The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 — Volume 21 of 55 / 1624 / Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the Catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the close of the nineteenth century.

by Unknown

Volume V

Chapter III

The discalced Augustinian religious continue their spiritual conquests on the coast of Zambales, and pacify it with their labors. They extend their fervent tasks to the province of Caraga, in Mindanao.

1. If God created man with a certain fertility, with which to propagate other men, although that fertility was not taken away by the first sin, it is not what it would be if disobedience had not intervened; and if to that propagation conservation be not added, it would not proceed according to the form and method of its kind, but even in these natural arrangements nothing would be done without the cooperation of the Creator. Proportionally so is it in the spiritual propagation, in which man is formed for piety and justice. He who plants or he who waters is nothing, but it is only God who giveth the increase. For that reason so necessary dispositions are not useless, but are indispensable in the present providence. How can they hear unless there be one to preach to them? God gave man understanding, but it is as dull in infancy as if he did not have one; it must be excited, and brought to light with the increase of age, in which he becomes capable of knowledge and of instruction, skilful to perceive truth and pure and chaste love, with which to fight strenuously against the engendered vices to which he is inclined naturally from his youth. Those spiritual propagations in semi-brutish men are very difficult; for, although reason is not altogether extinguished, the sparks of it are so feeble that one must use considerable discretion and prudence in order to arouse them. With those monsters were the discalced Augustinian religious dealing on the Zambales coast; having as the object of their living faith the salvation of souls, they could employ themselves admirably in such spiritual propagations, planting and watering with immense labor, God granting them the desired increase in that so blessed intercourse. Establishing themselves in Masinloc, they did not restrain themselves in the undertaking until they reached the end of the coast, on whose famous point is the village of Bolinao. There they had had the first intelligence of the gospel, which the observantine Augustinians had tried to communicate to them. But either the ferocity and barbarous customs of the natives, who threatened to kill them, or their great occupation in other more abundant missions, compelled them to abandon that attempt. At the demand of those religious, together with a commission from the governor then in office, Don Rodrigo de Rivero, and the instance of the venerable dean and cabildo, the vice-provincial despatched fathers Fray Christoval de Christo and Fray Andres del Espiritu Santo to that conversion. The village was then located on an island, which formed the port of the same point. When the venerable religious entered, the natives would have nothing to do with them; however they did not dare to expel the fathers nor lay hands on them. They supported themselves on certain herbs and roots, which grow naturally and without labor in the forest, necessarily suffering misery and misfortunes.

2. Their endurance and suffering made the Bolinaos more tractable; they were persuaded that their preaching was true, and that their instruction was important for them. They began to listen to it without aversion, although with curiosity. The efficacy of the word of God penetrated strongly into their hearts. Then they conceived a horror of their barbarous customs. Thereupon, and because of the continual instruction, they resolved to abandon paganism, and to surrender their necks to the gospel yoke. One thousand six hundred, having been catechised satisfactorily, were baptized. They built a suitable church and a dwelling-house for the father ministers, and the village of Bolinao was established in very orderly ways, in matters relating to their common life and to civilization. They have continued happily in their vocation, and I think that it is one of the most solid Christian communities in the islands. They are very devout, and their thoughts are without any superstition, while they are most inclined to devotion. Thence the fathers extended their zeal to the near-by and dependent communities; all these were most happily subjected. That was largely induced by the religious themselves cutting down a reserved bamboo plantation, and thus removing their foolish fears that he who dared to cut a single bamboo from it would die—but which did not happen to them, as the Indians had imagined. By that means they were undeceived in their previous superstitions.

3. The fathers also extended their reductions and conversions to the south of Masinloc. They formed the scattered peoples, and the rural settlers of Tuguy and Paynayan into villages. Inasmuch as the Pagans and Negritos of the immediate forests disturbed those new establishments greatly by making furtive raids on them and killing several people, seizing those who were heedless at night, the superior government determined to establish a small fort in Paynayen, with moderate-sized artillery, and a garrison of Spanish and Pampanga infantry which would maintain in loyalty those newly catechised and reduced, and would shelter them from barbarous hostilities. The expenses for it were to be paid, in order to make raids in the forests, and to intimidate with their arms those people of so fierce customs. The only ones still to be conquered on that long coast were the scattered people of Sigayan, about eight leguas north of Masinloc. Father Fray Alonso de San Augustin, a son of this city of Manila, took charge of that undertaking at the order of his vicar-provincial. His diligence was efficacious and most lively. He reduced many of those infidels to the true faith; founded a town with them, which he, with good supervision, established in a commodious site; and established a church and house. He managed and perfected the work with great vigilance and the consolation of his soul. One day when the people were assembled, he preached a fervent sermon, censuring the resistance of some obstinate infidels. Some of them were respected and venerated as the greatest chiefs. The sermon mortified them, and they resolved to take satisfaction for the pretended and supposed insult. The bolder of them, on some pretext or other, approached the zealous father, quickly drew a cutting weapon, such as they use, from its sheath, and at the first blow almost decapitated him with it. His hood protected him somewhat, but not so much that he was not grievously wounded. As the wound was given in a dangerous place, its cure was difficult. Thus he lived but a short time, sacrificing his life very willingly for the good of those rebellious sheep. After that parricide the new reduction rose in rebellion. The followers of the unjust aggressor burned and destroyed the village, convent, and church, and withdrew to the general asylum and refuge of the woods. Some faithful Christians remained with the wounded father, whom they carried to Masinloc, where his happy death occurred. With what was left, after abandoning that new Christianity for the time being, the ministers tried later, as if forgetful of the past insult, to have the reduction returned to its old site. They interested the Indians of Masinloc, and, partly with mild means and partly with threats, they attained their object—not without great efforts, fears, and hardships. The church, house, and village were rebuilt, and about seven hundred souls were enrolled. That village, after other translations, is the one now called Santa Cruz, and is dependent on Masinloc.

4. Those hardships caused those religious to be well received in Manila. Its citizens became interested in that, without leaving their first foundation of Bagumbayan, which was very useful for those suburbs, they should move into a regular convent within the walls of their fortification—which was unavoidable because of the continual disputes with Japanese and Chinese, and because of the fears caused by the Dutch with their fleets. Because of the urgency with which all compassionately entreated them, with this security, the father vice-provincial, Fray Juan de San Geronimo, responded gratefully; and, recognizing the strict advisability of it, bought a small house near the artillery foundry which then existed. The governor, then Don Juan de Silva, liberally and willingly facilitated this undertaking with alms, and conceded the site. Various oppositions were encountered against that foundation, but they were conquered, although with difficulty, by constancy. The religious passed many days of poverty on that site, being uncomfortable and with scanty subsidies, until the very pious and noble gentleman, Don Bernardino de el Castillo Rivera y Maldonado, a native of the City of Mexico, master-of-camp of the royal regiment, castellan of the fort of Santiago, and regidor of the city—moved likewise by the urgent entreaties of his pious wife, Doña Maria Enrriquez de Cespedes, who was very strongly inclined towards this religious institute and to their patron, San Nicolas de Tholentino (by whose intercession she had obtained a son), who had died soon afterward—took charge of the foundation. He erected a handsome building on that site for a church and convent, which was made of hewn stone. He finished it at a personal cost to his estate of more than one hundred thousand pesos. He assigned it suitable revenues in lands, and funds for the necessary repairs and rebuilding—all the more liberally, as he had no necessary heir.

5. In an authentic declaration that he made before the alcalde-in-ordinary of this city, Don Martin de Herrera—received and testified before the notary-public, Juan de Villa Marin—the patron, Don Bernardino, declares that the impelling motive for undertaking and perfecting the work of church and convent was his great devotion to San Nicolas de Tolentino, and his having recognized in the discalced Augustinian religious, from the time of their arrival in this city, learned, virtuous, and serious men; and the knowledge that they were gathering much fruit in this community and among the natives round about. In their manner of acting, they persuaded men that they were all true servants of God. That had moved him to aid them in their very severe need; and he had taken under his charge convent and church, building them a new edifice from the foundations up. He had bought many pieces of ground for them at excessive prices; in that way and on the work, he had spent a large sum, and he considered it well employed. He declared that he was ready to spend much more, even to the extent of all his wealth, and to be left with only his assigned pay of castellan; for the said Recollect religious deserve it by their example and virtue. For the repairs and preservation of the work, he assigned a fitting income from many lands. It is estimated that he spent on and endowed it, in all, with one hundred and fifty thousand pesos, although with obligations to chaplaincies. Besides that, he adorned the church, and continually expended money for it.

6. He also had a garden or country-house, called Calumpang, because of its location. He made them a present of it, and of a portion of the lands surrounding it, on condition that the said religious found a convent on that site, where some religious could live retired and free from disturbance. The then vice-provincial, Fray Rodrigo de San Miguel, took possession, after obtaining the necessary licenses from the government and from the archbishop. With these was formed a convent of the same house, and a small church was erected under the invocation of St. Sebastian, being dedicated to that glorious martyr, a being to whom especial devotion was paid by its founders, who aided its cost with their wealth. The archbishop, then Don Fray Miguel Garcia Serrano, adjudged [to it] the spiritual administration of the tenants of the lands, to the number of about thirty houses. The minister of Sampoloc had a suit pending about those tenants, but as soon as they were adjudged to that new church, they escaped from his demands; and free possession remained to them, which was confirmed by the royal patronage. A beautiful image of our Lady of Carmel was placed in that church a few years afterward, which was brought from Mexico by a mission of those religious. Her devotion extended her worship, and her favors made her more famous. The dean of that holy church, Don Juan Velez, given up by the doctors, and already without hope, begged the religious to carry the holy image of Carmel to his house. At the entrance of that Lady, and the fervent prayer of the dean, he suddenly became well and completely cured. As a thank-offering for so singular a favor, he returned the image to her church, and made her a very solemn feast. He founded with the ordinary authority a confraternity, under the title of Carmel, which attained so many members within a short time that the number was more than two thousand, of both sexes. The dean continued the feast every year, but scapularies were not distributed because they had no authority for it, and because they had no members of the Carmelite order.[4] Therefore those religious had recourse to a competent prelate of the Carmelites, who could concede the permission with apostolic privilege—the very reverend father-provincial of Andalucia, Maestro Fray Diego de el Castillo, granting authority to the prior of the convent of San Sebastian in Philipinas in order that he, in his person alone, could and might bless the scapularies of his holy order, and distribute them to the faithful who might request them. From the receipt of that despatch, and by means of such a distribution, the confraternity became full to overflowing. The feast could not be held on its appropriate day in July, which is wont to fall in the height of the rainy season. Having recourse to the apostolic see, Pope Clement Eleventh erected the confraternity anew, and set its feast for the twenty-first of January, with special concessions of a plenary indulgence weekly, and additional ones during the year on days assigned by the archbishop. Those weekly indulgences fall on Wednesday, and the others on the four Sundays of the month in February, May, July; and the last, on the day of the betrothals. The same pontiff later extended the plenary indulgence of the twenty-first of February to the following week, in order to satisfy the devotion of the innumerable crowd. If those nine days were increased to a fortnight, the crowd would always be numerous. In the nine days are administered from six to seven thousand communions, besides many who commune in other churches. It is the most extensive devotion among Spaniards and natives. That devotion had its failings, as is usual among numerous crowds, which have been corrected by the zeal of the superiors. That confraternity has since been established in the city of Zebu, and has in the same manner been extended into the Bisayan provinces.

7. At length his final illness came to this illustrious benefactor. Recognizing it as such, he made his will, in which he instituted as his heir San Nicolas de Tolentino. He died, and the religious accepted that condition, and the remainder of his property was adjudged to them. He was buried in that church as if in his own house: on his conspicuous tomb was expressed the record that he left by his charitable deeds. In the same tomb the body of his wife was afterward placed. Monuments were erected to them, and in a suitable niche were placed worthy memorials of gratitude. Since that first church had the misfortune to be ruined by earthquakes, the fathers did not recognize the patronage when they entirely rebuilt the church, regarding their new church as free.

8. The governor, the bishops, and the encomenderos were urgent for those religious to extend their apostolic labors. But they were few and could not attend to those extensions Consequently, the vicar-provincial decided to send a religious to España, to beg king and council for aid for new operations. Father Fray Pedro de San Fulgencio, a well known and experienced member of the order, was proposed for that undertaking. He was given for the voyage legitimate authorizations, letters of credit from all the governments, very expressive and liberal, in which the truth and necessity were explained, so that his Majesty would kindly concede a suitable number of ministers, who might continue so excellent and important beginnings. That father reached Madrid without accident, and found his brethren in mortal anguish and distressing pain, and the reformed branch now breathing its last and almost destroyed.

[The outgoing provincial has relaxed the strict rule of the reformed branch. The internal disputes that follow his term are brought to a definite head by Paul V’s brief, ordering the regular Augustinians to take over the convents of the Recollects and to absorb that branch. However, the order is saved by the strenuous efforts exerted both in Spain and Rome.]

15. In such condition was this reformed branch when father Fray Pedro, procurator of Philipinas, reached España, without province, without authority, and without means for cooperation in his urgent affairs. But his brave spirit did not waver; he was adroit and prompt in the management of papers; and he was presented to the king with a brief memorial referring to his commissions. Although his Majesty was not then very well inclined to the Reform, laying aside those considerations, he paid good heed to the petition, recognizing its justification. He conceded the despatch of thirty religions, whom the procurator could take with him on the first occasion that should present itself, with the usual subsidies. After that so favorable result was obtained, it was considered advisable to go to the court of Roma, in order to move the universal head [of the church] to favor the general interest by information of the results obtained in the islands. He obtained audience with the supreme pontiff, Paul V, to whom he related the labors of his associates in the benefit of infidel souls. His representation was very well received by the supreme pontiff. The latter conceded him many favors and indulgences for the missionaries engaged in conversions and reductions. In order to aid father Fray Gregorio[5] in his claims, he was detained a long while. Those public interests and the most important affairs of those conquests disappointed private interests. Powerful rivals advanced their claims, but the procurator ought not to have abandoned his own affairs. He trusted too much to his prompt and favorable commissions, in whose durability the quickest despatch is not enough; for the agents on the opposing side, availing themselves of his voluntary absence, began to depreciate the mission that had been conceded. They declared that the Recollects were not necessary in Philipinas; that those who had gone there before were but few and useless. The procurators of the provinces of Philipinas—who by having taken the habit were not divested of human passions, for they considered it [i.e., the Recollect mission] as a grievance, instead of being moved by a just and charitable zeal—interested themselves in that report. There was much that had to be tilled and cleared. Whole provinces were begging for spiritual aid. But now, since their zeal was mitigated, they were excusing themselves from labors, and were contenting themselves with tranquillity. To say that new missions were necessary, without some of these entering the labors of others, was very apparent to them, and on very superficial considerations reprehensible. Their immoderate opposition reached such a point that they declared publicly that they [i.e., the Recollects] were not men who could prove at all useful to the infidels.

16. Their procurator, Fray Pedro, was well able to answer those calumnies (for they were calumnies), and to restrain insinuations so pernicious and prejudicial to the interests with which he was charged; for he had discretion and a spirit for everything. The most effective thing in that was the pressing need of his commissions, and the contents of his credentials. But death, which overtook him at Milan on his return trip, prevented those advancements and important efforts; and there was no person to whom to entrust the favorable outcome of his negotiations at Roma, nor his papers as procurator, which were the essential part of the negotiation. Upon that so unexpected disaster, inasmuch as there was no substitution of powers, nor, as it happened, anyone in whom to substitute them, the above opposition and contradiction had their opportunity—thus disappointing the arrangements of several religious who were already preparing for that voyage, in their anxiety to embark quickly, and assist their associates in the islands, and extend their laborious work. Those misfortunes and disturbances were unhappily removed and extended to Philipinas. The vice-provincial was notified of Paul V’s brief, of the extinction of the province, and the submission to the calced religious, who began to make use of violent acts of superiority. Although counsel was taken with erudite men regarding that difficulty, yet in view of that so executive brief, they wavered in their opinions. The only thing that militated against the brief was that it was not passed by the royal Council. But since it had to do with government and monarchy, it was at least binding on the inner court of the conscience, especially on subjects who had given a special and solemn obedience to the pontiff, in regard to the internal government of their institutes. These so violent disturbances had some rest in the election of provincial in the person of the father maestro, Fray Miguel Garcia Serrano. In it the offices of the convents and ministries of the discalced were confirmed to the persons who held them, and in the same manner; all taking care, after the representations of such a prelate, to honor and protect so afflicted a family.

17. Those so complicated causes for disquietude saddened extraordinarily the venerable father, Vice-provincial Fray de San Geronimo. He, upon seeing his edifice being destroyed gradually in this manner, and that its ruin was a foregone conclusion by such measures, determined, notwithstanding his age, and the catastrophes that usually happened, to return to España, in order to solicit and promote the quiet of his reformed branch, and help for the preaching and conservation of the Indians, by communicating in person to the Catholic king his fortunate beginnings, being confident in the royal and benignant attachment to his person, and his merits. His receipt of certain letters, however, compelled him to cut short the voyage. Those letters assured him that the mind of the monarch was made up to appoint him as bishop in one of the vacant sees of these islands. In order that those obligatory despatches might not find him in the islands, and as he found a suitable opportunity, he embarked in a vessel to make his voyage by way of India. That unusual effort also was frustrated, because he was attacked by his last illness on the high sea, at the parallel of Ormuz. During it he edified the sailors greatly by his excellent disposition, and his conformity to the divine will, in whose kiss he delivered up his spirit. Very sorrowfully they cast him into the sea, the common tomb of sailors who happen to die thus.

18. Although few, those reformed religious, condescending at repeated urging, accepted a foundation in the port of Cavite. There lived the seamen, who, accustomed to dangers, are also reckless in vices. Men of nationalities distinct in religion and sect were wintering there because of the heavy commerce, and through their frequent intercourse their morals were becoming relaxed.

19. He who most urgently requested and sighed for such a foundation was a pious citizen and a good Christian, named Raphael Blanco, chief of the shore or arsenal, and master of the calkers. He offered to help in the establishment with a large ground-plot and property on which he had built some houses, with the necessary condition that it was to be used as a church and convent. He was ready to sign a legal writ of gift, provided that the vicar-provincial bound himself to erect a church on the said ground and site. The parties having come to an agreement, went before the royal Audiencia, which was governing, and the bishop of Zebu, Don Fray Pedro de Arze, governor of this archipelago. Permission was granted, and a church and convent were formed in the best manner, in the houses of Raphael Blanco, with the aid of various alms, with St. Nicolas de Tolentino as its titulary. In the beginning of its construction it was of wood; but afterward, the necessary licenses having been granted, it was built of stone. Three reredoses adorned the temple. Shortly after its foundation its benefit was experienced. The people of the port were most extraordinarily afflicted; they frequently saw various horrifying specters in the air, which gave vent to terrible and formidable cries. Those specters took possession of various bodies, which they maltreated in many and cruel ways. Some they made raving mad; to some they caused very dangerous illnesses; some took to the mountains in flight; some, going up to the heights, let themselves fall down a precipice. So terrible a persecution put the whole port beside itself. The churches were opened and the august sacrament exposed day and night. The greatest crowd collected in the new convent and church. Missions were preached there with spirit and fervor, in which their prior at that time, Fray Pedro de la Madre de Dios, excelled. These aroused all to penitence, and there was frequent petition for the holy sacraments. The air was filled with sighing, and the people mortified themselves with fastings and severe penances, in order to placate the divine wrath, so manifest in fearful acts of vengeance. The priests were continually employed in exorcisms against the wicked spirits. Cavite resembled an afflicted Nineveh. God willed to let the punishment end with threats. The spirits left their obsessions at the command of the ecclesiastical ministers, the horrible apparitions ceased, and their mournful howling was no longer heard. The inhabitants became quiet and were consoled, but did not fail to be very well warned. For they continued constant in the correction and the general reform of morals; and it extended to every kind of people, who were intimidated for a considerable time by such fearful events, and very thankful to their spiritual benefactors.

20. Upon hearing of the death of his vice-provincial, father Fray Rodrigo de San Miguel became very eager to make his voyage to España to solicit new workers. He asked and obtained duplicate despatches from the most prominent and distinguished inhabitants, from the ecclesiastical and secular cabildos, from the governor, and from the royal Audiencia. All the documents were confirmed by the most illustrious bishops, who said that the discalced Augustinians were very observant of their rule in their ministries, very zealous in the conversion of souls, and therefore very advantageous, useful, and even necessary. That would oblige his Catholic Majesty to concede them the mission that they desired. The orders also confirmed the documents, especially the observantine Augustinians, in which they confuted the preceding adverse testimonies. Then he embarked with so favorable and extensive despatches; but his voyage was very disagreeable. They suffered a severe storm amid these islands, in which were lost boats that had anchored at Manila and Cavite. The stormy winds obliged them to sail to Japon, from which altitude they continued their course, with constant squalls, until they sighted Cape Mendocino—whence, coasting the shores of Nueva España, they finally anchored at Acapulco, after innumerable terrors and dangers, and after a most distressing voyage of seven months.

21. The father went overland to the North Sea, and embarking at Vera Cruz, continued his course. On the voyage a raging tempest carried them to the coasts and banks of Terra Nova—[i.e., Newfoundland]. That deviation from their course made water and food grow scarce, so much so that daily rations of only two ounces of sea-biscuit were dealt out, and the same proportion of water. The ship sprang a leak, and took so much water into the hold that they reached the Terceras as by a miracle. There they rested and equipped themselves, in order to finish their voyage to Cadiz. Thence the father went to Madrid, where his requests were listened to kindly, and his despatches conceded to him. In virtue of them, he had already called together twenty religious; and he determined to embark in the fleet that was being sent to the Malucas with reënforcements. He could not effect that, because that order had been lost with the obligations expressed in another part. Accordingly it was necessary to accommodate himself to the trading-fleet which was being despatched to Vera-Cruz, although with a small number of missionaries; however, considering the extreme lack of them [in the islands] great relief was furnished even by these.

22. Thereupon, and the contentions of the Roman court having been favorably determined, because the supreme pontiff had [now] been thoroughly and sufficiently informed, the latter took pains to console those whom he recognized as innocent. He did that by his apostolic brief, in which, with full knowledge of the cause, he explained his former brief and definitive sentence, confirming the concession of Clement Eighth, in the erection of the province. He restored the title and office of provincial to the same father Fray Gregorio, confirmed his former patents, and restored everything to its former condition. However, there were certain endurable reservations, by which they could not found more monasteries or receive novices. At the end of the three years’ term, the calced provincial was to visit that reformed branch in whose jurisdiction the Recollect convents were to be. He conceded them many indulgences, privileges, and favors, by which their minds were calmed, and their desired relief in Philipinas obtained. This country was reenforced with thirteen other missionaries, whom the fathers of España sent officially in charge of their commissary, father Fray Christoval de San Augustin. He reached Mexico, whence he could not proceed farther, as death seized him. Father Fray Onofre de la Madre de Dios took charge of that leadership, with whose arrangement they all arrived safe and sound at Manila. They had their frights in meeting some Dutch urcas, which followed our ship with a stern wind; and they were about to be captured when the religious invoked in their favor the glorious St. Nicolas de Tholentino. Then, luffing, they were able to escape the Dutch.

23. The most illustrious bishop of Zebu, Don Fray Pedro de Arze, was in Manila, and requested the reverend father Fray Rodrigo de San Miguel, the vice-provincial at that time, to send religious to Zebu to make a foundation in that city. The latter complied with this, by sending father Fray Juan Chrisostomo de la Ascencion to take charge of that, in answer to the bishop’s venerable and respectful urgency. His Excellency conceded to the father a site as his especial property, which had a chapel of our Lady of the Conception somewhat apart from its center. There the said father established his convent. As his Excellency’s desires were not that the fathers should live in ease, he immediately assigned to them the administration of the island of Maripipi, where there were about six hundred souls. Being thus established in Bisayas, his same Excellency, after consulting the superior government, and his Excellency Don Alonso Fajardo acquiescing, charged and intrusted them solemnly with the spiritual administration of the province of Caraga in Mindanao. That province, although subdued by Don Juan de Silva, and given as an encomienda, had not yet had any ministers—or, at most, a secular chaplain for ministration to the garrison of its fort. It was a difficult undertaking because of the warlike spirit and the ferocity of the Caragas, whose chief tenet of religion was the deification or apotheosis of the brave and of the most tyrannical. From so barbarous a maxim one can infer something of their fierce customs. The district was large and caused great labor, for the conquests had to be made through rough and dense forests. Their superior assigned eight religious for this task, who, being supplied with the necessary things, arrived without accident at the presidio of Tandag.[6]

24. They endeavored to reduce that infidelity with mildness and gentleness. They made those people see their errors, and God lent such force to their persuasions that many were baptized. They procured their conversion through the chiefs, who by their superiority tyrannized over their dependents. One of those chiefs was called Ynuc, as renowned for his reputation as feared for his cruelty, by means of which he was absolute along that coast and formidable in the neighboring islands. He hated the Spaniards violently, with whom he always refused to make peace or truce, ever preserving for them an implacable hatred. The superior of that mission, father Fray Juan de la Madre de Dios, trusting in God, dared to conquer that monster. He left Tandag to look for him alone, without any followers. He found him at his ranchería.[7] Ynuc wondered at the father’s audacity in appearing before him without first asking permission. He intended to take satisfaction for what he considered an intolerable insult, but the father talked to him with so much mildness and spirituality, that he not only pardoned his boldness, but also showed pleasure at his salutary advice. They conversed intimately, and Ynuc was so pleased with his intercourse that he accepted tolerable treaties of peace with the Spaniards of Tandag, with whom he opened communication and commerce. He granted a free permit so that the father might preach to his subjects, and so that the father might enter and leave his lands without hindrance, ordering that all give him their help. The father continuing his intercourse with Ynuc, the opportunity came, when master of his affections, to treat concerning his conversion, as his example was so important. Ynuc did not resist the divine call very strenuously. He disposed himself for catechism, and received baptism amid great solemnity. In that conversion he performed the necessary duty, as a proof [of his sincerity], of sending all the concubines from his house, and marrying the first wife and confirming by the sacraments the natural contract in faciæ ecclesiæ.[8] He freed all his slaves, who exceeded two thousand. He issued edicts ordering that all persons who thought themselves aggrieved should come for satisfaction, without any fear; and he made the religious the judges for that, together with the commandant of the fort. They settled all differences equitably, and to the satisfaction of the interested parties, entirely contenting them all with their decrees.

25. That conversion was much bruited throughout the whole province, and to his example many infidels bowed their necks; however, many difficulties yet remained. The missionaries resolved to conquer them, for which they exposed themselves to evident dangers. The superior either did not recognize them as dangers or despised them. He was resting one night in a location called Ambagan, not far from Tandag. An Indian, without other motive than his barbarous inclination, conceived the thought of killing him, and obtained two companions, who aided him with their weapons in his depraved purpose. He climbed into the house boldly, leaving his two companions ready on the ladder. When he tried to enter the apartment where the minister was sleeping, a venerable old man stopped him, who asked him in his native language: “Where art thou going, profligate? I am guarding the sleeper, who is my son.” The Indian, carried away by his headlong wrath, persisted in entering the forbidden apartment. Thereupon, the venerable old man raised aloft a golden staff, which he supported in his hand, with which he threatened the Indian, who conceived so great a horror of it that in his confusion he was unable to find the ladder by which to descend, although he sought it in various ways. He remained there, miserable and afflicted, all that night, without knowing what was passing, until, the morning having come and the minister having come out of his room, he placed himself before the latter very contritely, and told him what had happened, urging him to make it known. His associates confirmed what referred to them—namely, that becoming tired of waiting at the foot of the ladder, they had retired thence at daybreak, in order not to be discovered, abandoning their associate to his fortune. The father agreed, as did the more judicious, that he whom the Indian was declaring by his signs was the great father St. Augustine, who miraculously defended his son with the pastoral staff.

26. The infidels came to hold these religious in great veneration when so noteworthy incidents were made known throughout the province, and the gospel obtained great advantages. The errors in which the idolatrous priests were trying to maintain the infidels were dissipated. The priests, seeing their interests waning by the recent conversions, conspired against the fathers’ lives several times; but they escaped those dangers by a special and divine providence. Several reductions were formed in the province, and in the adjacent island of Siargao. The Jesuit fathers could not take care of all their enterprises in that island. The reduction of Butuan was not assured, with the visits made at long intervals. Those visits, being transient, allowed no place for instruction, nor did those people preserve much of their teaching. The bishop of Zebu communicating that fact to the superior government, it was agreed that the discalced Augustinians should take charge of that administration, with a foundation, as that was important. They accepted it with legal papers, and had much to do on that great and famous river. They ascended its waters even to their source, which is the lake of Linao, about fifty leguas in circuit. There they founded a settlement, in order to assure their labors.[9] They coasted the shore to little Cagayan,[10] on that excursion taking also into their charge the island of Camiguin. Farther on they passed through the rancherías of Higan and Langaran up to the lake of Malanao. But the opposition of the Jesuits stopped them; for the latter disputed their right to that spiritual progress, to such an extent that they produced controversies in the court. His Catholic Majesty decided the question by the rights of his royal patronage. He ordered the island of Mindanao to be surveyed, and distributed the administration of it between the two contending provinces, granting to that of the Recollects [the coast] from the point of Sulaban[11] to the cape of San Agustin, while the rest remained in charge of the Society. Thereby were hostile rivalries pacified, which would have produced nothing good had they continued without so powerful arbitration.

Chapter IV

The Augustinian Recollects are charged with the administration and conquest of the province of Calamianes. Geographical and natural description of that province.

1. The extension of its spiritual progress to the province of Calamianes does much honor to the religious Recollect family. It was not the effect of a rash temerity; it was a matter of slow and careful deliberation. When once established and determined, resolution free from terrible doubts was necessary to undertake it. “Not only is fear not a cause for surety,” said the emperor Leo[12] in his tactics, “but it is also most adverse for good strategies; since in difficult undertakings it is necessary to consult God, and, assured in one’s inmost beliefs, to attack without trepidation of spirit. The best good of expeditions (especially military), if they are difficult, consists in discovering thoroughly the condition of the enemy, the number and quality of their troops, and their enterprise in military discipline. With that keen knowledge, the captain prepares his assaults, and plans his sudden counter strategies.” In the present conversion, maxims so prudent were very suitable—in which, prepared by the spiritual food of faith, hope, and charity, they made manifest the mystery of the ineffable Trinity, and subdued the infidels to the sacrament of holy baptism. It was a difficult thing, and one that exceeds human strength; but obeying God, attacks become spirited. By His help one can soothe difficulties, explain intricate mysteries, and resolve everything easily. After having consulted that superior oracle, accompanied solely by his armor-bearer, one can attack whole armies, rout them, and throw them into a general confusion and consternation; and it is the enemy’s own weapons that wound and disperse them.

2. The archipelago of Calamianes consists of an infinity and indeterminate number of islands, large and small, and most of them very fertile.[13] Those best known and best supplied with the products of commerce which might make them rich are [here] set down. But their lack of attention [to these products] reduces the natives to a wretched and unhappy state. The first island, and that which is first encountered from the course of Mindoro, about fifty leguas across from Luban, is Calamian the great, which gives name to the whole province. It is commonly called Busuagan, taking that name from a principal village or settlement. It is a large and pleasant island in the form of an oblong, eight long leguas in length and about four wide. Its rivers are of great volume; there are sufficient mountains; and from that nature [of the land], there is an abundant yield of wax of superior quality, which is produced naturally, and without [human] labor, by the vast multitude of industrious bees. The only work in it is the gathering of the honeycomb in its season (which is very securely fastened in the large, high, and leafy branches of the trees), by the sole effort of making fires with thick smoke, which compels those little animals, which defend their property at the cost of their lives, to flee in confusion.

3. A more profitable product is the nest made by certain small black birds, which are mistakenly called swallows. The material of which the nest is made, in order to lay and hatch their eggs, is yet unknown. It is regarded as sure that its manufacture takes place in the breast or crop, whence issues a long filament. Those filaments stick together because of their viscous nature, and at their extremities adhere to the rock. Those nests are usually located in very overhanging and rough places, in such a way that the continual rains do not unfasten or destroy them, although the birds always endeavor to place them under shelter. The shape of the nest is similar to that of the regular swallow, although smaller. It is known that that filament is produced with difficulty. It is like fine vermicelli, which is sometimes accompanied with drops of blood. It is white and somewhat transparent, like ice. It is prepared in various ways, but a soup resembling that of vermicelli, but of better taste, and incomparably more nourishing, is made with the broth from a substantial olio, or stew. It is very useful for those who suffer from evacuations and dysentery; it corrects those ailments and is good as a mild and dissolvent food. The Chinese esteem it highly, and generally pay, according to its scarcity or abundance, eight, nine, and sixteen pesos per cate, which contains twenty-one onzas. They are very difficult to gather, for the birds always build them in craggy locations, in whose tortuous and precipitous caverns they are only obtained by descending a rope. Some are obtained by climbing up bamboos, finding a rest for the feet on the knots, which are left with large projections for that purpose. So dangerous evolutions cost even broken arms and legs, and sometimes even cause death. The taking of the nests is repeated three times during the calm months of the year. The latter part of December, those to whom are assigned crags—in which it is not right for one to meddle with those of another, a rule that is observed with much fidelity—go out. They gather the old nests, which are sufficiently blackened by the preceding rains; however, they do not lose much of their nourishment. Thus do they force the little bird to make a new nest, as it cannot make use of the old one for breeding. As the desire to breed is excited by its nature, the industrious little bird strives to build its nest before breeding. All the month of January is spent in its costly labors. The destroyers come and tear them down. Sometimes they are found with eggs, and sometimes even imperfect; but nothing restrains their greed, and they tear down all indifferently. The disconsolate birds again begin to build their nest, and at the end of February or the beginning of March the Indians repeat their robbery. The saddened bird, forced to build its shelter at the behest of nature in the multiplication of the species repeats its anxious labors. Either because there is not enough material for so many labors, or because the season has passed in their periods, the bird does not possess the same inclination in its formation; the nest is finished later, and is less juicy, as experience has shown, for at that time the rainy season generally sets in. That, and the Moros who infest these seas cause the harvest of nests involuntarily to be abandoned. However, if the above circumstances do not prevent, the third excursion is not lacking. All the crags are not accessible, and where those furtive assaults cannot be made, the number of those industrious little birds is prodigious.”[14]

4. The beaches are protracted into very extensive shoals and reefs. There the excellent balate is very abundant. This is a shellfish,[15] which when cooked and dried in the smoke is preserved dry. This product is highly relished by the Chinese or Sangleys. They lade as much as possible into their boats, paying thirty and even thirty-eight pesos per pico (which is equivalent to five arrobas twelve and one-half libras), according to the season. The flesh is very wholesome, and tastes like shrimp. The fisheries of fine-shelled turtles are also abundant, and they also form a conspicuous product. Some of the shells have markings as deep red as a fine garnet; and the four principal shells are of an extraordinary size. From the shells are made very neat boxes, trays, and other pretty things. They are given a jasper finish, which makes their colors shine out strongly. The island has abundance of deer, wild boars, and wild hogs, and monkeys and birds of singular rarity. There are many pagans of good appearance and better disposition. The frequent raids of the Moros hold that most fertile island in the greatest abandonment. A narrow channel separates the island of Coron[16] from it. The latter is a rocky crag about three leguas in circumference. The only entrance to it is by a narrow tongue of land, which forms, as it were, a small port. But it is so easy of defense that a few men can prevent any entrance there without danger. Because of the strength and independence of its location many natives of savage inclination, and most warlike, live there. Calamian the little follows, where the capital is at present located.[17] There is a fort there, well armed. The men in their capacity as soldiers, with their corresponding officers, defend from the natives. It is also fertile in the same products, although less abundantly than Calamian the great, but it is so overrun with rats or moles that no seed plant can live, for they destroy everything. The natives are forced to engage in the trade of jars and salt, although they are much interested in the nest business, and in that of wax; the one being their own occupation and the other the exchange.

5. Passing without comment other innumerable islands, comes the famous one of Paragua,[18] about eighty leguas long and from ten to twenty in its greatest width. It is a rich and fertile island. Besides the common articles of commerce, such as wax (of which the harvest is more abundant than in any other district), nests, fine shell, and balate, it has various fisheries for fine pearls of beautiful luster, some of them found at a depth of three or four brazas. Shells, or madres abiertas, of excellent mother-of-pearl, of various beautiful colors, are found on its coasts. The matrix-shell of these pearls has been seen of one and one-half ordinary palmos in length and almost one palmo in its narrowest part—whose pearl could not be obtained, because the valve opened on drawing it from the sea, and the sensitive fleshy part that contained the pearl fell into the water. According to its appearance, it must have contained pearls of many grains and carats in size. The island has various exquisite and useful woods which distil special gums. There is one which is an effective remedy for cancers; it is so powerful a caustic that it burns out the cancer even when it is deep, although the wounds caused by its burning are dangerous. However, those wounds have their suitable remedy. There is a quantity of nutmeg of two varieties—the long and the round. The latter is valued more because it is more fragrant. It is easily destroyed by grubs, because the precautions useful for its preservation are unknown. There are bejucos or Indian canes for walking-sticks, with their branches as much as five and one-half palmos long; they are of better luster and of greater toughness than are those gathered by the Dutch in the islands of the Sonda. I am sure that camphor would be found, if one looked for it, just as good as that of Borney; for the resemblance of Paragua’s productions to those of that great island is very marked, and the latter is not very far from its southern point.

6. There are but few quadrupeds[19] that are not found in the other islands: porcupines, armadillos, tezones, leopards, colcobos, and certain very beautiful foxes, but of the same species as the stink-foxes of Peru, and very pestilent. They come to the houses in their greed for fowls, among which they cause considerable havoc. But whether it is due to their urine or some other posterior evacuation, such is their stench that is necessary to abandon the house for a time, as it is unendurable. There are many and rare birds. Royal peacocks are very common; they are but slightly larger than a hen, though without any difference from the large peacocks of India in the vividness of their colors. Several efforts have been made to domesticate them, but in vain; they become greatly depressed, and soon die. There are nightingales that sing harmoniously near the coolness of the small streamlets, repeating their melodious trills, and gifted with most nimble throats. There are many varieties of parrots of brilliant colors; green, white, and vari-colored pigeons; squirrels or paniquesas, of several distinct species—some are white with a black ring which sets them off well; there are some with wings and some with membranes that facilitate their flight, although that is but short. It is known that the land is one continuous mineral district. Extensions of pure iron jut from the shores laid bare by the breaking of the waves, as rocky shoals. There are others of vitriol or verdigris, in very rich veins. It must be that the centers of the mountains are like this. The island abounds in exquisite and healthful waters, now in the springs, now in the large rivers—so many in number that sixty-seven are counted from Catbuli to the bay of Ypolote, on the side and coast of the east. Numerous tribes live there. In the roughest locations the Aetas or black Cimarrones are gathered. Along the rivers and level farm lands the natives are of a lighter complexion, and less ugly in feature. This island is peculiar in what we have already mentioned, namely, that earthquakes are not experienced there. But there are stormy clouds that emit vivid lightnings and terrifying thunder. But we have not heard that the fury of the thunderbolts is in those clouds, or results from them, for the inhabitants of Paragua have experienced none of those ravages. Consequently, they do not have any words or terms peculiar to their language, for these or for earthquakes, which is a very convincing proof....

7. The coasts, bays, and rivers of that large island abound plentifully in divers and savory fish. In the bay of Malampaya, opposite Taytay, in the same district as Manila, although with a clear and deep bottom, there are many islands, which beautify the bay with their foliage. A vast multitude of vicudas enter the great rivers at the spawning season—a fine cod-fish that differs in no wise from that of Terranova [i.e., Newfoundland], and when fresh they are of delicious taste. The Indians catch them (although with danger from the Moros), and without other appliances than certain hooks, and as many as they wish. For lack of salt, they smoke-dry them, which always leaves an unpleasant taste, and the fish spoil easily. Paragua has its own near-by islands scattered along its coast, some of which are inhabited by pigeons, various species of parrots, peacocks, and aquatic birds; others in which sailors get as many eggs and squabs, or the young of such birds, as they wish. The largest and most fertile [of these islands] is that of Dumaran, which is separated from Paragua by a narrow strait. It is a fertile island, in which there is a most abundant harvest of rice, which as a general rule yields more than a hundred-fold.

8. The island of Alutaya belongs to that province. It is a rocky and arid land. However, it has plenty of domestic and useful animals, [the rearing of which forms], the careful industry of its natives. It is about thirty leguas across the open sea from the islands of Calamianes. About six leguas away is the island of Cuyo, which is small, being about three leguas in circuit, and low, but very fertile. It contains whatever is fitting and desirable for the sustenance of human life. Its natives, being for the most part descendants of Sangleys, are industrious and shrewd in trade. In exchange for the edible and potable products of their island, and the textiles of Yloylo, and tobacco, they lade fine products in Calamianes, an exchange that causes anger to the alcaldes-mayor. The latter endeavor to prevent that trade, which injures their interests; but those people by their shrewdness deceive them easily, and frustrate the efforts of the alcaldes. The natives were on the whole very savage, and had even more barbarous customs and greater stupidity than the inhabitants of the other islands. They have a knowledge of herbs. In Paragua especially, there are some very poisonous ones. They use them to bewitch their fellows and deprive them of life. There is one of so uncommon deadliness, that if it be chewed in the mouth, and if the exhalations from it be directed in a gentle current toward any person whom it is wished to destroy, his life is quickly taken away. I heard that from some who have intercourse with the Negroes of Dapit, who know more about it and use it mere easily. The way to overcome those fatal effects is to carry the effective remedy with one—another herb or root. Thus the evil breath loses all its force, and the [aforesaid] herb or root is a sure antidote for its deadliness.

9. This Recollect province set itself to conquer those savage monsters. They had but little religion, and that an idolatry so barbarous and stupid that no light of reason was visible in it. Their knowledge of the first cause was very erroneous and confused. They admitted another life, but through certain very confused transmigrations. They revered their dead greatly, for they prepared food for their resting-places. They had certain little idols—one who presided over the fields, one over wars, one over illnesses—and they offered ridiculous sacrifices to all. They revered the moon greatly, as the mistress of death, and celebrated their funeral rites only at the full moon. Their priests had high honor among them, and still more the priestesses, who arrogated despotic power to themselves. They had no civil body, but were scattered, and had communication only in their families. They were timid and cowardly, and avenged their grievances only by treachery. Five religious were assigned for that difficult undertaking, their director and superior being father Fray Juan de Santo Thomas, a missionary of proved spirit and a man of resolute mind. They left Manila provided with the necessary supplies. They put in first at the island of Cuyo, whose natives, being of excellent disposition, were hoping to have Spaniards in their island—although this was against the will of their priests, who were losing their profits (which their offices made easy) by admitting them. The missionaries were received with affection by the others, who had no such interests. They first reduced those people to a social life and united them, settling quarrels among the families, and forming a goodly village; and, urging their obligation, they built a church and house. They continued gently to insinuate themselves in the natives’ hearts and succeeded in reducing them to the bosom of the Catholic church. Thence they went to Alutaya. They preached the gospel, and, in the same manner, established a town, church, and house, for the people received the instruction with docility.

10. After those so fortunate beginnings, they determined to send two of the said religious and one lay brother to Paragua. They entered the bay of Taytay, where they experienced greater resistance. The people were opposed to living congregated in one settlement, and that was the gravest hindrance; but the fathers were able to attain in part, by dint of patience and constancy. The greatest annoyance arose from the Moros, who infested those coasts, and the natives were unwilling to expose themselves to their injuries by establishing themselves on the beach. The religious hoped that the Spaniards would defend them with their arms, and that with their reduction they would become established there. By that method and other effective efforts they attained the erection of a large village. Thence the religious informed the superior government of their progress, and that for its continuation and the defense of the natives—both those already reduced, and those whom they expected to reduce—the construction of a fort was necessary for the reduction of the island of Paragua, in which a Spanish garrison might be stationed. By that means the reduction of all that large island was certain. Accordingly, that determination was taken in a meeting of the royal treasury tribunal; and two companies were detached for the garrison, one Spanish and the other Pampanga. The title and pay of royal chaplain was given and conceded to the minister of that village. The fort mounted on its ramparts some excellent artillery. The conquests were carried farther along that coast, and inland. The Spaniards were also received, and without any repugnance the natives accommodated themselves to the fitting homage, even the infidels recognizing the tribute. Villages were established on the river of Barbacan, Aborlan, and as far as Ypolote. They also reduced the island of Dumaran, and spread to the Calamianes Islands, where they founded reductions in Linacapan, Culiong, or Calamian the lesser, and in the greater [Oalamian] at Busuagan. To the above, which they regarded as capitals, they added other near-by villages; and as their ministrations spread so extraordinarily, it became necessary for a greater number of religious to go there. That was made possible by the second arrival from España of father Fray Rodrigo de San Miguel,[20] who had been sent to make various efforts in their interests, and who returned with eight religious.

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[1] The title-pages of La Concepción’s fourteen volumes show more or less difference in their wording. Following is a translation of the title of vol. iv, a facsimile of which is here presented: “General history of Philipinas: temporal and spiritual conquests of these Spanish dominions, their establishment, progress, and decadence; comprehending the empires, kingdoms, and provinces of islands and continents with which there has been communication and commerce by immediate coincidences, with general notices regarding geography, hydrography, natural history, politics, customs, and religions, in which so universal a title should be interested. By father Fray Juan de la Concepcion, discalced Augustinian Recollect, pensioned lecturer, ex-provincial, synodal examiner of the archbishopric of Manila, and chronicler of his province of San Nicolas of the Philipinas islands. Volume IV. With permission of the superiors. At Manila, in the printing office of the royal and conciliar seminary of San Carlos; printed by Agustin de la Rosa y Balagtas. Year of 1788.”

[2] A term applied to the gun-room on a ship, which was considered as under the protection of St. Barbara.

[3] The Armenian church was founded by St. Gregory, who was consecrated bishop of Armenia in the year 302 A.D. Owing to a misunderstanding, this church refused to accept the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451 A.D.) regarding certain questions of heresies, which led to its gradual separation from the Greek church. In the middle of the fifteenth century arose dissensions, which resulted in a schism; these were mainly occasioned by Roman Catholic missionaries who endeavored to proselytize the Armenians to the doctrine, liturgy, and ceremonies of the Roman church, to which they gained many adherents. This led to dissensions and persecutions, which continued until, in the middle of the eighteenth century, the Armenian patriarch secured the intervention of Peter the Great, and the protection of the Russian church, under which that of Armenia has since remained.

[4] The Order of the Carmelites was founded by a crusader named Berthold, in the middle of the twelfth century. Some time after becoming a monk in Calabria he went to Mount Carmel, where he was joined by various other hermits living there in solitude. They adopted the rule of life framed for them by Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem, which consisted of sixteen articles. These forbade the possession of property; ordered that each hermit should live in a cell by himself; interdicted meat; recommended manual labor and silence; and imposed a strict fast from the exaltation of the cross to Easter, Sundays being excepted. The hermits were compelled to abandon Mount Carmel by the advance of the Mahomedan power, and established themselves in Cyprus, and other places. In Europe they were compelled to live in common and mitigate their rule, and they became known as one of the mendicant orders. In England, where they became very numerous, they were called the “White Friars.” To St. Simon Stock, the first general, the Virgin is said to have shown the scapular in a vision. The order became divided into two branches, according to whether they observed the strict or the mitigated rule, being designated as Observatines and Conventuals. The Carmelite nuns were first instituted by John Soreth, general of the order in the fifteenth century. See Addis and Arnold’s Catholic Dictionary, pp. 120–122.

[5] Gregorio de Santa Catalina, who had gone to Rome with twelve religious to urge the support of the pope for the Recollects.

[6] “Fray Miguel de Santa Maria, with his seven companions, arrived at Tandág in the year 1622” (Provincia de S. Nicolás de Tolentino, p. 276).

[7] A letter dated May 22, 1904, from father Fray Eduardo Navarro, O.S.A., Valladolid, Spain, who spent many years in the Philippines, thus defines several terms as used in the islands. Pueblo [“town” or “village”] is to be understood in its usual significance. But beside the pueblo proper, where are established the church, parochial house, and city hall, all the pueblos have, at a greater or less distance, groups of a greater or less number of houses. If they belong to Christians, they are called barrios [“suburbs”], and have a distinctive name; if of infidels, they are called rancherías [“a collection of huts”] of such and such a chief.

[8] i.e., “at the entrance to the church;” said of marriages duly performed with church rites.

[9] “Strictly speaking, then, the work of the redemption of those islanders [in Mindanao] belongs to the Jesuits and the Recollects. The latter commenced their labors by virtue of an arrangement made in the year 1622, by the bishop of Cebú, Very Reverend Father Fray Pedro de Arce—agreed upon with the captain-general of the archipelago, who was then the famous Don Alonso Fajardo de Tenza. Their first enterprises were on the northern and eastern coasts of Mindanao, as well as in the adjacent islets of Dinagat, Camiguin, and Siargao. In the year 1631, the ninth of their evangelizing work, the Recollect fathers suffered painful but glorious losses; for six of those missionaries were martyred by the inhabitants of the island.” (Retana and Pastells, in their edition of Combés’s Historia de Mindanao, col. 788.)

[10] River and pueblo of same name in the province of Misamis, in northern Mindanao; the river falls into the bay of Macajalar.

[11] A point on the northern coast of Misamis province.

[12] Referring to Leo VI, Emperor of the East, styled “the Philosopher” and “the Wise;” he occupied the throne of Constantinople from 886 to 911 A.D. He wrote several books, among which is a treatise on military tactics, which was published by J. Meursius, at Leyden, in 1612.

[13] The islands in the Calamianes and Cuyos groups number one hundred and forty-five that are charted, besides nearly sixty that are uncharted. See descriptions of these groups in U. S. Gazetteer of Philippine Islands, pp. 412–415, 480–484. The names Calamian and Busuañga are now applied to separate islands, the largest, of the Calamianes group.

[14] The bird here referred to (Collocalia troglodites) is a specie of swift; the nests, composed of a gelatinous secretion from the salivary glands in the mouths of the birds, sell at high price almost their weight in gold, when fresh and clean. The best nests are obtained on the precipitous sides of the Peñon de Coron, between Culion and Busuanga, where the natives gather them at no little personal risk. The nests are known to commerce as salangana. (U. S. Gazetteer of Philippine Islands, pp. 170, 482.)

Delgado says (Hist. de Filipinas, p. 821) that the material used by the bird is a species of seaweed, called ñgoso, or another called lano—and not, as Colin and San Antonio would have it, the foam of the sea. See ut supra, pp. 727, 728, and 822.

See also Retana’s note in his edition of Zúñiga’s Estadismo, ii, pp. 430*, 431*.

[15] The balate—also known as “sea slug,” “sea cucumber,” “beche de mer,” and commercially as “trepang”—is a slug (Holothuria edulis) used as food in the Eastern Archipelago and in China, in which country it is regarded as a delicacy by the wealthy classes, and brings from seven to fifty cents a pound in the markets. (See U. S. Gazetteer of Philippine Islands, pp. 482, 483.) Delgado, writing in 1754, says (p. 935) that in Manila the dried balate was usually worth thirty-five to forty (or even more) silver pesos a pico (or pecul; equivalent, in the Philippines, to 137.9 U.S. pounds).

[16] “Better known as Peñon de Corón (“Crown Peak”); a small, rocky island off the eastern end of Busuañga Island, famous for the fine quality of the edible bird’s-nests found there.

[17] Apparently the present Calamián island is here referred to; its chief town is Culion.

[18] Now known as Palawan; its northern part forms the province of Paragua, which includes many dependent islands lying near it.

[19] “In general it may be said that the Philippines politically speaking, and the Philippines zoologically speaking, are not identical areas, for Balabac, Palawan, and the Calamianes Islands are strongly characterized by the presence of numerous Bornean forms which are conspicuously absent throughout the remaining islands of the archipelago. Although the Philippines are commonly held to form an eastern extension of the Indo-Malayan subregion, it should not be forgotten that at least among the birds and mammals there is a large amount of specialization in the islands to the eastward of the Balabac-Palawan-Calamianes group.... The Philippines are very poor in mammals.... They are undoubtedly well adapted to a large and diversified mammalian fauna, and the only plausible explanation of the scarcity of forms is to suppose either that they have never been connected with Borneo and the Asiatic continent or that, if at one time connected, they have since been subjected to such subsidence as to wipe out the greater part of their mammalian fauna.” (U.S. Philippine Commission’s Report, 1900, iii, p. 307.)

[20] This is an error on the part of La Concepción; Fray Rodrigo went to Europe in 1622, but died there in 1626. The missions of Mindanao and Paragua were begun by Recollects who arrived at Manila in 1620 and 1622, and continued by missionaries who came in 1627 and 1637.