ARCHÆOLOGY: ANTIQUITIES OF THE STONE, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES
OLDER STONE AGE: 1, Flint Pick. 2, Carved Mammoth Tusk. 3, Double Scraper. 4, Barbed Harpoon Heads. LATER STONE AGE: 5, Pick of Deer Antler. 6, Flint and Pyrites. 7, Stone Celt in Haft. 8, Arrowhead. 9, Bowl. BRONZE AGE: 10, Celt. 11, Drinking-cup. 12, Ornamental Pin. 13, Spear-head. 14, Bronze Tweezers. 15, 16, Gold Bracelets. 17, Engraved Pin. 18, Short Sword. 19, Spectacle Brooch. 20, Razor. EARLY IRON AGE: 21, Bronze Brooch. 22, Bone Hand-comb for weaving. 23, Bronze Mirror. 24, Bronze Jug. 25, Bronze Spoon. 26, Iron Currency Bars. 27, Bronze Brooch.
Archbishop (ärch-), a chief bishop, or bishop over other bishops; a metropolitan prelate. The establishment of this dignity is to be traced up to an early period of Christianity, when the bishops and inferior clergy met in the capitals to deliberate on spiritual affairs, and the bishop of the city where the meeting was held presided. In England there are two archbishops—those of Canterbury and York; the former styled
Primate of all England, the latter Primate of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the first peer of the realm, having precedence before all great officers of the Crown and all dukes not of royal birth. He crowns the sovereign, and when he is invested with his archbishopric he is said to be enthroned. He can grant special licences to marry at any time or place, and can confer degrees otherwise to be obtained only from the universities. He is addressed by the titles of your grace and most reverend father in God, and writes himself by divine providence, while the Archbishop of York and the bishops only write by divine permission. The first Archbishop of Canterbury was Augustine, appointed A.D. 598 by Ethelbert. Next in dignity is the Archbishop of York, between whom and the Archbishop of Canterbury the Lord High-Chancellor of England has his place in precedency. The first Archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed in 622. The incomes of the sees are £15,000 and £10,000 respectively. An Archbishop of Wales was first appointed in 1920. Scotland had two archbishops—St. Andrews and Glasgow. Ireland had four, but the Episcopal Church has but two—Armagh and Dublin, the former being Primate of all Ireland, the latter Primate of Ireland. There are four Roman Catholic archbishops in England and Wales—Westminster, Cardiff, Birmingham, and Liverpool; two in Scotland—St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and Glasgow; four in Ireland—Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam.
Archdeacon (ärch-), in England, an ecclesiastical dignitary next in rank below a bishop, having a certain jurisdiction over a part of the diocese. From two to four archdeacons are appointed by the bishops, under whom they perform their duties, and they hold courts which decide cases subject to an appeal to the bishop.
Archduke, a title peculiar to the royal family of Austria—the Habsburgs, who ruled until 1918.
Archelaus (a˙r-kē-lā´us), the name of several personages in ancient history, one of whom was the son of Herod the Great. He received from Augustus the sovereignty of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. The people, tired of his tyrannical and bloody reign, accused him before Augustus, who banished him to Gaul.
Archer, William, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at Perth, Scotland, in 1856. Educated at Edinburgh University, he went to London after some experience of journalism at Edinburgh, and after a visit to Australia was called to the bar, and was dramatic critic for The World from 1884 to 1905. Subsequently he has been dramatic critic for The Tribune and The Nation. He has done much to introduce Ibsen to the English public, by translating his dramas and otherwise, and has written English Dramatists of To-day; A Life of Macready; About the Theatre: Essays and Studies; Masks or Faces?: a Study on the Psychology of Acting; The Theatrical World (a collection of his dramatic criticisms) (5 vols.); Study and Stage; America To-Day (the result of a visit in 1900); Poets of the Younger Generation; Real Conversations (the result of a series of interviews with persons of note); Through Afro-America (1910); The Life, Trial, and Death of Francisco Ferrer (1911); Play-Making (1912); The Thirteen Days (1915); India and the Future (1917); War is War.
Archer-fish, a name given to the Toxŏtes jaculātor, a scaly-finned, acanthopterygian fish, about 6 inches long, inhabiting the seas around Java, which has the faculty of shooting drops of water to the distance of 3 or 4 feet at insects, thereby causing them to fall into the water, when it seizes and devours them. The soft, and even the spiny portions of their dorsal fins are so covered with scales as to be scarcely distinguishable from the rest of the body.
Arch´ery, the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. The use of these weapons in war and the chase dates from the earliest antiquity. Ishmael, we learn from Gen. xxi, "became an archer". The Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, Parthians, excelled in the use of the bow; and while the Greeks and Romans themselves made little use of it, they employed foreign archers as mercenaries. Coming to much more recent times, we find the Swiss famous as archers, but they generally used the arbalist or cross-bow, and were no match for their English rivals, who preferred the long-bow. (See Bow.) The English victories of Cressy, Poietiers, and Agincourt, gained against apparently overwhelming odds, may be ascribed to the bowmen. Archery disappeared gradually as firearms came into use, and as an instrument of war or the chase the bow is now confined to the most savage tribes of both hemispheres. But though the bow has been long abandoned among
civilized nations as a military weapon, it is still cherished as an instrument of healthful recreation, encouraged by archery clubs or societies, which have been established in many parts of Britain. The oldest, and by far the most historically important of these societies, is the Royal Company of Archers, called also the King's Body-guard for Scotland, formed originally, it is said, by James I, but constituted in its present form by an Act of the Privy Council of Scotland, in 1676, and having its head-quarters in Edinburgh, counting among its members many of the nobility and gentry of the northern kingdom, and holding annual meetings, where prizes are competed for. In recent years a number of clubs have been formed in the United States. Archery has the merit of forming a sport open to women as well as men.—BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Garrard, The Arte of Warre; E. S. Morse, Archery, Ancient and Modern; H. A. Ford, The Theory and Practice of Archery.
Arches, Court of, the chief and most ancient consistory court, belonging to the archbishopric of Canterbury, for the debating of spiritual causes. It is named from the church in London, St. Mary le Bow, or Bow Church (so called from a fine arched crypt), where it was formerly held. The jurisdiction of this court extends over the province of Canterbury. The office of president or dean is now merged in that of the judge appointed by the Public Worship Regulation Act (1874). The court now sits in the library of Lambeth Palace.
Archil, or Orchil (a˙r´kil, or´kil), a red, violet, or purple colouring matter obtained from various kinds of lichens, the most important of which are the Roccella tinctoria and the R. fuciformis, natives of the rocks of the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, Mozambique and Zanzibar, South America, &c., and popularly called dyer's-moss. The dye is used for improving the tints of other dyes, as from its want of permanence it cannot be employed alone; but the aniline colours have largely superseded it. Cudbear and litmus are of similar origin.
Archilochus (a˙r-kil´o-kus) of Paros, one of the earliest Ionian lyric poets, the first Greek poet who composed iambic verses according to fixed rules. He flourished about 700 B.C. His iambic poems were renowned for force of style, liveliness of metaphor, and a powerful but bitter spirit of satire. In other lyric poems of a graver character he was also considered as a model. All his works are lost but a few fragments.
Archiman´drite, in the Greek Church, an abbot or abbot-general, who has the superintendence of many abbots and convents. The title dates from the fourth century.
Archime´dean Screw, a machine for raising water, said to have been invented by Archimedes. It is formed by winding a tube spirally round a cylinder so as to have the form of a screw, or by hollowing out the cylinder itself into a double or triple-threaded screw and enclosing it in a water-tight case. When the screw is placed in an inclined position and the lower end immersed in water, by causing the screw to revolve, the water may be raised to a limited extent.
Archimedes (a˙r-ki-mē´dēz), a celebrated ancient Greek physicist and geometrician, born at Syracuse, in Sicily, about 287 B.C. He devoted himself entirely to science, and enriched mathematics with discoveries of the highest importance, upon which the moderns have founded their admeasurements of curvilinear surfaces and solids. Archimedes is the only one among the ancients who has left us anything satisfactory on the theory of mechanics and on hydrostatics. He first taught the hydrostatic principle to which his name is attached, "that a body immersed in a fluid loses as much in weight as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid", and determined by means of it that an artist had fraudulently added too much alloy to a crown which King Hiero had ordered to be made of pure gold. He discovered the solution of this problem while bathing; and it is said to have caused him so much joy that he hastened home from the bath undressed, and crying out, Eurēka! Eurēka! 'I have found it, I have found it!' Practical mechanics also received a great deal of attention from Archimedes, who boasted that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point he could move the world. He is the inventor of the compound pulley, probably of the endless screw, the Archimedean screw, &c. During the siege of Syracuse by the Romans he is said to have constructed many wonderful machines with which he repelled their attacks, and he is stated to have set on fire their fleet by burning-glasses. At the moment when the
Romans gained possession of the city by assault (212 B.C.), tradition relates that Archimedes was slain while sitting in the market-place contemplating some mathematical figures which he had drawn in the sand.
Archipel´ago, a term originally applied to the Ægean, the sea lying between Greece and Asia Minor, then to the numerous islands situated therein, and subsequently to any cluster of islands. In the Grecian Archipelago the islands nearest the European coast lie together almost in a circle, and for this reason are called the Cyclades (Gr. kyklos, a circle); those nearest the Asiatic, being farther from one another, the Sporades ('scattered'). (See these articles, and Negropont, Scio, Samos, Rhodes, Cyprus, &c.) The Malay, Indian, or Eastern Archipelago, on the east of Asia, includes Borneo, Sumatra, and other large islands.
Architec´ture, in a general sense, is the art of designing and constructing houses, bridges, and other buildings for the purposes of civil life; or, in a more limited but very common sense, that branch of the fine arts which has for its object the production of edifices not only convenient for their special purpose, but characterized by unity, beauty, and often grandeur.—The first habitations of man were such as nature afforded, or cost little labour to the occupant—caves, huts, and tents. But as soon as men rose in civilization and formed settled societies they began to build more commodious and comfortable habitations. They bestowed more care on the materials, preparing bricks of clay or earth, which they at first dried in the air, but afterwards baked by fire; and subsequently they smoothed stones and joined them at first without, and at a later period with, mortar or cement. After they had learned to build houses, they erected temples for their gods on a larger and more splendid scale than their own dwellings. The Egyptians are the most ancient nation known to us among whom architecture had attained the character of a fine art. Other ancient peoples among whom it had made great progress were the Babylonians, whose most celebrated buildings were temples, palaces, and hanging gardens; the Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, was rich in splendid buildings; the Phœnicians, whose cities, Sidon, Tyre, &c., were adorned with equal magnificence; and the Israelites, whose temple was a wonder of architecture. But comparatively few architectural monuments of these nations have remained till our day.
This is not the case with the architecture of Egypt, however, of which we possess ample remains in the shape of pyramids, temples, sepulchres, obelisks, &c. Egyptian chronology is far from certain, but the greatest of the architectural monuments of the country, the pyramids of Ghizeh, are at least as old as 2800 or 2700 B.C. The Egyptian temples had walls of great thickness and sloping on the outside from bottom to top; the roofs were flat, and composed of blocks of stone reaching from one wall or column to another. The columns were numerous, close, and very thick, generally without bases, and exhibiting great variety in the designs of their capitals. The principle of the arch, though known, was not employed for architectural purposes. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes carved in stone, and on the walls sculptures in outline of deities and animals, with innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects which belong to this style.
The earliest architectural remains of Greece are of unknown antiquity, and consist of massive walls built of huge blocks of stone. In historic times the Greeks developed an architecture of noble simplicity and dignity. The discoveries in Crete and Argolis have shown that Greek architecture owes much less than was supposed to Egyptian and Chaldæan architecture. It is considered to have attained its greatest perfection in the age of Pericles, or about 460-430 B.C. The great masters of this period were Phidias, Ictinus, Callicrates, &c. All the extant buildings are more or less in ruins. The style is characterized by beauty, harmony, and simplicity in the highest degree. Distinctive of it are what are called the orders of architecture, by which term are understood certain modes of proportioning and decorating the column and its superimposed entablature. The Greeks had three orders, called respectively the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. (See articles under these names.) Greek buildings were abundantly adorned with sculptures, and painting was extensively used, the details of the structures being enriched by different colours or tints. Lowness of roofs and the absence of arches were distinctive features of Greek architecture, in which, as in that of Egypt, horizontality of line is another characteristic mark. The most remarkable public edifices of the Greeks were temples, of which the most
famous is the Parthenon at Athens. Others exist in various parts of Greece as well as in Sicily, Southern Italy, Asia Minor, &c., where important Greek communities were early settled. Their theatres were semicircular on one side and square on the other, the semicircular part being usually excavated in the side of some convenient hill. This part, the auditorium, was filled with concentric seats, and might be capable of containing 20,000 spectators. A number exist in Greece, Sicily, and Asia Minor, and elsewhere. By the end of the Peloponnesian War (c. 400 B.C.) the best period of Greek architecture was over; a noble simplicity had given place to excess of ornament. After the death of Alexander the Great (323 B.C.) the decline was still more marked.
Among the Romans there was no original development of architecture as among the Greeks, though they early took the foremost place in the construction of such works as aqueducts and sewers, the arch being in early and extensive use among this people. As a fine art, however, Roman architecture had its origin in copies of the Greek models, all the Grecian orders being introduced into Rome, and variously modified. Their number, moreover, was augmented by the addition of two new orders—the Tuscan and the Composite. The Romans became acquainted with the architecture of the Greeks soon after 200 B.C., but it was not till about two centuries later that the architecture of Rome attained (under Augustus) its greatest perfection. Among the great works now erected were temples, aqueducts, amphitheatres, magnificent villas, triumphal arches, monumental pillars, &c. The amphitheatre differed from the theatre in being a completely circular or rather elliptical building, filled on all sides with ascending seats for spectators and leaving only the central space, called the arena, for the combatants and public shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous structure of this kind. The thermæ, or baths, were vast structures in which multitudes of people could bathe at once. Magnificent tombs were often built by the wealthy. Remains of private residences are numerous, and the excavations at Pompeii in particular have thrown great light on the internal arrangements of the Roman dwelling-house. Almost all the successors of Augustus embellished Rome more or less, erected splendid palaces and temples, and adorned, like Hadrian, even the conquered countries with them. But after the period of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Roman architecture is considered to have been on the decline. The refined and noble style of the Greeks was neglected, and there was an attempt to embellish the beautiful more and more. This decline was all the more rapid at a later time owing to the disturbed state of the Empire and the incursions of the barbarians.
In Constantinople, after its virtual separation from the Western Empire, arose a style of art and architecture which was practised by the Greek Church during the whole of the Middle Ages. This is called the Byzantine style. The church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, built by Justinian (reigned 527-565), offers the most typical specimen of the style, of which the fundamental principle was an application of the Roman arch, the dome being the most striking feature of the building. In the most typical examples the dome or cupola rests on four pendentives.
After the dismemberment of the Roman Empire the beautiful works of ancient architecture were almost entirely destroyed by the Goths, Vandals, and other barbarians in Italy, Greece, Asia, Spain, and Africa; or what was spared by them was ruined by the fanaticism of the Christians. A new style of architecture now arose, two forms of which, the Lombard and the Norman Romanesque, form important phases of art. The Lombard prevailed in North Italy and South Germany from the eighth or ninth to the thirteenth century (though the Lombard rule came to an end in 774); the Norman Romanesque flourished, especially in Normandy and England, from the eleventh to the middle of the thirteenth century. The semicircular arch is the most characteristic feature of this style. With the Lombard Romanesque were combined Byzantine features, and buildings in the pure Byzantine style were also erected in Italy, as the church of St. Mark at Venice.