense enclosures, formerly inhabited by the nobles and their retainers, are gradually disappearing, and handsome modern buildings in brick for the use of the various government departments are taking their place. Of the fifteen city divisions the northern, Hongo and Kanda, are mostly educational, and contain the buildings of the Imperial University, Law School and other institutions. The student population is astonishingly large. The seaward districts of Nihonbashi, Kyobashi, and Asakusa are industrial and commercial, while the government offices are located in Kojimachi ku.

Yokohama is the port of entry (seventeen miles off), and a great harbor scheme to cost twenty million dollars was planned in 1911-1912. The city is subject to disastrous fires; that of April, 1892, burned four thousand houses in one morning. Tokio has three railway termini and a system of electric railways. Almost every phase of modern civilization is to be found within its vast area.

History.—Before 500 A. D. Japanese history is mere legend. Buddhism was introduced from Korea in 552; and in the next century Chinese civilization strongly influenced Japan. About the end of the twelfth century, the weakness of the emperor led the military head (Shogun) to assume a large share of the supreme power, and he handed it on to his descendants. Hence the statement often made that Japan had a Mikado or spiritual emperor who reigned but did not govern, and a “Tycoon” (Shogun) who did govern though he paid homage to the nominal sovereign. The military caste was now dominant until the reign of Iyeyasu (c. 1600), whose descendants reigned till 1868.

Total exclusion of foreigners was the rule till 1543, when the Portuguese effected a settlement; but in 1624 all foreigners were expelled and Christianity interdicted. The policy of isolation was rigidly pursued from 1638 till 1853, when Commodore Perry of the United States Navy steamed into a Japanese harbor, and effected a treaty with the Shogun. Soon sixteen other nations followed the American example, and free ports were opened to foreign commerce.

In 1867-1868 a sharp civil war broke the feudal power of the daimios or territorial magnates, suppressed the Shogunate, and unified the authority under the Mikado. In a very few years Japanese students took a place of their own in western science; and how thoroughly the Japanese had laid to heart what they had learned abroad in the military and naval arts was partially revealed by the swift and complete success of the war with China about Korea in 1894, and more impressively by their amazing triumph over the great military empire of Russia, in 1904-1905, whom they defeated in a succession of bloody battles, took Port Arthur, and utterly destroyed the Russian fleet. By the peace that followed the Russians not only evacuated southern Manchuria, but recognized Japan’s preponderance in Korea, and gave up to Japan the “leases” of Port Arthur and the Liao-tung peninsula Russia had wrested from China.

A conspiracy against the life of the emperor was discovered in September, 1910. The same year saw the passing of a bill enabling foreigners to own land in Japan proper, under certain restrictions. But the principal event of 1910 in Japanese history was the formal annexation of Korea, the treaty with the emperor of Korea being promulgated on August 29. According to the new commercial treaty with the United States, ratified by the Senate on February 24, 1911, the clause in the old treaty was omitted, wherein each side reserved the right of regulating immigration from one country to the other. In 1910 and 1911 important agreements were also made with Russia with special reference to Manchuria.

Japan entered the European war on August 23, 1914, on the side of the Entente Allies, and immediately began the blockade and siege of the German colony at Kiao-Chow on the Shantung promontory of China. In November, 1915, the present emperor, Yoshihito, was crowned.

THE COLONIAL DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD

The following tables show how the colonies of the world have been divided among the various nations:

COLONIES IN AFRICA
ColonyGoverning Country
and
Form of Government		Area
Sq. M.		Population
AlgeriaFrench Colony184,4744,739,300
Algerian SaharaFrench Possession123,50050,000
AngolaPortuguese Possession484,8004,119,000
AscensionBritish Crown Colony35430
Azores and Madeira IslandsPortuguese Province1,510407,002
BasutolandBritish Crown Colony10,293264,100
BechuanalandBritish Protectorate286,200100,500
British East AfricaBritish Protectorate1,000,0002,500,000
British Central AfricaBritish Protectorate42,217900,615
British South Africa (Rhodesia)British Protectorate425,7281,075,000
Canary IslandsSpanish Province2,808334,521
Cape ColonyBritish Protectorate276,7752,433,000
Cape Verde IslandsPortuguese Province1,480147,424
CeutaSpanish Province135,090
Comoro IslandsFrench Protectorate62047,000
Congo Inland StraitsBelgian Protectorate900,00030,000,000
DahomeyFrench Possession60,0001,000,000
EgyptTurkish Tributary400,0009,734,405
Eritrea, etc.Italian Possession42,000329,516
Fernando Po, etc.Spanish Possession85023,709
French CongoFrench Possession1,160,00010,000,000
GambiaBritish Crown Colony6913,500
German East AfricaGerman Protectorate384,1808,000,000
German Southwest AfricaGerman Protectorate322,450200,000
Gold CoastBritish Crown Colony40,0001,500,000
Guinea, FrenchFrench Possession95,0002,200,000
Guinea, PortuguesePortuguese Possession4,440820,000
Ivory CoastFrench Possession116,0002,000,000
KamerunGerman Protectorate191,1303,500,000
LagosBritish Crown Colony3,46085,600
MadagascarFrench Possession227,9502,505,240
Mauritius, etc.British Crown Colony729378,040
MayotteFrench Possession14011,640
Military Ter’sFrench Possession700,0004,000,000
Portuguese East AfricaPortuguese Possession301,0003,120,000
Natal and ZululandBritish Institutions34,019902,365
NigeriaBritish Protectorate400,00025,000,000
Nossi-BeFrench Possession1309,500
Orange RiverBritish Possession48,330207,500
Princes and St. Thomas IslandsPortuguese Possession36042,103
ReunionFrench Possession966173,200
Rio de Oro and AdrarSpanish Possession243,000100,000
SaharaFrench Possession1,544,0002,550,000
St. HelenaBritish Crown Colony473,342
St. MarieFrench Possession647,670
SenegalFrench Possession80,0001,800,000
SeychellesBritish Crown Colony14819,343
Sierra LeoneBritish Crown Colony4,00077,000
Somali Coast, BritishBritish Protectorate75,000...
Somali Coast, FrenchFrench Possession45,000200,000
Somali Coast, ItalianItalian Possession100,000400,000
TogolandGerman Protectorate33,700900,000
Transvaal ColonyBritish Possession119,1401,094,100
TripoliTurkish Tributary398,000800,000
Tristanda CuhnaBritish Crown Colony45100
TunisFrench Protectorate51,0001,900,000
UgandaBritish Protectorate140,0003,000,000
Zanzibar and PembaBritish Protectorate1,020200,000
COLONIES IN ASIA
ColonyGoverning Country
and
Form of Government		Area
Sq. M.		Population
Aden and PerimBritish Crown Colony8041,222
AnamFrench Protectorate52,1006,124,000
Bahrein IslandsBritish Protectorate27368,000
BaluchistanBritish Protectorate130,000500,000
BokharaRussian Dependency92,0001,250,000
CambodiaFrench Protectorate37,4001,500,000
CeylonBritish Institutions25,3653,578,333
Cochin ChinaFrench Possession22,0002,968,600
CypressBritish Administration3,584227,900
East TurkestanChinese Dependency550,3401,200,000
FormosaJapanese Dependency13,4552,745,000
GoaPortuguese Possession1,390494,836
Hong KongBritish Crown Colony407386,159
India, BritishBritish Crown Colony1,087,404231,898,807
India, FrenchFrench Possession196273,000
India, PortuguesePortuguese Possession1,558572,290
JungariaChinese Dependency147,950600,000
Kiauchau BayJapanese Possession20060,000
KhivaRussian Possession22,320800,000
Kwang TungRussian Possession......
MacaoPortuguese Possession478,627
Malay Federated StatesBritish Protectorate27,500512,342
ManchuriaChinese Dependency363,6108,500,000
MongoliaChinese Dependency1,367,6002,580,000
Pescadores IslandsJapanese Dependency8552,400
SamosTurkish Tributary18054,830
SikkimBritish Protectorate2,81830,458
Straits SettlementsBritish Crown Colony1,472572,249
TibetChinese Dependency463,2006,430,000
Tonquin and LaosFrench Possession144,4007,641,900
COLONIES IN EUROPE
ColonyGoverning Country
and
Form of Government		Area
Sq. M.		Population
Bosnia and HerzegovinaAustro-Hungarian Protectorate23,2621,568,092
CreteTurkish Suzerainty3,326303,543
Faroe IslandsDanish Colony51215,230
GibraltarBritish Crown Colony227,460
IcelandDanish Province39,75678,470
Malta and GozoBritish Institutions117188,141
COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA
ColonyGoverning Country
and
Form of Government		Area
Sq. M.		Population
AlaskaUnited States Territory599,44663,592
BahamasBritish Institutions4,47054,358
BarbadoesBritish Institutions166195,600
BermudasBritish Institutions2017,535
CanadaBritish Dependency3,048,7105,371,315
Curacao, etc.Dutch Possession40352,301
Danish West IndiesUnited States Possession13832,786
GreenlandDanish Possession46,74010,516
Guadeloupe, etc.French Possession688182,110
Honduras, BritishBritish Crown Colony7,56037,650
Leeward IslandsBritish Institutions700127,440
Jamaica and Turks IslandsBritish Crown Colony4,370771,900
MartiniqueFrench Possession380203,780
Newfoundland and LabradorBritish Dependency162,200217,100
Porto RicoUnited States Possession3,606953,243
St. Pierre and MiquelonFrench Possession926,250
Trinidad and TobagoBritish Crown Colony1,868279,700
Windward IslandsBritish Institutions500162,800
COLONIES IN SOUTH AMERICA
ColonyGoverning Country
and
Form of Government		Area
Sq. M.		Population
Falkland IslandsBritish Crown Colony7,5002,076
Guiana, BritishBritish Institutions104,000294,000
Guiana, FrenchFrench Colony30,50032,910
Guiana, DutchDutch Possession46,06068,968
COLONIES IN OCEANIA
ColonyGoverning Country
and
Form of Government		Area
Sq. M.		Population
Bismarck ArchipelagoGerman Possession20,000188,000
Borneo, British N.British Protectorate31,106175,000
Borneo, DutchDutch Possession212,7371,180,578
Caroline Islands and PalaosGerman Possession81042,000
Celebes IslandsDutch Possession71,4701,197,860
Fiji and Rotumah IslandsBritish Crown Colony7,740120,950
GuamUnited States Possession1509,000
HawaiiUnited States Territory6,449154,000
Java and MaduraDutch Possession50,55428,745,698
Kaiser Wilhelm LandGerman Protectorate70,000110,000
Marianne IslandsGerman Possession2502,000
Marquesas IslandsFrench Possession4804,280
Marshall IslandsGerman Possession15013,000
New CaledoniaFrench Possession7,65051,415
New Guinea, BritishBritish Crown Colony90,540350,000
New South WalesBritish Dependency310,3701,397,700
New Guinea, DutchDutch Possession195,653599,208
New ZealandBritish Dependency104,470787,660
Philippine IslandsUnited States Possession119,5428,000,000
QueenslandBritish Dependency668,500510,520
Samoan Islands (Savaii and UpoluGerman Possession1,00029,100
Samoan Islands (Tutuila and ManuaUnited States Possession795,800
Society Islands, etc.French Possession1,52029,000
Solomon IslandsGerman Possession4,20045,000
South AustraliaBritish Dependency903,700364,800
SumatraDutch Possession161,6123,209,067
TasmaniaBritish Dependency26,215174,230
Timor, DutchDutch Possession44,374978,267
Timor, PortuguesePortuguese Possession7,458300,000
VictoriaBritish Dependency87,8901,208,710
West AustraliaBritish Dependency975,920194,800

Note.—Practically all the German colonial possessions throughout the world are at this date (1917) in military possession of the Entente Allies, and will be so held pending the terms of the final treaty of peace at the close of the present European war.

THE GREAT FOREIGN WARS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY

In the various wars the victorious contestants are indicated in bold face type, as are also the victorious leaders and the battles won by them. The figures prefixed show with which of the warring parties the leaders are identified, and who were the victors in the battles named. Naval battles are shown in italics. Consult the [Table of Foreign Battles] for details concerning the more important military actions.

TROJAN WAR (Partly mythical).—1193-1184 B. C.

(1) Greeks vs. (2) Trojans.

Cause: Greeks avenge the abduction of Helen of Troy by Paris.

Leaders: (1) Agamemnon, Achilles, Ulysses; (2) Hector.

Chief Action: (1) Siege of Troy.

Results: Capture and destruction of Troy, or Ilium.

FIRST MESSENIAN WAR.—743-724 B. C.

(1) Spartans vs. (2) Messenians.

Cause: Spartans covet Messenian land.

Leader: (2) Aristodemus.

Chief Action: (1) Siege of Mount Ithome.

Results: Messenians become tributary of Sparta and their land is, in part, confiscated.

SECOND MESSENIAN WAR.—645-628 B. C.

(1) Spartans vs. (2) Messenians.

Cause: Spartan oppression causes Messenian revolt.

Leaders: (1) Tyrtaeus (poet); (2) Aristomenes.

Chief Action: (1) Eira.

Results: Greater part of Messenians flee to Sicily. Those remaining become helots (Spartan serfs).

FIRST SACRED WAR.—600-590 B. C.

(1) Amphictyonic League vs. (2) Crisæans.

Cause: People of the city of Crisa (port of Delphi) oppress pilgrims to the oracle.

Leader: (1) Cleisthenes of Sicyon.

Chief Action: (1) Siege of Crisa.

Results: For the first time Greek cities join in an effective league. Crisa destroyed.

PERSIAN WARS.—500-479 B. C.

(1) Persians vs. (2) Greeks.

Cause: Aid given by Athens and Eretria to revolting Ionic Greek cities, leading to burning of Sardis, 497 B. C.

a. First Persian Expedition—493 B. C.

Leader: (1) Mardonius.

Chief Action: (1) Three hundred ships lost by storm off Mt. Athos.

Results: Partial success against Macedonians and Thracians. Continued plans of Darius for subjugating Greece.

b. Second Persian Expedition—490 B. C.

Leaders: Datis, (1) Artaphernes; (2) Miltiades.

Chief Actions: (1) Naxos, Eretria; (2) Marathon (490 B. C.)

Results: The Athenians are victorious and the Persians retreat to Asia Minor.

c. Third Persian Expedition—481-480 B. C.

Xerxes desires to avenge his father’s defeat.

Leaders: (1) Xerxes; (2) Leonidas, Eurybiades, Themistocles.

Chief Actions: (1) Thermopylæ, Salamis, Artemisium, Athens burned.

Results: Xerxes retreats to Persia after his defeat at Salamis.

d. Fourth Persian Expedition—479 B. C.

War continued by troops which Xerxes left behind.

Leaders: (1) Mardonius; (2) Pausanias, Aristides.

Chief Actions: (1) Athens laid waste; (2) Platæa, Mycale.

Results: All Persian invasions and attempts to subjugate Greece cease.

THIRD MESSENIAN WAR.—464-456 B. C.

(1) Helots of Messenian descent vs. (2) Spartans.

Cause: Confusion following earthquake gives Helots courage to revolt.

Chief Action: (2) Mt. Ithome besieged. Sparta sent home her Athenian allies.

Results: Messenians capitulate and are allowed to leave the Peloponnesus never to return. Athens retaliates by settling them at Naupactus.

PELOPONNESIAN WAR.—431-404 B. C.

(1) Sparta and Allies vs. (2) Athens and Allies.

a. First Period—431-421 B. C.

Cause: Envy of Sparta and her allies at Athens’ growing power and influence. Discontent among some of the Athenian subject states.

Leaders: (1) Archidamus, Agis, Brasidas; (2) Demosthenes, Cleon, Nicias.

Chief Actions: (1) Invasion of Attica, Plague in Attica, Siege of Platæa, Delium, Amphipolis. (2) Mitylene, Sphacteria.

Results: By the peace of Nicias (421 B. C.) both sides are to restore conquests and prisoners but terms are imperfectly carried out.

b. Second Period or Decelean War—413-404 B. C.

Cause: Sparta takes advantage of Athens’ weakness, resulting from the failure of the expedition to Syracuse, to renew the war.

Leaders: Alcibiades serves Athens, Sparta and Athens in turn. (1) Lysander; (2) Conon.

Chief Actions: (1) Decelea occupied. Attica ravaged. Many subject states of Athens revolt. Notium, Ægospotami, Surrender of Athens; (2) Abydos, Cyzicus, Arginusæ.

Results: The Spartans tear down the walls of Piræus and Athens. Athens loses her foreign possessions and fleet but becomes an independent ally of Sparta. Sparta is now supreme in Greece.

GAULS’ INVASION OF ITALY.—390 B. C.

(1) Gauls vs. (2) Romans.

Cause: Roman people refuse to surrender Roman ambassadors who had aided the Etruscans against the Gauls.

Leaders: (2) M. Manlius, Capitolinus, Camillus.

Chief Actions: (1) Battle of the Allia. Sack of Rome.

Results: Gauls retire on payment of ransom. The overthrow of Rome had no permanent effect on her fortunes.

SECOND SACRED WAR.—c. 355-346 B. C.

(1) Phocians vs. (2) Amphictyons.

Cause: Phocians seize and plunder Delphi because of fine imposed by Amphictyonic Council.

Leaders: (1) Onomarchus; (2) Philip of Macedon.

Results: Thebans and Thessalians invite aid of Philip against Phocians and he takes their place in the Amphictyonic Council.

THIRD SACRED WAR.—339-338 B. C.

(1) Macedonians vs. (2) Athenians, Thebans.

Cause: Amphictyons call in Philip to punish Amphissa, whereupon he seizes Elatea, thereby threatening Athens. Athenians aroused by Demosthenes.

Leaders: (1) Philip of Macedon.

Chief Actions: Chæronea.

Results: Philip gains leadership of Greece. Henceforth Greece is under the control of Macedonia.

SAMNITE WARS.—343-290 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Samnites.

a. First Samnite War—343-341 B. C.

Cause: A duel between two rival races for supremacy in Italy. Campanians implore aid of Romans against Samnites who are laying waste their territories in revenge for aid given the Sidicini of Teanum.

Leaders: (1) Marcus Valerius Corvus, P. Decius Mus.

Results: Capua is retained by the Romans and Teanum surrendered to Samnites.

b. Second or Great Samnite War—326-304 B. C.

Cause: The occupation of Palaeopolis by the Samnites. In 311 B. C. the Etruscan cities joined in the war against Rome.

Leaders: (1) Papirius Cursor; (2) Fabius Rullianus Gavius Pontius.

Chief Actions: (1) Fregellæ, Sutrium, Lake Vadimonis, Bovianum; (2) Caudine Forks.

Results: Samnites sue for peace. They resign all their conquests but retain their independence within their native mountains.

c. Third Samnite War—298-290 B. C.

Cause: While Romans are engaged with the Gauls the Samnites enter Lucania and refuse to withdraw.

Leaders: (1) Q. Fabius Rullianus, P. Decius Mus (son); (2) Gellius Egnatius, Gavius Pontius.

Chief Action: (1) Sentinum.

Result: Samnites defeated but not crushed.

WARS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN ASIA—334-328 B. C.

(1) Greeks vs. (2) Persians, Egyptians, Bactrians, Indians (Hindus).

Cause: A war of conquest, a scientific expedition and a journey of discovery.

Leaders: (1) Alexander the Great, Nearchus; (2) Darius III., Memnon.

Chief Actions: (1) Granicus, Issus, Siege of Tyre, Arbela.

Results: Alexander conquers Asia from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River and from the Arabian Sea to the Jaxartes River and begins the Hellenizing of the East. Founds Alexandria in Egypt. The empire breaks up after Alexander’s death 323 B. C.

ROMAN WAR WITH TARENTUM AND EPIRUS.—282-272 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Tarentum and King Pyrrhus.

Cause: The people of Tarentum capture Roman ships and insult Roman embassy. They call in King Pyrrhus of Epirus.

Leaders: (1) Manius Curius; (2) Pyrrhus.

Chief Actions: (1) Beneventum, Tarentum; (2) Heraclea, Asculum.

Results: Pyrrhus returns to Epirus and his allies one by one submit to Rome, which is left supreme from Straits of Messina to the River Arno and the headland of Ancona.

FIRST PUNIC WAR.—264-241 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Carthaginians.

Causes: A struggle for supremacy in Sicily. Pretext, Campanian mercenaries, having seized Messina, appeal to Rome for aid.

Leaders: (1) C. Duilius, M. Atilius Regulus, P. Claudius Pulcher, C. Lutatius Catulus; (2) Hamilcar Barca, Himilco, Hanno.

Chief Actions: (1) Agrigentum, Mylæ, Ecnomus, Panormus, Ægadian Islands; (2) Siege of Lilybæum, Drepana.

Results: Carthaginians surrender Sicily and pay a war indemnity. Carthage retains the Western Mediterranean and Rome is launched on her career of conquest.

SECOND PUNIC WAR.—218-201 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Carthaginians.

Causes: A duel to the death between East and West. Pretext, Hannibal’s attacks on Saguntum in Spain.

Leaders: (1) Q. Fabius Maximus, Publius Scipio, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus; (2) Hannibal, Hasdrubal.

Chief Actions: (1) Syracuse, Capua, Metaurus, Zama; (2) Ticinus, Trebia, Trasimene, Cannæ.

Results: Hannibal succumbs as a result of the loyalty of Italy. Carthage forced to give up Spain, to pay an annual tribute, to surrender her fleet, and to agree not to go to war without the permission of Rome.

FOUR MACEDONIAN WARS.—214-146 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Greeks.

Cause: Alliance of Philip, King of Macedon with Carthage.

Leaders: (1) T. Quinctius Flaminius, L. Aemilius Paulus; (2) Philip of Macedon, Perseus.

Chief Actions: (1) Cynoscephalæ, Pydna.

Result: Macedonia becomes a Roman province.

THIRD PUNIC WAR—149-146 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Carthaginians.

Cause: War of Carthage with Massinissa gives Rome the pretext for completing the destruction of Carthage.

Leaders: (1) Scipio, Æmilianus, Africanus.

Chief Actions: (1) Siege of Carthage.

Result: Carthage destroyed. Most of her territory becomes a Roman province of Africa.

JUGURTHINE WAR.—111-105 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Jugurtha of Numidia.

Cause: Jugurtha, disregarding intervention of Rome, captures Citra and massacres male population.

Leaders: (1) C. Marius; (2) Jugurtha.

Chief Actions: (1) Muthul, Citra.

Results: Numidia divided. The war reveals the corruption and incapacity of the Senatorial government of Rome.

MARSIAN OR SOCIAL WAR.—90-88 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Italian Allies.

Cause: Italian socii (allies) are denied the right of Roman citizenship.

Leader: (1) C. Marius, Sulla.

Chief Action: (1) Asculum.

Result: Italians form a Federal republic, Italia, with capital at Corfinium. Roman citizenship granted to all Italian residents.

FIRST ROMAN CIVIL WAR—88-82 B. C.

(1) Optimates vs. (2) Democrats.

Cause: Reform measures of Sulpicius are carried by means of violence. Command of army of Asia is transferred from Sulla to Marius.

Leaders: (1) Sulla, Pompey; (2) Marius, Cinna, Sertorius, Carbo.

Chief Actions: Sacriportis, Colline, Gate, Sulla’s proscriptions; (2) Marius’s Reign of Terror.

Result: Sulla is appointed dictator.

THREE MITHRIDATIC WARS—88-63 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Pontines and Armenians.

Causes: Ambition of Mithridates VI. and Roman interference.

Leaders: (1) Sulla, Lucullus, Pompey; (2) Mithridates (Pontus), Tigranus (Armenia).

Chief Actions: (1) Chæronea, Orchomenus, Cabira, Tigranocerta; (2) Massacre of Italians in Asia.

Results: Reorganization of the East; Pontus, Syria and Cilicia become Roman provinces.

GLADIATORIAL AND THIRD SERVILE WAR.—73-71 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. Revolted Gladiators and Slaves.

Cause: Uprising of a band of gladiators, escaped from Capua and joined by many slaves of southern Italy.

Leaders: (1) Crassus, Pompey; (2) Spartacus.

Chief Actions: (1) Silarus; (2) Mt. Vesuvius.

Results: Revolt put down with cruelty, six thousand crucified.

GALLIC WAR—58-51 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Tribes of Gaul.

Cause: Desire to extend the Roman empire.

Leaders: (1) Julius Cæsar; (2) Vercingetorix, Ariovistus.

Chief Action: (1) Siege of Alesia.

Results: Conquest and organization of Gaul by Cæsar. Gauls Romanized; boundaries of the old world enlarged (Cæsar’s expedition to Britain 55-54 B. C.); means acquired for changing Rome into a monarchy.

SECOND ROMAN CIVIL WAR.—49-31 B. C.

First period, 49-45 B. C.

(1) Followers of Cæsar (democrats) vs. (2) Followers of Pompey (republican aristocrats).

Cause: Struggle for mastery between Cæsar, conqueror of Gaul, and Pompey, conqueror of the East.

Leaders: (1) Cæsar; (2) Pompey and his sons.

Chief Actions: (1) “Crossing the Rubicon,” Pharsalus, Thapsus, Munda.

Result: Cæsar is appointed dictator for life. He is the founder of the new monarchy at Rome.

Second period—43-42 B. C.

(1) Friends of Cæsar (Second Triumvirate) vs. (2) Cæsar’s Assassins.

Cause: Assassination of Cæsar, 44 B. C.

Leaders: (1) Antony, Octavius, Lepidus; (2) Brutus, Cassius, Sextus Pompey.

Chief Actions: (1) New proscription (Murder of Cicero), Philippi.

Result: Brutus and Cassius, defeated, commit suicide.

Third period—31-30 B. C.

(1) Octavius vs. (2) Antony.

Cause: A continued struggle for supreme power.

Leaders: (1) Octavius; (2) Antony, Cleopatra.

Chief Actions: (1) Actium.

Results: Triumph of Octavius, grand nephew of Julius Cæsar. End of the republic and beginning of the empire.

JEWISH WAR—A. D. 66-70.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Jews.

Cause: Revolt of the Jews against Rome.

Leader: (1) Titus, son of Emperor Vespasian.

Chief Action: (1) Siege of Jerusalem.

Result: Destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.

DACIAN WARS.—86-90, 101-102, 105-107.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Dacians.

Cause: Rome desires to extend her conquests.

Leaders: (1) Domitian, Trajan; (2) Decebalus.

Results: Dacia is made a Roman province. Roman conquest and empire reaches its highest point.

CIVIL WARS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.—193-284.

Causes: Contests for the throne among rival generals (barrack emperors).

Result: Reorganization of empire by Diocletian (284-305).

WARS OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT FOR THE EMPIRE.—310-323.

(1) Constantine vs. (2) Others, Augusti.

Causes: Confusion following abdication of Diocletian.

Leaders: (1) Constantine; (2) Maxentius, Maximinus, Licinius.

Chief Action: (1) Turin.

Results: Constantine becomes sole ruler of Roman empire. He redistricts the empire, moves the capital to Constantinople and recognizes Christianity.

INVASION OF ROMAN EMPIRE BY NORTHERN BARBARIANS—375-493.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Teutons and (Huns), Teutonic Tribes; Visigoths, Vandals, Suevi, Franks, Burgundians, Ostrogoths, Alemanni, Jutes, Saxons, Angles, Lombards.

Causes: The Huns (Mongolians) press upon the Teutons, who are forced to seek new lands within the boundaries of the Roman empire.

Leaders: (1) Valens, Stilicho Ætius, Leo (bishop of Rome); (2) Alaric; Walja (Visigoth); Genseric (Vandal); Hengist and Horsa (Saxons); Attila (Hun); Theodoric the Great (Ostrogoth).

Chief Actions: (1) Battle near Chalons (451); (2) Adrianople, Sack of Rome.

Results: Visigothic kingdom of Tolosa (Toulouse) (415-507). Vandals settle in Africa (429-534). Carthage (439).

Burgundians occupy Rhone Valley (443).

Angles, Saxons and Jutes invade England (449), Huns and Ostrogoths ravage Gaul.

Huns destroy Aquileia and Venice founded (452).

Vandals plunder Rome (455).

Odoacer gains ascendency in Rome. The fall of the Roman empire (476).

Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy (493-555).

Overthrow of the Roman empire in the West, though it continued in the East until 1453. This blending of Roman and Teutonic elements under the influence of the Christian religion and what remained of classic civilization formed the civilization of the middle ages.

WARS OF JUSTINIAN—533-534.

(1) Eastern Empire vs. (2) Vandals in Africa and (3) Ostrogoths in Italy—535-555.

Cause: Desire to restore West to Eastern empire.

Leaders: (1) Belisarius, Narses; (3) Vitiges Totila.

Chief Action: (1) Battle of Taginae (552).

Results: Destruction of Vandal power in Africa and of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy. Exarchate established at Ravenna.

WARS OF THE FRANKS—486-814.

(1) Franks vs. (2) Neighboring Peoples.

Causes: Desire to extend the limits of Frankish territory and to ward off attacks from without.

Leaders: (1) Clovis (486-511), Charles Martel (814-741), Pepin the Short (751-768), Charlemagne (768-814).

Chief Actions: (1) Soissons (486), Clovis conquers Alemanni and becomes a Catholic Christian (496), Battle of Tours (732), Conquest of Burgundy (534), Charlemagne conquers Lombards (774-776), Saxons (772-804), Bavarians (788), Avars (791), Northern Spain (778).

Results: Franks become leading power in the West and revive the Western Empire. (Christmas day, 800).

HEPTARCHIC WARS IN ENGLAND—588-828.

Causes: Struggle for supremacy among the seven Teutonic kingdoms.

Leaders: Ethelbert (Kent), Edwin (Northumbria), Offa (Mercia), Egbert (Wessex).

Chief Events: The supremacy was successively held by kings of Kent, Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex, Maserfield (642), Ellandun (825).

Result: All England at last united under Egbert, king of Wessex (802-837).

SARACEN OR MOHAMMEDAN WARS—632-1492.

Cause: Saracens are ambitious to found a world wide Mohammedan empire.

Leaders: (1) Omar, Amru, Hassan, Mousa, Tarik, Abderrahman, Mohammed II., Abdallah; (2) Yezdegerd (Persia), Leo the Isaurian, Charles Martel, Constantine, Palæologus, Ferdinand of Aragon.

Chief Actions: (1) Yarmouk (Syria), Damascus Jerusalem Cadesia (Persia), Alexandria, Carthage (697), Xeres (Spain), Granada, Toledo; (2) Constantinople (716), Tours, Jerusalem, Las Navas de Tolosa (1212).

(1) Constantinople (1453).

(2) Granada (1492).

Results: The Saracens attempted to conquer and convert Europe at three different times between 710 and 1492. Their power began to wane from the latter date.

NORTHMEN INVASIONS—Ninth and Tenth Centuries.

(1) Northmen vs. (2) People of Western and Southern Europe.

Causes: Opportunity for plunder and conquest and later the driving out of adventurous spirits by the organization of settled kingdoms in the north.

Leaders: (1) Hastings, Rolf, Sweyn, Canute; (2) Alfred (England), Odo (France).

Chief Events: In England—Treaty of Wedmore, Massacre of Danes (1002).

In France: Siege of Paris. Grant of Normandy to Rolf (977).

Results: The Northmen are the last swarm of Teutonic conquerors. They readily assimilate civilization and infuse new energy into western Europe.

NORMAN CONQUEST—1066.

(1) Normans vs. (2) English.

Cause: William, duke of Normandy wishes to increase his territory and his power.

Leaders: (1) William the Conqueror; (2) Harold, king of England.

Chief Action: (1) Hastings.

Results: The king received added power and a modified feudalism introduced into England. Southern Italy and Sicily were also conquered by bands of Normans in the eleventh century and the kingdom of Naples founded.

CRUSADES—1096-1270.

(1) European Christians vs. (2) Turks and Moslems.

First Crusade—1096-1099.

Causes: The appeal of the eastern emperor for aid, the desire to recover the Holy Sepulcher from the infidels, the love of adventure, and hope of gain.

Leaders: (1) Peter the Hermit, Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemond of Tarentum, Robert of Normandy.

Chief Actions: (1) Nicæa, Antioch, Jerusalem.

Results: Jerusalem is subdued and a transient kingdom is founded at Jerusalem.

Second Crusade—1147-1149.

Cause: The conquest of Edessa by the Moslems threatens Jerusalem. Preaching of Saint Bernard.

Leaders: (1) Conrad III. of Germany, Louis VII. of France.

Chief Action: Unsuccessful attack on Damascus.

Results: Armies almost annihilated by hunger, disease and the enemy.

Third Crusade—1189-1192.

Cause: Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin.

Leaders: Richard I. of England, Philip Augustus of France, Frederick Barbarossa of Germany; (2) Saladin.

Chief Actions: (1) Acre.

Results: The Latin Christians secure by treaty the privilege of visiting the tomb of Christ for three years without molestation.

Fourth Crusade—1201-1204.

(1) Crusaders vs. (2) Eastern Empire.

Causes: Appeals of Innocent III. Through influence of the Venetians the Crusaders turn aside to attack Constantinople.

Leaders: (1) Dandolo, Doge of Venice, Baldwin of Flanders.

Chief Action: (1) Sack of Constantinople.

Results: Division of eastern empire. The Venetians get the monopoly of trade and most of the islands and coast lands of the Ægean and Ionian seas. The remainder is erected into a feudal state, the Latin empire.

Children’s Crusade (legendary)—1212.

Causes: Ignorant enthusiasm aroused by visions and miraculous tales.

Leader: A shepherd lad, Stephen of Vendome.

Chief Events: Thousands of children, women and peasants march from France and Germany to the Mediterranean.

Results: Only a small number return home; the others perish on the way or are sold into slavery by French merchants.

Fifth Crusade—1228-1229.

Cause: Vow of Frederick II. of Germany. He goes under pope’s excommunication.

Leader: (1) Frederick II.

Results: Frederick, by treaty with the sultan, secures a truce for ten years and the restoration of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Jerusalem to the Christians; Jerusalem is finally lost in 1244.

Sixth Crusade—1248-1254.

Cause: Louis IX. of France starts on a crusade via Egypt.

Leaders: (1) Louis IX., later St. Louis.

Chief Actions: (1) Damietta; (2) Expedition to Cairo.

Result: Louis is captured in battle and released on payment of heavy ransom and evacuation of Damietta.

Last, Seventh Crusade—1270-1291.

Causes: Louis IX. goes against Mohammedans of Tunis, Prince Edward of England to Syria.

Leader: (1) Louis IX., Prince Edward.

Chief Events: Death of Louis by the plague; (2) Acre, last Christian stronghold in Syria, falls (1291).

Results: The results of the crusades were development of commerce, introduction of new customs, products and manufactures, increase in freedom of lower classes, especially townsmen, and the power of the crown.

WAR OF THE EMPIRE—1158-1183.

(1) Empire vs. (2) Italian Communes.

Cause: Frederick Barbarossa’s attempt to restore imperial rights over the cities of northern Italy.

Leaders: (1) Frederick I. Barbarossa; (2) Pope Alexander III.

Chief Actions: (1) Milan (1162); (2) Legnano (1176).

Results: By treaty of Constance (1183) the cities of Lombardy are recognized as practically self-governing republics, the barest overlordship remaining to the emperor.

WARS OF THE BARONS IN ENGLAND—1215-1265.

(1) Barons vs. (2) Kings John and Henry III.

Causes: Misgovernment of John and Henry III.

Leaders: (1) Stephen Langton, Simon de Montfort;

(2) King John, Prince Edward, later Edward I.

Chief Events: (1) Signing of Magna Charta, Lewes, Simon de Montfort’s Parliament; (2) Evesham.

Results: The beginning of constitutional monarchy—henceforth the king is below the law, not above it.

HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR—1337-1453.

(1) English vs. (2) French.

Causes: The conflict of interests of the French and English kings in Guienne, Flanders and Scotland. Edward III. advances claim by descent to the throne of France.

Leaders: (1) Edward III., Edward the Black Prince, Prince Henry V., Duke of Bedford; (2) Du Guesclin, Charles V., Joan of Arc.

Chief Actions: (1) Crécy, Calais, Poitiers, Peace of Bretigny, Agincourt, Treaty of Troyes; (2) Orleans (1429), Castillon (1453).

Results: England loses all her land in France except Calais. During the earlier stage of this war about one-third of the population of western Europe perished from the Black Death.

AUSTRO-SWISS WAR—1315-1388.

(1) House of Hapsburg vs. (2) Swiss Confederation.

Causes: Hapsburgs assert feudal rights over the peasants of the Swiss cantons.

Leaders: (1) Leopold III. of Austria; (2) Arnold von Winkelried.

Chief Actions: (2) Morgarten, Sempach, Näfels.

Result: Independence of Swiss secured.

HUSSITE WAR—1419-1436.

(1) Bohemian Followers of John Huss vs. (2) Catholic Europe.

Causes: Execution of John Huss, the Bohemian religious reformer, by the council of Constance.

Leaders: (1) Ziska, Procopius the Great; (2) Emperor Sigismund, Cardinal Cesarini, Frederick of Brandenburg.

Chief Events: Revolt of Prague. Four crusades repulsed.

Results: After the overthrow of the radical Hussites (Taborites) by the conservative Hussites (Calixtines) in the battle of Lipan a Catholic reaction set in which culminated in 1462 with the revocation of the compacts made by the Council of Basel with the Hussites.

WARS OF THE ROSES—1455-1485.

(1) Yorkists (White Rose); vs (2) Lancastrians (Red Rose).

Causes: Misgovernment under Henry VI. encourages Richard, duke of York, representing the second line of descent from Edward III., to claim the throne against Henry VII. (third line).

Leaders: (1) Richard, duke of York, Edward IV., Richard III.; (2) Duke of Somerset, Queen Margaret, Earl of Warwick (“King-maker”), first a Yorkish and then a Lancastrian, Henry VII.

Chief Actions: (1) St. Albans, Northampton, Mortimer’s Cross, Towton, Barnet, Tewkesbury; (2) Wakefield, Bosworth Field.

Results: Henry Tudor (Lancastrian in the female line) secures throne as Henry VII. By his marriage with Elizabeth of York he unites the warring factions and establishes an almost despotic rule in England.

WARS FOR CONTROL OF ITALY—1494-1529.

(1) French vs. (2) Spanish.

Causes: Conflicting claims to the throne of Naples and to the duchy of Milan.

Leaders: (1) Charles VIII., Louis XII., Bayard, Francis I.; (2) Ferdinand of Aragon, Charles V., duke of Bourbon, Fürstenburg.

Chief Actions: Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. (1494), League Cambray (1508), Holy League (1511).

(1) Marignano; (2) Pavia.

Results: All the leading powers of western Europe were drawn into this struggle. By the peace of Cambraes (1529), France renounced her claims to Italy. One effect of these wars was to tie the hands of Charles V. so as to prevent his putting down Lutheranism in Germany.

SCHMALKALDIC WAR—1546-1547.

(1) Charles V. (2) League of Schmalkalden.

Causes: Charles V. attempts to crush Protestantism in Germany.

Leaders: (1) Emperor Charles V., Duke Maurice of Saxony; (2) John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse.

Chief Action: (1) Mühlberg.

Results: Protestantism temporarily crushed. Its recovery in 1552 was followed by the religious peace of Augsburg 1555.

RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE—1562-1598.

(1) Catholics vs. (2) Huguenots (Protestants).

Cause: Massacre of Huguenots at Vassy is a signal for uprising.

Leaders: (1) Duke of Guise, Henry III.; (2) Catherine de Medici, Conde, Coligny, Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.)

Chief Events: (1) Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572); (2) Siege of Paris, Ivry (1590), Henry of Navarre becomes a Catholic (1593). Riots of Image Breakers. Council of Blood.

Results: By the edict of Nantes (1598) the Huguenots are given equal political rights with Catholics, limited freedom of worship, the possession of La Rochelle and other strong places as cities of refuge.

WAR OF LIBERATION IN THE NETHERLANDS—1568-1648.

(1) Spain vs. (2) Revolted provinces in the Netherlands.

Causes: Political and religious tyranny of Spain. Duke of Alva enforces the Inquisition.

Leaders: (1) Duke of Alva, Alexander of Parma; (2) William of Orange, Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, Maurice of Nassau.

Chief Actions: (1) Mechlin, Haarlem; (2) Brill, Siege of Leyden, “Spanish Fury” at Antwerp, Pacification of Ghent (1576), Union of Utrecht (1579), Declaration of Independence (1581).

Results: By the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the independence of the seven northern provinces, the United Netherlands, is recognized. The ten southern provinces continue under Spanish rule until 1713.

THIRTY YEARS’ WAR—1618-1648.

(1) German Protestants and their Allies, England, Holland, Sweden and France vs. (2) Imperial German Catholics and their Allies, Spain, Italy.

Causes: Disputes over interpretation of peace of Augsburg (religious and political disputes leading to the revolt of Bohemia). The war passes through four phases: (1) Bohemian-Palatinate, (2) Danish, (3) Swedish, (4) Swedish-French.

Leaders: (1) Frederick, Elector Palatine, Mansfield, Gustavus Adolphus (Sweden), Turenne and Conde (France); (2) Emperor Ferdinand II., Maximilian of Bavaria, Tilly, Wallenstein.

Chief Actions: (1) Stralsund, Edict of Restitution, Breitenfeld, Lützen; (2) White Hill, Magdeburg, Nōrdlingen.

Results: This war is closed by the peace of Westphalia. Alsace thereby goes to France, Switzerland is separated from the empire and the Palatinate is divided. The secularized lands of northern Germany are secured to Protestantism, while leaving to Catholicism Austria, Bohemia and Bavaria. Germany is left desolate.

CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND—1642-1649.

(1) Royalists (Cavaliers) vs. (2) Parliamentarians (Roundheads) allied with Scots (to 1647).

Causes: Charles I. attempts to force a personal government on England. His disputes with Parliament covered (1) taxation, (2) privileges of Parliament, (3) religion, (4) control of the militia.

Leaders: (1) Charles I., Prince Rupert, Montrose; (2) Cromwell, Essex, Fairfax, Leslie.

Chief Actions: (2) Marston Moor, Naseby, Preston.

Results: The second civil war (1648) determines the army leaders to bring Charles I. to trial and execution (1649). A Commonwealth was then established without King or House of Lords but with Oliver Cromwell as Protector (1653 to 1659). The son of Charles I. restored in 1660 as Charles II.

FIRST THREE WARS OF LOUIS XIV.—1667-1697.

(1) France vs. a. Spanish Netherlands; b. Dutch republic; c. Grand Alliance (German States, England, Holland).

Causes: Louis XIV.’s passion for fame and desire to increase French territory in Europe.

Leaders: (1) Turenne, Conde, Luxembourg; (2) William III., De Ruyter.

Chief Actions: (1) Ravaging of Palatinate, Steenkirke, Neerwinden; (2) Sasbach, La Hogue, Namur.

Result: Extension of boundaries of France to the northeast.

SPANISH SUCCESSION (in America), QUEEN ANNE’S WAR—1701-1714.

(1) France, Spain and Bavaria vs. (2) Austria, England, Holland, Portugal, Savoy.

Causes: Acceptance by Louis XIV. of the bequest of the Spanish dominion to his grandson, Philip of Anjou, in violation of the partition treaty to which he had consented.

Leaders: (1) Vendome Villars, Leopold of Dessau; (2) Duke of Marlborough, Eugene of Savoy, Heinsius.

Chief Actions: (2) Gibraltar, Blenheim, Ramillies, Turin, Oudenarde, Malplaquet.

Results: By the peace of Utrecht in 1713 and that of Rastadt in 1714 Spain and the Indies go to Philip of Anjou; Naples, Milan, Sardinia and former Spanish Netherlands to the Austrians. England receives Newfoundland, Acadia and Hudson Bay Territory from France and Gibraltar from Spain.

NORTHERN WAR—1700-1721.

(1) Sweden vs. (2) Russia, Poland, Denmark, Saxony.

Causes: Peter the Great joins Poland, Denmark and Saxony for the purpose of despoiling Sweden, the first power of the north, of her Baltic ports.

Leaders: (1) Charles XII.; (2) Peter the Great (Russia), Augustus II. of Saxony.

Chief Actions: (1) Invasion of Denmark, Narva, Invasion of Saxony; (2) Pultava.

Results: By the peace of Nystadt (1721) Sweden cedes large territories to Russia. Russia takes the place of Sweden as the foremost power of the north.

WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION—1740-1748.

(1) Austria, supported by Hungary, Bohemia, England, Holland and Saxony vs. (2) Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria.

Causes: When Maria Theresa succeeded her father, Charles IV. of Austria, Frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia. This precipitated a struggle for Austrian territories. At the death of Charles VI. of Austria the right of Maria Theresa to the throne is contested chiefly by Frederick the Great of Prussia, who seizes Silesia.

Leaders: (1) Maria Theresa, George II. of England, Charles of Lorraine; (2) Frederick the Great of Prussia, Emperor Charles VII., Schwerin.

Chief Actions: (1) Dettingen; (2) Mollwitz, Chotusitz, Prague, Fontenoy, Hohenfriedburg, Soor.

Results: By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Silesia is secured to Prussia, which state now becomes a great European power. This war is one phase of the long rivalry between France and Great Britain for sea power and dominion in America and India.

SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, OR THIRD SILESIAN WAR;

In America: FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR—1756-1763.

(1) England, Prussia vs. (2) France, Austria, Russia and Spain, Sweden.

Causes: Maria Theresa wishes to regain Silesia. Hostilities between French and English in America and India. George II.’s concern for his ancestral territory of Hanover.

Leaders: (1) Frederick the Great, Duke of Cumberland, Wolfe (America), Robert Clive (India); (2) Daun (Austria), Charles of Lorraine, Montcalm (America).

Chief Actions: (1) Dresden, Rossbach, Leuthen, Zorndorf, Minden; (2) Kolin, Hohkirchen, Kunersdorf.

In America: (1) Louisburg, Fort Duquesne, Quebec.

In India: (1) Plassey, Wandewash.

Results: The peace of Paris (1763) gives England Canada, the supremacy in India and certain islands, especially in the West Indies. Prussia retains Silesia. This war really founded the British empire which is based on sea power and colonial dominion.

WARS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION—1792-1802.

(1) Revolutionary France vs. (2) Coalitions of England, Austria, Prussia, Holland and Spain. The Empire, Russia.

a. First Coalition—1792-1797.

Causes: Intrigues of emigrés; horror of Europe at the execution of the king; French offer of aid to revolutionists in other countries.

Leaders: (1) Dumouriez, Kellermann, Jourdan, Hoche, Pichegru, Napoleon Bonaparte, Moreau; (2) Duke of Brunswick, Coburg, Charles of Austria.

Chief Actions: (1) Valmy, Occupation of Nice and Savoy, Jemmapes, Execution of king (1793), Annexation of Belgium, Fleurus, Lodi, Siege of Mantua; (2) Mainz, Neerwinden, Kaiserslautern, Wurzburg.

Results: By peace of Campo Formio (1797) the French frontier is advanced to the Rhine, Venice is given to Austria and the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics founded in Italy under French control.

b. Bonaparte’s Egyptian Expedition—1798-1799.

Causes: Bonaparte aims to prepare the way to attack Great Britain’s power in India and dreams of rivaling early conquerors of the east.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon Bonaparte; (2) Nelson (England).

Chief Actions: (1) Battle of the Pyramids; (2) Battle of the Nile at Aboukir, Acre.

Results: Nelson’s victory removes a serious menace to British power in India, cuts off the French in Egypt and deprives France of communication with its best troops and ablest general.

c. Second Coalition—1799-1802.

Causes: The mistakes of the government of the Directory and the prestige of Nelson’s victory enable Great Britain to form the Second Coalition.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon, Joubert, Moreau; (2) Suvaroff, Melas, Archduke John.

Chief Actions: (1) Marengo, Hohenlinden; Napoleon’s passage of the Alps (Great St. Bernard); (2) Novi.

Results: The Peace of Presburg ends the contest between France and Austria. Much harsher terms are imposed on Austria. Peace of Luneville with Austria (1801); Peace of Amiens with England (1802); Surrender of England’s conquests except Trinidad and Ceylon; Malta to be restored to Knights of Malta.

NAPOLEONIC WARS—1802-1815.

(1) France under Napoleon vs. (2) European Powers led by England.

a. Third Coalition—1805.

Causes: Neither England nor France regarded the peace of Amiens as more than a truce. Among the many causes of friction leading to renewal of war, chief place was given to England’s refusal to restore Malta.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon; (2) Nelson, Mack, Alexander I. (Russia), Kutusoff.

Chief Actions: (1) Ulm, Austerlitz; (2) Trafalgar.

Results: As a result of his brilliant successes, Napoleon, in 1802 becomes consul for life and in 1804 took the title emperor of the French. Confirmation of treaty of Campo Formio, with the recognition of Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine and Ligurian republics.

b. (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia—1806-1807.

Chief Actions: (1) Double battle of Jena and Auerstädt, Berlin decree, Eylau (indecisive), Friedland.

Results: By the treaties of Tilsit (1807) Russia recognizes Napoleon’s relatives as kings of Naples, Holland and Westphalia and consents to the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the grand duchy of Warsaw under Napoleon’s control. Alexander and Napoleon combine to dominate Europe. Prussia cedes territories containing half her population.

c. Peninsular War—1808-1814.

Causes: Rebellion of Spain against Joseph Bonaparte, whom Napoleon had placed on the throne.

Leaders: (1) Soult, Massena; (2) Duke of Wellington.

Chief Actions: (1) Corunna; (2) Talavera, Lines of Torres Vedras, Albuera, Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse.

Results: French expelled from the peninsula.

d. Fifth War with Austria—1809.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon; (2) Archduke Charles.

Chief Actions: (1) Aspern,, Wagram.

Results: Austria cedes thirty-two thousand square miles of territory, containing three and one-half million inhabitants.

e. Invasion of Russia—1812.

Cause: Alexander’s refusal to enforce Napoleon’s continental system, and other causes of dispute.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon, Marshal Ney; (2) Kutusoff, Barclay de Tolly.

Chief Actions: (1) Smolensk, Borodino. Burning of Moscow, Retreat from Moscow, Passage of the Beresina.

Result: Less than twenty thousand of the half million men in Napoleon’s army recrossed the Russian frontier.

f. War of Liberation—1813-1814.

Causes: The disastrous Russian campaign, together with the steady progress of the British in the peninsular war encouraged the oppressed states of Germany to rise against Napoleon’s tyranny, Prussia taking the lead.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon,, Ney, Macdonald; (2) Frederick, William III., Francis I., Alexander I., Schwarzenberg, Blücher, Bernadotte.

Chief Actions: (1) Lützen, Bautzen, Dresden; (2) Dennewitz, Leipzig, (Battle of the Nations). Allies enter Paris.

Results: Driven from Russia in 1812, from Germany in 1813, Napoleon in 1814 was forced to surrender France itself. By the treaty of Fontainebleau he was given the Island of Elba and an annual revenue of two million francs.

g. Waterloo Campaign—1815.

Causes: Quarrels among the allies and dissatisfaction of French with Louis XVIII. tempt Napoleon to return from Elba.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon, Ney; (2) Wellington, Blücher.

Chief Actions: Napoleon lands at Cannes (March 1); enters Paris March 20.

(1) Ligny; (2) Quatre Bras, Waterloo (June 18).

Results: Waterloo marks the final downfall of Napoleon. He is transported to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. In the Congress of Vienna the allies reconstructed Europe, restoring in general the legitimate rulers and erecting barriers against democratic movements and liberal ideas.

WAR OF GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE—1821-1829.

(1) Greeks, aided by England, Russia and France vs. (2) Turks.

Causes: Revived feeling of Greek nationality, stimulated by a widespread secret society working for a restoration of a Greek empire at Constantinople.

Leaders: (1) Ypsilanti, Diebitsch (Russia), Codrington (England), Byron (England); (2) Ibrahim, Pasha.

Chief Actions: Massacre of Greeks at Chios.

(1) Navarino, Adrianople; (2) Missolonghi.

Results: The treaty of Adrianople, 1829, compelled Turkey to acknowledge the independence of Greece, which chose as king the Bavarian prince Otto I.

CRIMEAN WAR—1854-1856.

(1) Russia vs. (2) Turkey aided by Great Britain, France and Sardinia.

Causes: The question of the political status and future of the lands of the Turkish empire. Immediate cause, the claim of Russia to a protectorate over all Greek Christians living under the sultan’s rule.

Leaders: (1) Mentchikoff, Gortchakoff; (2) Canrobert, Pelissier (France), Raglan, Simpson (England).

Chief Actions: (1) Balaclava; (2) Alma, Siege of Sebastopol, Inkermann.

Results: In the peace of Paris (1856) Russia’s claim to a protectorate is disallowed, the Danube is opened to navigation and the Black Sea is closed to war vessels of all powers.

SEPOY MUTINY—1857-1858.

(1) Sepoys vs. (2) English.

Causes: Uneasiness created by the rapid progress of British ways and rule causes a revolt of native Sepoy troops of India. Immediate cause the rumor that cartridges furnished troops were greased with a mixture of hog and beef fat—the one animal an object of loathing to Mohammedans, the other of religious worship to the Hindu.

Leaders: (1) Nana Sahib; (2) Nicholson, Havelock, Campbell.

Chief Actions: Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut.

(1) Massacre at Cawnpore; (2) Delhi, Relief of Lucknow.

Results: Following the suppression of the mutiny the charter of the East India company is revoked and India passes directly under the crown, a secretary of state for India being added to the British ministry.

WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION—1859.

(1) Sardinia-Piedmont and France vs. (2) Austria.

Causes: Since 1848 Sardinia-Piedmont had been the center of the movement for Italian unity. Following promises of aid from Napoleon III. Cavour traps Austria into declaring war over the question of disarmament.

Leaders: (1) Victor Emmanuel, Napoleon III., Garibaldi; (2) Francis Joseph II., Gyulay.

Chief Actions: (1) Montebello, Magenta, Solferino. Peace signed at Zurich, November 10, 1859.

Results: By this war Victor Emmanuel gained Lombardy. In 1860 Tuscany, Parma, Modena and the papal legations were added. In 1861 he gained Sicily and Naples, together with the title King of Italy. Venetia followed as a result of alliance with Prussia in 1866 and the addition of Rome in 1871 completed the unification of Italy.

DANISH WAR—1864.

(1) Austria and Prussia vs. (2) Denmark.

Causes: Incorporation of the duchy of Schleswig with Denmark in violation of treaty of 1852.

Leaders: (1) Gablenz (Austria), Prince Frederick, Charles (Prussia); (2) Dermeza, Gerlach.

Chief Actions: (1) Invasion of Jutland, Storming of Düppel.

Results: Denmark gives up Schleswig-Holstein, which is jointly administered by Austria and Prussia.

AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR—1866.

(1) Prussia with smaller North German States and Italy vs. (2) Austria, Hanover, Saxony, and South German States.

Causes: Friction over Schleswig-Holstein enables Bismarck to force Austria into a war for supremacy in Germany.

Leaders: (1) William I., Prince Frederick, Charles, Moltke, Victor Emmanuel; (2) Benedek, Archduke Albert, Gablenz, Prince Charles of Bavaria.

Chief Actions: In Bohemia: (1) Soor, Koniggrätz or Sadowa; (2) Trautenau. In the West: (1) Aschaffenburg; (2) Langensala. In Italy: (2) Custozza, Lissa.

Results: Closed with the peace of Prague, August 23, 1866, which authorized the re-establishment of the federated German states, excluding Austria; Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, and her rights in Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia. Hanover, Hesse, Nassau are also annexed to Prussia.

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR—1870-1871.

(1) France vs. (2) Prussia supported by all German States.

Causes: Jealousy of France at Prussian gains and friction over Hohenzollern candidacy for the throne of Spain. Bismarck’s falsification of the “Ems dispatch” tricked France into a declaration of war.

Leaders: Napoleon III., MacMahon, Bazaine; (2) William I., Moltke, Prince Frederick Charles, Crown Prince Frederic William.

Chief Actions: (1) Saarbrucken; (2) Weissenberg, Wörth, Vionville, Gravelotte, Sedan, Capitulation of Metz, Orleans, Capitulation of Paris.

Results: Closed in 1871 with the treaty of Versailles with the following results: (1) The French military power was destroyed; (2) the western frontier of Germany was rendered secure; (3) The German empire was established; (4) Germany acquired Alsace and Lorraine. In France Napoleon III. is deposed and the Third Republic established, 1870.

RUSSO-TURKISH WAR—1877-1878.

(1) Russia vs. (2) Turkey.

Causes: Turkish misgovernment and revolts in her Christian subject provinces, which were barbarously put down (“Bulgarian atrocities”) arouse all Europe but Russia alone declares war.

Leaders: (1) Grand Duke Nicholas, Gurka, Grand Duke Michael, Alexander II.; (2) Suleiman Pasha, Osman Pasha, Mukhitar Pasha.

Chief Actions: (1) Passages of the Danube at Shitova, Shipka Pass, Plevna, Storm of Kars.

Results: By the peace of San Stefano as revised in the congress of the powers at Berlin, Montenegro, Servia and Roumania become independent; Bulgaria remains tributary but receives a Christian prince; Russia obtains large indemnity and part of Armenia and also Bessarabia.

CHINESE-JAPANESE WAR—1894-1895.

(1) Japan vs. (2) China.

Causes: Rival claims to suzerainty over Korea.

Leaders: (1) Ito, Yamagata, Oyama, Nogi; (2) Tso, Yeh, Wei.

Chief Actions: Yalu River, Port Arthur, Wei-hai-wei, Niuchwang.

Results: Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed April 17, 1895, removed Korea from Chinese influence; ceded Formosa and the Pescadores to Japan, and awarded to the latter an indemnity of $180,000,000.

SOUTH AFRICAN OR BOER WAR—1899-1902.

(1) Great Britain vs. (2) Transvaal, Orange Free State.

Causes: Resistance by the Boers to the British form of government in the Transvaal.

Leaders: (1) Sir George White Buller, Methuen, Roberts, Kitchener, French; (2) Cronje, Botha, De Wet, Delarey.

Chief Actions: (1) Siege of Ladysmith, Paardeberg; (2) Colenso, Spion Kop, Vaal Krantz, Magersfontein.

Result: Boers surrendered May 31, 1902; are granted the right of self-government under British sovereignty, and united with other self-governing British colonies in South Africa, in 1910, to form the Union of South Africa.

RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR—1904-1905.

(1) Japan vs. (2) Russia.

Causes: Russian encroachments in Manchuria, and their fortification of Port Arthur.

Leaders: (1) Togo, Kuroki, Oku, Nodzu, Oyama, Nogi; (2) Kuropatkin, Alexieff, Makaroff, Stoessel, Stakelberg, Linievitch.

Chief Actions: (1) Port Arthur and Chemulpo, Vladivostok, Yalu River, Dalny, Siege of Port Arthur, Mukden, Sea of Japan.

Results: Closed September 5, 1905, by treaty of Portsmouth by which Korea passes under control of Japan, China regains Manchuria, and Japan is granted important railroad rights.

BALKAN WAR—1912-1913.

(1) Montenegro, Bulgaria, Servia and Greece vs. (2) Turkey.

Causes: Discontent with Turkish rule in Macedonia.

Leaders: (1) Savoff, Dimitrieff, Putnik, Constantine; (2) Nazim Pasha, Mukhtar Pasha, Abdullah Pasha.

Chief Actions: (1) Kirk Kilisseh, Lule Burgas, Monastir.

Results: Turkey appealed to the powers, November 3, 1912, for intervention, and an armistice was signed December 3, 1912, ending one of the shortest and most sanguinary wars in history. The treaty of peace was signed May 30, 1913.

(2) Servia, Greece, Roumania, Turkey vs. Bulgaria.

Causes: Disputes over the division of Macedonia.

Chief Actions: Mainly astounding atrocities and the re-occupation of Adrianople by Turkey.

Results: Reorganization of the Balkan states. Albania was made independent under an international commission of control; Crete was ceded to Greece; Macedonia was divided among Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria; and Roumania gained a strip from the northwest of Bulgaria. On September 17, 1913, an agreement between Bulgaria and Turkey provided that the latter retain Adrianople, Kirk Kilisseh, and Dimotika. September 28 the treaty between Bulgaria and Turkey was signed at Constantinople.

EUROPEAN WAR—1914-1917.

(1) Entente Allies (Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Belgium, Servia, Montenegro, Roumania, Portugal, Japan) vs. (2) Teutonic Allies (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria).

Causes: (1) The immediate occasion of this great conflict was the murder of the Crown Prince and Crown Princess of the Austro-Hungarian empire, on June 28, 1914, at Sarajevo, Bosnia, through the alleged instigation of a Servian revolutionary society, called the Narodna Odbrana, which had for its purpose the disrupting of the Austro-Hungarian empire, particularly those parts inhabited largely by Servians and other Slavic races, followed by a demand on the part of the Austro-Hungarian government that Servia suppress the criminal organization and permit the former to co-operate in the inquiry as to the accomplices on Servian territory in the murders of the Prince and Princess. This demand was refused by Servia, which immediately received the support of Russia, France and Great Britain, while Austria-Hungary received the support of Germany, and, later, of Turkey.

(2) The underlying causes were the following:

(a) The policy of Russia (popularly known as Pan-Slavism), an age-long political creed of Russian ambition, to dominate the Balkan countries and extend her dominions to the Bosphorus, the Ægean and the Adriatic.

(b) The ambition of France to regain Alsace-Lorraine, lost to her by the Franco-Prussian war.

(c) The determination of Great Britain to check the growth of Germany, politically, industrially, and especially commercially.

(3) More remote causes, and more specious ones, are alleged to be:

(a) The European political doctrine of the “Balance of Power,” which was the outgrowth of the Napoleonic wars, and received its first stamp of approval at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which settled the important boundaries of the map of Europe for more than half a century afterward. Subsequently, the “great powers” of Europe assumed the point of view that any acquisition of power, territory or population by any one of them entitled all the others to compensation; so that the relative strength and importance might not be disturbed. This rule has been applied to every important war since Napoleon’s time, and any threatened disturbance of this “balance” has always had in it the germ of a general conflict. Hence arose the historic “alliances,” known as the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Triple Entente, comprising France, Russia and Great Britain, on the other.

(b) Militarism, so-called, with its attendant jealousies and obstacles to social and economic reforms, and which might be said to be the direct fruits of the “balance of power” doctrine, as is also the doctrine of the “guaranteed neutrality” of certain small countries of Europe, which astute European diplomacy created for the purpose of “buffer” states.

Military Leaders: (1) Kitchener, French, Haig, Joffre, Grand Duke Nicholas, Kouropatkin, Brusiloff, Admirals Fisher and Jellicoe; (2) Emperor William, Hindenburg, Mackensen, Kluck, Falkenhayn, Archduke Frederick, Hoetzendorf, Crown Prince Frederick William, Admiral Tirpitz, Crown Prince Rupprecht, Enver Pasha.

Chief Theaters of Action: (1) Belgium; (2) Northern France; (3) Poland; (4) Dardanelles; (5) Servia and Balkans; (6) Roumania; (7) Austro-Italian Front; (8) Lithuania; (9) North Sea and Inlets; (10) Mediterranean; (11) German Colonial Possessions throughout the world.

Results: Except for the loss of Germany’s Colonial Possessions, the results of the war to date (1917) largely preponderate in favor of the Teutonic Allies—the land campaigns being almost overwhelmingly in their favor. (See further Great Battles of the World.)

Chronology of Great Events:

1914

June 28.—Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and the Duchess of Hohenberg at Sarajevo, Bosnia, by Servian student.

July 28.—Austria declares war on Servia, and hostilities commence, after Germany and Austria refuse England’s invitation to a conference.

August 1.—Germany formally declares war on Russia, and troops are ordered mobilized.

France mobilizes.

August 3.—Germany declares war on France. German troops enter Belgium.

August 4.—War declared by England on Germany.

August 6.—Austria declares war against Russia.

August 9.—Servia declares war on Germany.

August 11.—Montenegro declares war on Germany.

August 12.—France declares war on Austria-Hungary.

August 12.—England declares war on Austria.

August 23.—Japan in state of war with Germany.

August 25.—Austria declares war on Japan.

August 29.—Austria declares war on Belgium.

August 30.—Paris prepares for a siege.

September 5.—England, France and Russia agree not to treat for peace separately.

October 30.—Russia declares state of war exists with Turkey.

November 5.—Great Britain officially announces state of war with Turkey.

Servia severs diplomatic relations with Turkey.

1915

February 17.—Germans begin submarine campaign by sinking British collier without warning.

February 24.—Britain closes Irish and North channels to all navigation.

March 1.—Great Britain declares virtual blockade of German coast.

March 15.—British council order prohibits all traffic to and from Germany.

May 23.—Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary.

October 14.—Bulgaria declares war on Servia.

1916

August 27.—Italy declares war on Germany.

Roumania entered the war on the side of the allies.

October 11.—Upon demand of Great Britain and France the entire Greek fleet and sea-coast forts were turned over to the allies or dismantled.

December 7.—David Lloyd George accepted British post of Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury.

December 8.—Roumanian army trapped in Prahova Valley, surrendered to General von Mackensen’s forces.

December 12.—Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg announced to the Reichstag that Germany and her allies proposed to enter forthwith into peace negotiations.

1917

February.—The chief occurrences in the opening months of this year were the blockade declared by Germany against the Entente Allies, and the announcement of unrestricted submarine warfare upon neutral shipping to the nations composing that alliance. This course was justified by the German government as a retaliation against the starvation blockade instituted by Great Britain and her allies.

GREAT AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BATTLES.

This table includes those battles of decisive or far-reaching importance upon the destinies of the contestants. The dates are according to the Old Style, or Julian, calendar down to 1582; after that date, according to the New Style, or Gregorian, calendar. The victors in the various battles are printed in bold-face type. Details of minor American battles will be found in connection with the [Outline Tables of American History]. †Naval battles. *Indecisive results.

Name of Battle; Approximate Location; DateContesting Nations or PartiesResults and Marked Features of the Contest
Abensberg (ä´bens-berg), Bavaria, April 20, 1809 French and Bavarians vs. AustriansAbout 90,000 engaged on each side.
Aboukir (ä-bōō-kêr´), Battle of theNile, Egypt, August 1, 1798 English vs. FrenchNelson cut off Napoleon’s return to Europe.
Aboukir, Egypt, July 25, 1799 French vs. TurksTwo-thirds of Turkish troops killed.
†Abydos (ȧ-bī´dos), Hellespont, B. C. 411 Athenians vs. Peloponnesians...
Acragas (ak´ra-gas), Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 406 Carthaginians vs. GreeksThe citizens evacuated the fortress.
Acre (ä´ker or ā´ker), Siege of, Syria, 1189-1191 Christians vs. SaracensRichard the Lion Hearted won renown by this siege.
Acre, Siege of, Syria, March 17, 1799 Turks vs. French...
†Actium (ak´shi-um), Greece, September 2, B. C. 31 Augustus vs. AntonyAt the critical moment Antony and Cleopatra sail away.
Adowa (ä´dō-wä), Northeast Africa, March 1,1896 Ethiopians vs. ItaliansItalians routed with enormous loss.
Adrianople (ad-ri-an-ō´pl), Thrace, July 3, 323 Constantine vs. LiciniusConstantine gained empire.
Adrianople, Thrace, 378 Visigoths vs. RomansEmperor Valens defeated and slain.
Adwalton (ad´wal-ton) Moor, England, January 30, 1643 Royalists vs. Parliamentarians...
Ægadian Islands (ē-gā´di-an), Sicily, B. C.241 Romans vs. CarthaginiansThis victory put an end to the first Punic war.
†Ægospotami (ē-gos-pot´a-mī), Thrace, B. C.405 Spartans vs. AtheniansVirtually ended Peloponnesian war.
Aghrim (ô´grim), Ireland, July 12, 1691 William III. vs. James II.Irish savagely slaughtered.
Agincourt (ȧ-zhan-kōōr); E. (aj´in-kört), France, October 25, 1415 English vs. FrenchGreat victory for Henry V.
Agnadello (ä-nyä-del´lō), Italy, May 14, 1509 French vs. VenetiansOne of the most disastrous battles in the history of Venice.
Agrigentum (ag-ri-jen´tum), Siege of, Sicily, B. C.262 Romans vs. Carthaginians...
Alamo (ä´lȧ-mō), Storming of the, Texas,U. S., February 22, 1836 Mexicans vs. TexansSurvivors put to the sword.
Albuera (äl-bwā´rā), Spain, May 16, 1811 British vs. FrenchHeavy losses on both sides.
Aleppo (ä-lep´ō), Syria, 638 Moslems vs. SyriansLast serious resistance in Syria to the invading Moslems.
Alexandria (ä-leks-än´dri-ä), Siege of,Egypt, 638 Moslems vs. EgyptiansLeft Moslems masters of Egypt.
Alexandria, Bombardment of, Egypt, July 11-12, 1882 English vs. Arabi PashaForts totally destroyed. English occupy Egypt.
Algiers (al-jērz´), Bombardment of, Algeria, 1816 English and Dutch vs. Dey of AlgeriaDey agreed to total abolition of Christian slavery in his dominion.
Allia (al´i-ä), Italy, B. C. 390 Brennus and his Gauls vs. RomansRome left defenseless.
Alma (äl´ma), Crimea, September 20, 1854 English and French vs. RussiansBritish carried heights at the point of the bayonet.
Almansa (äl-män´sä), Spain, April 25, 1707 French vs. British and PortugueseSpain lost to the allies.
Amphipolis (am-fip´ō-lis), Siege of, Thrace, B. C.422 Spartans vs. AtheniansBoth Brasidas and Cleon fell.
Anaquito (ä-nä-kē´tō), Peru, 1546 Pizarro vs. Viceroy MenezGovernment of Peru fell into Pizzaro’s hands.
Angora (an-gō´rȧ), Asia Minor, 1402 Tartars vs. TurksTamerlane said to have had eight hundred thousand men.
Antietam (an-tē´tam), Maryland, U. S., September 17,1862*Confederates vs. U. S.Heavy losses on both sides. Lee’s army greatly outnumbered.
Antioch, Siege of, Syria, 1097-1098 Crusaders vs. SaracensDefenders massacred.
Antwerp (ant´wirp), Belgium, 1576 Spaniards vs. WalloonsMassacre of inhabitants known as the “Spanish Fury.”
Appomattox (ap-pō-mat´oks), Virginia, U. S., April 9,1865 U. S. vs. ConfederatesMarked the close of the American Civil war, and surrender of General Lee.
Aquae Sextiae (ā´kwe seks´ti-ē) Gaul, B. C. 102 Romans vs. TeutonsCaius Marius annihilates the barbarian army.
Arbela (är-bē´lä), Persia, B. C. 331 Macedonians vs. PersiansThis victory made Alexander master of Asia.
Arcola (är´kō-lā), Italy, November 15-17, 1796 French under Napoleon vs. AustriansNapoleon prevented the junction of two Austrian armies.
Arcot (är-kot´), Siege of, India, August 31- November15, 1751 English and Sepoys vs. FrenchRobert Clive held out ten weeks against a far superior force before being relieved.
†Arginusae (är-ji-nū´sē), Asia Minor, B. C. 406 Athenians vs. PeloponnesiansCommand of the sea temporarily restored to Athens.
†Armada (är-mä´dä), The Invincible, EnglishChannel, July, 1588 English vs. SpanishBeginning of English sea-power.
Arsuf (ar-suf), Syria, September 7, 1191 English Crusaders vs. SaracensGreat victory of Richard the Lion Hearted over Saladin.
†Artemisium (ār-te-mish´um), Eubœa, B. C. 480*Persians vs. GreeksFought at the same time as the battle of Thermopylæ.
Ascalon[701] (as´ka-lon), Syria, 1099 Crusaders vs. SaracensMoslem resistance to Christians ended for a time.
Asculum (as´ku-lum), Italy, B. C. 279 Pyrrhus vs. RomansPyrrhus, though victorious, suffered great loss.
Aspern (äs´pern), Austria, May 21-22, 1809*Austrians vs. FrenchNapoleon retired. Each side lost about 20,000 men.
Assaye (ä-sī´), India, September 23, 1803 English vs. East IndiansSir Arthur Wellesley (later duke of Wellington) defeated forces almost ten times as numerous.
Austerlitz (ous´ter-lits), Austria, December 2, 1805 French vs. Russians, AustriansThe Battle of the Three Emperors: Napoleon, Alexander I., Francis I.
†Azores (ȧ-zōrz´), Atlantic Ocean, 1591 Spanish vs. EnglishGallant fight made by Sir Richard Grenville in the Revenge.
Balaclava (bäl-ä-klä´vä), Crimea, October25, 1854 Russians vs. English“Charge of the Light Brigade” celebrated by Tennyson.
Bannockburn (ban´ok-burn), Scotland, June 24, 1314 Scots vs. EnglishBruce drives back English invaders with great slaughter.
Barnet (bär´net), England, April 4, 1471 Yorkists vs. LancastriansEarl of Warwick (“Kingmaker”) slain.
Bautzen (bout´sen), Germany, May 20-21, 1813 French vs. Prussians, RussiansThe allies lost 15,000 killed and wounded.
†Beachy Head, England, June 30, 1690 French vs. English, DutchThe French had been sent to create a diversion in favor of James II. in Ireland.
Belgrade (bel-grād´), Siege of, Servia, April,1456 Hungarians vs. TurksJohn Hunyady’s last exploit.
Beneventum (ben-e-ven´tum), Italy, B. C. 275 Romans vs. PyrrhusPyrrhus’ last serious attack against the Romans.
Beresina (ber-yā´zē-nä), Crossing of the,Russia, November 28, 1812 Russians vs. FrenchA most terrible disaster on the retreat from Moscow.
Bergen-op-Zoom (berch´en-op-zōm´), Siege of, Netherlands, 1747 French vs. English, DutchFrench lost heavily in this siege.
Bibracte (bi-brak´tē), Gaul, B. C. 58 Romans vs. HelvetiansA defeat would have meant destruction to Cæsar.
Blenheim (blen´im), Bavaria, August 13, 1704 British and Imperialists vs. French and BavariansBrilliant victory of Marlborough and Prince Eugene.
Borodino (bor-o-dyē-nô´) commonly Anglicized,(bor-ō-dē´nō)*French vs. RussiansOne of the most bloody battles on record.
Bosworth Field, England, August, 1485 Lancastrians vs. YorkistsRichard III. slain; Henry Tudor becomes Henry VII. of England.
Bouvines (bö-vēn´) Flanders, 1214 French vs. Flemish, English and GermansSecures the position of Philip Augustus on the throne of France.
Bovianum (bö-vi-ä´num), Siege of, Italy, B. C.305 Romans vs. SamnitesEnd of second Samnite war.
Boyne (boin) river, Ireland, July 1, 1690 William III. vs. James II.Irish under James II. totally defeated.
Breitenfeld (brīt´en-felt), Germany, September 7, 1631 Swedes and Saxons vs. ImperialistsBrilliant victory of Gustavus Adolphus over Tilly.
Breitenfeld, Germany, 1642 Swedes vs. ImperialistsVictory of Tortenson over Piccolomini.
Brill, Seizure of, Holland, 1572 Netherlanders vs. SpanishThe first success of the Netherlanders.
Buena Vista (bwā´nä vēs´tä), Mexico, February 22-23, 1847 Americans vs. MexicansGeneral Zachary Taylor victorious over much larger force.
Bull Run, Virginia, U. S. A., July 21, 1861 Confederates vs. FederalsThe first important battle of the Civil war.
Bunker’s Hill, Massachusetts, U. S. A., June 17, 1775 British vs. AmericansThough dislodged from their position, the Americans won a practical victory.
Byzantium (bi-zan´shi-um), Siege of, Thrace, 323 Constantine vs. LiciniusByzantium refounded as Constantinople, the capital of the empire.
†Cadiz (kā´diz, Sp. kä´dēth), Spain, 1587 English vs. SpanishHere Drake “singed the King of Spain’s beard.”
Calais (Fr. kȧ-lä´), Siege of, France,1346-1347 English vs. FrenchCalais remained in English possession until 1558.
†Camperdown (kam-per-doun´), Holland, October 11, 1797 British vs. DutchThe Dutch fleet, allied with France, was practically destroyed.
Cannæ (kan´ē), Italy, B. C. 216 Carthaginians vs. RomansHannibal inflicts one of the most disastrous defeats the Romans ever suffered.
†Cape St. Vincent, Portugal, February 14, 1797 British vs. SpanishSpanish fleet, allied with France, beaten by Admiral Jervis.
Capua (kap´ū-a; It. kä´pŏŏ-ä), Siege of, Italy, B. C. 211 Romans vs. Capuans and CarthaginiansHannibal was unable to break through Roman lines and relieve the city.
Carrhæ (kar´ē), Mesopotamia, B. C. 53 Parthians vs. RomansCrassus, one of the triumvirs, defeated and shortly after slain.
Carthage (kär´thij), Siege of, North Africa, B. C.146 Romans vs. CarthaginiansCarthage razed to the ground.
Castillon (käs-te-yôn´), France, July 17, 1453 French vs. EnglishThis victory ended the Hundred Years’ war.
†Catana (kä-tän´ä), Sicily, B. C. 387 Carthaginians vs. SyracusansSyracusans utterly routed. Carthaginians besieged Syracuse.
Caudine (kâ´din) Forks, Italy, B. C. 321 Samnites vs. RomansThe whole Roman army was “sent under the yoke.”
Cawnpore (kân´pōr), India, December 6, 1857 British vs. MutineersSir Colin Campbell routs mutineers.
Chæronea (ker-ō-nēȧ), Greece, B. C. 338 Macedonians vs. Athenians and ThebansPhilip of Macedon wins hegemony of Greece.
Chalons (shä-lôn´), France, 451 Romans and Visigoths vs. HunsAttila retreated and western Europe was saved from the Huns.
Chattanooga (chat-ȧ-nōō´gȧ) Tennessee,U. S. A., November 24-27, 1863 Federals vs. ConfederatesThe “Battle above the Clouds” fought on Lookout Mountain.
Chickamauga[702](chik-ȧ-mô´-gȧ), Tennessee, U. S. A., Sept. 19-20, 1863 Confederates vs. FederalsFederal losses 16,000; Confederate about 12,000.
Chioggia (kyod´jā), Blockade of, Venetia, January toJune, 1380 Venetians vs. GenoeseLoss of this city broke the power of the Genoese republic for many years.
Chotusitz (chō´tö-zits) (Caslau), Bohemia, May17, 1742 Prussians vs. AustriansThis victory led Austria to sign the peace of Breslau, June 11, 1742.
Clusium (klōō´shi-um), Italy, B. C. 225 Gauls vs. RomansRomans said to have lost 25,000.
†Cnidus (nī´dus), Asia Minor, B. C. 394 Athenians and Persians vs. SpartansSparta lost her recently gained maritime ascendency.
Colenso (kō-len´sō), South Africa, December 15,1899 Boers vs. BritishFirst action in Buller’s campaign for the relief of Ladysmith.
Colline (kol´in) Gate, Rome, B. C. 82 Optimates vs. Democrates and SamnitesSulla’s victory ended the Roman civil war.
†Constantinople (kon-stan-ti-nō´pl), Siege of,Thrace, 1204 Crusaders and Venetians vs. Greek EmpireBaldwin of Flanders becomes Latin emperor of the East.
Constantinople, Siege of, Thrace, April 26-May 29, 1453 Turks vs. GreeksFinal overthrow of Greek Empire.
Copenhagen (kō-pen-hā´gen), Bombardment of,Denmark, 1807 British vs. DanishEngland forces surrender of Danish fleet to save it from Napoleon.
Coronea (kor-ŏ-nē´ȧ), Greece, B. C. 394 Sparta vs. Thebes, Corinth, Argos and AthensAgesilaus, Spartan king, compelled to evacuate Bœotia.
Corunna (kō-run´ȧ), Spain, January 16, 1809 British vs. FrenchSir John Moore killed. French kept at bay while British embarked.
Courtral (kŏŏ-trā´), Flanders, July 11, 1302 Flemish vs. French“Battle of the Spurs.” Great carnage among French knighthood.
Crécy (krā´sē), France, August 26, 1346 English vs. FrenchVictory due to English archers.
Crimisus (kri-mī´sus), the river, Sicily, B. C.340 Sicilians vs. CarthaginiansSecured Greek towns of Sicily peace for many years.
Culloden (ku-lō´den or -lod´en), Scotland, April 16, 1746 British vs. Scots under Young PretenderLast attempt of the Stuarts to recover British throne.
Cunaxa (kū-nak´sȧ), Babylonia, B. C. 401 Cyrus and the “Ten Thousand” vs. PersiansCyrus was slain and the Greeks made the “Anabasis” to the sea.
Custozza (kös-tōd´zā), Italy, June 24, 1866 Austrians vs. ItaliansThough defeated, the Italians gained Venetia through Prussia.
Cynoscephalae (sī-nō-sef´ȧ-lē orsin-ō), Greece, B. C. 197 Romans vs. MacedoniansPhilip V. forced to abandon the hegemony of Greece.
†Cyzicus (siz´i-kus), Propontis, B. C. 410 Athenians vs. PeloponnesiansAlcibiades surprised and practically annihilated the Peloponnesian fleet.
Dardanelles (där-dȧ-nelz´) Campaign, Turkey,March 18, 1915, to January 9, 1916 Turks vs. British and FrenchBritish and French withdrew after a loss of 115,000, killed, wounded or prisoners.
Delhi (del´i), Siege of, India, June 8 to September 20,1857 British vs. MutineersDelhi was the real center of the Indian mutiny.
Delium (dē´li-um), Greece, B. C. 424 Bœotians vs. AtheniansDecisive and disastrous defeat for Athenians.
Dennewitz (den´ne-vits), Germany, September 6, 1813 Russians, Prussians, Austrians and Swedes, Allies, vs. FrenchVictory of Bernadotte (afterward Charles XIV. of Sweden) over Ney.
Deorham (de-or´häm), England, 577 West Saxons vs. WelshWessex extended to Bristol channel, severing Welsh into two parts.
Dessau (des´ou), Germany, 1626 Imperialists vs. ProtestantsWallenstein totally routed Mansfeld.
Dettingen (det´ing-en), Germany, June 27, 1743 British vs. FrenchLast battle in which a British sovereign engaged in person.
Douro (dō´rŏŏ, Span. dwā´rō), the river, Portugal, May 12, 1809 British vs. FrenchFrench driven out of Oporto.
†Downs, The, North Sea, June 11-14, 1666*Dutch vs. EnglishEnglish fleet took shelter in the Thames; Dutch too crippled to pursue.
†Drepana (drep´a-nä), Sicily, B. C. 249 Carthaginians vs. RomansThis and other defeats led Romans to abandon the sea temporarily.
Dresden (drez´den; Ger. drās´den), Germany, August 26, 27, 1813 French vs. Russians, Prussians, and AustriansNapoleon’s last great victory on German soil.
Drogheda (drô´he-dȧ or drô´e-dȧ), Storm of, Ireland, Sept. 12, 1649 British and Parliamentarians vs. RoyalistsCromwell put the garrison to the sword.
Dunbar (dun-bär´), Scotland, Sept. 3, 1650 Parliamentarians vs. Scottish RoyalistsCromwell’s victory followed by the surrender of Edinburgh and Glasgow.
Ebersberg (ā´bers-berg), Storm of, Bavaria, May 3,1809 French vs. AustriansA horrible combat in which thousands were burned in the ruined village.
†Ecnomus (ek´no-mus), Sicily, B. C. 256 Romans vs. CarthaginiansRomans laid waste Carthaginian territory in Africa.
Edgehill, England, October 23, 1642*Royalists vs. ParliamentariansThe first battle of the Civil war. Royalists march on London.
El Caney (el kä-nā´), Cuba, July 1, 1898 Americans vs. SpaniardsThe chief battle of the war in Cuba.
Ellandun (el´lan-dön), England, 825 West Saxons vs. MerciansThe West Saxon Egbert becomes overlord of all the English.
Evesham (ēvz´ham), England, August 4, 1265 Prince Edward vs. Simon MontfortThis defeat ended the war. Simon de Montfort fell.
Eylau (ī´lau), Prussia, February 8, 1807*Russians and Prussians vs. FrenchThe bloodiest and most desperate battle of a century.
Falkirk (fôl´kerk; Scot., fô´kerk), Scotland, July 22, 1298 English vs. ScotchEdward I. utterly routed Wallace.
Fehrbellin (fār-bel-lēn´), Brandenburg, June 18,1675 Brandenburgers vs. SwedesThe first great victory of Brandenburg, Prussia.
Flodden (flod´n), England, September 9, 1513 English vs. ScotsThe Scottish king perished, with the bravest of his nobility.
Fontanet (fôn-tän-ā´), France, June 20, 841 Louis and Charles vs. Lothaire (Grandsons of Charlemagne)Followed by the famous Partition of Verdun (843).
Fontenoy[703] (fôn-t´-nwä´), Belgium, May 11, 1745 French vs. British, Dutch and AustriansLast great victory of France under the Old Regime.
Fornovo (for-no´vō), Italy, July 6, 1495 French vs. ItaliansCharles VIII. enabled to continue his retreat following his conquest of Naples.
Friedland (frēt´länt or frēd´länt), Prussia, June 14, 1807 French vs. RussiansThis defeat induced the Czar to conclude the peace of Tilsit.
Gettysburg (get´iz-bûrg), Pennsylvania, U. S. A., July1-3, 1863 Federals vs. ConfederatesOne of the bloodiest battles of the war, forcing Lee from northern soil.
Gibraltar (ji-brâl´tär), Siege of, Spain,1779-1782 British vs. French and SpanishThe last formidable attack upon Gibraltar (British since 1704).
Granada (grä-nä´dä; Sp. grä-nä´thä), Capitulation of, Spain, January 2, 1492 Spaniards vs. MoorsCompletes the overthrow of the Moorish power in Spain.
Granicus (grä-nī´kus) River, Asia Minor, B. C.334 Alexander the Great vs. Persians and Greek MercenariesDestroyed the only army opposed to Alexander in Asia Minor.
Granson (gran-sôn´) Switzerland, March 2, 1476 Swiss vs. BurgundiansFirst of the three great victories of the Swiss over Charles the Bold.
Gravelotte (gräv-lot´), Lorraine, August 18, 1870 Prussians vs. FrenchThe first great victory of the Prussians in the war.
Guinegate (gēn-gȧt´), France, August 16, 1513 English and Imperialists vs. FrenchCalled the “Battle of the Spurs” from the French haste in flight.
Haarlem (här´lem), Siege of, Holland, Dec. 9-July14, 1572-1573 Spaniards vs. Dutch30,000 Spaniards against 4,000 Dutch; 2,000 Dutch massacred.
Halidon (hal´i-dn), Hill, England, July 19, 1333 Edward III. of England vs. ScotsWon by combination of archers and dismounted men-at-arms.
†Hampton (hämp´tn) Roads, Virginia, U. S. A., March8, 1862 Monitor (Federal) vs. Merrimac (Confederate)After this wooden ships give way to ironclads in naval warfare.
Hastenbeck, Germany, July 26, 1757 French vs. HanoveriansFollowed by the convention of Closter-Zeven, which George II. repudiated.
Hastings (hās´tingz), England, October 14, 1066 Normans vs. EnglishHarold fell; William the Conqueror became king of England.
Heraclea (her-ȧ-klē´ȧ or -klī´ȧ), Italy, B. C. 280 King Pyrrhus vs. Romans“One more such victory and I shall be ruined.”—Pyrrhus.
Hexham (hek´sam), England, May 15, 1464 Yorkists vs. LancastriansThe Lancastrian cause was completely crushed by this defeat.
Himera (him´er-ȧ), Sicily, B. C. 480 Syracuse and Agrigentum vs. CarthaginiansHamilcar slain. Carthaginians purchased peace for 2,000 talents.
Himera, Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 409 Carthaginians vs. Sicilian GreeksTown sacked and prisoners sacrificed to the shade of Hamilcar.
Höchst (hûkst), Germany, June 20, 1622 Imperialists vs. Palatinate troopsPractically ends the Bohemian-Palatinate phase of the Thirty Years’ war.
Hohenfriedburg (hō´ēn-frēd´-berg), Germany, June, 1745 Prussians vs. Austrians and SaxonsOne of Frederick the Great’s victories; due partly to Austrian overconfidence.
Hohenlinden (hō-en-lin´den), Bavaria, December 3, 1800 French vs. AustriansThe crowning event of the winter campaign; won by Moreau.
Hohkirchen (hō´kirch-en), Germany, October 14, 1758 Austrians vs. PrussiansFrederick the Great, though surprised by a night attack, made good his retreat.
Homildon (hom´l-dn), Hill, England, September 14, 1402 English vs. ScotsAnother great victory due to the prowess of the English longbowmen.
Hydaspes (hī-das´pēz) River, India, B. C.326 Greeks vs. AsiaticsThe last important battle in the eastward advance of Alexander the Great.
Inkermann (ing-ker-män´), Crimea, November 5, 1854 British and French vs. RussiansA series of hand-to-hand combats fought in a dense fog.
Inverlochy (in-ver-lock´i), Scotland, February 2, 1645 Royalist Highlanders vs. Campbells and Lowland CovenantersPower of the Campbells in the Highlands broken for many years.
Ipsus (ip´sus), Asia Minor, B. C. 301 Seleucus vs. AntigonusChief battle between Alexander’s generals over the partition of his empire.
Issus (is´us), Asia Minor, B. C. 333 Macedonians vs. AsiaticsAlexander’s brilliant victory over an immense horde of Persians.
Ivry (ēv-rē´), France, March 14, 1590 Huguenots vs. CatholicsHenry IV. gained a complete victory and invested Paris, his capital.
Jarnac (zhär-nak´), France, March 13, 1569 Catholics vs. HuguenotsPrince de Condé slain.
Jemmapes (zhe-mäp´), Belgium, November 6, 1792 French vs. AustriansFollowed by annexation of the Austrian Netherlands to France.
Jena (yā´nä), Germany, October 14, 1806 French vs. PrussiansNapoleon advanced thence to Berlin and issued the decree for a continental blockade.
Jerusalem (jē-rōō´sȧ-lem) Siege of,Syria, 70 Jews vs. RomansTitus destroyed the city and massacred or sold into slavery its inhabitants.
Jerusalem, Storm of, Syria, July 15, 1099 Crusaders vs. MoslemsA terrible massacre; feudal kingdom established under Godfrey of Bouillon.
†Jutland, Baltic Sea, May 31, 1916 Germans vs. BritishBritish admitted the loss of six large cruisers and destroyers, the Germans a battleship, a cruiser, four lightcruisers and five destroyers. The loss of life totaled 9,500 and the battle ended with the withdrawal of the German fleet.
Kappel (käp´pel), Switzerland, October 11, 1531 Swiss Catholic Cantons vs. ZurichersZwingli, the Swiss Protestant reformer, fell in this battle.
Kars (kärs), Storm of, Armenia, November 17-18, 1877 Russians vs. TurksRussian success caused angry negotiations between England and Russia.
Katzbach (käts´baK), Germany,August 26, 1813 Prussians vs. FrenchA decisive victory of Blücher over one of Napoleon’s marshals.
Khartoum (kär-töm´), Siege of, Soudan, March12-January 26, 1884-1885 Mahdi vs. Gordon“Chinese” Gordon killed; the Soudan evacuated by the Anglo-Egyptian government.
Killiecrankie[704](kil-i-krang´ki), Scotland, July 17, 1689 Highland Jacobites vs. RoyalistsThe Jacobite victory was nullified by the fall of their leader, Dundee.
Kimberley (kim´ber-li), Siege of, South Africa, October15, 1899 to February 15, 1900 British vs. BoersThe brilliant defense of Kimberley was a notable feature of the war.
Kin-chau (kin-chow´), Manchuria, May 26, 1904 Japanese vs. RussiansGeneral Oku opened the way for the land investment of Port Arthur.
Koniggrätz (kû´nich-gräts´), (or Sadowa), Germany, July 3, 1866 Prussians vs. AustriansThis victory gave the supremacy in Germany to Prussia, unity to North Germany.
Kolin (kō-lēn´), Bohemia, June 18, 1757 Austrians vs. PrussiansFollowing this defeat, Frederick the Great evacuated Bohemia.
Kossova (kos´ō-vō), Servia, June 15, 1389 Turks vs. Christian SlavsA battle famed in the history, legend and literature of Servia.
Kossova, Servia, October 17-19, 1448 Turks vs. ChristiansThe hero, John Hunyady, overcome at the cost of 40,000 Turkish lives.
Kotzim (cho-tem´), Russia, November 11, 1673 Poles vs. TurksJohn Sobieski, by sheer personal ascendency, stems tide of Turkish advance.
Kulm (kōōlm), Germany, August 29-30, 1813 Austrians, Russians and Prussians vs. Napoleon7,000 French capitulate; “The Caudine Forks of modern war.” Conduces to the defeat at Leipzig.
Kunersdorf (kōō´ners-dorf), Germany, August 12,1759 Austrians and Russians vs. PrussiansInactivity of the allies saved Frederick the Great from annihilation.
†Lade (lā´dē), Asia Minor, B. C. 494 Persians vs. Ionian GreeksThis defeat put an end to the Ionian revolt.
Ladysmith (lā´di-smith), Siege of, South Africa,November 2, 1899 to February, 1900 British vs. BoersLike the siege of Kimberley, a notable incident of the war.
†La Hogue (lä hōg), Northwestern France, May 10-20, 1692 English and Dutch vs. FrenchOverthrew the hopes of James II. of recovering his throne.
†Lake Erie, Lake Erie, September 10, 1813 Americans vs. British“We have met the enemy and they are ours.”—Perry.
†La Rochelle (lä rō-shel´), France, June 22-23, 1372 French and Spaniards vs. EnglishControl of the sea passes for a time to the side of the French.
La Rochelle, Siege of, France, November 1, 1627 to October 28, 1628 Richelieu vs. Huguenots and EnglishHuguenots no longer an armed political party but a tolerated sect.
Lechfeld (lech´feld), Germany, August 10, 955 Otto I. vs. HungariansA crushing defeat inflicted on the waning power of the Hungarians.
Lech (lech), the river, Germany, April 15, 1632 Gustavus Adolphus vs. German Catholic LeagueTilly mortally wounded.
Legnano (len-yä´nō), Italy, May 29, 1176 Lombard League vs. Frederick BarbarossaIn the peace of Constance (1183), Frederick renounced all regal privileges over the cities.
Leipzig (līp´sik), Saxony, September 17, 1631 Swedes and Saxons vs. Catholic ImperialistsBrilliant victory of Gustavus Adolphus saves Protestant cause.
Leipzig, Saxony, October 16, 18-19, 1813 Allies vs. NapoleonThis disaster lost Germany to Napoleon.
Le Mans (le mon´), France, January 6-12, 1871 Prussians vs. FrenchFrench army almost annihilated.
†Lepanto (le-pan´tō), Gulf of Corinth, October 7, 1751 Don John of Austria vs. TurksOne of the most splendid naval victories ever achieved.
Leuctura (lūk´tra), Greece, B. C. 371 Thebans vs. SpartansEpaminondas’ overthrow of Sparta gives Thebes the hegemony in Greece.
Leuthen (loi´ten), Germany, December 5, 1757 Prussians vs. AustriansThis battle “would alone make Frederick immortal and rank him among the greatestgenerals.”—Napoleon.
Lewes (lū´is), England, May 14, 1264 Simon de Montfort vs. Henry III. and Prince EdwardSimon de Montfort’s victory followed by Parliament, the first to which borough representatives were called(1265).
Leyden (lī´den), Siege of, Holland, May 26 toOctober 3, 1574 Dutch vs. SpaniardsPrince of Orange cut the dikes to bring the fleet to the relief of the city.
Liegnitz (lēch´nits), Germany, August 15, 1760 Prussians vs. AustriansFrederick prevented the union of the Austrians and Russians.
Ligny (lēn-yē´), Belgium, June 16, 1815 Napoleon vs. BlücherNapoleon’s last victory; Blücher joined Wellington at Waterloo on the 18th.
Lille (lēl), Siege of, France, August 12 to October 22, 1708 Imperialists vs. FrenchFrance now lay open to the advance of the allies.
Lilybæum (lil-i-bē´um), Siege of, Sicily,B. C. 250-241 Carthaginian vs. RomansOne of the most protracted sieges in history, surrendered only with Sicily at close of war.
Linkoping (lēn´chû-ping), Sweden, September 25,1598 Swedes vs. Poles under King SigismundLed to perpetual hostility between Sweden and Poland in seventeenth century.
†Lissa (lis´a), Adriatic, July 20, 1866 Austrians vs. ItaliansThe only battle between ironclads fought in European waters.
Lobositz (lō´bō-zits), Bohemia, October 1, 1756*Prussians vs. Austrians18,000 Saxons besieged at Pirna were now forced into the Prussian army.
Lodi (lō´dē), Bridge of, Italy, May 10, 1796 Napoleon Bonaparte vs. AustriansThis success gave the whole of Lombardy to the French.
Loigny-Poupry (lwän-ye´ poo-pree´), France, December 2, 1870 Prussians vs. FrenchPrevented the French from relieving Orleans.
Louisburg (lö´ē-berg), Siege of, Canada, June8 to July 27, 1758 British vs. FrenchDestruction of one of the strongest fortresses in North America.
Lucknow (luk´nou), Siege of, India, March 19, 1857 toJuly 1, 1858 British vs. Sepoy mutineersThe turning of the tide; next year the mutiny was totally quelled.
Lutter (löt´ter), Germany, August 26, 1626 Catholics and Imperialists vs. Danes and Protestant GermansChristian of Denmark, severely defeated, retires into Holstein and Mecklenburg.
Lützen (lüt´sen), Saxony, November 16, 1632 Swedes and Protestant Germans vs. Catholics and ImperialistsGustavus Adolphus slain in winning his third great victory.
Lützen,[705] Saxony, May 2,1813 Napoleon vs. AlliesThe first battle in the great German War of Liberation.
Luzzara (löt-sä´rä), Italy, August 15, 1702*French vs. ImperialistsFollowed by French ascendency in Italy until 1706.
Macalo (mäk-ä´lo), Italy, October 11, 1427 Venice vs. MilanCarmagnola gained a brilliant victory over the famous condottieri, Sforza, Piccinino and Malatesta.
Madras (mä-dras´), Siege of, India, Dec. 12, 1758 toFeb. 16, 1759 English vs. FrenchFailure to take Madras was a great blow to French power in India.
Maestricht (mäs´tricht), Siege of, Belgium, March 12to June 29, 1579 Spaniards vs. NetherlandersInhabitants and garrison massacred.
Mafeking (maf´e-king), Siege of, South Africa, Oct., 1899to May 17, 1900 British vs. BoersBaden Powell’s resistance aroused world-wide enthusiasm.
Magdeburg (mäg´de-bŏŏrch), Storm of,Germany, May 20, 1631 Catholics and Imperialists vs. inhabitantsThe sack of Magdeburg is one of the darkest spots on the pages of history.
Magenta (mä-jen´tä), Italy, June 4, 1859 French and Piedmontese vs. AustriansNapoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel entered Milan.
Magnesia (mag-nē´shȧ), Asia Minor, B. C. 190 Romans vs. Antiochus the GreatThe kingdom of the Seleucidæ dismembered.
Malaga (mä´lä-gä), Spain, May 8 to August 18,1487 Spaniards vs. MoorsThe inhabitants were sold into slavery.
†Malaga, Spain, August 24, 1704*English and Dutch vs. FrenchFrench fleet prevented from uniting with Spanish which was besieging Gibraltar.
Malakoff (mä-lä´kof), Storm of, Crimea,September 8, 1855 French vs. RussiansLoss of this and other earthworks led that night to the evacuation of Sebastopol.
Malo-Jaroslavitz (mä´lō yä-rō-slä´vets), Russia, October 24, 1812*Russians vs. FrenchNapoleon was obliged to abandon southerly line of retreat from Moscow.
Malplaquet (mȧl-plȧ-kā´), France, September 11,1709 British and Imperialists vs. FrenchBloodiest battle of this war; “carnage, not a battle.”
†Manila (mȧ-nil´ȧ) Bay, Philippines, May 1,1898 Americans vs. SpaniardsAdmiral Dewey totally destroyed the Spanish fleet.
Mansurah (män-sōō´rä), Egypt, April 8,1250*French Crusaders vs. SaracensThe last of the great pitched battles of the crusaders. Shortly after Louis IX. was captured and ruinouslyransomed.
Mantineia (man-ti-nē´ȧ), Greece, B. C. 418 Spartans vs. Athenians and ArgivesThe Spartans regained their supremacy in Peloponnesus.
Mantineia, Greece, B. C. 362 Thebans vs. SpartansThe death of Epaminondas in this battle ends Theban supremacy.
Mantua (man´tū-ȧ), Siege of, Italy, June, 1796,to February 2, 1797 French vs. AustriansThe close of Napoleon’s marvelous first Italian campaign.
Marathon (mär´ȧ-thon), Greece, B. C. 490 Athenians and Plataeans vs. PersiansMiltiades’ victory causes Persians to abandon their first expedition against Greece.
Mardia (mär´di-ä), Thrace, 315 Licinius vs. Constantine the GreatLicinius lost all his European territory except Thrace.
Marengo (mä-reng´gō), Italy, June 14, 1800 French vs. AustriansWon for Napoleon largely by General Desaix.
Marignano (ma-rēn-yä´nō), Italy, September 13,14, 1515 French vs. SwissFrancis I. reconquered Milan by this brilliant victory.
Marne (märn), a river in France, September 5-7, 1914 Allies vs. GermansGermans forced to retreat and capture of Paris averted.
Marsaglia (mär-säl´yä), Italy, October 4, 1693 French vs. Duke of SavoyFrench infantry with bayonets charged the cavalry, a new maneuver.
Marston Moor, England, July 2, 1644 Parliamentarians vs. RoyalistsThis victory, due to Cromwell’s Ironsides, gave the north to parliament.
Maserfield (mä´ser-feld), England, 642 Mercians vs. NorthumbriansMercia becomes a competitor with Northumbria for English hegemony.
Maxen (mäks´en), Germany, November 20, 1759 Austrians vs. PrussiansThe capitulation of Finck with 12,000 Prussian soldiers disastrous to Frederick.
Maypu (mä´pö), Chili, April 5, 1818 Chilians vs. SpaniardsEstablished the independence of Chili.
Medellin (mā-tnel-yēn´), Spain, March 28, 1809 French vs. SpaniardsSpaniards mercilessly sabered in the pursuit, losing 18,000.
Megalopolis (meg-ȧ-lop´ō-lis), Greece, B. C. 331 Macedonians vs. SpartansAntipater, in absence of Alexander, puts down revolted Spartans in a bloody battle.
Mentana (men-tä´nä), Italy, November 3, 1867 Garibaldians vs. French and Papal troopsGaribaldians routed after defeating papal forces.
†Messina (mes-sē´nä), Sicily, September 28, 1282 Sicilians and Aragonese vs. FrenchCharles of Anjou evacuated Sicily, which his descendants never recovered.
Metaurus (mā-tau´rus), Italy, B. C. 207 Romans vs. CarthaginiansItaly saved by preventing the junction of Hasdrubal with Hannibal.
Metz (mets), Siege of, Lorraine, August 19 to October 27, 1870 Prussians vs. FrenchThe release of the besieging army for service elsewhere was fatal to the French cause.
Milazzo (mē-lät´sō), Sicily, July 20, 1860 Garibaldians vs. NeapolitansThis completes the expulsion of the Neapolitans from Sicily.
Minden (min´den), Prussia, August 1, 1759 English, Hessians and Hanoverians vs. FrenchThe French were decisively beaten and driven from Hesse.
Miraflores (mē-rä-flō´res), Argentina, January 13and 15, 1883 Chilians vs. PeruviansPractically ended the war of the Pacific (1879-1884) between Chili, and Bolivia and Peru.
Missolonghi (mis-ō-long´gē), Siege of, Greece,April 27, 1825 to April 22-23, 1826 Turks vs. GreeksGreek heroism excited sympathy throughout Europe. (Byron died here, 1824.)
Mitylene (mit-i-lē´nē), Siege of, Lesbos, B. C.428-427 Athenians vs. Revolted inhabitantsPrisoners killed, walls pulled down, fleet forfeited, annual tribute imposed.
Modder[706] (mod´er) River, South Africa, November 28, 1899 British vs. BoersLord Methuen drives Cronje from his intrenchments after a fierce fight.
Mohacs (mō´häch), Hungary, August 29, 1526 Turks vs. Hungarians“Never was a single battle so disastrous to a people.”
Mollwitz (mōl´vitz), Germany, April 10, 1741 Prussians vs. AustriansFrederick’s victory forces Europe to recognize in Prussia a new power.
Montaperti (mon-tä-per´tē), Italy, September 4,1260 Florentine Ghibellines, Siennese vs. Guelphs of FlorenceSecured the triumph of the Ghibellines over all Tuscany.
Monterey (mon-te-rā´), Mexico, September 21-23, 1846 Americans vs. MexicansFollowed by the occupation of the whole of northern Mexico.
Montreal (mont-ri-ôl´), Canada, September 8, 1760 British vs. FrenchCompletes the British conquest of Canada from France.
Mook (mōk), Holland, April 14, 1574 Spaniards vs. DutchThe battle terminated in a horrible butchery of the patriot army.
Morgarten (mōr´gār-ten), Switzerland, November 15,1315 Swiss vs. AustriansThe first battle fought for Swiss independence.
Mortimer’s (môr´ti-mer) Cross, England,February 2, 1461 Yorkists vs. LancastriansThe Yorkist prince advanced to London and was proclaimed king as Edward IV.
Mukden (mŏŏk-den´), Manchuria, February 24 to March10, 1905 Japanese vs. RussiansRelease of Japanese from before Port Arthur enables Oyama to crush Kuropatkin.
Mühlberg (mül´berg), Saxony, April 24, 1547 Charles V. and Prince Maurice vs. Saxony and HesseMaurice in 1552 retrieves his treason to Protestantism by driving Charles V. from Germany.
Muhldorf (mül´dorf), Bavaria, September 28, 1322 Louis of Bavaria vs. Frederick of AustriaThe disputed imperial election, over which this battle was fought, began a new struggle between empire andpapacy.
Munda (mun´dä), Spain, B. C. 45 Julius Cæsar vs. PompeiansCæsar’s last battle; it put an end to armed resistance.
Muret (mü-rā´), France, September 12, 1213 Crusaders vs. Albigenses and AragonesePractically ends the Albigensian crusade; Toulousean territories pass ultimately to the French crown.
Mycale (mik´ȧ-lē), Asia Minor, B. C. 479 Greeks vs. PersiansThis battle and that of Platæa end the Persian wars against Greece.
†Mylæ (mī´lē), Sicily, B. C. 260 Romans vs. CarthaginiansFirst naval victory of Romans; due to boarding bridges.
Näfels (nā´fels), Switzerland, April 9, 1388 Swiss vs. AustriansHapsburgs renounced all feudal claims over the Swiss cantons (1389).
Nancy (nän-sē´), Lorraine, January 5, 1477 Swiss vs. Charles the BoldCharles was slain, leaving his motley territories a prey to neighboring princes.
Narva (när´vä), Russia, November 30, 1700 Swedes vs. RussiansCharles XII. won a brilliant victory over the much larger army of Peter the Great.
Naseby (näz´bi), England, June 14, 1645 Parliamentarians vs. RoyalistsComplete defeat of Charles I., followed by the general ruin of his cause.
†Naupactus (nô-pak´tus), Gulf of Corinth, B. C. 429 Athenians vs. PeloponnesiansVictory wrested from defeat by the genius of Phormio, the Athenian commander.
†Navarino (nā-vā-rē´nō), Greece, October20, 1827 English, French and Russians vs. TurksDestruction of Turkish naval power; Ibrahim retreats from Morea.
Navas de Tolosa (nā´väs dā-tō-lō´sä), Spain, July 16, 1212 Spaniards vs. MoorsSecured forever the preponderance of Christianity in Spain.
Neerwinden (nār´vin-den), Belgium, July 24, 1693 French vs. EnglishThe French won a brilliant but barren victory over William III.
Neville’s (nev´ilz) Cross, England, October 17,1346 English vs. ScotsScots crushed at home, while Edward III. was winning Crécy.
New Orleans (ôr´li-anz), Louisiana, U. S. A., January 8,1815 Americans vs. BritishOwing to slowness of communication, Jackson fought this battle after peace had been made.
Nicæa (nī-sē´ȧ), Siege of, AsiaMinor, 1097 Crusaders vs. TurksFirst conquest of crusaders in the East.
Nicopolis (ni-kop´ō-lis), Asia Minor, B. C. 66 Pompey vs. MithradatesMithridates’ last fight against the legions of Rome.
Nördlingen (nerd´ling-en), Bavaria, September 6, 1634 Catholics and Imperialists vs. Swedes and German ProtestantsOne of the most bloody and decisive battles of the war; followed by the peace of Prague.
Northampton (nôrth-amp´tn), England, July 10, 1460 Yorkists vs. LancastriansCapture of Henry VI.; flight of Queen Margaret and her son to Scotland.
Numantia (nū-man´shi-ȧ), Siege of, Spain,B. C. 142-133 Romans vs. Celtiberian tribesCity razed by Scipio Æmilianus and its inhabitants sold as slaves.
Obligado (ōb-lē-gä´thō), Bombardmentof, Argentina, Nov. 28, 1845 British and French vs. ArgentinesOver the opening the waters of the Parana to the shipping of all nations.
Olmutz (ol´müts), Siege of, Moravia, May 27 to July1, 1758 Austrians vs. PrussiansGeneral Daun forced Frederick the Great to raise the siege and retire.
Orleans (or-lā-än´); Eng. (ôr´li-anz), Siege of, France, October 13, 1428, to May 8, 1429 French vs. EnglishJoan of Arc saves France by driving back English and crowns Charles VII. at Rheims.
Ostend (ost-end´), Siege of, Belgium, July, 1601 toSeptember, 1604 Spaniards vs. Dutch garrison and inhabitantsScarcely a house in the town left standing; Spaniards lost 70,000.
Ostrolenka (os-tro-leng´kä), Poland, May 26, 1831 Russians vs. PolesPoland becomes a province of the Russian Empire (1832).
Otterburn (ot´er-bûrn), England, August 10, 1388 Scots vs. EnglishThe ballad of Chevy Chase deals with this battle.
Otumba (ō-töm´bä), Mexico, July 8, 1520 Cortez vs. AztecsTwo hundred Spanish horsemen rout an immense army and make good their retreat.
Oudenarde (ou-de-när´de), Belgium, July 11, 1708 English and Imperialists vs. FrenchOne of the great victories of Marlborough and Prince Eugene over Louis XIV.
Palmyra (pal-mī´rȧ), Siege of, Syria,272-273 Roman vs. Queen ZenobiaPalmyra destroyed and Zenobia taken captive to Rome.
Palo Alto[707] (pä´lō-äl´tō), Mexico, May 8, 1846 Americans vs. MexicansMexicans completely routed at small cost to the victors.
Panormus (pa-nôr´mus), Sicily, B. C. 251 Romans vs. CarthaginiansBrilliant victory restored confidence to Romans; demonstrated value of elephants in warfare.
Paris (par´is), Siege of, France, Sept. 19, 1870 toJan. 28, 1871 Prussians vs. FrenchCity reduced to desperate conditions through bombardment, famine and disease.
Pavia (pä-vē´ä), Italy, 1525 Emperor Charles V. vs. Francis I. of FranceThe capture of Francis was followed by the peace of Madrid, which, however, was soon repudiated.
Pharsalus (fär-sā´lus), Greece, B. C. 48 Cæsar vs. PompeyThe West and the new monarchy completely triumphed over the East and the old republic.
Philippi (fi-lip´ī), Thrace, B. C. 42 Antony and Octavius vs. Brutus and CassiusCassius and Brutus committed suicide following their defeat.
Pinkie (ping´ki), Scotland, September 10, 1547 English vs. ScotsScots thrown into the arms of France and the little queen, Mary, married to the dauphin.
Plassey (pläs´ē), India, June 23, 1757 English vs. BengaleseEstablished English control in Bengal and ultimately in all India.
Platæa (pla-tē´ȧ), Greece, B. C. 479 Greeks vs. PersiansWon by the discipline and prowess of the Spartan hoplites.
Plevna (plev´nä), Siege of, Bulgaria, July 16 toDecember 10, 1877 Russians vs. TurksBrilliant defense by Osman Pasha, who surrendered only after four desperate battles.
Poitiers (pwȧ-tyā´), France, September 19, 1356 English vs. FrenchBrilliant victory by the Black Prince over five times his numbers.
Pollentia (po-len´shi-ä), Italy, April 6, 402 Romans vs. VisigothsAlaric, attacked by Stilicho on Easter Sunday, was driven out of Italy.
Pondicherry (pon-di-sher´i), Siege of, India, Aug., 1760to Jan., 18, 1761 English vs. FrenchDestroyed French power in India.
Port Arthur, Siege of, Manchuria, Feb. 8, 1904 to Jan. 1, 1905 Japanese vs. RussiansPort Arthur, the Sea of Japan and Mukden were turning points in the war.
†Portland, English Channel, February 18-20, 1653 English vs. DutchThis battle completely restored to England the lordship of the seas.
Potidæa (pot-i-dē´ȧ), Siege of, Thrace,B. C. 432, September 430 Athenians vs. Potidæans and CorinthiansInhabitants and foreign soldiers were allowed to leave the city, which Athens then colonized.
Prague (prāg), (White Hill), Bohemia, November 8, 1620 Catholic League vs. Frederick V. and Bohemian rebelsFrederick proved but a “Winter King” of Bohemia.
Preston (pres´tun), England, August 17-19, 1648 Cromwellians vs. Scottish RoyalistsThis second civil war determined the army to put Charles I. to death.
Pultava (pōl´tä-vä), Russia, July 8, 1709 Russians vs. SwedesRussia takes the place of Sweden as the leading power of the North.
Pydna (pid´nä), Macedonia, B. C. 168 Romans vs. MacedoniansBrilliant triumphs of Paulus Æmilius over the phalanxes of King Perseus.
Pyramids, Egypt, July 21, 1798 French vs. MamelukesThe crowning victory of Napoleon in Egypt.
Pyrenees (pir´a-nēz), Battles of, Spain, July 25 toAugust 1, 1813 British and Spaniards vs. FrenchFollowed by the fall of San Sebastian and Pampeluna, and expulsion of French from Spain.
Quatre Bras (kātr-brä´), Belgium, June 16, 1815 British and Allies vs. FrenchThe allied success here was rendered fruitless by the Prussian reverse at Ligny.
Quebec (kwē-bek´; locally often ki-bek´), Siege of, Canada, June to September 18, 1759 British vs. FrenchWolfe was slain and Montcalm mortally wounded in the battle of the Plains of Abraham (September 13).
†Quiberon (kē-brôn), Bay, France, November 20, 1759 British vs. FrenchHawke, with a loss of forty men, captured, burned, or drove on shore most of the French vessels.
Ramillies (rȧ-mē-yē´), Belgium, May 23, 1706 English and Allies vs. FrenchFollowed by French evacuation of the chief towns of the Netherlands.
Rhe (rā), Siege of, France, July 20 to November 8, 1627 French vs. EnglishAn attempt of Buckingham to prevent the reduction of the Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle.
Rhodes (rōdz), or Rhodos (rō´dos),Siege of, Mediterranean, July 28-December 26, 1522 Turks vs. Knights of RhodesFollowing the loss of Rhodes the Knights (Hospitallers) retired to Malta.
Rieti (ri-ā´tē), Italy, March 7, 1821 Austrians vs. Neopolitan rebelsThe defeat of General Pepe enabled Austria to restore the absolute monarchy.
Rivoli (rē´vō-lē), Italy, January 14-15, 1797 French vs. AustriansNapoleon’s victory, followed by surrender of Mantua, completed the conquest of Lombardy.
Rocrol (rō-krwä´), France, May 19, 1643 French vs. SpaniardsThis victory, won by Condé, made France the first military power of Europe.
Rome, Sack of, Italy, B. C. 390 GaulsFollowing the battle of the Allia, the Gauls plundered and destroyed city.
Rome, Sieges of, Italy, 408, 409, 410 Visigoths vs. RomansFollowing the third siege, Alaric sacked city.
Rome, Sack of, Italy, 455 VandalsFor fourteen days Genseric’s Vandals plundered Rome.
Rome, Storm of, Italy, May 6, 1527 Mutinous Army of Charles V. vs. Papal troopsMarks the end of the artistic, pleasure-loving Rome of the Renaissance.
Rome, Siege of, Italy, June 4 to July 3, 1849 French and Papalists vs. Roman RepublicansThe republic, founded by Mazzini, overthrown and Pope Pius IX. restored.
Roncesvalles (rōn-thes-väl´yes), Spain, 778 Basques vs. FranksDeath of Charlemagne’s paladin, Roland (Chanson de Roland).
Roosebek[708] (rös´bek), Flanders, November 27, 1382 French vs. FlemingsA great triumph for the nobles against the cities.
Rossbach (ros´bak), Saxony, November 5, 1757 Prussians vs. French and AustriansMakes Frederick the Great a national hero of Germany.
Rouen (rŏŏ-än´), Siege of, France, June,1418 to Jan, 1419 English vs. FrenchBecause of its desperate resistance, Henry V. granted the city honorable capitulation.
Sacriportis (sak-ri-pōr´tus), Italy, B. C. 82 Optimates vs. DemocratesFollowed by Sulla’s reign of terror.
Saguntum (sa-gun´tum), Siege of, Spain, B. C. 219 Carthaginians vs. InhabitantsCapture of this city by Hannibal the chief cause of the second Punic war.
St. Albans (sānt ôl´banz), England, May 22, 1455 Yorkists vs. LancastriansThe first battle of the wars of the Roses; Yorkists defeated here in a second battle (1460).
Salamanca (sal-ȧ-mang´kȧ), Spain, July 22, 1812 British vs. FrenchThis rout of the French lost them all southern Spain.
†Salamis (sal´ȧ-mis), Greece, September 20, B. C. 480 Greeks vs. PersiansThemistocles’ great victory followed by Xerxes’ withdrawal to Asia.
San Jacinto (san jȧ-sin´tō), Texas, U. S. A., April 2,1836 Texan Rebels vs. MexicansSanta Anna captured by General Houston.
†Santiago (sän-tē-ä´gō), Cuba, July 3,1898 Americans vs. SpaniardsFleet of Admiral Cervera totally destroyed.
Saragossa (sä-rä-gos´ȧ), Siege of, Spain,Dec., 1808 to Feb. 21, 1809 British vs. FrenchAn important success which broke the spell of French invincibility.
Saratoga (sar-a-tō´gä), New York, U. S. A., October 7,1777 Americans vs. BritishFollowed (October 17) by the surrender of Burgoyne, which was the turning point of the war.
†Sea of Japan, Sea of Japan, May 27-29, 1905 Japanese vs. RussiansRussia’s naval power destroyed.
Sebastopol (se-bȧs´tō-pōl), Siege of,Crimea, September 26, 1854, 59 September 9, 1855 French, British and Sardinians vs. RussiansBrought to a close the active operations of Crimean war.
Sedan (sē-dan´), France, September 1, 1870 Prussians vs. FrenchFollowed by the surrender of Napoleon III. with an army of 84,000 men.
Shipka (ship´kȧ), Pass, Bulgaria, August 20-23,1877 Russians vs. TurksRussians hold this strategic position against blindfold violence of the Turks.
Sempach (zem´päK), Switzerland,July 9, 1386 Swiss vs. AustriansCelebrated for the heroic devotion of Arnold von Winkelried.
Sentinum (sen-tī´num), Italy, B. C. 295 Romans vs. Samnites and GaulsFailure of the coalition to crush Rome from the north.
Seringapatam (ser-ing´ga-pa-tam´), Siege of, India, April 24, to May 4, 1799 British vs. Tippoo SahibWith Bonaparte’s failure in Egypt, this battle foils French designs on India.
Shiloh (shī´lō), Tennessee, U. S. A., April 6 and 7,1862 Federals vs. ConfederatesDefeated in the first day’s fighting, Grant turned the tables the next day.
Shrewsbury (shrŏŏz´ber-i), England, July 21, 1403 Henry IV. vs. PerciesHotspur defeated and slain.
Silistria (si-lis´tri-ȧ), Siege of, Bulgaria, March28 to June 22, 1854 Turks vs. RussiansA brilliant defense conducted by the Turks under three English officers.
†Sinope (si-nō´pē), Black Sea, November 30, 1853 Russians vs. TurksTurkish fleet destroyed and crews massacred.
Slivnitza (slēv-nēt´sä), Bulgaria, November 17,18, 19, 1885 Bulgarians vs. ServiansThe decisive action in the Servo-Bulgarian war.
†Sluys (slois), Flanders, June 22, 1340 English vs. FrenchGave English control of the sea for thirty years, enabling them to land troops in France at will.
Smolensk (smol-yensk´), Russia, August 17-18, 1812 French vs. RussiansFirst stand of the retreating Russians before Napoleon’s advance on Moscow.
Soissons (swä-sôn´), France, 486 Franks vs. Romans under SyagriusThe first military exploit of Clovis.
Solferino (sōl-fā-rē´nō), Italy, June 24,1859 French and Piedmontese vs. AustriansThe horrors of this battle and Prussia’s threatening attitude caused Napoleon III. to make peace.
Somme (som), a river in northern France, July 1 to Sept. 15, 1916*Germans vs. AlliesDuring this period the Germans were enduring terrific attacks from the Allies, but lost little ground.
†Southwold (south´wōld) Bay, North Sea, May 28,1672 English and French vs. DutchA victory gained by the duke of York over De Ruyter’s superior numbers.
Sphacteria (sfak-tē´ri-ä), Greece, B. C. 425 Athenians vs. SpartansTo the amazement of the Greek world, 292 Spartan hoplites surrendered.
Spicheren (spich´er-en), Palatinate, August 6, 1870 Prussians vs. FrenchReveals great superiority of Prussians from the outset of the war.
Stamford (stam´ferd) Bridge, England, September 25,1066 English vs. DanesThis diversion of Harold to the North left William to land in England undisturbed.
Standard, Battle of the (or Northallerton), England, August 22, 1138 English vs. ScotsFor 200 years saved Yorkshire from Scottish invasion.
Steenkerke (stān´kerk´e),Netherlands, July 24, 1692 French vs. English and AlliesFive English regiments utterly cut to pieces.
Sterling, Scotland, 1297 Scots vs. EnglishBefore the end of the year all Scotland threw off the English yoke.
Stralsund (shträl´zŏŏnt), Siege of,Germany, March, August 3, 1628 Protestant Inhabitants vs. Catholic ImperialistsWallenstein fails to secure this important Baltic port.
Syracuse (sir´a-kūs), Siege of, Sicily, B. C.415-413 Syracusans and Spartans vs. AtheniansThe weakening of Athenian resources in this siege was the final cause of their failure in the Peloponnesian war.
Syracuse, Siege of,[709] Sicily,B. C. 387 Greeks vs. CarthaginiansThe Syracusan tyrant, Dionysius, connives at the escape of the Carthaginian Himilco.
Syracuse, Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 214-212 Romans vs. Carthaginians and SyracusansSyracuse captured and plundered by the Romans.
Talavera (tä-lä-vā´rä), Spain, July 28,1809 British and Spaniards vs. FrenchAfter this first great pitched battle in the Peninsular campaign Wellesley became commander-in-chief of all theEnglish troops.
Tanagra (tan´ȧ-grȧ), Greece, B. C. 457 Spartans and Bœotians vs. AtheniansThe Spartans failing to follow up their victory, Athens conquered Bœotia the following year.
Tarentum (tȧ-ren´tum), Siege of, Italy, B. C.274-272 Romans vs. Tarentines and EpirotsTarentum, deprived of her army, her ships and her walls, retained the right of local self-government.
Tauss (tous), Bohemia, August 14, 1431 Bohemian Hussites vs. Catholic ImperialistsAt Procop’s approach the Imperialists fled in confusion; this was the last effort to crush the Hussites byforce of arms.
Telamon (tel´ȧ-mon), Italy, B. C. 225 Romans vs. GaulsThe annihilation of the Gallic army was followed by the Roman invasion and conquest of Cisalpine Gaul.
Tel-el-Kebir (tel´el-kā-bēr´), Egypt, September 13, 1882 British vs. Egyptian RebelsArabi Pasha’s army completely broken up; the British entered Cairo the next day.
Temesvar (tem´esh-vär), Hungary, August 9, 1849 Austrians vs. HungariansThe last stand made by the Hungarians in the war; their army was totally routed and dispersed.
Testry (tes-trē´), France, 687 Austrasians vs. NeustriansPippin of Heristal, mayor of the palace, unites the Frankish territories under one rule.
Tewkesbury (tūks´ber-i), England, May 4, 1471 Yorkists vs. LancastriansEnds armed opposition to Edward IV.; Margaret of Anjou was captured and her son slain.
†Texel (tek´sel), North Sea, June 2, 3, 1653 British vs. DutchThe command of the sea fell into the hands of the English fleet.
Thapsus (thap´sus), North Africa, February 6, B. C. 46 Cæsar vs. Followers of PompeyThe battle of Thapsus was the death-knell of the Pompeian cause.
Thermopylæ (ther-mop´i-lē), Greece, B. C. 480 Persians vs. Spartans and ThespiansLeonidas, with 300 Spartans and 700 Thespians, defended the pass to the last man against overwhelming forces.
Tiberias (tī-bē´ri-ȧs), Palestine, 1187 Saracens vs. CrusadersFollowed by the conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin, which led to the third crusade.
Ticinus (ti-sī´nus), Italy, B. C. 218 Carthaginians vs. RomansHannibal’s success brought in numerous adhesions from Gallic tribes; followed by the battle on the Trebia.
Ticonderoga (tī-kon-de-rō´gȧ), New York,U. S. A., July 8, 1758 French vs. British and AmericansBritish and Americans displayed in vain prodigies of valor in the rush on Montcalm’s almost impregnableposition.
Tigranocerta (tig-rā-no-cer´tä), Armenia, October 6,B. C. 69 Romans vs. ArmeniansLucullus cut to pieces the huge army of Tigranes and secured immense booty.
Tinchebrai (tansh-brā), France, 1106 English vs. NormansHenry I. defeated and captured his brother Robert and annexed Normandy to the crown of England.
Tolbiac (tol-bī´ak), Germany, 496 Franks vs. AlemanniClovis wins lands of the Alemanni; he and his followers become Roman Christians in fulfillment of a vow taken on thebattlefield.
Torgau (tôr´gou), Saxony, November 3, 1760 Prussians vs. AustriansThe last pitched battle of the Seven Years’ war, in which the Austrians are said to have lost 20,000 men.
Torres Vedras (tor´resh vā´dräsh), Lines of, Portugal, October 12, 1810 to March 5, 1811 British and Portuguese vs. FrenchWellington’s defense permanently arrested Napoleon’s march of conquest and was thus the turning point ofthe Peninsular campaign.
Toulon (tŏŏ-lôn´), Siege of, France, Sept.18 to Dec. 17, 1793 French vs. Garrison of British, Spaniards, Italians and French RoyalistsThis siege is memorable as the first important appearance of Napoleon, who commanded the artillery.
Tours (tör), France, 732 Franks vs. SaracensHere Charles Martel saved western Christendom from the Moslem invader.
Towton (tou´ton), England, March 28 and 29, 1461 Yorkists vs. LancastriansThis battle, the most obstinate and bloody of the war, secured Edward IV. in his possession of the crown.
†Trafalgar (traf-al-gär), Spain, October 21, 1805 British vs. FrenchNelson’s last and greatest victory destroyed all possibility of Napoleon’s invading England.
Trebia (trē´bi-ä), Italy, December, B. C. 218 Carthaginians vs. RomansBy this splendid victory Hannibal justified his march into Italy; the way into Etruria was now open to him.
Tunis (tū´nis), Siege of, North Africa, 1270 Moslems vs. French CrusadersThis crusade, in which Louis IX. lost his life, was the last.
Turin (tū´rin), Italy, September 7, 1706 Prince Eugene vs. FrenchThe French were permanently excluded from Italy.
Tyre (tīr), Siege of, Phœnicia, January to August, B. C. 332 Macedonians vs. TyriansThe greatest of Alexander’s triumphs; Alexandria in Egypt takes the place of Tyre as a commercialmetropolis.
†Ushant (ush´ant), North Atlantic, June 1, 1794 British vs. FrenchA brilliant victory won by Lord Howe.
Valmy[710] (vȧl-mē´), France, September 2, 1792 French vs. PrussiansGoethe said that from Valmy dates a new era. It showed that revolutionary France would and could resist Europe.
Varna (vär´nä), Bulgaria, November 10, 1444 Turks vs. HungariansKing Ladislas lost his life and his army was scattered to the winds.
Vercellae (ver-sel´ē), Italy, July 30, B. C. 101 Romans vs. CimbriMarius and Catulus utterly destroyed the vast barbarian horde which had been threatening Italy with invasion.
Verdun (ver-dun´), Siege of, France, from February, 1916,on*Germans vs. FrenchThe powerful attacks of the Germans for almost a year against the fortress of Verdun were without success.
Vicksburg, Siege of, Mississippi, U. S. A., May 19 to July 4, 1863 Federals vs. ConfederatesGrant’s success at Vicksburg, together with the battle of Gettysburg, were the turning points of the war.
Vienna (vē-en´ȧ), Siege of, Austria, July 14 toSeptember 12, 1683 Austrians vs. TurksThe besieged were reduced to the last extremity when Sobieski intervened and put the invading Turks to flight.
†Vigo (vē´gō) Bay, Spain, October 12, 1702 English and Dutch vs. French and SpaniardsThe destruction of the Spanish galleons and the protecting French fleet gave a blow to the finances and prestige ofthe two crowns.
Vimiero (vē-mā´rō), Spain, August 21, 1813 British vs. FrenchWellesley inflicted a signal defeat on the French, but his senior officer made no use of the victory.
Vittoria (vē-tō´rē-ä), Spain, June 21,1813 British vs. FrenchThis, the crowning victory of Wellington’s peninsular campaign, won Spain from Napoleon.
Wagram (vā´gräm), Austria, July 6, 1809 French vs. AustriansOne of the most terrible and least decisive battles of all time.
Wakefield, England, December 30, 1460 Lancastrians vs. YorkistsQueen Margaret’s army completely defeated that of the duke of York, who was slain on the battlefield.
Wandewash (wän-de-wäsh´), India, January 22, 1760 British vs. FrenchCoote’s victory was the death-blow to French power in India.
Warsaw (wôr´sô), Siege of, Poland, August 19to September 7, 1831 Russians vs. PolesThe fall of Warsaw ends the Polish insurrection and Poland becomes a province of the Russian empire.
Waterloo (wô-ter-lŏŏ´), Belgium, June 18,1815 British and Prussians vs. FrenchThe final overthrow of Napoleon by Wellington and Blücher. Napoleon was transported to St. Helena, where hedied in 1821.
Wavre (vä´vr), Belgium, June 18, 1815 French vs. PrussiansGrouchy’s victory was useless, while he might have saved the day for Napoleon had he arrived at Waterloo whenexpected.
Wei-hai-wei (wā´hī´wā), China, January 30 to February 12, 1894 Japanese vs. ChineseThe Chinese admiral gave up the remnant of his fleet and killed himself; followed by negotiations for peace.
Worcester (wŏŏs´ter), England, September 3, 1651 Cromwellians vs. Scottish RoyalistsFollowed by the submission of Scotland and Charles II.’s adventurous escape to France.
Wörth (virt), Bavaria, August 6, 1870 Prussians vs. FrenchA bloody contest and a decisive victory, followed by the retreat of the French.
Xeres (hā-rās´), Spain, July 19, 711 Moors vs. VisigothsWithout having to fight any second battle, the Moors under Tarik mastered Spain.
Yalu (yā´lōō) River, Manchuria, September17, 1894 Japanese vs. ChineseThis action conferred upon the Japanese the full command of the sea and greatly aided the land power.
Yorktown, Siege of, Virginia, U. S. A., Sept. 30 to Oct. 19, 1781 Americans vs. BritishThe surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown practically brought to an end the war of the American Revolution.
Ypres (ē´pr), Belgium, October 21-31, 1914 and November10-12, 1914 Allies vs. GermansA series of the most desperate struggles of the war. The German attempt to break through to Calais, France,failed.
Zama (zä´mä), North Africa, B. C. 202 Romans vs. CarthaginiansScipio defeated Hannibal and annihilated his army, thus ending the second Punic war.
Zorndorf (tsôrn´dorf), Prussia, Aug. 25, 1758 Prussians vs. RussiansA desperate and bloody struggle, after which the Russians retired into Poland.
Zurawno (tsu-raw´no), Siege of, Austria, 1676 Poles vs. TurksJohn Sobieski made an heroic defense against numbers and won an honorable peace.