ARCHITECTURE
The conquests of the Moors introduced a fresh
style of architecture into Europe after the eighth century—the Moorish or Saracenic. This style accompanied the spread of Mahommedanism after its rise in Arabia in the seventh century. The edifices erected by the Moors and Saracens in Spain, Egypt, and Turkey are distinguished, among other things, by a peculiar form of the arch, which forms a curve constituting more than half a circle or ellipse. A peculiar flowery decoration, called arabesque, is a common ornament of this style, of which the building called the Alhambra (q.v.) is perhaps the chief glory.
The Germans were unacquainted with architecture until the time of Charlemagne. He introduced into Germany the Byzantine and Romanesque styles. Afterwards the Moorish or Arabian style had some influence upon that of the Western nations, and thus originated the mixed style which maintained itself till the middle of the thirteenth century. Then began the modern Gothic style, which grew up in France, England, and Germany. Its striking characteristics are its pointed arches, its pinnacles and spires, its large buttresses, clustered pillars, vaulted roofs, profusion of ornament, and, on the whole, its lofty, bold character. Its most distinctive feature, as compared with the Greek or the Egyptian style, is the predominance in it of perpendicular or rising lines, producing forms that convey the idea of soaring or mounting upwards. Its greatest capabilities have been best displayed in ecclesiastical edifices. The Gothic style is divided into four principal epochs: the Early Pointed, or general style of the thirteenth century; the Decorated, or style of the fourteenth century; the Perpendicular, practised during the fifteenth and early part of the sixteenth centuries; and the Tudor, or general style of the sixteenth century. This style lasted in England up to the seventeenth century, being gradually displaced by that branch of the Renaissance or modified revival of ancient Roman architecture which is known as the Elizabethan style, and which is perhaps more purely an English style than any other that can be named.
The rise of the Renaissance style in Italy is the greatest event in the history of architecture after the introduction of the Gothic style. The Gothic style had been introduced into the country and extensively employed, but had never been thoroughly naturalized. The Renaissance is a revival of the classic style based on the study of the ancient models; and having practically commenced in Florence about the beginning of the fifteenth century, it soon spread with great rapidity over Italy and the greater part of Europe. The most illustrious architects of this early period of the style were Brunelleschi, who built at Florence the dome of the cathedral, the Pitti Palace, &c., besides many edifices at Milan, Pisa, Pesaro, and Mantua; Alberti, who wrote an important work on architecture, and erected many beautiful churches; Bramante, who began the building of St. Peter's, Rome, and Michael Angelo, who erected its magnificent dome. On St. Peter's were also employed Raphael, Peruzzi, and San Gallo. The noblest building in this style of architecture in Britain is St. Paul's, London, the work of Sir Christopher Wren.
Since the Renaissance period there has been no architectural development requiring special note. In buildings erected at the present day some one of the various styles of architecture is employed according to taste. Modern
dwelling-houses have necessarily a style of their own as far as stories and apartments and windows and chimneys can give them one. In general the Grecian style, as handed down by Rome and modified by the Italian architects of the Renaissance, from its right angles and straight entablatures, is more convenient, and fits better with the distribution of our common buildings, than the pointed and irregular Gothic. But the occasional introduction of the Gothic outline and the partial employment of its ornaments has undoubtedly an agreeable effect both in public and private edifices; and we are indebted to it, among other things, for the spire, a structure exclusively Gothic, which, though often misplaced, has become an object of general approbation and a pleasing landmark to cities and villages. The works most characteristic of the present day are the large bridges, viaducts, &c., in many of which iron is the sole or most characteristic portion of the material.
A few words may be added on the architecture of India and China. Although many widely-differing styles are to be found in India, the oldest and only true native style of Indian ecclesiastical architecture is the Buddhist, the earliest specimens dating from 250 B.C. Among the chief objects of Buddhist art are stupas or topes, built in the form of large towers, and employed as dágobas to contain relics of Buddha or of some noted saint. Other works of Buddhist art are temples or monasteries excavated from the solid rock, and supported by pillars of the natural rock left in their places. Buddhist architecture is found in Ceylon, Tibet, Java, &c., as well as in India. The most remarkable Hindu or Brahmanical temples are in Southern India. They are pyramidal in form, rising in a series of stories. The Saracenic or Mohammedan architecture afterwards introduced into India is, of course, of foreign origin. The Chinese have made the tent the elementary feature of their architecture; and of their style any one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are depicted upon common chinaware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper side, as if made of canvas instead of wood. (For further information see Greek, Roman, Gothic, English, French, Russian Architecture; and Building, Fine Arts, Arch, Column, Aqueduct, Corinthian, Doric, Ionic, Theatre, &c.)—Bibliography: J. Ruskin, Seven Lamps of Architecture; E. A. Freeman, History of Architecture; Viollet-le-Duc, How to build a House; J. T. Micklethwaite, Modern Parish Churches; H. H. Statham, Architecture for General Readers and Critical History of Architecture; J. Fergusson, History of Architecture in all Countries; F. M. Simpson, A History of Architectural Development; Cyclopedia of Architecture.
Architrave (är´ki-träv), in architecture, the part of an entablature which rests immediately on the heads of the columns, being the lowest of its three principal divisions, the others being the frieze and the cornice.
Archives (är´kīvz). See Records.
Archivolt (är´ki-volt), in architecture, the ornamental band of mouldings on the face of an arch and following its contour.
Archons (är´konz), the chief magistrates of ancient Athens, chosen to superintend civil and religious concerns. They were nine in number; the first was properly the archōn, or archōn epōnўmos, by whose name the year was distinguished in the public records; the second was called archōn basileus, or king archon, who exercised the functions of high priest; the third, polemarchos, or general of the forces. The other six were called thesmothĕtai, or legislators.
Archytas (a˙r-kī´tas), an ancient Greek mathematician, statesman, and general, who flourished about 400 B.C., and belonged to Tarentum in Southern Italy. The invention of the analytic method in mathematics is ascribed to him, as well as the solution of many geometrical and mechanical problems. He constructed various machines and automata, among the most celebrated of which was his flying pigeon. He was a Pythagorean in philosophy, and Plato and Aristotle are said to have been both deeply indebted to him. Only inconsiderable fragments of his works are extant.
Arcis-sur-Aube (a˙r-sē-su˙r-ōb), a small town of France, department Aube, at which, in 1814, was fought a battle between Napoleon and the Allies, after which the latter marched to Paris. Pop. 3000.
Arc-light, a certain kind of electric light in which the illuminating source is the current of electricity passing between two sticks of carbon
kept a short distance apart, one of them being in connection with the positive, the other with the negative terminal of a battery or dynamo.
Arco, a town of Tyrol, near Lake Garda, a favourite winter resort of invalids. Pop. 3800.
Arcole (a˙r´ko-la˙), a village in North Italy, 15 miles S.E. of Verona, celebrated for the battles of 15th, 16th, and 17th Nov., 1796, fought between the French under Bonaparte and the Austrians, in which the latter were defeated with great slaughter.
Arcos´ de la Fronte´ra, a city of Spain, 30 miles E. by N. from Cadiz, on the Guadalete, here crossed by a stone bridge, on a sandstone rock 570 feet above the level of the river. On the highest part of the rock stands the castle of the dukes of Arcos, partly in ruins. The principal manufactures are leather, hats, and cordage. Pop. 13,980.
Ar´cot, two districts and a town of India, within the Presidency of Madras.—North Arcot is an inland district with an area of 7616 sq. miles. The country is partly flat and partly mountainous, where intersected by the Eastern Gháts. Pop. 2,200,000.—South Arcot lies on the Bay of Bengal, and has two seaports, Cuddalor and Porto Novo. Area 5217 sq. miles. Pop. 2,170,000.—The town Arcot is in North Arcot, on the Palar, about 70 miles W. by S. of Madras. There is a military cantonment at 3 miles' distance. The town contains handsome mosques, a nabob's palace in ruins, and the remains of an extensive fort. Arcot played an important part in the wars which resulted in the ascendancy of the British in India. It was taken by Clive, 31st Aug., 1751, and heroically defended by him against an apparently overwhelming force under Raja Sahib. Pop. 11,475.
Arctic (a˙rk´tik), an epithet given to the north pole from the proximity of the constellation of the Bear, in Greek called arktos. The Arctic Circle is an imaginary circle on the globe, parallel to the equator, and 23° 28´ distant from the north pole. This and its opposite, the Antarctic, are called the two polar circles.
Arctic Expeditions. See North Polar Expeditions.
Arctic Ocean, that part of the water surface of the earth which surrounds the north pole, and washes the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and America; its southern boundary roughly coinciding with the Arctic Circle (lat. 66° 30´ N.). It encloses many large islands, and contains large bays and gulfs which deeply indent the northern shores of the three continents. Its great characteristic is ice, which is perpetual nearly everywhere.
Arctic Regions, the regions round the north pole, and extending from the pole on all sides to the Arctic Circle in lat. 66° 30´ N. The Arctic or North Polar Circle just touches the northern headlands of Iceland, cuts off the southern and narrowest portion of Greenland, crosses Fox's Strait north of Hudson's Bay, whence it goes over the American continent to Behring's Strait. Thence it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth of the Obi, then crossing Northern Russia, the White Sea, and the Scandinavian Peninsula, returns to Iceland. Though much skill and heroism have been displayed in the exploration of this portion of the earth, there is still an area round the pole estimated at 2,500,000 sq. miles, which is a blank to geographers. Many have adopted the belief in the existence of an open polar sea about the north pole. But this belief is not supported by any positive evidence. Valuable minerals, fossils, &c., have been discovered within the Arctic regions. In the archipelago north of the American continent excellent coal frequently occurs. The mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland. Fossil ivory is obtained in islands at the mouth of the Lena. In Scandinavia, parts of Siberia, and north-west America, the forest region extends within the Arctic Circle. The most characteristic of the natives of the Arctic regions are the Esquimaux. The most notable animals are the white-bear, the musk-ox, the reindeer, and the whalebone whale. Fur-bearing animals are numerous. The most intense cold ever registered in those regions was 74° below zero F. The aurora borealis is a brilliant phenomenon of Arctic nights. See North Polar Expeditions.
Arc´tium. See Burdock.
Arc´tomys. See Marmot.
Arctu´rus, or Alpha Boötis, a fixed star of the first magnitude in the constellation of Boötes (the Ploughman), is one of the brightest stars in the northern heavens, yellow in colour. Its light is believed to be intrinsically at least 140 times as brilliant as the sun's, and to take over 40 years to reach us. It is notable as having a comparatively large proper motion.
Ardahan´, a small fortified town about 6400 feet above the sea, between Kars and Batúm in Armenia. It was captured by the Russians in 1877, and ceded to them by the Berlin Treaty, 1878. It was handed over to Turkey by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, but the Turkish troops evacuated it after the armistice in 1918.
Ar´dea, the genus to which the heron belongs, type of the family Ardēidæ, which includes also cranes, storks, bitterns, &c.
Ar´debil, or Ardabil, a Persian town, province of Azerbaijan, near the Karasu, a tributary of the Aras, about 40 miles from the Caspian, in an elevated and healthy situation; it has mineral springs and a considerable trade. Pop. 16,000.
Ardèche (a˙r-dāsh), a department in the south of France (Languedoc), on the west side of the
Rhone, taking its name from the River Ardèche, which rises within it, and falls into the Rhone after a course of 46 miles; area, 2144 sq. miles. It is generally of a mountainous character, and contains the culminating point of the Cevennes. Silk and wine are produced. Annonay is the principal town, but Privas is the capital. Pop. (1921), 294,308.
Arden, Forest of, a wood in Warwickshire. Shakespeare is supposed to have used it as a setting for As You Like It.
Ardennes (a˙r-den´), an extensive tract of hilly land stretching over a large portion of the north-east of France and south-west of Belgium. Anciently the whole tract formed one immense forest (Arduenna Silva of Cæsar); but large portions are now occupied by cultivated fields and populous towns.
Ardennes (a˙r-den´), a frontier department in the north-east of France; area, 2027 sq. miles, partly consisting of the Forest of Ardennes. There are extensive slate-quarries, numerous ironworks, and important manufactures of cloth, ironware, leather, glass, earthenware, &c. It was the scene of many battles during the European War (1914-8). Chief towns, Mézières (the capital), Rocroi, and Sedan. Pop. 277,791.
Ardnamurchan (-mur´han) Point, the most westerly point of the Island of Great Britain, in Argyllshire, having a lighthouse, 180 feet above sea-level, visible 18 to 20 miles off.
Ar´doch, a parish in south Perthshire, celebrated for its Roman remains, one, a camp, being the most perfect existing in Scotland.
Ardross´an, a seaport of Scotland, in Ayrshire, on the Firth of Clyde. It has a large harbour and shipbuilding yards, and is a centre of steamship services with Arran, Ireland, and Douglas, I.O.M. Pop. (1921), 7214.
Ards´ley, East and West, an urban district or town of England, W. Riding of Yorkshire, several miles north-west of Wakefield, with collieries, iron-mines, ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921), 7058.
Are (är), the unit of the French land measure, equal to 100 sq. metres, or 1076.44 English sq. feet. A hectare is 100 ares, equal to 2.47 English acres. The tenth part of an are is called a déciare, and a hundredth part a centiare.
A´rea, the superficial content of any figure or space, the quantity of surface it contains in terms of any unit. See Mensuration.
Are´ca, a genus of lofty palms with pinnated leaves, and a drupe-like fruit enclosed in a fibrous rind. A. Catĕchu of the Coromandel and Malabar coasts is the common areca palm which yields areca or betel-nuts, and also the astringent juice catechu. A. oleracĕa is the cabbage tree or cabbage palm of the West Indies. With lime and the leaves of the betel-pepper, the areca-nuts when green form the celebrated masticatory of the East. They are an important article in Eastern trade.
Arecibo (a˙-re-thē´bō), a seaport town on the north coast of the Island of Porto Rico. Pop. 9612.
Areiopagus. See Areopagus.
Are´na, the enclosed space in the central part of the Roman amphitheatres, in which took place the combats of gladiators or wild beasts. It was usually covered with sand or saw-dust to prevent the gladiators from slipping, and to absorb the blood. See Amphitheatre.
Arenaceous Rocks include all sediments in which quartz sand is the most important constituent. Owing to its resistance to comminution and to chemical attack, quartz accumulates in sea-beaches while other mineral matter becomes removed. Hence sands gather near a shore and ultimately become consolidated by various natural cements into sandstones, those cemented by silica being styled quartzites. Sand-dunes in deserts or on coasts are unconsolidated arenaceous rock-masses.
Ar´endal a seaport of Southern Norway, exporting timber, wood pulp, and iron, and owning numerous ships. It is a well-built place, having been rebuilt since the great fire of 1868. Wood pulp, paper, and cotton are manufactured. Pop. 11,000.
Arenenberg Castle (mediæval, Narrenberg), a castle and estate in the Swiss Canton Thurgau, the possession of Queen Hortense, who died there in 1837. In 1855 it became the property of the Empress Eugénie.
Arenga, a term sometimes used as the generic name of the areng or gomuti palm, which is then botanically designated Arenga saccharifera. See Gomuti.
Arenic´ola. See Lobworm.
Are´olar Tissue, an assemblage of fibres in bundles, pervading almost every part of the animal structure, and connected with each other so as to form innumerable small cavities, the whole serving as a means by which the various organs and parts of organs are connected together. It is called also Cellular Tissue and Connective Tissue. The fibres are of two kinds—white fibrous tissue and yellow elastic fibrous tissue, and interspersed among the bundles or occupying the cellular cavities are cells and corpuscles of several kinds. It is a tissue found in large quantities under the skin, covering the muscles, the blood-vessels, and nerves, and in various parts forming a kind of protective covering for delicate and important organs. It is because of its general distribution, and because of its binding various structures together, that it is called connective.—In botany the term is sometimes applied to the non-vascular substance, composed entirely of untransformed cells, which forms the soft substance of plants.
Areom´eter (from Gr. araios, thin, metron, a measure), an instrument for measuring the specific gravity of liquids; a hydrometer (q.v.).
Areop´agus, the oldest of the Athenian courts of justice, an assembly having a position more august than an ordinary court, and in its best days exercising a general supervision over public morals. It obtained its name from its place of meeting, on the Hill of Ares (Mars), near the Acropolis or citadel of Athens. Another explanation connects the word with Aræ (Curses), commonly known as Semnæ (Awful Goddesses), who were the guardians of the hill. It existed from very remote times, and the crimes tried before it were wilful murder, poisoning, robbery, and arson, while it had under its control also dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the State and in religion. Its meetings were held in the open air, and its members were selected from those who had held the office of archon. The tribunal eventually lost many of its powers, but it continued to exist in name at least as late as the time of Cicero or later, having had an existence of seven or eight hundred years.
Arequipa (a˙-rā-kē´pa˙), a city of Peru, capital of a province of same name, situated in a fertile valley, 7850 feet above sea-level, at a distance of about 55 miles from the coast and on the railway which runs from its port Mollendo inland to Puno on Lake Titicaca. Behind the city rises the volcano of Arequipa, or Peak of Misti (20,328 feet). The climate is healthy but the locality is liable to earthquakes, one of which almost completely destroyed the town in 1868, after which it was rapidly rebuilt. A considerable trade is carried on through Mollendo, there being a large transit trade with the interior, and the town carries on various industries, manufacturing cotton and woollen goods, &c. It was founded in 1540. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000.—The province has an area of 21,947 sq. miles, and a pop. of 229,007.
Ares (ā´rēz). See Mars.
Arethu´sa, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Nereus and Doris, a nymph changed by Artĕmis into a fountain in order to free her from the pursuit of the river-god Alpheus. This fountain was said to exist in the small Island of Ortygia, near Syracuse, and was fabled to have a subterranean connection with the River Alpheus in Greece.
Aretino (ä-rā-tē´nö), Guido. See Guido.
Aretino, Pietro, Italian poet, born at Arezzo 1492, died at Venice 1556, the natural son of a nobleman called Luigi Bacci. He early displayed a talent for satirical poetry, and when still a young man was banished from Arezzo on account of a sonnet against indulgences. He went to Perugia, and thence to Rome (1517), where he secured the papal patronage, but subsequently lost it through writing licentious sonnets. Through the influence of the Medici family he found an opportunity to insinuate himself into the favour of Francis I. In 1527 Aretino went to Venice, where he acquired powerful friends, among them the Bishop of Vicenza. By his devotional writings he regained the favour of the Roman Court. He called himself 'the divine', and 'the scourge of princes', but he was also their abject flatterer, and that solely to obtain money. The obscenity of some of his writings was such that his name has become proverbial for licentiousness. Among them are five comedies and a tragedy.
Arezzo (a˙-ret´sō; ancient Arretium), a city of Central Italy, capital of a province of the same name in Tuscany, near the confluence of the Chiana with the Arno. It has a noble cathedral, containing some fine pictures and monuments; remains of an ancient amphitheatre, &c. It was one of the twelve chief Etruscan towns, and in later times fought long against the Florentines, to whom it had finally to succumb. It is the birthplace of Mæcenas, Petrarch, Pietro Aretino, Redi, and Vasari. Pop. 50,093.—The province of Arezzo contains 1274 sq. miles, and 292,763 inhabitants (1915).
Ar´gal, Argol, or Tartar, a hard crust formed on the sides of vessels in which wine has been kept, red or white according to the colour of the wine. It is an impure bitartrate of potassium.
Ar´gali, a species of wild sheep (Caprŏvis Argăli or Ovis ammon) found on the mountains
of Siberia, Central Asia, and Kamtchatka. It is 4 feet high at the shoulders, and proportionately stout in its build, with horns nearly 4 feet in length measured along the curve, and at their base about 19 inches in circumference. It lives in small herds. This true argali must not be confounded with the North-African wild sheep, called the bearded argali and known as the arni, the Algerian moufflon, and the Barbary sheep.
Ar´gall, Sir Samuel (1572-1639), one of the early English adventurers to Virginia. He planned and executed the abduction of Pocahontas, the daughter of the Indian chief Powhattan, in order to secure the ransom of English prisoners. He was deputy-governor of Virginia (1617-9), and was accused of many acts of rapacity and tyranny. In 1620 he served in an expedition against Algiers, and was knighted by James I.
Ar´gand Lamp, a lamp named after its inventor, Aimé Argand, a Swiss chemist and physician (born 1755, died 1803), the distinctive feature of which is a burner forming a ring or hollow cylinder covered by a chimney, so that the flame receives a current of air both on the inside and on the outside.
Argaum (a˙r-ga˙´u¨m), a village of India, in Berar, celebrated for the victory of General Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) over the Mahrattas under Scindia and the Rajah of Berar, 29th Nov., 1803.
Ar´gelander, Friedrich Wilhelm August, German astronomer, born in 1799. He added to the knowledge of the progressive motion of the solar system in space, and published a catalogue of 560 stars having 'proper motion'. His works include: Atlas des nördlichen gestirnten Himmels (1857), Neue Uranometrie (1843), &c. He died in 1875.
Argemone (a˙r-jem´o-nē), a small genus of ornamental American plants of the poppy order. From the seeds of A. mexicāna is obtained an oil very useful to painters. The handsomest species is A. grandiflōra, which has large flowers of a pure white colour.
Argensola (a˙r-hen-sō´la˙), Lupercio and Bartolomé Leonardo de, brothers, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, the former in 1565, died in 1613; the latter born in 1566, died in 1631. Lupercio produced tragedies and lyric poems; Bartolomé a number of poems and a historical work, The Conquest of the Moluccas. Their writings are singularly alike in character, and are reckoned among the Spanish classics. The tragedies are of the heavy Senecan type, but the satirical writings of both brothers are full of pungent wit of a pleasing kind.
Argenson (a˙r-zha˙n˙-sōn˙), Marc Pierre de Voyer, Comte d', celebrated French statesman, born in 1696, died 1764. After holding a number of subordinate offices he became minister for foreign affairs, and succeeded in bringing about the Congress of Breda, which was the prelude to that of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was present at the battle of Fontenoy, and was exiled to his estate for some years through the machinations of Madame Pompadour. His Considérations sur le Gouvernement de la France was a very advanced study on the possibility of combining with a monarchic form of government democratic principles and local self-government. Les Essais, ou Loisirs d'un Ministre d'État, published in 1785, is a collection of characters and anecdotes in the style of Montaigne.
Ar´gent, in coats of arms, the heraldic term expressing silver: represented in engraving by a plain white surface.
Argentan (a˙r-zha˙n˙-tän˙), a French town, department of Orne (Normandy), with an old castle and some manufactures. Pop. 6300.
Argenteuil (a˙r-zha˙n˙-teu-yė), a town in France, department Seine-et-Oise, 7 miles below Paris; it has an active trade in wine, fruit, and vegetables. Pop. 24,282.
Argentie´ra, or Kimōli (ancient, Cimōlus), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the Cyclades, about 18 miles in circumference, rocky and sterile. It produces a detergent chalk called Cimolian earth (q.v.), used in washing and bleaching. Pop. 1337.
Ar´gentine, a silvery-white slaty variety of calc-spar, containing a little silica with laminæ usually undulated. It is found in primitive rocks and frequently in metallic veins.—Argentine is also the name of a small British fish (Scopĕlus boreālis) less than 2 inches long and of a silvery colour.
Ar´gentine Republic, formerly called the United Provinces of La Plata, a vast country of South America, the extreme length of which is 2300 miles, and the average breadth a little over 500 miles, the total area 1,153,119 sq. miles. It consists of fourteen provinces, ten territories, and one federal district. It is bounded on the N. by Bolivia; on the E. by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; on the S. by the Antarctic Ocean; and on the W. by the Andes. It comprises four great natural divisions: (1) the Andine region, containing the provinces of Mendoza, San Juan, Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy; (2) the Pampas, containing the provinces of Santiago, Santa Fé, Cordova, San Luis, and Buenos Ayres, with the territories Formosa, Pampa, and Chaco; (3) the Argentine 'mesopotamia', between the Rivers Paraná and Uruguay, containing the provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and the territory Misiones; (4) Patagonia, including the eastern half of Tierra del Fuego. With the exception of the N.W., where lateral branches of the Andes run into the
plain for 150 or 200 miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which is hilly, the characteristic feature of the country is the great monotonous and level plains called 'pampas'. In the north these plains are partly forest-covered, but all the central and southern parts present vast treeless tracts, which afford pasture to immense herds of horses, oxen, and sheep, and are varied in some places by brackish swamps, in others by salt steppes. The great water-course of the country is the Paraná, having a length of fully 2000 miles from its source in the mountains of Goyaz, Brazil, to its junction with the Uruguay, where begins the estuary of La Plata. The Paraná is formed by the union of the Upper Paraná and Paraguay Rivers, near the N.E. corner of the State. Important tributaries are the Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado. The Paraná, Paraguay, and Uruguay are valuable for internal navigation. Many of the streams which tend eastward terminate in marshes and salt lakes, some of which are rather extensive. Not connected with the La Plata system are the Colorado and the Rio Negro, the latter formerly the southern boundary of the State, separating it from Patagonia. The source of the Negro is Lake Nahuel Huapi, in Patagonia (area, 1200 sq. miles), in the midst of magnificent scenery. The level portions of the country are mostly of tertiary formation, and the river and coast regions consist mainly of alluvial soil of great fertility. In the pampas clay have been found the fossil remains of extinct mammalia, some of them of colossal size.
European grains and fruits, including the vine, have been successfully introduced, and large areas are now under wheat, maize, flax, and other crops, another source of wealth consisting in the countless herds of cattle and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the pampas, and which multiply there very rapidly. Gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and iron, besides marble, jasper, precious stones, and bitumen, are found in the mountainous districts of the N.W., while petroleum wells have been discovered on the Rio Vermejo; but the development of this mineral wealth has hitherto been greatly retarded by the want of proper means of transport. As a whole there are not extensive forests in the State except in the region of the Gran Chaco (which extends also into Bolivia), where there is known to be 60,000 sq. miles of timber. Thousands of square miles are covered with thistles, which grow to a great height in their season. Cacti also forms great thickets. Peach and apple trees are abundant in some districts. The native fauna includes the puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the llama, the alpaca, the vicuña, armadillos, the rhea or nandu, a species of ostrich, &c. The climate is agreeable and healthy, 97° being about the highest temperature experienced. The rainfall is very scanty in some districts, and is nowhere very large.
As a whole this vast country is very thinly inhabited, some parts of it as yet being very little known. The native Indians were never very numerous, and have given little trouble to the European settlers. Tribes of them yet in the savage state still inhabit the less-known districts, and live by hunting and fishing. Some of the Gran Chaco tribes are said to be very fierce, and European travellers have been killed by them. The European element is strong in the republic, more than half the population being Europeans or of pure European descent. Large numbers of immigrants arrive from Southern Europe, the Italians having the preponderance among those of foreign birth. The typical inhabitants of the pampas are the Gauchos, a race of half-breed cattle-rearers and horse-breakers; they are almost continually on horseback, galloping over the plains, collecting their herds and droves, taming wild horses, or catching and slaughtering cattle. In such occupations they require a marvellous dexterity in the use of the lasso and bolas.
The River La Plata was discovered in 1512 by the Spanish navigator Juan Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata territory had been brought into the possession of Spain by the end of the sixteenth century. In 1810 the territory cast off the Spanish rule, and in 1816 the independence of the United States of the Rio de la Plata was formerly declared, but it was long before a settled government was established. The present constitution dates from 1853, being modified in 1866 and 1898. The executive power is vested in a president—elected by the representatives of the fourteen provinces for a term of six years. A national congress of two chambers—a Senate and a House of Deputies—wields the legislative authority, and the republic is making rapid advances in social and political life. The national revenue for 1918 amounted to about £32,860,306, while the expenditure amounted to £34,407,074; the public debt was, at the end of 1916, about £120,000,000. There are about 22,000 miles of railway opened. The external commerce is important, the chief exports being beef and mutton, wheat, maize, and linseed, wool, skins and hides, tallow. The imports are chiefly manufactured goods. The trade is largely with Britain and France, and is increasing rapidly, the exports having advanced from £9,000,000 in 1876 and £73,200,000 in 1908 to £201,360,000 in 1920. The imports in 1920 were £170,820,000. The chief denomination of money is the dollar or peso, value (in gold) 4s. Buenos Ayres (or Aires) is the capital. Other towns are Rosario, Cordova, La Plata, Tucuman, Mendoza, and
Santa-Fé. The population of the republic, which is rapidly increasing by immigration, was, in 1905, 5,678,197, and 8,284,266 in 1918; of the capital, 1,637,155 (1918).—Bibliography: C. E. Akers, History of South America, 1854 to 1904; W. H. Hudson, The Naturalist in La Plata; Keane and Markham, Central and South America (in Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel); Martinez and Lewandowski, Argentine in the Twentieth Century; Sir John Foster Fraser, The Amazing Argentine; H. Stephens, Illustrated Descriptive Argentina; The Argentine Year Book.
Ar´gentite, sulphide of silver, a blackish or lead-grey mineral, a valuable ore of silver found in the crystalline rocks of many countries.
Argentometer. See Hydrometer.
Argillaceous Rocks are rocks in which clay prevails (including shales and slates).
Argives (a˙r´jīvz), or Argivi, the inhabitants of Argos; used by Homer and other ancient authors as a generic appellation for all the Greeks.
Ar´go. See Argonauts.
Argol. See Argal.
Argolis. See Argos.
Argon, a gas which is fairly widely distributed in the free state and is a constant constituent of the atmosphere, of which it forms about 1 per cent by volume. It was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay in 1894. During their determinations of the density of nitrogen they noticed that the density of nitrogen derived from the air differed from the density of nitrogen derived from ammonia and other compounds of nitrogen, and after a series of very careful experiments they succeeded in isolating a new gas, which they named Argon. The gas occurs in sea and river water, in plants, in the blood of animals, and the gases issuing from volcanoes and mineral springs. It is always in the free state and never in combination, and is associated with nitrogen. It is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, and may be liquefied and solidified. It is heavier than air, and is chemically a very inert substance. It is usually referred to as one of the rare gases of the atmosphere. Argon is manufactured in fairly large quantity from air, making use of the inertness of the substance compared to oxygen and nitrogen, the chief constituents of the air. Several methods are in use, e.g. nitrogen may be removed by passing it repeatedly over red-hot magnesium; thus the nitrogen is absorbed and the argon left. When oxygen and nitrogen of air are absorbed by a mixture of 90 per cent calcium carbide and 10 per cent calcium chloride previously heated to redness in vacuo, a gas becoming richer and richer in argon is obtained. Another method of preparing argon is by fractionation of liquid air. It is used for filling electric bulbs.
Ar´gonaut, a molluscous animal of the genus Argonauta, belonging to the dibranchiate or two-gilled cuttle-fishes, distinguished by the females possessing a single-chambered external shell, not organically connected with the body of the animal. The males have no shell and are of much smaller size than the females. The shell is fragile, translucent, and boat-like in shape; it serves as the receptacle of the ova or eggs of the female, which sits in it with the respiratory tube or 'funnel' turned towards the carina or 'keel'. This famed mollusc swims only by ejecting water from its funnel, and it can crawl in a reversed position, carrying its shell over its back like a snail. The account of its floating on the surface of the sea, with its sail-shaped arms extended to catch the breeze, and with the six other arms as oars, is a mere fable. The argonaut, or paper-nautilus, must be carefully distinguished from the pearly-nautilus or nautilus proper (Nautilus Pompilius).
Argonauts, in the legendary history of Greece, those heroes who performed a hazardous voyage to Colchis, a far-distant country at the eastern extremity of the Euxine (Black Sea), with Jason in the ship Argo, for the purpose of securing a golden fleece, which was preserved suspended upon a tree, and under the guardianship of a sleepless dragon. By the aid of Medea, daughter of the King of Colchis, Jason was enabled to seize the fleece, and, after many strange adventures, to reach his home at Iolcos in Thessaly. Among the Argonauts were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus and Theseus.—Bibliography: A. R. Hope Moncrieff, Classic Myth and Legend; Kingsley, The Heroes; N. Hawthorne, The Wonder-book.
Argo-Navis, the southern constellation of the Ship, is almost entirely invisible in Britain. It contains Canopus, next to Sirius the brightest
fixed star. In the great nebula in Argo is situated the remarkable star Eta Argûs. It is variable, generally faint, but in 1837 it became temporarily one of the brightest stars in the sky.
Argonne, a district of France, between the Rivers Meuse, Marne, and Aisne, celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez against the Prussians in 1792, and for the military movements and actions which took place therein previous to the battle of Sedan, in 1870.
Argonne, Battle of. When, in the autumn of 1914, the Allies retreated towards the Marne, the German Crown Prince's army endeavoured to invest Verdun. His right wing advanced through the thick and extensive forest of Argonne, but took precipitate flight after the battle of the Marne before the army of General Sarrail. In the summer of 1915 the Crown Prince endeavoured to hack his way through the French Argonne lines, using much heavy artillery, poison-gas, liquid-fire, and tear-shells. A final effort to break through was made in September, between Le Four de Paris and Vienne-le-Château, but, after gaining a footing in the first line of French trenches, the Germans were hurled back by a dashing counter-attack. The great salient from the Argonne to St. Mihiel was the salvation of Verdun.
Ar´gos, a town of Greece, in the north-east of the Peloponnesus, between the Gulfs of Ægina and Nauplia or Argos. This town and the surrounding territory of Argolis were famous from the legendary period of Greek history onwards. Here, besides Argos, was Mycenæ, where Agamemnon ruled. Modern Argos is a straggling place of 10,000 inhabitants, with some ancient remains. The territory Argolis forms a nomarchy of Greece. Pop., Argolis and Corinthia, 153,172. The capital is Nauplia.
Argos´toli, a city of the Ionian Islands, capital of Cephalonia, and the residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. 14,000.
Ar´gosy, a poetical name for a large merchant-vessel; derived from Ragusa, a port which was formerly more celebrated than now, and whose vessels did a considerable trade with England. It is popularly but erroneously connected with the ship Argo in which Jason sailed. See Argonauts.
Argot (Fr.; a˙r-gō), the jargon, slang, or peculiar phraseology of a class or profession; originally the conventional slang of thieves and vagabonds, invented for the purpose of disguise and concealment. Some of François Villon's poems are written in argot.—Cf. W. von Knoblauch, Dictionary of Argot.
Arguim, or Arguin (a˙r-gwim´, a˙r-gwin´), a small island on the west coast of Africa, not far from Cape Blanco, formerly a centre of trade. Its possession was violently disputed between the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French.
Ar´gument, a term sometimes used as synonymous with the subject of a discourse, but more frequently appropriated to any kind of method employed for the purpose of confuting or at least silencing an opponent. Logicians have reduced arguments to a number of distinct heads, such as the argumentum ad judicium, which founds on solid proofs and addresses to the judgment; the argumentum ad verecundiam, which appeals to the modesty or bashfulness of an opponent by reminding him of the great names or authorities by whom the view disputed by him is supported; the argumentum ad ignorantiam, the employment of some logical fallacy towards persons likely to be deceived by it; and the argumentum ad hominem, an argument which presses a man with consequences drawn from his own principles and concessions, or his own conduct. See Fallacy, Logic.
Argument of the People, the document set forth by the Council of the Army on 15th Jan., 1649, fifteen days before the execution of King Charles I. See Levellers.
Ar´gus, in Greek mythology, a fabulous being, said to have had a hundred eyes, placed by Juno to guard Io. Hence 'argus-eyed', applied to one who is exceedingly watchful.
Argus-pheasant (Argus gigantēus), a large,
beautiful, and very singular species of pheasant, found native in the south-east of Asia, more especially in Sumatra and some of the other islands. The males measure from 5 to 6 feet from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail, which has two greatly-elongated central feathers. The plumage is exceedingly beautiful, the secondary quills of the wings, which are longer than the primary feathers, being each adorned with a series of ocellated or eye-like spots (whence the name—see Argus) of brilliant metallic hues. The general body plumage is brown.
Argyll, or Argyle (a˙r-gīl´), an extensive county in the south-west of the Highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland and partly of islands belonging to the Hebrides group, the chief of which are Islay, Mull, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Luing, Lismore, and Colonsay, with Iona and Staffa. On the land side the mainland is bounded north by Inverness; east by Perth and Dumbarton; elsewhere surrounded by the Firth of Clyde and its connections and the sea; area, 3255 sq. miles (or over 2,000,000 acres), of which the islands comprise about 1000 sq. miles. It is greatly indented by arms of the sea, which penetrate far inland, the most important of these being Loch Sunart, Loch Linnhe (the extremities of which are Loch Eil and Loch Leven), Loch Etive, Loch Fyne, Loch Tarbert, Loch Riddon, Loch Striven, and Loch Long. The mainland is divided into six districts of Northern Argyle, Lorn, Argyle, Cowal, Knapdale, and Kintyre; the two first being subdivided into the sub-districts of Lochiel, Ardgour, Sunart, Ardnamurchan, Morven, and Appin. The county is exceedingly mountainous, the chief summits being Bidean-nam-Bian (3766 feet), Ben Laoigh (3708 feet), Ben Cruachan (3611 feet), Benmore, in Mull (3185 feet), the Paps of Jura (2565 feet), and Ben Arthur or the Cobbler (2891 feet). There are several lakes, the principal of which is Loch Awe. Cattle and sheep are reared in numbers, and fishing is largely carried on, as is also the making of whisky. There is but little arable land. The chief minerals are slate, marble, limestone, and granite. County town, Inveraray; others, Campbeltown, Oban, and Dunoon. Pop. (1921), 76,856.
Argyll, Campbells of, a historic Scottish family, raised to the peerage in the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more eminent members are: Archibald, 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of Flodden, 1513.—Archibald, 5th Earl, attached himself to the party of Mary of Guise, and was the means of averting a collision between the Reformers and the French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency after Mary's abdication, but afterwards commanded her troops at the battle of Langside; died 1575.—Archibald, 8th Earl and 1st Marquess, born 1598: a zealous partisan of the Covenanters; created a marquess by Charles I. It was by his persuasion that Charles II visited Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in 1651. At the Restoration he was committed to the Tower, and afterwards sent to Scotland, where he was tried for high treason, and beheaded in 1661.—Archibald, 9th Earl, son of the preceding, served the king with great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and was excluded from the general pardon by Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he refused to take the required oath except with a reservation. For this he was tried and sentenced to death. He managed to escape to Holland, from whence he returned with a view of aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan, however, failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was beheaded in 1685.—Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding, died 1703; took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-9, which placed William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important appointments and the title of duke.—John, 2nd Duke and Duke of Greenwich, son of the above, born 1678, died 1743; served under Marlborough at the battles of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in his own country for his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had the military command in Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar's army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and forced the Pretender to quit the kingdom. He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his political career was full of intrigue. He is the Duke of Argyll in Scott's Heart of Midlothian.—George Douglas Campbell, K.G., K.T., &c., 8th Duke (of United Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early took a part in politics, especially in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In 1852 he became Lord Privy Seal under Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord Palmerston in 1859; Postmaster-General in 1860; Secretary for India from 1868 to 1874; again Lord Privy Seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to agree with his colleagues on their Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wrote The Reign of Law, Scotland as it Was and as it Is, &c.—John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of, son of the 8th Duke and a daughter of the 2nd Duke of Sutherland, was born in 1845, and succeeded his father in 1900. He completed his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, sat in Parliament as member for Argyllshire, 1868-78, was Governor-General of Canada from 1878 to 1883, and again sat in Parliament as member for South Manchester from 1895 to 1900, as a Liberal-Unionist. He married the Princess Louise of Great Britain, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871.
He died in 1914. His works include: The United States after the War, Imperial Federation, Canadian Pictures, Memories of Canada and Scotland, Life of Lord Palmerston, Tales and Poems, The Psalms in English Verse, Life and Times of Queen Victoria, Yesterday and To-day in Canada, &c.
Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (Princess Louise's), raised by the 5th Duke of Argyll (1794), received their present title in 1872. The regiment served under Sir David Baird in Cape Colony, and at Balaklava made itself immortal as Sir Colin Campbell's 'thin red line'. It was further distinguished in the European War at Gheluvelt, Le Cateau, and the second battle of Ypres.
Argyro-Castro (a˙r´gi-rō-), a town in Albania, 40 miles north-west of Janina; built on three ridges intersected by deep ravines, across which are several bridges. It was occupied by the Greeks in 1916. Pop. about 10,000.
Argyropu´los, Johannes, one of the principal revivers of Greek learning in the fifteenth century. Born in Constantinople 1415, died at Rome 1486.
Aria, in music. See Air.
Ariadne (a-ri-ad´ne), in Greek mythology, a daughter of Minos, King of Crete. She gave Theseus a clue of thread to conduct him out of the labyrinth after his defeat of the Minotaur. Theseus abandoned her on the Isle of Naxos, where she was found by Dionysus, who married her.
Aria´na, the ancient name of a large district in Asia, forming a portion of the Persian Empire; bounded on the north by the provinces of Bactriana, Margiana, and Hyrcania; east by the Indus; south by the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf; west by Media.
Ariano (ä-rē-ä´nō), a town in South Italy, province of Avellino, 44 miles north-east of Naples, the seat of a bishop, with a handsome cathedral. Pop. 17,650.
Ar´ians, the adherents of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius, who, about A.D. 318, promulgated the doctrine that Christ was a created being inferior to God the Father in nature and dignity, though the first and noblest of all created beings; and also that the Holy Spirit is not God, but created by the power of the Son. Arianism has been defined as an attempt to determine the relations of the Persons of the Trinity on a basis of distinction and subordination. It does not seem to have sprung from any strong ethical impulse; its philosophy was pagan, and the object of the leaders political rather than religious. The doctrines were condemned by the Council of Nicæa in 325. Arius died in 336, and after his death his party gained considerable accessions, including several emperors, and for a time held a strong position. Since the middle of the seventh century, however, the Arians have nowhere constituted a distinct sect, although similar opinions have been advanced by various theologians in modern times. The Arian controversy was revived in England during the eighteenth century by William Whiston and Dr. Samuel Clarke.—Bibliography: H. M. Gwatkin, Studies of Arianism; J. H. Newman, Arians of the Fourth Century; J. H. Colligan, Arian Movement in England.
Arica (a˙-rē´ka˙), a seaport of Chile, 30 miles S. of Tacna; previous to 1880 it belonged to Peru. It has suffered frequently from earthquakes, being in 1868 almost entirely destroyed, part of it being also submerged by an earthquake wave. Pop. about 4000. It has a wireless station.
Arica. See Tacna-Arica Dispute.
Arichat (-shat´), a seaport town and fishing station of Nova Scotia, on a small bay, south coast of Madame Island. Pop. about 2500.
Ariège (a˙-rē-āzh), a mountainous department of France, on the northern slopes of the Pyrenees, comprising the ancient countship of Foix and parts of Languedoc and Gascony. The principal rivers are the Ariège, Arize, and Salat, tributaries of the Garonne. Sheep and cattle are reared; the arable land is small in quantity. Chief town, Foix. Area, 1892 sq. miles. Pop. (1921), 172,851.
A´riel, a symbolic name for Jerusalem in the Old Testament; in the demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's Tempest, Ariel was the "tricksy spirit" whom Prospero had in his service.
Aries (ā´ri-ēz; Lat.), the Ram, a northern constellation. It is the first of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which the sun enters at the vernal equinox, about the 21st of March. The "First Point in Aries" is where the equator cuts the ecliptic in the ascending node, from which point the right ascensions of heavenly bodies are reckoned on the equator, and their longitudes upon the ecliptic. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes the sign Aries no longer corresponds with the constellation Aries, which it did 2000 years ago.
Ar´il, or Aril´lus, in some plants, as in the nutmeg, an extra covering of the seed, outside of the true seed-coats, proceeding from the placenta, partially investing the seed, and falling off spontaneously. It is either succulent or cartilaginous, coloured, elastic, rough, or knotted. In the nutmeg it is known as mace.
Arimas´pians, in ancient Greek traditions, a people who lived in the extreme north-east of the ancient world. They were said to be one-eyed and to carry on a perpetual war with the gold-guarding griffins, whose gold they endeavoured to steal. Cf. Milton, Paradise Lost, II, 943.
Arimathæ´a, a town of Palestine, identified with the modern Ramleh, 22 miles W.N.W. of Jerusalem.
Ari´on, an ancient Greek poet and musician, born at Methymna, in Lesbos, flourished about 625 B.C. He lived at the Court of Periander of Corinth, and afterwards visited Sicily and Italy. Returning from Tarentum to Corinth with rich treasures, the avaricious sailors resolved to murder him. Apollo, however, having informed him in a dream of the impending danger, Arion in vain endeavoured to soften the hearts of the crew by the power of music. He then threw himself into the sea, when one of a shoal of dolphins, which had been attracted by his music, received him on his back and bore him to land. The sailors, having returned to Corinth, were confronted by Arion and convicted of their crime. The lyre of Arion, and the dolphin which rescued him, became constellations in the heavens. A fragment of a hymn to Poseidon, ascribed to Arion, is extant.
Arios´to, Ludovi´co, one of the most celebrated poets of Italy, was born at Reggio, in Lombardy, 8th Sept., 1474, of a noble family; died 6th June, 1533. His lyric poems in the Italian and Latin languages, distinguished for ease and elegance of style, introduced him to the notice of the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, son of Duke Ercole I of Ferrara. In 1503 Ippolito employed him in his service and used his counsel in the most important affairs. In this service he began and finished, in ten or eleven years, his immortal poem, the Orlando Furioso, which was published in 1515, and immediately became highly popular. He afterwards entered the service of Alfonso I, Duke of Ferrara, the cardinal's brother, a lover of the arts, who put much confidence in him. After quelling disturbances that had broken out in the wild and mountainous Garfagnana, he returned to Ferrara, where he employed himself in the composition of his comedies, and in putting the last touches to his Orlando. The Orlando Furioso is a continuation of the Orlando Innamorato of Bojardo, details the chivalrous adventures of the paladins of the age of Charlemagne, and extends to forty-six cantos. The best English translation is that of Rose (1823). Cf. E. Gardner, Ariosto: the Prince of Court Poets; J. S. Nicholson, Life and Genius of Ariosto.
Arish. See El Arish.
Aristæus, in Greek mythology, son of Apollo and Cyrene, the introducer of bee-keeping. Cf. Virgil, Georgics, IV, 315-558.
Aristarchus (a-ris-tär´kus), an ancient Greek grammarian, born at Samothrace 220 B.C., died at Cyprus 143 B.C. He edited Homer's poems with the greatest acuteness and ability, endeavouring to restore the text to its genuine state, and to clear it of all interpolations and corruptions; hence the phrase, Aristarchian criticism. His edition of Homer furnished the basis of all subsequent ones.
Aristarchus, an ancient Greek astronomer belonging to Samos, flourished about 155 B.C., and first asserted the revolution of the earth about the sun; also regarded as the inventor of the sun-dial.
Aris´teas, a personage of ancient Greek legend, represented to have lived over many centuries, disappearing and reappearing by turns.
Aristides (a-ris-tī´dēz), a statesman of ancient Greece, for his strict integrity surnamed the Just. He was one of the ten generals of the Athenians when they fought with the Persians at Marathon, 490 B.C. Next year he was eponymous archon, and in this office enjoyed such popularity that he excited the jealousy of Themistocles, who succeeded in procuring his banishment by ostracism (about 483). Three years after, when Xerxes invaded Greece with a large army, the Athenians hastened to recall him, and Themistocles now admitted him to his confidence and councils. In the battle of Platæa (479) he commanded the Athenians, and had a great share in gaining the victory. To defray the expenses of the Persian war he persuaded the Greeks to impose a tax, which should be paid into the hands of an officer appointed by the States collectively, and deposited at Delos. The confidence which was felt in his integrity appeared in their entrusting him with the office of apportioning the contribution. He died at an advanced age about 468 B.C., so poor that he was buried at the public expense.
Aristip´pus (c. 425-366 B.C.), a disciple of Socrates, and founder of a philosophical school among the Greeks, which was called the Cyrenaic, from his native city Cyrēnē, in Africa; flourished 380 B.C. His moral philosophy differed widely from that of Socrates, and was a science of refined voluptuousness. His fundamental principles were—that all human sensations may be reduced to two, pleasure and pain. Pleasure is a gentle, and pain a violent emotion. All living beings seek the former and avoid the latter. Happiness is nothing but a continued pleasure, composed of separate gratifications; and as it is the object of all human exertions, we should abstain from no kind of pleasure. Still we should always be governed by taste and reason in our enjoyments. His doctrines were taught only by his daughter Arĕtē, and by his grandson Aristippus the younger, by whom they were
systematized. Other Cyrenaics compounded them into a particular doctrine of pleasure, and are hence called Hedonici. His writings are lost.
Aristoc´racy (Gr. aristos, best, kratos, rule), a form of government by which the wealthy and noble, or any small privileged class, rules over the rest of the citizens. The term has now become almost entirely social in meaning, and is mostly applied to the nobility or chief persons in a State.
Aristogeiton (-gī´ton), a citizen of Athens, whose name is rendered famous by a conspiracy (514 B.C.) formed in conjunction with his friend Harmodius against the tyrants Hippias and Hipparchus, the sons of Pisistratus. Both Aristogeiton and Harmodius lost their lives through their attempts to free the country, and were reckoned martyrs of liberty.
Aristolochia (-lō´ki-a), a genus of plants, the type of the ord. Aristolochiaceæ, which consists of dicotyledonous monochlamydeous plants, with an inferior 3-6-celled fruit, found for the most part in the hotter parts of the world, and in many cases used medicinally on account of their tonic and stimulating properties. The genus has emmenagogic qualities, especially the European species A. rotunda, A. longa, and A. Clematītis. A. bracteāta is used in India as an anthelminthic; A. odoratissima, a West Indian species, is a valuable bitter and alexipharmic. A. serpentaria is the Virginian snake-root, popularly regarded as a remedy for snake bites.
Aristophanes (-tof´a-nēz), the greatest comic poet of ancient Greece, born at Athens probably about the year 455 B.C., died 375 B.C. Little is known of his life. He appeared as a poet in 427 B.C., and having indulged in some sarcasms on the powerful demagogue Cleon, was ineffectually accused by the latter of having unlawfully assumed the title of an Athenian citizen. He afterwards revenged himself on Cleon in his comedy of the Knights, in which he himself acted the part of Cleon, because no actor had the courage to do it. Of fifty-four (or forty-four) comedies attributed to him, eleven only remain; believed to be the flower of the ancient comedy, and distinguished by wit, humour, and poetry, as also by grossness. In them there is constant reference to the manners, actions, and public characters of the day, the freedom of the old Greek comedy allowing an unbounded degree of personal and political satire. The names of his extant plays are Acharnians, Knights, Clouds, Wasps, Peace, Birds, Lysistrata, Thesmophoriazusæ, Frogs, Ecclesiasuzæ, and Plutus.—Bibliography: B. B. Rogers, Complete Works of Aristophanes, with verse translation (by far the best translation); Hookham-Frere, Translation (five plays only); Couat, Aristophane et l'ancienne comédie attique.
Ar´istotle (Gr. Aristot´eles), a distinguished philosopher and naturalist of ancient Greece, the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy, was born in 384 B.C. at Stagira, in Macedonia; died at Chalcis, 322 B.C. His father, Nicomachus, was physician to Amyntas II, King of Macedonia, and claimed to be descended from Æsculapius. Aristotle had lost his parents before he came, at about the age of seventeen, to Athens to study in the school of Plato. With that philosopher he remained for twenty years, became pre-eminent among his pupils, and was known as the 'Intellect of the School'. Upon the death of Plato, 348 B.C., he took up his residence at Atarneus, in Mysia, on the invitation of his former pupil Hermeias, the ruler of that city, on whose assassination by the Persians, 343 B.C., he fled to Mitylene with his wife Pythias, a near relative of Hermeias. During his residence at Mitylene he received an invitation from Philip of Macedon to superintend the education of his son Alexander, then in his fourteenth year. This relationship between the great philosopher and the future conqueror continued for five or six years, during which the prince was instructed in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, logic, ethics, and politics, and in those branches of physics which had even then made some considerable progress. On Alexander succeeding to the throne Aristotle continued to live with him as his friend and councillor till he set out on his Asiatic campaign (334 B.C.). He returned to Athens and established his school in the Lyceum, a gymnasium attached to the temple of Apollo Lyceius, which was assigned to him by the State. He delivered his lectures in the wooded walks of the Lyceum while walking up and down with his pupils. From the action itself, or more probably from the name of the walks (peripatoi), his school was called Peripatetic. Pupils gathered to him from all parts of Greece, and his school became by far the most popular in Athens. The statement that he had two circles of pupils, the exoteric and the esoteric has given rise to much controversy. By some it has been held that Aristotle published during his lifetime popular discourses with a view to make way for his doctrines in Athenian society, then impregnated with Platonic theories, and that these are called exoteric in contradistinction to those in which are embodied his matured opinions. It was during the time of his teaching at Athens that Aristotle is believed to have composed the great bulk of his works. But it is not possible to speak with any certainty about the chronology of his writings, as the references may be additions of editors. On the death of Alexander a revolution occurred in Athens hostile to the Macedonian interests with which Aristotle was identified. He therefore retired to Chalcis, where he soon after died. Sir
Charles Walston, in 1891, opened a tomb near Eretria which he supposed to be that of Aristotle. According to Strabo he bequeathed all his works to Theophrastus, who, with other disciples of Aristotle, amended and continued them. They afterwards passed through various hands, till, about 50 B.C., Andronicus of Rhodes put the various fragments together and classified them according to a systematic arrangement. Many of the books bearing his name are spurious, others are of doubtful genuineness. The whole are generally divided into logical, theoretical, and practical. The logical works are comprehended under the title Organon (Instrument). The theoretical are divided into physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The physical works (including those on natural history) are on the General Principles of Physical Science, The Heavens, Generation and Destruction, Meteorology, Natural History of Animals, On the Parts of Animals, On the Generation of Animals, On the Locomotion of Animals, On the Soul, On Memory, Sleep and Waking, Dreams, Divination. In mathematics there are two treatises, On Indivisible Lines and Mechanical Problems. The Metaphysics consist of fourteen books; the title (Ta meta ta Physika, 'the things following the Physics',) is the invention of an editor. The practical works embrace ethics, politics, economics, and treatises on art, and comprise the Nicomachæan Ethics (so called because dedicated to his son, Nicomachus), The Politics, Œconomics, Poetry, and Rhetoric. Among the lost works are the dialogues and others termed exoteric. A treatise On the Constitution of Athens was discovered in 1891. His style is devoid of grace and elegance. His works were first printed in a Latin translation, with the commentaries of Averroes, at Venice in 1489; the first Greek edition was that of Aldus Manutius (5 vols., 1495-8). See Peripatetic Philosophy.—Bibliography: Blakesley, Life of Aristotle; S. H. Butcher, Poetics (with translation and excursus); R. Shute, History of the Aristotelian Writings; J. C. Wilson, Aristotelian Studies; E. Zeller, Aristotle and the Earlier Peripatetics; E. Barker, Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle.
Aristox´enus, an ancient Greek musician and philosopher of Tarentum, born about 324 B.C. He studied music under his father Mnesias, and philosophy under Aristotle, whose successor he aspired to be. He endeavoured to apply his musical knowledge to philosophy, and especially to the science of mind, but it only appears to have furnished him with far-fetched analogies and led him into a kind of materialism. We have a work on the Elements of Harmony by him.
Arith´metic (Gr. arithmos, number) is primarily the science of numbers. As opposed to algebra it is the practical part of the science. Although the processes of arithmetical operations are often highly complicated, they all resolve themselves into the repetition of four primary operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Of these the two latter are only complex forms of the two former, and subtraction again is merely a reversal of the process of addition. Little or nothing is known as to the origin and invention of arithmetic. Some elementary conception of it is in all probability coeval with the first dawn of human intelligence. In consequence of their rude methods of numeration, the science made but small advance among the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and it was not until the introduction of the decimal scale of notation and the Arabic, or rather Indian, numerals into Europe that any great progress can be traced. In this scale of notation every number is expressed by means of the ten digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, by giving each digit a local as well as its proper or natural value. The value of every digit increases in a tenfold proportion from the right towards the left; the distance of any figure from the right indicating the power of 10, and the digit itself the number of those powers intended to be expressed: thus 3464 = 3000 + 400 + 60 + 4 = 3 × 103 + 4 × 102 + 6 × 10 + 4. The earliest arithmetical signs appear to have been hieroglyphical, but the Egyptian hieroglyphics were too diffuse to be of any arithmetical value. The units were successive strokes to the number required, the ten an open circle, the hundred a curled palm-leaf, the thousand a lotus flower, ten thousand a bent finger. The letters of the alphabet afforded a convenient mode of representing figures, and were used accordingly by the Chaldeans, Hebrews, and Greeks. The first nine letters of the Hebrew alphabet represented the units, the second nine tens, the remaining four together with five repeated with additional marks, hundreds; the same succession of letters with added points was repeated for thousands, tens of thousands, and hundreds of thousands. The Greeks followed the same system up to tens of thousands. They wrote the different classes of numbers in succession as we do, and they transferred operations performed on units to numbers in higher places; but the use of different signs for the different ranks clearly shows a want of full perception of the value of place as such. They adopted the letter M as a sign for 10,000 and by combining this mark with their other numerals they could note numbers as high as 100,000,000. The Roman numerals, which are still used in marking dates or numbering chapters, were almost useless for purposes of computation. From one to four were represented by vertical strokes
Arithmet´ical, pertaining to arithmetic or its operations.—Arithmetical mean, the middle term of three quantities in arithmetical progression, or half the sum of any two proposed numbers; thus 11 is the arithmetical mean to 8 and 14.—Arithmetical progression, a series of numbers increasing or decreasing by a common difference, as 1, 3, 5, 7, &c.—Arithmetical signs, certain symbols used in arithmetic, and indicating processes or facts. The common signs used in arithmetic are the following:
A´rius, the originator of the Arian heresy. See Arians.
Arizo´na, a former territory of the United States, admitted into the union as a sovereign State on 14th Feb., 1912, is bounded south by Mexico, west by California and Nevada (the River Colorado forming the greater part of the boundary), north by Utah, and east by New Mexico; area, 113,956 sq. miles. The surface is generally mountainous, but many fertile and well-watered valleys lie between the ridges. Part of the surface consists of deserts often entirely destitute of vegetation. The territory belongs to the basin of the Colorado, which passes through a portion of it, besides forming the boundary; while the Gila and Little Colorado, tributaries of the Colorado, traverse it from east to west. The canyons of the Colorado form a wonderful feature, the river flowing for hundreds of miles in a deep rocky channel with walls rising perpendicularly to the height of 1500 to 6000 feet. In some parts timber is plentiful. The rainfall is small, and irrigation has been employed for agricultural purposes. Large tracts of elevated land have been found excellently adapted as pastures for sheep and cattle. The territory is rich in copper, gold, silver, lead, and other minerals, and mining is largely carried on, with much copper smelting and refining. The capital is Phœnix. Pop. 29,053. The Southern and the Santa Fé Pacific Railways traverse it. Pop. (1920), 333,903 (of which 171,468 are white), exclusive of Apaches and other Indians on reservations (area, 29,017 sq. miles; pop. (1920), 42,400).
Arjish Dagh, the loftiest peak of the peninsula of Asia Minor, at the western extremity of the Anti-Taurus Range, 13,150 feet; an extinct volcano; on the N. and N.E. slopes are extensive glaciers.
Ark, the name applied in our translation of the Bible to the boat or floating house in which Noah resided during the flood or deluge; to the floating vessel of bulrushes in which the infant Moses was laid; and to the chest in which the tables of the law were preserved—the ark of the covenant. This last was made of shittim-wood, overlaid within and without with gold, about 3¾ feet long by 2¼ feet high and broad, and over it were placed the golden covering or mercy-seat and the two cherubim. It was placed in the sanctuary of the temple of Solomon; before his time it was kept in the tabernacle, and was moved about as circumstances dictated. At the captivity it appears to have been either lost or destroyed.
Arkansas (ar´kan-sa¨ or ar-kan´sas), one of the United States of America, bounded north by Missouri; east by the Mississippi, which separates it from the States of Mississippi and Tennessee; south by Louisiana and Texas; and west by the Indian Territory and Texas; area, 53,335 sq. miles. The surface in the east is low, flat, and swampy, densely wooded, and subject to frequent inundations from the numerous streams which water it. Towards the centre it becomes more diversified, presenting many undulating slopes and hills of moderate elevation. In the west it
rises still higher, being traversed by a range of hills called the Ozark, which attains a height of 2000 feet, some peaks rising to 3000. In various parts the prairies are of great extent; the forests also are extensive, principally of oak, hickory, ash, cotton, linden, maple, locust, and pine. Coal and other minerals are worked. The principal rivers, all tributaries of the Mississippi, are the Arkansas, the Red River, the St. Francis, and the Washita. Near the centre of the State are warm springs, much resorted to for chronic rheumatic and paralytic affections. The climate is subject to great extremes of heat and cold, and in the lower districts is unhealthy to new settlers. The staple products are cotton and maize; fruit is tolerably abundant. Many districts are admirably adapted for grazing, and great numbers of excellent cattle are reared. Arkansas was colonized as early as 1685 by the French. As part of Louisiana it was purchased by the United States in 1803. It was made into a separate territory in 1819, and admitted into the Union in 1836. It was one of the seceding States. The capital is Little Rock. The enumerated population in 1920 was 1,750,995.
Arkansas, a river of the United States, which gives its name to the above State, the largest affluent of the Mississippi after the Missouri. It rises in the Rocky Mountains, about lat. 39° N., long. 107° W., flows in a general south-easterly direction through Colorado, Kansas, the Indian Territory, and lastly through the State of Arkansas, and after a course of 2170 miles enters the Mississippi. During greater part of the year it is navigable for steamboats for 800 miles.
Arkite. See Explosives.
Ark´low, a town in Ireland, County Wicklow, on the right bank of the Avoca, which falls into the sea about 500 yards below the town; the scene of a severe fight during the rebellion of 1798. Fishing is the chief industry. Pop. 5042.
Ark´wright, Sir Richard, famous for his inventions in cotton-spinning, was born at Preston, in Lancashire, in 1732, died 1792. The youngest of thirteen children, he was bred to the trade of a barber. When about thirty-five years of age he gave himself up exclusively to the subject of inventions for spinning cotton. The thread spun by Hargreaves' jenny could not be used except as weft, being destitute of the firmness or hardness required in the longitudinal threads or warp. But Arkwright supplied this deficiency by the invention of the spinning-frame, which spins a vast number of threads of any degree of fineness and hardness, leaving the operator merely to feed the machine with cotton and to join the threads when they happen to break. His invention introduced the system of spinning by rollers, the carding, or roving as it is technically termed (that is, the soft, loose strip of cotton), passing through one pair of rollers, and being received by a second pair, which is made to revolve with (as the case may be) three, four, or five times the velocity of the first pair. By this contrivance the roving is drawn out into a thread of the desired degree of tenuity and hardness. His inventions being brought into a pretty advanced state, Arkwright removed to Nottingham in 1768 in order to avoid the attacks of the same lawless rabble that had driven Hargreaves out of Lancashire. Here his operations were at first greatly fettered by a want of capital; but two gentlemen of means having entered into partnership with him, the necessary funds were obtained, and Arkwright erected his first mill, which was driven by horses, at Nottingham, and took out a patent for spinning by rollers in 1769. As the mode of working the machinery by horse-power was found too expensive, he built a second factory on a much larger scale at Cromford, in Derbyshire, in 1771, the machinery of which was turned by a water-wheel. Having made several additional discoveries and improvements in the processes of carding, roving, and spinning, he took out a fresh patent for the whole in 1775, and thus completed a series of the most ingenious and complicated machinery. Notwithstanding a series of law-suits in defence of his patent rights, and the destruction of his property by mobs, he amassed a large fortune. He was knighted by George III in 1786.
Arlberg (a˙rl´berh), a branch of the Rhætian Alps, in the west of Tyrol, between it and Vorarlberg, pierced by the fourth longest railway tunnel in the world. It is 6½ miles long, and was finished in Nov., 1883, and connects the valley of the Inn with that of the Rhine, and the Austrian railway system with the Swiss railways.
Ar´lecdon, an urban district of England, in Cumberland, 4 miles east of Whitehaven, with coal and iron mines. Pop. (1921), 5152.
Arles (a˙rl; ancient, Arelāte), a town of Southern France, department Bouches du Rhône, 17 miles south-east of Nismes. It was an important town at the time of Cæsar's invasion, and under the later emperors it became one of the most flourishing towns on the farther side of the Alps. It still possesses numerous ancient remains, of which the most conspicuous are those of a Roman amphitheatre, which accommodated 24,000 spectators. It has a considerable trade, manufactures of silk, &c., and furnishes a market for the surrounding country. Pop. 16,746.
Ar´lington, Henry Bennet, Earl of, member of the Cabal ministry, and one of the scheming creatures of Charles II, born 1618, died 1685. He is supposed to have lived and died a Roman Catholic.
Ar´lon, a Belgian town, capital province of Luxemburg, a thriving town, with manufactures of ironware, leather, tobacco, &c. Pop. 12,012.
Arm, the upper limb in man, connected with the thorax or chest by means of the scapula or shoulder-blade, and the clavicle or collar-bone. It consists of three bones, the arm-bone (humĕrus), and the two bones of the fore-arm (radius and ulna), and it is connected with the bones of the hand by the carpus or wrist. The head or upper end of the arm-bone fits into the hollow called the glenoid cavity of the scapula, so as to form a joint of the ball-and-socket kind, allowing great freedom of movement to the limb. The lower end of the humerus is broadened out by a projection on both the outer and inner sides (the outer and inner condyles), and has a pulley-like surface for articulating with the fore-arm to form the elbow-joint. This joint somewhat resembles a hinge, allowing of movement only in one direction. The ulna is the inner of the two bones of the fore-arm. It is largest at the upper end, where it has two processes, the coronoid and the olecranon, with a deep groove between to receive the humerus. The radius—the outer of the two bones—is small at the upper and expanded at the lower end, where it forms part of the wrist-joint. The muscles of the upper arm are either flexors or extensors, the former serving to bend the arm, the latter to straighten it by means of the elbow-joint. The main flexor is the biceps, the large muscle which may be seen standing out in front of the arm when a weight is raised. The chief opposing muscle of the biceps is the triceps. The muscles of the fore-arm are, besides flexors and extensors, pronators and supinators, the former turning the hand palm downwards, the latter turning it upwards. The same fundamental plan of structure exists in the limbs of all vertebrate animals.
Arma´da, the Spanish name for any large naval force; usually applied to the Spanish fleet vaingloriously designated the Invincible Armada, intended to act against England A.D. 1588. It was under the command of the Duke of Medina-Sidonia, and consisted of 130 great war vessels, larger and stronger than any belonging to the English fleet, with 30 smaller ships of war, and carried 19,295 marines, 8460 sailors, 2088 slaves, and 2630 cannon. It had scarcely quitted Lisbon on 29th May, 1588, when it was scattered by a storm, and had to be refitted in Corunna. It was to co-operate with a land force collected in Flanders under the Prince of Parma, and to unite with this it proceeded through the English Channel towards Calais. In its progress it was attacked by the English fleet under Lord Howard, who, with his lieutenants, Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, endeavoured by dexterous seamanship and the discharge of well-directed volleys of shot to destroy or capture the vessels of the enemy. The great lumbering Spanish vessels suffered severely from their smaller opponents, which most of their shot missed. Arrived at length off Dunkirk, the armada was becalmed, thrown into confusion by fire-ships, and many of the Spanish vessels destroyed or taken. The Duke of Medina-Sidonia, owing to the severe losses, at last resolved to abandon the enterprise, and conceived the idea of reconveying his fleet to Spain by a voyage round the north of Great Britain; but storm after storm assailed his ships, scattering them in all directions, and sinking many. Some went down on the cliffs of Norway, others in the open sea, others on the Scottish coast, others on the coast of Ireland. In all, seventy-two large vessels and over 10,000 men were lost.—Bibliography: J. A. Froude, Spanish Story of the Armada; Sir J. K. Laughton, State Papers relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada; J. R. Hale, Story of the Great Armada.
Armadale, a town of Scotland, Linlithgowshire, in coal and iron district. Pop. 4739.
Armadi´llo (genus Dasўpus), an edentate mammal peculiar to South America, consisting
of various species, belonging to a family intermediate between the sloths and ant-eaters. They are covered with a hard bony shell, divided into belts, composed of small separate plates like a coat of mail, flexible everywhere except on the forehead, shoulders, and haunches, where it is not movable. The belts are connected by a membrane which enables the animal to roll itself up like a hedgehog. These animals burrow in the earth, where they lie during the daytime, seldom going abroad except at night. They are of different sizes: the largest, Dasypus gigas, being 3 feet in length without the tail, and the smallest only 10 inches. They subsist chiefly on fruits and roots, sometimes on insects and flesh. They are inoffensive, and their flesh is esteemed good food.—There is a genus of isopodous Crustacea called Armadillo, consisting of animals allied to the wood-lice, capable of rolling themselves into a ball.
Armageddon (-ged´don), the great battlefield of the Old Testament, where the chief conflicts took place between the Israelites and their enemies—the table-land of Esdraelon in Galilee and Samaria, in the centre of which stood the town of Megiddo, on the site of the modern Lejjun: used figuratively in the Apocalypse to signify the place of 'the battle of the great day of God'. It may, however, be har migdo, his fruitful mountain, 'the mountain land of Israel'. The phrase 'an Armageddon' expresses any great slaughter or final conflict, and has been frequently applied to the Great War of 1914-8. During this war severe fighting took place in Sept., 1918, on the field of Armageddon, the entrance to the passes of Megiddo. The battle ended in an overwhelming victory for General Allenby's armies. See Megiddo.
Armagh (a˙r-mä´), a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster; surrounded by Monaghan, Tyrone, Lough Neagh, Down, and Louth; area, 328,086 acres, of which about a half is under tillage. The north-west of the county is undulating and fertile. The northern part, bordering on Lough Neagh, consists principally of extensive bogs. On the southern border is a range of barren hills. The chief rivers are the Blackwater, which separates it from Tyrone; the Upper Bann, which discharges itself into Lough Neagh; and the Callan, which falls into the Blackwater. There are several small lakes. The manufacture of linen is carried on very extensively. Armagh, Lurgan, and Portadown are the chief towns. The county sends three members to Parliament. Pop. 120,291.—The county town, Armagh, is situated partly on a hill, about half a mile from the Callan. It has a Protestant cathedral crowning the hill, a Gothic building dating from the eighth century, repaired and beautified recently; a new Roman Catholic cathedral in the pointed Gothic style, and various public buildings. It is the see of an archbishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, who is primate of all Ireland, and is a place of great antiquity. Pop. 7356.
Armagnac (a˙r-ma˙-nya˙k), an ancient territory of France, in the province of Gascony, some of the counts of which hold prominent places in the history of France. Bernard VII, son of John II, surnamed the Hunchback, succeeded his brother, John III, in 1391, and was called to Court by Isabella of Bavaria, with the view of heading the Orleans in opposition to the Burgundian faction, where he no sooner gained the ascendancy than he compelled the queen to appoint him Constable of France. He showed himself a merciless tyrant, and became so generally execrated that the Duke of Burgundy, to whom Isabella had turned for help, found little difficulty in gaining admission into Paris, and even seizing the person of Armagnac, who was cast into prison in 1418, when the exasperated populace burst in and killed him and his followers. John V, grandson of the above, who succeeded in 1450, made himself notorious for his crimes. He was assassinated in his castle of Lectoure in 1473 by an agent of Louis XI, against whom he was holding out.
Ar´mature, a term applied to the piece of soft iron which is placed across the poles of permanent or electro-magnets for the purpose of receiving and concentrating the attractive force. In the case of permanent magnets it is also important for preserving their magnetism when not in use, and hence it is sometimes termed the keeper. It produces this effect in virtue of the well-known law of induction, by which the armature, when placed near or across the poles of the magnet, is itself converted into a temporary magnet with reversed poles, and these, reacting upon the permanent magnet, keep its particles in a state of constant magnetic tension, or, in other words, in that constrained position which is supposed to constitute magnetism. A horse-shoe magnet should therefore never be laid aside without its armature; and in the case of straight bar-magnets two should be placed parallel to each other, with their poles reversed, and a keeper or armature across them at both ends. The term is also applied to the core and coil of the electro-magnet, which revolves before the poles of the permanent magnet in the magneto-electric machine.
Arme Blanche, a term applied to the rapier and duelling-foil, and frequently also to all weapons other than fire-arms. The phrase is particularly applied to the sabres and lances carried by cavalry, but also to the bayonet.
Arme´nia, a mountainous country of Western Asia, of great historical interest as the original seat of one of the oldest civilized peoples in the
world. The name Armenia occurs in the Vulgate, but the Hebrew name is Ararat. It has an area of about 120,000 sq. miles, and is intersected by the Euphrates, which divides it into the ancient divisions, Armenia Major and Armenia Minor. The country is an elevated plateau, enclosed on several sides by the ranges of Taurus and Anti-Taurus, and partly occupied by other mountains, the loftiest of which is Ararat. Several important rivers take their rise in Armenia, namely, the Kur or Cyrus, and its tributary the Aras or Araxes, flowing east to the Caspian Sea; the Halys or Kizil-Irmak, flowing north to the Black Sea; and the Tigris and Euphrates, which flow into the Persian Gulf. The chief lakes are Van and Urumiyah. The climate is rather severe. The soil is on the whole productive, though in many places it would be quite barren were it not for the great care taken to irrigate it. Wheat, barley, tobacco, hemp, grapes, and cotton are raised; and in some of the valleys apricots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts are grown. The inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine Armenian stock, a branch of the Aryan or Indo-European race; but besides them, in consequence of the repeated subjugation of the country, various other races have obtained a footing. The total number of Armenians is estimated at 2,900,000, of whom one-half are in Armenia. The remainder, like the Jews, are scattered over various countries, and are generally engaged in commercial pursuits. They everywhere retain, however, their distinct nationality.
Little is known of the early history of Armenia, but it was a separate State as early as the eighth century B.C., when it became subject to Assyria, as it also did subsequently to the Medes and the Persians. It was conquered by Alexander the Great in 325 B.C., but regained its independence about 190 B.C. Its king, Tigranes, son-in-law of the celebrated Mithridātes, was defeated by the Romans under Lucullus and Pompey between 69-66 B.C., but was left on the throne. Since then its fortunes have been various under the Romans, Parthians, Byzantine emperors, Persians, Saracens, and Turks. Until quite recently Armenia had no political existence, having been partitioned between Turkey, Persia, and Russia, the last acquiring considerable portions in 1829 and 1878. The hope of the Armenians to see their country formed into an autonomous province administered by Christians was frustrated by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. The advanced party amongst the Armenians, therefore, determined to obtain their object by the production of disturbances and the spread of a revolutionary movement. The Porte retaliated by wholesale massacres of the Armenians in 1896, 1904, and 1908. The Armenian revolutionary and national parties in the meantime continued their activity and propaganda. Armenia proclaimed its independence in Aug., 1918. In Jan., 1920, the Supreme Council of the Allied Governments recognized the Armenian Republic of Erivan. A mandate for Armenia was also offered to the United States of America, but it was refused by the American Senate in May, 1920. On 18th March, 1922, Soviet Russia concluded a treaty with Turkey, giving to the latter most of Armenia. Batum was attached to Georgia. See Erivan, Russia, Turkey.
The Armenians received Christianity at an early date, most probably at the beginning of the third century, although native historians maintain that several of the apostles preached in Armenia. The real apostle of Armenia was Gregory the Illuminator, in the third century. During the Monophysitic disputes they held with those who rejected the twofold nature of Christ, and being dissatisfied with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451) they separated from the Greek Church in 536. The Popes had at different times attempted to gain them over to the Roman Catholic faith, but have not been able to unite them permanently and generally with the Roman Church. There are, however, small numbers here and there of United Armenians, who acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, agree in their doctrines with the Catholics, but retain their peculiar ceremonies and discipline. But the far greater part are yet Monophysites, and have remained faithful to their old religion and worship. Their doctrine differs from the orthodox chiefly in their admitting only one nature in Christ, and believing the Holy Spirit to proceed from the Father alone. Their sacraments are seven in number. They adore saints and their images, but do not believe in purgatory. Their hierarchy differs little from that of the Greeks. The Catholicus, or head of the Church, has his seat at Etchmiadzin, a monastery near Erivan, the capital of former Russian Armenia, on Mount Ararat.
The Armenian language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, and is most closely connected with the Iranic group. The Old Armenian or Haikan language, which is still the literary and ecclesiastical language, is distinguished from the New Armenian, the ordinary spoken language, which contains a large intermixture of Persian and Turkish elements. The most flourishing period of Armenian literature extended from the fourth to the fourteenth century. It then declined, but a revival began in the seventeenth century, and at the present day wherever any extensive community of Armenians has settled they have set up a printing-press. The Armenian Bible, translated from a Syriac version, and revised by means of
the Septuagint, by Isaac the Great and St. Mesrop, early in the fifth century, is a model of the classic style.—Bibliography: E. N. and H. Buxton, Travel and Politics in Armenia; N. T. Gregor, History of Armenia; W. L. Williams, Armenia, Past and Present.
Armentières (a˙r-ma˙n˙-tyār), a town in France, department Nord, 10 miles W.N.W. of Lille, on the Lys. The town had extensive manufactures of linen and cotton goods and an extensive trade. The Germans captured Armentières by massed assault early in April, 1918, after methodically shelling the town for about two years and destroying almost every building in it. The enemy's offensive was intended to achieve greater results. Indeed, its object was to break through to the Channel ports. It began on 9th April, after artillery preparation, from La Bassée to Armentières. When, however, the battle of Armentières died down, the enemy plan to break through to the coast had been definitely and finally frustrated. German losses were extremely heavy, their attacks having been made with massed troops. (See Ypres.) Pop. 28,086.
Arm´felt, Gustav Moritz, Count of, Swedish soldier, born 1757, died 1814. Though he had been highly favoured and loaded with honours by Gustavus III, he incurred the enmity of the Duke of Sudermania, guardian of the young king, Gustavus IV, and was deprived of all his titles and possessions. He was restored to his fortune and honours in 1799, when Gustavus IV attained his majority, and held several high military posts. Ultimately, however, he entered the Russian service, was made count, chancellor of the University of Abo, president of the department for the affairs of Finland, member of the Russian Senate, and served in the campaign against Napoleon in 1812.
Armida (a˙r-mē´da˙), a beautiful enchantress in Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, who succeeds in bringing the hero Rinaldo, with whom she had fallen violently in love, to her enchanted gardens. Here he completely forgets the high task to which he had devoted himself, until messengers from the Christian host having arrived at the island, Rinaldo escapes with them by means of a powerful talisman. In the sequel Armida becomes a Christian.
Ar´millary Sphere (Lat. armilla, a hoop), an astronomical instrument consisting of an arrangement of rings, all circles of one sphere, intended to represent the principal circles of the celestial globe, the rings standing for the meridian of the station, the ecliptic, the tropics, the arctic and antarctic circles, &c., in their relative positions. Its main use is to give a representation of the apparent motions of the celestial bodies.
Armin´ians, a sect or party of Christians, so called from Jacobus Arminius or Harmensen. (See Arminius.) They were called also Remonstrants, from their having presented a remonstrance to the States-general in 1610. The Arminian doctrines are: (1) Conditional election and reprobation, in opposition to absolute predestination. (2) Universal redemption, or that the atonement was made by Christ for all mankind, though none but believers can be partakers of the benefit. (3) That man, in order to exercise true faith, must be regenerated and renewed by the operation of the Holy Spirit, which is the gift of God; but that this grace is not irresistible and may be lost, so that men may relapse from a state of grace and die in their sins. Arminianism being a revolt against certain aspects of Calvinism, especially the absolutism of the eternal decrees, its doctrines were vehemently attacked by the Calvinists of Holland, and were condemned by the Synod of Dort in 1619. The Arminians, in consequence, were treated with great severity; many of them fled to, and spread in, other countries, and though there is no longer any particular sect to which the name is exclusively applied, many bodies are classed as Arminians, as being opposed to the Calvinists on the question of predestination.—Bibliography: Regenboog, Historie der Remonstranten; Caspar Brandt, Life of Arminius (English translation by J. Guthrie); W. B. Pope, Compendium of Christian Theology (3 vols.).
Armin´ius, an ancient German hero celebrated by his fellow-countrymen as their deliverer from the Roman yoke, born about 18-16 B.C., assassinated A.D. 19. Having been sent as a hostage to Rome, he served in the Roman army, and was raised to the rank of eques. Returning home, he found the Roman governor, Quintilius Varus, making efforts to Romanize the German tribes near the Rhine. Placing himself at the head of the discontented tribes he completely annihilated the army of Varus, consisting of three legions, in a three days' battle fought in the Teutoburg Forest. For some time he baffled the Roman general Germanicus, and after many years' resistance to the vast power of the Empire he drew upon himself the hatred of his countrymen by aiming at the regal authority, and was assassinated. A national monument to his memory was inaugurated on the Grotenburg, near Detmold, in 1875.—Bibliography: see Tacitus, Annals (translated by Murphy); O. Kemmer, Arminius; F. W. Fischer, Armin und die Römer.
Arminius, Jacobus (properly Jakob Harmensen), founder of the sect of Arminians or Remonstrants, born in South Holland in 1560, died 1609. He studied at Utrecht, in the University of Leyden, and at Geneva, where his chief preceptor in theology was Theodore Beza (1582). On his return to Holland he was appointed minister of one of the churches in
Amsterdam, and chosen to undertake the refutation of a work which strongly controverted Beza's doctrine of predestination; but he happened to be convinced by the work which he had undertaken to refute. Elected in 1603 professor of divinity at Leyden, he openly declared his opinions, and was involved in harassing controversies, especially with his fellow professor Gomarus. These contests, with the continual attacks on his reputation, at length impaired his health and brought on a complicated disease, of which he died. See Arminians.
Ar´mitage, Edward, English historical painter, born 1817, died 1896. He studied under Delaroche at the École des Beaux Arts, Paris, was one of the ablest pupils of that painter, and in 1842 exhibited at the Salon (in the Louvre) a picture of Prometheus Bound. At the exhibition of cartoons for historical pictures in Westminster Hall (1843) he obtained a premium of £300 for his design of Cæsar's First Invasion of Britain. Other similar premiums were gained by his Spirit of Religion (1845), and Battle of Meeanee (1847—£500). He now went to study at Rome, and exhibited at the Academy in 1848 his Henry VIII and Katherine Parr, and his Trafalgar (Death of Nelson). He had pictures in most of the subsequent Academy exhibitions up nearly to the time of his death. In 1867 he was elected an associate, and in 1872 a full academician. He did much for the restoration of fresco painting in England. A large number of his pictures were biblical in subject, such as Ahab and Jezebel, Esther's Banquet, The Remorse of Judas, Joseph and Mary, Herod's Birthday Feast, &c. As professor of painting to the Royal Academy he delivered lectures on painting, which were published in 1883. In 1898 appeared a volume of his Pictures and Drawings.
Armor´ica (from two Celtic words signifying 'upon the sea'), a name anciently applied to all north-western Gaul, afterwards limited to what is now Brittany. Hence Armoric is one name for Breton or the language of the inhabitants of Brittany, a Celtic dialect closely allied to Welsh.
Armour. See Arms.
Armoured Car, a self-propelled car completely protected by bullet-proof armour-plating. Such a car is a stage in the development of mechanical warfare, i.e. warfare by means of a self-propelled, armed, and manned machine. The idea is a very ancient one, some form of protected vehicle having been in use among the Chinese in almost prehistoric times. The modern armoured car is constructed on a strongly-engined chassis, and is provided with a bullet-proof armour-plating both for engine and crew. This armour is continued low down over the wheels. The armament of such a car consists of two heavy machine-guns, firing through slits in the armour-plating of the body of the car.
Armour-plates, iron or steel plates with which the sides of vessels of war are covered with the view of rendering them shot-proof. See Iron-clad Vessels.
Arms, Coat of, or Armorial Bearings, a collective name for the devices borne on shields, on banners, &c., as marks of dignity and distinction, and, in the case of family and feudal arms, descending from father to son. They were first employed by the Crusaders, and became hereditary in families at the close of the twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their banners or shields each with a figure or figures proper to himself, to enable him to be distinguished in battle when clad in armour. See Heraldry.
Arms, College of. See Herald.
Arms and Armour. The former term is applied to weapons of offence, the latter to the various articles of defensive covering used in war and military exercises, especially before the introduction of gunpowder. Weapons of offence are divisible into two distinct sections—firearms, and arms used without gunpowder or other explosive substance. The first arms of offence would probably be wooden clubs, then would follow wooden weapons made more deadly by means of stone or bone, stone axes,
slings, bows and arrows with heads of flint or bone, and afterwards various weapons of bronze. Subsequently a variety of arms of iron and steel was introduced, which comprised the sword, javelin, pike, spear or lance, dagger, axe, mace, chariot scythe, &c.; with a rude artillery consisting of catapults, ballistæ, and battering-rams. From the descriptions of Homer we know that almost all the Grecian armour, defensive and offensive, in his time was of bronze; though iron was sometimes used. The lance, spear, and javelin were the principal weapons of this age among the Greeks. The bow is not often mentioned. Among ancient nations the Egyptians seem to have been most accustomed to the use of the bow, which was the principal weapon of the Egyptian infantry. Peculiar to the Egyptians was a defensive weapon intended to catch and break the sword of the enemy. With the Assyrians the bow was a favourite weapon; but with them lances, spears, and javelins were in more common use than with the Egyptians. Most of the large engines of war—chariots with scythes projecting at each side from the axle, catapults, and ballistæ—seem to have been of Assyrian origin. During the historical age of Greece the characteristic weapon was a heavy spear from 21 to 24 feet in length. The sword used by the Greeks was short, and was worn on the right side. The Roman sword was from 22 to 24 inches in length, straight, two-edged, and obtusely pointed, and as by the Greeks was worn on the right side. It was used principally as a stabbing weapon. It was originally of bronze. The most characteristic weapon of the Roman legionary soldier, however, was the pilum, which was a kind of pike or javelin, some 6 feet or more in length. The pilum was sometimes used at close quarters, but more commonly it was thrown. The favourite weapons of the ancient Germanic races were the battle-axe, the lance or dart, and the sword. The weapons of the Anglo-Saxons were spears, axes, swords, knives, and maces or clubs. The Normans had similar weapons, and were well furnished with archers and cavalry. The cross-bow was a comparatively late invention introduced by the Normans. Gunpowder was not used in Europe to discharge projectiles till the beginning of the fourteenth century. Cannon are first mentioned in England in 1338, and there seems to be no doubt that they were used by the English at the siege of Cambrai in 1339. The projectiles first used for cannon were of stone. Hand fire-arms date from the fifteenth century. At first they required two men to serve them, and it was necessary to rest the muzzle on a stand in aiming and firing. The first improvement was the invention of the match-lock, about 1476; this was followed by the wheel-lock, and about the middle of the seventeenth century by the flint-lock, which was in universal use until it was superseded by the percussion-lock, the invention of a Scottish clergyman early in the nineteenth century. The needle-gun dates from 1838. The only important weapon not a fire-arm that has been invented since the introduction of gunpowder is the bayonet, which is believed to have been invented about 1650. See Cannon, Musket, Rifle, &c.
Some kind of defensive covering was probably of almost as early invention as weapons of offence. The principal pieces of defensive armour used by the ancients were shields, helmets, cuirasses, and greaves. In the earliest ages of Greece the shield is described as of immense size, but in the time of the Peloponnesian War (about 420 B.C.) it was much smaller. The Romans had two sorts of shields: the scutum, a large oblong rectangular
highly-convex shield, carried by the legionaries; and the parma, a small round or oval flat shield, carried by the light-armed troops and the cavalry. In the declining days of Rome the shields became larger and more varied in form. The helmet was a characteristic piece of armour among the Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. Like all other body armour it was usually made of bronze. The helmet of the historical age of Greece was distinguished by its lofty crest. The Roman helmet in the time of the early emperors fitted close to the head, and had a neck-guard and hinged cheek-pieces fastened under the chin, and a small bar across the face for a visor. Both Greeks and Romans wore cuirasses, at one time of bronze, but afterwards of flexible materials. Greaves for the legs were worn by both, but among the Romans usually on one leg. The ancient Germans had large shields of plaited osier covered with leather; afterwards their shields were small, bound with iron, and studded with bosses. The Anglo-Saxons had round or oval shields of wood, covered with leather, and having a boss in the centre; and they had also corselets, or coats of mail, strengthened with iron rings. The Normans were well protected by mail; their shields were somewhat triangular in shape, their helmets conical. In Europe generally metal armour was used from the tenth to the eighteenth century, and at first consisted of a tunic made of iron rings firmly sewn flat upon strong cloth or leather. The rings were afterwards interlinked one with another so as to form a garment of themselves, called chain-mail. Another variety of this flexible armour was known as banded-mail. This consisted of rings sewn upon a fabric foundation, the whole being covered with leather. In addition to this, 'scale armour', which had been in use from the very earliest periods of history, was still in common fashion in the thirteenth century. By degrees the suit of mail was reinforced by the addition of pieces of plate on the breast, knees, elbows, and arms, and by the end of the fourteenth century the full suit of plate had been evolved, the mail being only worn as a skirt round the waist or as a coif attached to the helmet. The golden age of plate armour is the middle of the fifteenth century, when the design was light and graceful, and at the same time fully protective. In the sixteenth century, when 'shock tactics' of cavalry were the order of the day, the 'war harness' became heavier. This was particularly noticeable in the armour for the joust or tournament, in which sport the aim of the contestants was to score points and not to inflict injury. Many of these jousting armours weigh over 80 lb. The weapons in use through the whole of the plate-armour period were the lance, the sword, the axe or war-hammer, the long-bow, and the cross-bow. The introduction of fire-arms in the fourteenth century was one of the causes which led to the increase of weight in armour, for the armourer was continually improving and strengthening his products to make them proof against musket and pistol, and he generally succeeded, but by doing so increased the weight till it became insupportable. In the seventeenth century leg armour was abandoned, and by the end of the civil war the popular defence was the steel cap and breastplate. In the eighteenth century armour entirely disappeared, except for ceremonial, and was thought to be entirely obsolete till it was revived in the recent war in the form of the steel shrapnel-helmet, which was favoured by all the Allies and also by the enemy. The German troops occasionally used heavy body armour. Daggers and clubs, weapons likewise thought
to be obsolete, were frequently used by all combatants, especially on raids.—Bibliography: A. Hutton, The Sword of the Centuries; H. S. Cowper, The Art of Attack; C. ffoulkes, Armour and Weapons; C. H. Ashdown, British and Foreign Arms and Armour; C. Hall, Modern Weapons of War by Land.
Armstrong, John, Scottish poet and physician, born about 1709, died 1779. After studying medicine in Edinburgh he settled in London. In 1744 he published his chief work, the Art of Preserving Health, a didactic poem. This work raised his reputation to a height which his subsequent efforts scarcely sustained. In 1746 he became physician to a hospital for soldiers, and in 1760 he was appointed physician to the forces which went to Germany. After his return to London he published a collection of his Miscellanies, which contained, however, nothing valuable. He afterwards visited France and Italy, and published an account of his tour under the name of Lancelot Temple. His last production was a volume of Medical Essays.
Armstrong, William George, Lord, engineer and mechanical inventor, born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 10th Nov., 1810. He was trained as a solicitor, and practised as such for some time. Among his early inventions were the hydro-electric machine, a powerful apparatus for producing frictional electricity, and the hydraulic crane. In 1847 the Elswick works, near Newcastle, were established for the manufacture of his cranes and other heavy iron machinery, and these works are now among the most extensive of their kind. Here the first rifled ordnance gun which bears his name was made in 1854. His improvements in the manufacture of guns and shells led to his being appointed engineer of rifled ordnance under Government, and he was knighted in 1858. This appointment came to an end in 1863, since which time his ordnance has taken a prominent place in the armaments of different countries. He was made a peer, as Baron Armstrong, in 1887. He died 27th Dec., 1900.
Armstrong Gun, a kind of cannon, so called from its inventor. It has an inner tube or core of steel, rifled with numerous shallow grooves, the tube being surrounded by a jacket of spirally-coiled bars of wrought iron, so disposed as to bring the metal into the most favourable position for the strain to which it is to be exposed. His first guns were small, but larger ones were soon made, and afterwards those of the very highest calibre. The breech-loading principle was also adopted in them, and special provision to effect this satisfactorily was invented by him. The improved shells introduced by him were of the elongated and pointed type now so well known, the charge being inserted in a special chamber behind the bore.
Army, a collection of bodies of men armed, disciplined, and organized for war. The essence of a modern army is that it shall be composed of organized units each under its own commander, grouped in formations of ever-increasing size, and owing allegiance through these commanders to one supreme head. Discipline and organization are essential, or such a force becomes merely a collection of armed men.
In the early days of our history every able-bodied man was, to a greater or lesser extent, a possible fighting man, and all had arms of one kind or another. Consequently, when an army was required, landowners and county authorities were ordered to provide the troops necessary. Every free landowner between the ages of sixteen and sixty was liable to service, which was limited to two months in a year. This was the Saxon 'fyrd' system. Later it was improved on by the institution of 'Thane's Service', which made it incumbent on the more considerable landowners to appear fully armed and mounted, and to serve for the whole campaign. The horse, however, was only used as a means of locomotion: for fighting purposes their riders dismounted, as did the dragoons of the seventeenth century and the mounted infantry of still more modern times. The fyrd was an unorganized and undisciplined force and entirely ephemeral in its nature, so that we find the Danish kings of England casting about for some more permanent force, which came into existence under the title of the 'House Carles', or Royal Guard. With the Norman Conquest the fyrd was largely supplanted by the feudal system of knight's service, according to which the country was divided into knight's fees, each of which had to provide its quotum of men. The gradual appearance of the custom of avoiding service by payments of money—in time regulated under the name of scutage—led to the employment of paid mercenaries, who for some two centuries were almost invariably foreigners. In the twelfth century it was found that sufficient troops could not be provided under these two systems, so the fyrd was re-established as a National Militia by the Assize of Arms, and in the next century further steps were taken to protect it under the Statute of Winchester. In the fourteenth century the archer, with his longbow, became a very important part of the fighting forces of England, and an army of those days consisted of the heavily-armed and armoured knights and men-at-arms for shock action, and the unarmoured archers for 'volley action', to use a later term. With the gradual disappearance of the foreign mercenaries, it became the custom for the king to issue indents to certain influential subjects for the raising of paid troops.
From this custom arose the free companies, which, in time, became nothing more or less than commercial undertakings. The indents were accepted, and the men enlisted primarily for what could be got out of the business of fighting, either in the shape of ransom or the sack of towns. Some attempt was also made at tactical organization, and an army of the period was divided into vanguard, battle, and rearguard. Artillery also was beginning to be developed in Germany for siege purposes. The sixteenth century saw the first formation of companies into regiments, though as yet of no fixed strength. Arms were also modernized, and by the end of the century muskets, 18-feet pikes, and swords, were the arms of infantry instead of the varied assortment of halberds, pikes, muskets, harquebuses, and longbows common at the beginning. Elizabeth introduced the press-gang as an aid to recruiting, and abolished the white coat of the soldier in favour of a long red or blue cassock. In the next century Cromwell's new model army became the first standing army of England, and, though it was disbanded by Act of Parliament at the Restoration, one of its regiments—Monk's—remained, and is now the Coldstream Guards. After this regiments were raised from time to time on one pretext or another, and the nucleus of a standing army became a fait accompli, though it was for a long time considered more as an appanage of the king than as a national institution. With the standing army came the first beginnings of civilian control, a Secretary-at-War being appointed in 1660. He had, however, no responsibility, and was subordinate to the commander-in-chief, and it was not till 1710 that he assumed his present responsibility to Parliament. During the eighteenth century the strength of the army rose or fell according to the state of the military barometer and the success or otherwise of the various recruiting expedients, among which was the first attempt at a short-service system in 1703. In 1871-2 the old numbering in regiments was abolished and a territorial designation substituted. According to this scheme, the first twenty-five regiments, all of which had already two battalions, were grouped together, the rest being joined arbitrarily to form new regiments under county designations. With these regiments were affiliated the militia and volunteer battalions, which have now been amalgamated into the Special Reserve and the Territorial Force.
For the requirements of the war of 1914-8 the Empire, as a whole, including India, raised and maintained a total of 8,654,467 men, of which the contribution of the United Kingdom was over 6,000,000. Casualties for the whole Empire were 3,060,616, of which the United Kingdom has for her share nearly 2,500,000, including 666,083 killed, 1,644,786 wounded, and 140,312 missing.
During 1918 the combatant strength of all arms of the British army in France fluctuated between 1,293,000 in March and 1,164,790 in November, while the rifle or infantry strength was from 616,000 to 416,748 during the same periods. From the date of the armistice to 31st Dec., 1919, the following number of demobilizations and discharges were effected:—
Demobilized.—Officers, 144,144; other ranks, 3,332,882.
Discharged as medically unfit.—Officers, 23,476; other ranks, 207,500.
Discharged from reserves.—Other ranks, 143,603.
The modern British army is governed by the Army Council (instituted 1904), presided over by the Secretary of State for War. This Council, which consists of five military and five civilian members, including the president, works through the War Office, of which the principal departments are in charge of one or other of the members of the Council. On the military side these departments are those of the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, the Adjutant-General to the Forces, the Quartermaster-General to the Forces, and the Master-General of the Ordnance. For administrative and training purposes the United Kingdom is divided into seven Commands and the London District. When necessary, Commands are further subdivided into Districts. The army, generally speaking, consists of (1) the Regular Army, (2) the Territorial Force, and (3) the Reserves. The service battalions, which formed such a large and important part of the army in the war, do not, properly speaking, form part of the permanent military forces, though the organization of the army as a whole is such that it is capable of expansion to any extent by the process of raising new battalions and affiliating them to existing regular or territorial units. The regular army comprises the Household Cavalry, Cavalry of the Line, the Royal Regiment of Artillery, the Corps of Royal Engineers, the Brigade of Guards, and Infantry of the Line. In addition there are administrative troops and services such as the Royal Army Service Corps, the Royal Army Medical Corps, with its allied service Queen Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service, the Royal Army Ordnance Corps, and others. Other corps brought into existence during the war, such as the Tank and Machine-gun Corps, have at present no permanent status. In the future, however, machine-gun companies will form an integral portion of each battalion of the regular army.
Under the conditions of the war the old national method of voluntary recruitment was
found to be insufficient, and recourse was had to the principle of universal military service. Under the Military Service Acts the age limit was gradually raised till it finally included all men up to the age of fifty. Exceptions were made in the case of munition-workers, or those employed on work of national importance. Since the signature of the Treaty of Peace the army so raised was gradually demobilized till, by 31st March, 1920, it had decreased to 400,000, including 100,000 Indians paid by the Imperial Government. Concurrently with demobilization, voluntary enlistment was reintroduced, and the post-war army is once more a voluntary one, in which men serve under very much improved conditions as to pay and prospects. The period of service under this system is twelve years, of which seven normally are with the colours and five in the reserve: in certain cases modifications of these periods are allowed, and, in addition, a soldier may be allowed to extend his colour service to the full twelve years, or, in exceptional cases, to complete twenty-one years for pension. Discharge or transfer to the reserve is ordinarily granted on completion of the agreed period of service. Pay of all ranks was very materially improved in 1919. Whereas formerly a private soldier on enlistment received 1s. a day, he now receives 2s. 9d., and after two years' service 3s. 6d. To this last amount is added, under very reasonable conditions, a further daily sum of 6d. proficiency pay. A sergeant now gets 7s. a day instead of from 2s. 4d. to 3s. 4d., and a regimental sergeant-major 14s. instead of 5s. or 6s. Add to these rates of pay free rations, free housing, free medical attendance, and, in the future, doubtless free education, and it must be admitted that the present-day soldier is not badly paid. The rate of pay is a flat rate for all arms, special allowances being given where necessary.
The Household Cavalry comprises the 1st and 2nd Life Guards and the Horse Guards (Blues). In peace-time they serve only in London and Windsor. They alone retain the old cavalry rank of corporal of horse instead of sergeant. Cavalry of the line consists of dragoon guards, dragoons, hussars, and lancers. The dragoon guards are numbered separately from 1 to 7, while dragoons, hussars, and lancers run consecutively from 1 to 21. A regiment of cavalry is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of 25 officers and 497 other ranks. Each regiment is organized in three squadrons commanded by majors, while a squadron is divided into four troops, each under a subaltern officer, troops being further subdivided into sections under non-commissioned officers. Cavalry regiments, except hussars, carry guidons or standards for ceremonial purposes. These differ from the colours of infantry in that they are not consecrated and are carried by non-commissioned officers instead of by officers. Hussars carry no standards. There are six cavalry depots for recruiting and preliminary-training purposes, i.e. for lancers at Woolwich, hussars at Scarborough, Bristol, and Dublin, and dragoons at Newport (Mon.) and Dunbar. The Cavalry Special Reserve consists of the Irish Horse and King Edward's Horse, and during the war reserve cavalry regiments were maintained.
The Royal Regiment of Artillery comprises batteries of horse artillery designated by letters of the alphabet, and batteries of field, siege, heavy, and mountain by numbers. A battery, with some exceptions in the case of the heaviest type, consists of six guns or howitzers, horse artillery having 13-pounder guns, and field artillery 18-pounder guns or 4.5-inch howitzers. Horse artillery is intended to act with cavalry, and is therefore provided with a rather lighter gun. It can go anywhere that cavalry can go, and all the gun detachments are mounted. Field artillery works with infantry, and the gun detachments either walk or are carried on the limbers, only the officers, certain non-commissioned officers, and specialists such as scouts, range-finders, and trumpeters being mounted.
A battery is commanded by a major, with a captain as second-in-command, and is organized in three sections of two guns each under a subaltern. These sections are again subdivided into subsections of one gun each under a sergeant. Each gun is drawn by six horses, the driver of the leading pair being responsible for direction and pace. A corporal in the Royal Artillery is known as a bombardier, and the rank and file as gunners or drivers, according to their special duties, though drivers are also trained to some extent as gunners.
Heavy and siege artillery have come into their own in the late war, and consist roughly of all armament heavier than that of field artillery. Sixty-pounders and 4.7-inch howitzers form heavy batteries, while guns of 6 inch and upwards drawn by mechanical transport or mounted on railway trucks are known as siege batteries. Mountain artillery, of which most of the batteries are in India, is armed with 2.95-inch screw guns capable of being dismantled and carried piecemeal on mules. Another form is found on the west coast of Africa, where carriers take the place of mules. These guns are brought into action very quickly, but their shell-power is small.
The corps of Royal Engineers is responsible for the construction and maintenance of barracks, fortifications, and other military works, and for the personnel required for search-lights and electrical communications of the coast and anti-aircraft defences. With few exceptions the personnel of the corps is recruited entirely from
skilled tradesmen and artisans. For service in the field, Royal Engineer units known as field squadrons and field companies accompany the fighting troops, and carry a certain amount of bridging material and tools. More highly specialized units carry out such services as mining, heavy bridging, railway, survey, and sound-ranging work. An important feature of Royal Engineer work in war is the supply of materials and stores, for which purpose an elaborate organization is provided in addition to the units already noted.
The Brigade of Guards—the infantry of the household troops—comprises the five regiments of foot-guards. These are the Grenadier, the Coldstream, the Scots, the Irish, and the Welsh Guards of from one to three battalions each. Being household troops these regiments are subject to certain special regulations and have certain privileges. As a general rule they serve only in London, Windsor, or Aldershot, and only leave England for active service, though individual battalions have served in the past both in Cairo and Gibraltar.
The infantry, of which there are sixty-eight regiments of from two to four battalions each, provides the bulk of the army. Infantry is formed into regiments for recruiting and territorial distribution purposes, but the battalion is the actual unit both for fighting and administration. In many cases the Army List gives the name of an officer holding the appointment of colonel of the regiment: this is in all cases a purely honorary appointment and entails no duties or responsibilities. An infantry battalion is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of 32 officers and 1000 other ranks. Both in peace and war a battalion is divided into head-quarters and four companies, each of the latter having six officers, including the company commander, who is a major or senior captain. Subalterns command platoons. For recruiting purposes for infantry of the line the country is divided into Regimental Districts, in which are located the depots of the regiment concerned: these depots are commanded by a senior officer of one of the battalions of the regiment with the necessary staff for training purposes. Recruits are usually first trained at the depot and later transferred to the battalion requiring them. The Regimental Districts are again combined into larger districts in which are situated the Record Offices dealing with the regiments of the district. The denomination of the district dealing with any particular regiment is shown in the Army List in brackets. The principles of interior organization are the same throughout the army, and as they can be best illustrated with the example of an infantry battalion a short description of this organization follows. Owing to the continual growth of military science, the improvement in arms and means of destruction generally, and the confusion and noise inseparable from a modern battle, the size of the personally-controlled unit has gradually decreased till, in the present day, in the British army, it is accepted as an axiom that no larger number of men than six can be conveniently controlled in battle by one man. In former days companies, battalions, and even larger formations were both controlled and received their executive orders direct from their commanders—and to such an extent was this carried that Fortescue, in his History of the British Army, notes that Marlborough was in the habit of putting his whole army through the platoon exercise by means of flags and bugle-calls. This, of course, was not actually in face of the enemy, but the principle is the same. The stress of modern war now makes individual control of large bodies impossible, and the British army is therefore organized both for peace and war in a series of units of ever-increasing size, each under its own commander, who is responsible to his immediate superior for the well-being, training, and leading of his command. Taking the infantry organization as an example, we find that in the lowest stage, that of the 'section', the command is both personal and direct, in that the corporal controls and commands the six men composing his fighting unit personally and directly by word of mouth. In peace-time, and for administrative and training purposes, the section may reach to ten men, who live, work, and play together. In the next stage—that of the 'platoon', consisting of four sections—we find the control is rather less personal and direct, in that the platoon commander, a subaltern, controls his command largely through his subordinates, the section commanders. A further stage is that of the 'company', which consists of four platoons and company head-quarters. A company is commanded by a major or senior captain, has a captain as second-in-command, and a company sergeant-major and quartermaster-sergeant to assist in running it. Here again the control is less direct though still personal. The next stage is the amalgamation of companies into a battalion, consisting of a head-quarters and four companies. Battalion head-quarters consist of a lieutenant-colonel commanding, a major second-in-command, an adjutant, and a quartermaster. Certain other officers, when required, and the regimental sergeant-major and quartermaster-sergeant, and various other ranks make up the total of some 130. The commanding officer of a battalion is directly responsible for the well-being of his command, for its training, discipline, equipment, and general efficiency. In carrying on his duties he works through his company
commanders, and with the assistance of the regimental staff mentioned above, so that we have a direct chain of command and responsibility from the corporal commanding a section of six to ten men through platoons and companies to the lieutenant-colonel commanding a battalion of some thousand men. A detail of armament made possible by the enormous increase of machine-guns necessitated during the war is interesting. Thirty-two Lewis-guns are now provided for each infantry battalion, and are distributed to alternate sections in a platoon. Thus in each platoon two sections are known as rifle sections and two as Lewis-gun sections, and these arms are normally used by the respective sections; but men of all sections are trained in the use of both rifle and Lewis-gun.
When we come to formations larger than a battalion, we find the system of control and command becoming less and less personal and direct, as in all such formations the commander works to a less or greater extent through his staff. Roughly speaking, the staff is of two divisions, the one consisting of the general staff branch and the other of the branch of the adjutant and quartermaster-general. Again speaking very generally, the general staff is charged with duties bearing directly on military operations, while officers of the adjutant and quartermaster-general's branch deal more with administrative questions. Officers of the general staff are known as general staff officers, while those of the other branch are called, for example, assistant or deputy-assistant adjutant or quartermaster-general, according to their several duties.
The formation in which distinct and separate units are first collected under one superior commander is known as a brigade. This, according to present establishment, consists of three battalions and a trench-mortar battery, the whole under a general officer called a brigadier-general, assisted by a staff of two officers—a brigade-major and a staff-captain. Since March, 1920, however, the title of brigadier-general has been altered to 'colonel-commandant'. The strength of a brigade is something over 3000 of all ranks. In a division, which is the next highest formation, and which is commanded by a major-general with a staff of three general staff officers and three officers belonging to the A.G. and Q.M.G. branch, we find the first appearance of a mixed force. It is not a force of 'all arms', as cavalry is not included, but, in addition to infantry (three brigades), it has a considerable strength in artillery, besides engineers and the necessary administrative troops. Two or more divisions, together with a cavalry regiment and certain other troops, form an 'army corps', and two or more corps go to make up an 'army'. These are not at present peace-time formations of the British army.
Of the administrative troops and services already mentioned, the Royal Army Service Corps provides for the material wants of the army both in the way of food and transport. It is organized in companies designated by numerals.
The Royal Army Medical Corps provides the personnel and organization for the medical and sanitary services of the army. In peace-time this service is organized on a garrison basis, hospitals being established where required for the use of all troops in that particular garrison. For war purposes medical officers are still attached to regiments, and in addition the corps provides the personnel and organization necessary for field ambulances, casualty clearing-stations, hospital trains and ships, and various classes of fixed hospitals. The corps is organized in numbered companies, and the rank and file are trained in first aid and ambulance duties generally. It is administered by a director-general of Army Medical Services with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is an officer of the adjutant-general's department.
The other departments and administrative services of the army consist of the Royal Army Ordnance Corps, dealing generally with munitions of war; the Army Pay Department; the Royal Army Chaplains' Department; and the Royal Army Veterinary Corps, of which the functions are sufficiently designated by their title. In addition, there are manufacturing establishments at Woolwich Arsenal and elsewhere.
The Army Reserve consists of men who have completed their term of colour service, or service with a unit, and have thus passed into civil life, though still remaining liable for a period of years to be recalled to the colours if mobilization is ordered.
The Special Reserve was formed under the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act of 1907 out of the old militia. It consists generally of one battalion to each regiment of infantry, and is numbered consecutively with regular battalions of the regiment. It will, in the future, probably be again known as the Militia.
The Royal Marines—artillery and infantry, or the 'blue' and the 'red' marines, Kipling's "soldier and sailor too"—are not part of the army proper, as they are administered entirely by the Admiralty. They are, however, amenable to the Army Act when serving ashore. The term of service is for twelve years, which may be extended to make up twenty-one. Men may be transferred to or from the army at their own request.
The Territorial Force, or, as it is to be called in future, the Territorial Army, is raised entirely
on a county or territorial basis. It was originally created by the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act of 1907 out of a nucleus of the old yeomanry and volunteers. It is raised and administered by County Associations in each county and principal city. These associations consist of a president, chairman, military representative, and co-opted members. The administration of the Territorial Army is carried out by the County Associations in accordance with schemes provided by the Army Council, while all questions of training are reserved to the War Office. The Territorial Army consists of all arms, including machine-gun corps and the necessary administrative services: its full war establishment is fixed at approximately 345,000 of all ranks, though, for the present, only some 60 per cent of them are to be enlisted. The rejuvenated Territorial Army is to be in all respects a true second line of imperial defence, self-contained and self-supporting, while the regular army and its special reserve of militia battalions form the first line. Defence entails a certain amount of offence to bring it to a successful issue: it has therefore been decided that the new Territorial Army will not be relegated merely to the duty of guarding the country from invasion, but will, in a national emergency, be entitled to take its place under its own organization in the fighting line in any part of the world where its services may be required. This will entail enlistment for general service, but the interest of the force and of individuals composing it are safeguarded by the proviso that before the Territorial Army can be ordered out of the country an Act authorizing the movement be passed by Parliament. It is further provided that the Territorial Army will on no account be called on to supply drafts for regular regiments, and that in case fresh regiments have to be raised on the lines of the New Army, the machinery of the Territorial Army will be used to organize them. Enlistment will be for three or four years, according to whether a man has served during the European War (1914-8) or not; age limits are normally between 18 and 38. The army is to be organized in one cavalry (yeomanry) division of 12 regiments, and 14 infantry divisions each under a selected general officer, either regular or territorial. Pay and allowances during training periods will be as in the regular army, and in addition certain bounties will be obtainable. Training periods will be fifteen days in camp annually, besides a minimum number of drills and a musketry course. On completion of colour service a man will pass to the Territorial Reserve.
The New Army, consisting of the 'service battalions' of existing regiments, is a product of the war. When, on the outbreak of war, many new regiments were rapidly raised, they were affiliated to regular regiments with consecutive numbers after the territorial battalions, and this organization was continued and extended to cope with the personnel obtained under the Military Service Acts.
Educational establishments connected with the army include the Staff College, the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, and the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. At the Staff College officers obtain a course of instruction and study to fit them for service on the staff of the army. At Sandhurst, where the course of instruction is two years, some 700 gentlemen cadets are trained for commissions in the guards, cavalry, and infantry of the line, and the Indian army. At Woolwich gentlemen cadets desirous of entering the Royal Artillery or the Royal Engineers receive their training. In addition to these there are schools of gunnery and engineering, the Small Arms School at Hythe, the School of Physical Training at Aldershot, and many others: while, for sons and orphans of soldiers, there are the Duke of York's Royal Military School and the Royal Hibernian School. The Royal Hospital, Chelsea, and the Royal Hospital, Kilmainham, Dublin, are institutions for the care of old and distressed soldiers. In every garrison there are garrison schools for soldiers under fully qualified army schoolmasters, while in the future there is likely to be a very great increase in educational facilities of all kinds for the rank and file of the army. The training of the British army for war now embraces a variety of subjects, and at the Royal Military College and Academy the gentlemen cadets are not only taught the principles and practice of their future profession, but are also instructed in the methods of imparting their knowledge to others. For example, the course of training at the Royal Military College embraces drill and weapon training—under which head is included musketry (both theory and practice) and bayonet work—physical training, and riding. As part of the physical-training course they receive instruction as to the best methods of organizing regimental assaults-at-arms and sports. Among the more academic subjects are military history and tactics, field sketching and topography, field engineering, military law and administration, and elementary hygiene. A great deal of practical work is done, and the course of two years is designed to fit a young officer, on joining his regiment, to undertake the entire charge and training of his troop or platoon. At the Royal Military Academy extra subjects, such as artillery work and more advanced engineering, are also taught.
As to the soldier's training generally, drill is insisted on as an aid to discipline, which it
undoubtedly is, and exact performance of the various movements ordered is expected. In other branches of training more individuality is allowed, and the days when the bayonet-exercise was performed by a battalion to the music of the regimental band having passed, considerable latitude as to positions and execution is permitted in this particular branch, attention being principally concentrated on inculcating the 'offensive spirit'. The modern soldier also learns how to use a Lewis-gun, to throw or fire a grenade, what to do in case of a gas attack, the rudiments of field engineering, and how to keep himself healthy.
In addition to the more generally-known units of the army there are certain corps which, though raised in the colonies, still form part of the army, and which are administered by the imperial authorities. Under this head are the Royal Malta Artillery (local service); the West India Regiment (two battalions) and the West African Regiment, both for general service and both administered by the War Office. Among other colonial corps maintained by the imperial Government, though not forming part of the regular army, are the West African Frontier Force (Nigeria) and the King's African Rifles (East Africa). Both these are administered by the Colonial Office.
Dominions.—The military forces of the self-governing dominions are raised and organized under the laws of such dominions.
Those of the Commonwealth of Australia are organized on a system of compulsory military training for all males between the ages of twelve and twenty-six. In the earlier stages boys are trained in cadet corps, from which they pass to the Citizen Army, and from there, having attained the age of twenty-six, to recognized rifle clubs. The annual period of training in the Citizen Army is sixteen days. When the scheme is in full working order this force will consist of twenty-three 4-battalion brigades of infantry, twenty-three regiments of light horse, fifty-six 4-gun batteries, and the necessary complement of engineers and administrative troops. During the war this organization was in abeyance, and regiments were raised as required for overseas service, and, though proposals for conscription were negatived, the commonwealth still managed to send some 330,000 men to the various theatres of war out of 417,000 raised. The casualties, killed, wounded, and missing, were 210,724.
The Commonwealth also maintains a small permanent force of trained professional soldiers.
The New Zealand forces are also organized on the principle of universal training for all males. The details differ somewhat from those in favour in Australia, but the principle is the same, i.e. that every male should be trained for home defence. Boys of from twelve to eighteen years of age are trained in cadet corps, from which they pass to regiments of the Territorial Force, and from twenty-five to thirty belong to the reserve. Cadets do annually a specified number of drills, while the territorial training extends to seven clear days, a musketry course, and certain drills every year. For the purposes of the war, conscription was introduced in 1916, and 220,000 men were raised between 1914 and 1918, out of which the casualties were nearly 57,000.
Canada, unlike Australia and New Zealand, has no system of graduated military training. The military forces of the dominion are organized as a militia under a Minister of Militia and Defence working with a Council. This militia is recruited by voluntary enlistment, and, on the outbreak of war, consisted of a permanent force of 3000 and some 60,000 men who had received militia training. This made possible the rapid dispatch to France of a division which, by 1916, had increased to a corps of four divisions and a cavalry brigade. Like the Mother Country and New Zealand, Canada introduced conscription in 1917, and during the war raised nearly 641,000 men and suffered 206,149 casualties, of which 56,110 were killed, 149,733 wounded, and 306 missing.
The Union of South Africa divides its military forces into the permanent force and the citizen force. There is also a coast-defence force. The permanent force consists of the five regiments of the South African Mounted Rifles. South Africa's greatest military effort during the war was directed towards German South-West and East Africa, but some 27,000 men were enlisted for and sent to Europe out of a total number of 136,000 raised. This total does not include coloured troops. The casualties were 18,000.
In other self-governing portions of the Empire troops were raised as required, and in the West and East African colonies the existing formations of native troops were considerably increased for service in suitable portions of the various theatres of war. The official statement of troops raised shows under the heading of 'other colonies' 134,837, including coloured troops from South Africa and the West Indies. The casualties among them amounted to 7519.
The Army in India.—The military forces in India consist of those units of British cavalry, artillery, and infantry temporarily serving in the country, and the Indian army proper, consisting of regiments recruited from among the native inhabitants and normally serving there. Enlistment is voluntary and for general service, one of the promises made by a man on enrolment being "to go wherever ordered by land and sea and not to allow caste usages to interfere with his duties as a soldier". The Indian army, as a disciplined and organized force, dates from the
years between 1748 and 1758. In 1748 Major Stringer Lawrence arrived in Madras with a commission from the Company as commander-in-chief. His first act was to form the existing European independent companies into regiments; his second to raise certain native independent companies. In 1758 he formed these companies in their turn into battalions, which he designated 'coast sepoys', and which still exist under their present names of the 61st Pioneers and following numbers. His system was extended to the other presidencies, and at the period of the mutiny, in 1857, the native army in India consisted of some 230,000 regular troops, besides irregulars. When the post-mutiny reconstruction took place, the army was reorganized on an irregular basis instead of as regular regiments on the British model. According to this new system, the number of British officers in a regiment was considerably reduced; native officers were given command of troops and companies, while the British officer's command became the squadron, or wing. Native artillery, with the exception of certain mountain batteries, was abolished, and cavalry was reconstituted on the Silladar system, whereby, in consideration of a larger monthly pay than was given to the infantry sepoy, the trooper, or sowar, provided his own horse and sword. The system thus introduced virtually remains to the present day, though it has been modified and improved to suit later conditions. The infantry officer's command has decreased from the wing of four companies to the double company of two, and it is now known as a company and is organized in four platoons on the British service model, platoons being commanded by Indian officers. Of late years the number of British officers with an Indian regiment has been increased to twelve, and at the present time a committee is sitting in India to deliberate on the future construction of the army. It is therefore impossible to give details of its future strength. This, just before the war, was some 160,000, organized in 38 regiments of cavalry, the corps of guides, 3 regiments of sappers and miners, 118 regiments of infantry of 1 battalion each, and 10 regiments of Gurkhas of 2 battalions each. There were also 13 mountain batteries. The 'Imperial Service Troops', of which many contingents took part in the war, are raised, paid, and maintained by princes and chiefs as a contribution to the defence of the country, while their training is supervised by British inspecting officers. The 'Indian Defence Force', which has lately replaced the volunteers, and in which service is compulsory for Europeans, is available for home defence only. During the war India, by voluntary enlistment, provided 1,401,350 men. Of these many new regiments were formed, and second, third, and fourth battalions added to existing regiments. Casualties were very nearly 114,000, including some 48,000 killed. Native Indian officers of cavalry are known as ressaldars, ressaiders, and jemadars, while those of the infantry are called subadars and jemadars. In each regiment the senior Indian officer is called ressaldar or subadar-major.
The army in India, by which is meant all military forces in India, is administered by a commander-in-chief, who is a member of council. The head-quarter staff includes a military secretary, the chief of the general staff, an adjutant and a quartermaster-general, director-general of ordnance and military works, and a director of medical services.—Bibliography: Hon. J. W. Fortescue, History of the British Army; C. W. C. Oman, A History of the Art of War: Middle Ages; C. H. Firth, Cromwell's Army; C. Walton, History of the British Standing Army, 1660-1700; War Office, Army Book for the British Empire; F. N. Maude, Evolution of Modern Strategy; G. F. R. Henderson, The Science of War; C. Romagny, Histoire générale de l'armée nationale; Heimann, L'Armée allemande.
Army Act. See Military Law.
Army Worm, the very destructive larva of the moth Heliophĭla or Leucania unipuncta, so called from its habit of marching in compact bodies of enormous number, devouring almost every green thing it meets. It is about 1½ inches long, greenish in colour, with black stripes, and is found in various parts of the world, but is particularly destructive in North America. The larva of Sciăra militaris, a European two-winged fly, is also called army worm.
Arnat´to, or Annotta. See Annatto.
Arnauld (a˙r-nō), the name of a French family, several members of which greatly distinguished themselves.—Antoine, an eminent French advocate, was born 1560, died 1619. Distinguished as a zealous defender of the cause of Henry IV, and for his powerful and successful defence of the University of Paris against the Jesuits in 1594. His family formed the nucleus of the sect of the Jansenists (see Jansenius) in France.—His son Antoine, called the Great Arnauld, was born 6th Feb., 1612, at Paris, died 9th Aug., 1694, at Brussels. He devoted himself to theology, and was received in 1641 among the doctors of the Sorbonne. He engaged in all the quarrels of the French Jansenists with the Jesuits, the clergy, and the Government, was the chief Jansenist writer, and was considered their head. Excluded from
the Sorbonne, he retired to Port Royal, where he wrote, in conjunction with his friend Nicole, a celebrated system of logic (hence called the Port Royal Logic). On account of persecution he fled, in 1679, to the Netherlands. His works, which are mainly controversies with the Jesuits or the Calvinists, are very voluminous.—His brother Robert, born 1588, died 1674, retired to Port Royal, where he wrote a translation of Josephus, and other works.—Robert's daughter Angélique, born 1624, died 1684, was eminent in the religious world, and was subjected to persecution on account of her unflinching adherence to Jansenism.
Ar´nauts. See Albania.
Arndt (a˙rnt), Ernst Moritz, German patriot and poet, was born 1769, died 1860. He was appointed professor of history at Greifswald in 1806, and stirred up the national feeling against Napoleon in his work Geist der Zeit (Spirit of the Time). In 1812-3 he zealously promoted the war of independence by a number of pamphlets, poems, and spirited songs, among which it is sufficient to refer to his Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland?, Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess, and Was blasen die Trompeten? Husaren, heraus!, which were caught up and sung from one end of Germany to the other. In 1817 he married a sister of the theologian Schleiermacher, and settled at Bonn in order to undertake the duties of professor of history. He was, however, suspended till 1840 on account of his liberal opinions, when he was restored to his chair on the accession of Frederick William IV.
Arndt, Johann, celebrated German mystic theologian, born 1555, died 1621. His principal work, Wahres Christenthum (True Christianity), is still popular in Germany, and has been translated into almost all European languages. Another of his publications is Paradiesgaertlein, translated into English (The Garden of Paradise).
Arne (a˙rn), Thomas Augustine, English composer, born at London 1710, died 1778. His first opera, Fair Rosamond, was performed in 1733 at Lincoln's-Inn Fields, and was received with great applause. Then followed a version of Fielding's Tom Thumb, altered into The Opera of Operas, a musical burlesque. His style in the Comus (1738) is still more original and cultivated. To him we owe the national air Rule, Britannia, originally given in a popular piece called the Masque of Alfred. After having composed two oratorios and several operas he received the degree of Doctor of Music at Oxford. He composed, also, music for several of the songs in Shakespeare's dramas, and various pieces of instrumental music.
Arnee´, one of the numerous Indian varieties of the buffalo (Bubălus arni), remarkable as being the largest animal of the ox kind known. It measures about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and from 9 to 10½ feet long from the muzzle to the root of the tail. It is found chiefly in the forests at the base of the Himalayas.
Arn´hem, or Arnheim, a town in Holland, province of Gelderland, 18 miles south-west of Zutphen, on the right bank of the Rhine. Pleasantly situated, it is a favourite residential resort, and it contains many interesting public buildings; manufactures cabinet wares, mirrors, carriages, mathematical instruments, &c.; has paper-mills, and its trade is important. In 1795 it was stormed by the French, who were driven from it by the Prussians in 1813. Pop. 70,664 (1917).
Arnhem Land, a portion of the northern territory of S. Australia, lying west of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and forming a sort of peninsula.
Ar´ni, a town of Madras, on the Cheyair River, 16 miles south of Arcot; formerly a large military station; stormed by Clive in 1751, and scene of defeat of Hyder Ali by Sir Eyre Coote in 1782. Pop. 5050.
Ar´nica, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositæ, containing eighteen species, one of which is found in Central Europe, A. montāna (leopard's bane or mountain tobacco), but is not a native of Britain. It has a perennial root, a stem about 2 feet high, bearing on the summit flowers of a dark golden yellow. In every part of the plant there is an acrid resin and a volatile oil, and in the flowers an acrid bitter principle called arnicin. The root contains also a considerable quantity of tannin. A tincture of it is employed as an external application to wounds and bruises. It was introduced into English gardens about the middle of the eighteenth century.
Ar´nim, Elisabeth von, a German writer, also known as Bettina, wife of Louis Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet Clemens Brentano; born at Frankfort in 1785, died at Berlin 1859. Even in her childhood she manifested an inclination towards eccentricities and poetical peculiarities of many kinds. She entered into correspondence with Goethe, for whom she entertained a violent passion, although he was then in his sixtieth year. In 1835 she published Goethe's Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde (Goethe's Correspondence with a Child), containing, among others, the letters that she alleged to have passed between her and Goethe. Her later writings dealt with subjects like the emancipation of the Jews, and the abolition of capital punishment. Her husband, Ludwig Achim von Arnim, born at Berlin in 1781, died 1831, distinguished himself as a writer of novels. In concert with her brother, Clemens Brentano, he published a collection of popular German songs and ballads entitled Des Knaben Wunderhorn.—Her daughter,
Gisela von Arnim, is known in literature by her Dramatische Werke (3 vols., 1857-63).
Ar´no (ancient Arnus), a river of Italy which rises in the Etruscan Apennines, makes a sweep to the south and then flows westwards, divides Florence into two parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4 miles below it, into the Tuscan Sea, after a course of 130 miles.
Arno´bius, an early Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca Veneria, in Numidia, and in 303 became a Christian; he died about 326. He wrote seven books of Disputationes adversus Gentes (or Adversus Nationes), in which he refuted the objections of the heathens against Christianity. This work betrays a defective knowledge of Christianity, but is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology.
Arnold, an urban district or town of England, Nottinghamshire, 3 miles north-east of Nottingham, with lace and hosiery manufactures, &c. It has a church built in the twelfth century, and a tower dating from the fifteenth century and restored in 1868 and 1877. Pop. 11,800.
Ar´nold, Benedict, a general in the American army during the War of Independence, born in 1741. He rendered his name infamous by his attempt to betray the strong fortress of West Point, with all the arms and immense stores which were there deposited, into the hands of the British. The project failed through the capture of Major André, when Arnold made his escape to the British lines. He received a commission as brigadier-general in the British army, and took part in several marauding expeditions. He subsequently settled in the West Indies, and ultimately came to London, where he died in 1801.
Ar´nold, Sir Edwin, K.C.I.E., poet, Sanskrit scholar, and journalist, born 1832. Educated at Oxford, where he took the Newdigate prize for a poem entitled the Feast of Belshazzar in 1852, he was successively second master in King Edward VI's College at Birmingham, and principal of the Sanskrit College at Poonah in Bombay. In 1861 he joined the editorial staff of the Daily Telegraph, with which he was henceforth connected. He died in 1904. He was author of Poems, Narrative and Lyrical; translations from the Greek and Sanskrit; The Light of Asia, a poem on the life and teaching of Buddha; The Light of the World; Pearls of the Faith; Lotus and Jewel, &c.
Ar´nold, Matthew, English critic, essayist, and poet, was born at Laleham, near Staines, 1822, being a son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He was educated at Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford, and became a Fellow of Oriel College. He was private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, 1847-51; appointed inspector of schools, 1851; professor of poetry at Oxford, 1858; published A Strayed Reveller and other poems, 1848; Empedocles on Etna, 1853; Merope, 1858; Essays in Criticism, 1865; On the Study of Celtic Literature, 1867; Schools and Universities on the Continent, 1868; St. Paul and Protestantism, 1870; Literature and Dogma, 1873; Last Essays on Church and Religion, 1877; God and the Bible, 1878; Discourses on America, 1885, &c. He received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh, and that of D.C.L. from Oxford, and lectured in Britain and in America. He died in 1888. A complete edition of his works in 15 vols. appeared in 1905.—Bibliography: H. W. Paul, Matthew Arnold (English Men of Letters Series); G. Saintsbury, Matthew Arnold (Modern English Writers Series); G. W. E. Russell, Matthew Arnold (Literary Lives Series); F. Bickley, Matthew Arnold and his Poetry.
Ar´nold, Thomas, headmaster of Rugby School, and professor of modern history in the University of Oxford, born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, in 1795, died 1842. He entered Oxford in his sixteenth year, and in 1815 he was elected Fellow of Oriel College, and both in that year and 1817 he obtained the chancellor's prize for Latin and English essays. After taking deacon's orders he settled at Laleham, near Staines, where he employed himself in preparing young men for the universities. In 1828 he was appointed headmaster of Rugby School, and devoted himself to his new duties with the greatest ardour. While giving due prominence to the classics, he deprived them of their exclusiveness by introducing various other branches into his course, and he was particularly careful that the education which he furnished should be in the highest sense moral and Christian. His success was remarkable. Not only did Rugby School become crowded beyond any former precedent, but the superiority of Dr. Arnold's system became so generally recognized that it may be justly said to have done much for the general improvement of the public schools of England. In 1841 he was appointed professor of modern history at Oxford, and delivered his introductory course of lectures with great success. His chief works are his edition of Thucydides, his History of Rome (unhappily left unfinished), and his Sermons. There is an admirable memoir of him by A. P. Stanley, Dean of Westminster (London, 2 vols., 1845).—Cf Lytton Strachey, Eminent Victorians.
Ar´nold of Brescia, an Italian religious and political reformer and martyr of the twelfth century. He was one of the disciples of Abélard, and attracted a considerable following by preaching against the corruption of the clergy. Excommunicated by Innocent II, he withdrew to Zürich, but soon reappeared in Rome, where he was taken and burned (1155).
Arnold-Forster, Hugh Oakeley, grandson of
Dr. Arnold of Rugby, and adopted son of the late W. E. Forster, M.P., whose wife was his aunt, was born in 1855, died in 1909. He was educated at Rugby and University College, Oxford. He sat as member of Parliament for West Belfast from 1892, for Croydon from 1906, as a Liberal Unionist, was Parliamentary Secretary to the Admiralty from 1900 to 1903, then Secretary of State for War, a position which he held till Dec., 1905, having put forward sweeping proposals for the improvement of our army. He wrote on various subjects, especially books for popular instruction, including How to Solve the Irish Land Question, The Citizen Reader, This World of Ours, Things New and Old, In a Conning Tower, A History of England, English Socialism of To-day, Military Needs and Military Policy, &c.
Ar´non, a river in Palestine, the boundary between the country of the Moabites and that of the Amorites, afterwards of the Israelites, a tributary of the Dead Sea. It is now called Wady-el-Mojib.
Ar´not, or Ar´nut, a name of the agreeably flavoured farinaceous tubers of the earth-nut or pig-nut (Bunium flexuōsum and B. Bulbocastănum). See Earth-nut.
Ar´nott, Dr. Neil, an eminent physician and physicist, was born at Arbroath, 1788, died 1874. Having graduated as M.A. at Aberdeen, he then studied medicine, and was appointed a surgeon in the East India Company's naval service. In 1811 he commenced practice in London. In 1837 he was appointed extraordinary physician to the queen. In 1827 he published Elements of Physics, and in 1838 a treatise on Warming and Ventilation, &c. He is widely known as the inventor of a stove which is regarded as one of the most economical arrangements for burning fuel, a ventilating chimney-valve, and his water-bed for the protection of the sick against bed-sores. In 1869 he gave £1000 to each of the four Scottish universities and £2000 to London University for the promotion of the study of physics. He was a strong advocate of a scientific as opposed to a purely classical education.
Arnprior, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 35 miles west of Ottawa, on the right bank of the River Ottawa, where it is joined by the Madawaska, and with important railway connections. Pop. 4405.
Arnsberg (a˙rnz´berh), a town in Prussia, province Westphalia, capital of the district of same name, on the Ruhr. Pop. 10,256.—The district of Arnsberg has an area of 2972 sq. miles, and a population of 2,400,000.
Arnstadt (a˙rn´sta˙t), a town of Germany, in Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 11 miles south by west of Erfurt, upon the Gera, which divides it into two parts. It has manufactures in leather, &c., and a good trade in grain and timber. Pop. 17,907.
Arnswalde (a˙rnz´va˙l-de), a town of Prussia, province Brandenburg, 39 miles south-east of Stettin. Pop. 8730.
Ar´nulf, great-grandson of Charlemagne, elected King of Germany in A.D. 887; invaded Italy, captured Rome, and was crowned emperor by the Pope (896); died A.D. 898.
Aroi´deæ. See Araceæ.
Ar´olsen, a German town, capital of Waldeck. Pop. 2793.
Aromat´ics, drugs, or other substances which yield a fragrant smell, and often a warm pungent taste, as calamus (Acōrus Calămus), ginger, cinnamon, cassia, lavender, rosemary, laurel, nutmegs, cardamoms, pepper, pimento, cloves, vanilla, saffron. Some of them are used medicinally as tonics, stimulants, &c.
Aromatic Vinegar, a very volatile and powerful perfume made by adding the essential oils of lavender, cloves, &c., and often camphor, to crystallizable acetic acid. It is a powerful excitant in fainting, languor, and headache.
Aro´na, an ancient Italian town near the south extremity of Lago Maggiore. Pop. 4474. In the vicinity is the colossal statue of San Carlo Borromeo, 70 feet in height, exclusive of pedestal 42 feet high.
Aroos´took, a river of the north-eastern United States and New Brunswick, a tributary of the St. John, length 120 miles.
Arou´ra, or Aru´ra, an ancient Egyptian measure of surface, according to Herodotus the square of 100 cubits, containing, 21,904 sq. feet.
Arpad, founder of the Magyar monarchy, born about 870, died 907. See Hungary.
Arpeggio (a˙r-pej´ō), the distinct sound of the notes of an instrumental chord; the striking the notes of a chord in rapid succession, as in the manner of touching the harp instead of playing them simultaneously.
Arpent (a˙r-pän˙), formerly a French measure of land, equal to five-sixths of an English acre; but it varied in different parts of France; the Parisian arpent contained 32,400 sq. feet, the common arpent 40,000 sq. feet.
Arpino (a˙r-pē´nō; ancient Arpinum), a town of Southern Italy, province of Caserta, celebrated as the birthplace of Gaius Marius and Cicero. It manufactures woollens, linen, paper, &c. Pop. 10,309.
Arqua (a˙r´kwa˙), a village of Northern Italy, about 13 miles south-west of Padua, where the poet Petrarch died, 18th July, 1374. A monument has been erected over his grave. Pop. 1700.
Ar´quebus, a hand-gun; a species of fire-arm of the sixteenth century, resembling a musket. It was fired from a forked rest, and sometimes
cocked by a wheel, and carried a ball that weighed nearly 2 ounces. A larger kind used in fortresses carried a heavier shot.
Arraca´cha. See Aracacha.
Arracan´. See Aracan.
Ar´rack. See Arack.
Ar´ragon. See Aragon.
Ar´rah, a town of British India, in Shahabad district, Bengal, rendered famous during the mutiny of 1857 by the heroic resistance of a body of twenty civilians and fifty Sikhs, cooped up within a detached house, to a force of 3000 sepoys, who were ultimately routed and overthrown by the arrival of a small European reinforcement. Pop. 46,170.
Arraignment (ar-rān´-), the act of calling or setting a prisoner at the bar of a court to plead guilty or not guilty to the matter charged in an indictment or information. In Scots law the term is calling the diet.—The Clerk of Arraigns is an officer attached to assize courts and to the Old Bailey, who assists in the arraignment of prisoners, and puts formal questions to the jury.
Ar´ran, an island of Scotland, in the Firth of Clyde, part of Bute county; length, north to south, 20 miles; breadth, about 10 miles; area, 165 sq. miles, or 105,814 acres, of which about 15,000 are under cultivation. It is of a wild and romantic appearance, particularly the northern half, where the island attains its loftiest summit in Goatfell, 2866 feet high. The coast presents several indentations, of which that of Lamlash, forming a capacious bay, completely sheltered by Holy Island, is one of the best natural harbours in the west of Scotland. On the small island of Pladda, about a mile from the south shore, a lighthouse has been erected. The geology of Arran has attracted much attention, as furnishing within a comparatively narrow space distinct sections of the great geological formations; while the botany possesses almost equal interest, both in the variety and the rarity of many of its plants. Among objects of interest are relics of Danish forts, standing stones, cairns, &c. Lamlash and Brodick are villages. The island is a favourite resort of summer visitors, and is reached by steamer from Ardrossan. Pop. 8294.
Arran, Earls of. See Hamilton, Family of.
Arrangement, in music, the adaptation of a composition to voices or instruments for which it was not originally written; also, a piece so adapted.
Ar´ran Islands. See Aran.
Arraro´ba. See Araroba.
Arras (a˙-rä), a town of France, capital of the department Pas-de-Calais, well built, with several handsome squares and a citadel, cathedral, public library, botanic garden, museum, and numerous flourishing industries. In the Middle Ages it was famous for the manufacture of tapestry, to which the English applied the name of the town itself (arrazo). The battle of Arras was fought and Vimy Ridge taken by the Allies on 9th April, 1917. Pop. 24,200.
Arrest´ is the apprehending or restraining of one's person, which, in civil cases, can take place legally only by process in execution of the command of some court or officers of justice; but in criminal cases any man may arrest without warrant or precept, and every person is liable to arrest without distinction, but no man is to be arrested unless charged with such a crime as will at least justify holding him to bail when taken. Magna Charta and the Habeas Corpus Act are the two great statutes for securing the liberty of the subject against unlawful arrests and suits.
Arrest´ment, in Scots law, a process by which a creditor may attach money or movable property which a third party holds for behoof of his debtor. In 1870 an Act was passed for Scotland which provides that only that part of the weekly wages of labourers, and of workpeople generally, which is in excess of 20s. is liable to arrestment for debt.
Arrest of Judgment, in law, the staying or stopping of a judgment after verdict, for causes assigned. Courts have power to arrest judgment for intrinsic causes appearing upon the face of the record; as when the declaration varies from the original writ; when the verdict differs materially from the pleadings; or when the case laid in the declaration is not sufficient in point of law to found an action upon.
Arre´tium. See Arezzo.
Arrhenath´erum, a genus of oat-like grasses, of which A. elatius, sometimes called French rye-grass, is a valuable fodder plant.
Arrhenius, Svante August, famous Swedish physicist and chemist, born 19th Feb., 1859, at Wyk, near Upsala. He was educated at the Universities of Upsala (1876-81) and Stockholm (1881-4), spent two years in travelling, and after doing much original research was appointed professor of physics at the University of Stockholm. To him is due the establishment of the theory of electrolytic dissociation, supplying a reasonable explanation of many chemical phenomena otherwise insoluble. He subsequently extended the application of the electrolytic theory to the phenomena of atmospheric electricity. His dissertation Sur la conductibilité galvanique des électrolytes appeared in 1884. Among his other works is Worlds in the Making (English translation, 1908).
Ar´ria, the heroic wife of a Roman named Cæcīna Pætus. Pætus was condemned to death in A.D. 42 for his share in a conspiracy against the emperor Claudius, and was encouraged to suicide by his wife, who stabbed herself and then
handed the dagger to her husband with the words, 'It does not hurt, Pætus!'
Ar´rian, or Flavius Arrianus, a Greek historian, native of Nicomedia, flourished in the second century, under the emperor Hadrian and the Antonines. He was first a priest of Ceres; but at Rome he became a disciple of Epictetus, was honoured with the citizenship of Rome, and was advanced to the senatorial and even consular dignities. His extant works are: The Expedition of Alexander, in seven books; a book On the Affairs of India; an Epistle to Hadrian; a Treatise on Tactics; a Periplus of the Euxine Sea; a Periplus of the Red Sea; and his Enchiridion, a moral treatise, containing the discourses of Epictetus.
Ar´ris, in architecture, the line in which the two straight or curved surfaces of a body, forming an exterior angle, meet each other.
Arro´ba (Spanish), a weight formerly used in Spain, and still used in the greater part of Central and South America. In the States of Spanish origin its weight is generally equal to 25.35 lb. avoirdupois; in Brazil it equals 32.38 lb.—Also a measure for wine, spirits, and oil, ranging from 2¾ gallons to about 10 gallons.
Arröe, Danish island. See Aeröe.
Arrondissement. See France.
Arrow. See Archery, Bow.
Arrowhead (Sagittaria), a genus of aquatic plants found in all parts of the world within the torrid and temperate zones, nat. ord. Alismaceæ, distinguished by possessing barren and fertile flowers, with a three-leaved calyx and three coloured petals. The common arrowhead (S. sagittifolia), the only native species in Britain, is known by its arrow-shaped leaves with lanceolate straight lobes.
Arrowheaded Characters. See Cuneiform Writing.
Arrow Lake, an expansion of the Columbia River, in British Columbia, Canada; about 95 miles long from N. to S.; often regarded as forming two lakes—Upper and Lower Arrow Lake.
Arrowrock Dam. See Dams and Reservoirs.
Arrow-root, a starch largely used for food and for other purposes. Arrow-root proper is obtained from the rhizomes or rootstocks of several species of plants of the genus Maranta (nat. ord. Marantaceæ), and perhaps owes its name to the scales which cover the rhizome, which have some resemblance to the point of an arrow. Some, however, suppose that the name is due to the fact of the fresh roots being used as an application against wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows, and others say that arrow is a corruption of ara, the Indian name of the plant. The species from which arrow-root is most commonly obtained is M. arundinācĕa, hence called the arrow-root plant. Brazilian arrow-root, or tapioca meal, is got from the large fleshy root of Manihot utilissima, after the poisonous juice has been got rid of; East Indian arrow-root, from the large rootstocks of Curcŭma angustifolia; Chinese arrow-root, from the creeping rhizomes of Nelumbium speciōsum; English arrow-root, from the potato; Portland arrow-root, from the corms of Arum maculātum; and Oswego arrow-root, from Indian corn. Analyses made in 1902 and 1906 show that the idea generally held of the nourishing qualities of arrow-root is a delusion, and that the proteids, which are true muscle-builders, are present in an extremely small extent. Arrow-root, however, mixed with eggs, milk, and flavourings, is largely used in the dietary of invalids.
Arrowsmith, Aaron, a distinguished English chartographer, born 1750, died 1823; he raised the execution of maps to a perfection it had never before attained.—His nephew, John, born 1790, died 1873, was no less distinguished in the same field; his London Atlas of Universal Geography may be specially mentioned.
Arroyo (a˙r-rō´yo), the name of two towns of Spain, in Estremadura, the one, called Arroyo del Puerco (pop. 5727), about 10 miles west of Caceres; the other, called Arroyo Molinos de Montanches, about 27 miles south-east of Caceres, memorable from the victory gained by Lord Hill over a French force under General Gerard, 28th Oct., 1811.
Ar´ru (or Aroo) Islands, a group belonging to the Dutch, south of western New Guinea, and extending from north to south about 127 miles. They are composed of coralline limestone, nowhere exceeding 200 feet above the sea, and are well wooded and tolerably fertile. The natives belong to the Papuan race, and some of them are Christians. The chief exports are trepang, tortoise-shell, pearls, mother-of-pearl, and edible birds'-nests. Pop. of group about 20,000.
Arsa´ces, the founder of a dynasty of Parthian kings (256 B.C.), who, taking their name from him, are called Arsacidæ. There were thirty-one in all. See Parthia.
Ar´samas, a manufacturing town in the Russian government of Nijni-Novgorod, on the Tesha, 250 miles east of Moscow, with a cathedral and large convent. Pop. 12,000.
Ar´senal, a royal or public magazine or place appointed for the making, repairing, keeping, and issuing of military stores. An arsenal of the first class should include factories for guns and gun-carriages, small-arms, small-arms ammunition, harness, saddlery, tents, and powder; a laboratory and large store-houses. In arsenals of the second class workshops take the place of the factories. The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, which manufactures warlike implements and stores for the army and navy, was formed about 1720, and comprises factories, laboratories, &c., for the manufacture and final fitting up of almost every kind of arms and ammunition. Great quantities of military and naval stores are kept at the dockyards of Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Pembroke. In France there are various arsenals or depots of war-material, which is manufactured at Mézières, Toulouse, Besançon, &c.; the great naval arsenals are Brest and Toulon. Until 1919 the chief German arsenals were at Spandau, Strassburg, and Dantzig. The chief Austrian arsenal was the immense establishment at Vienna, which included gun-factory, laboratory, small-arms and carriage factories, &c. Russia had her principal arsenal at Petrograd, with supplementary factories of arms and ammunition at Briansk, Kiev, and elsewhere. In Italy Turin is the centre of the military factories. There are a number of arsenals in the United States, but individually they are of little importance.
Ar´senic (symbol As, atomic weight 75), a common element usually found combined with metals as arsenides, the commonest of which is arsenical pyrites, FeAsS. It has a steel colour and high metallic lustre, and tarnishes on exposure to the air, first changing to yellow, and finally to black. In hardness it equals copper; it is extremely brittle, and very volatile, beginning to sublime before it melts. It burns with a blue flame, and emits a smell of garlic. Its specific gravity is 5.76. It forms compounds with most of the metals. Combined with sulphur it forms orpiment and realgar, which are the yellow and red sulphides of arsenic. Orpiment is the true arsenicum of the ancients. With oxygen arsenic forms two compounds, the more important of which is arsenious oxides or arsenic trioxide (As4O6), which is the white arsenic, or simply arsenic of the shops. It is usually seen in white, glassy, translucent masses, and is obtained by sublimation from several ores containing arsenic in combination with metals, particularly from arsenical pyrites. Of all substances arsenic is that which has most frequently occasioned death by poisoning, both by accident and design. The best remedies against the effects of arsenic on the stomach are ferric hydroxide or magnesic hydroxide, or a mixture of both, with copious draughts of bland liquids of a mucilaginous consistence, which serve to procure its complete ejection from the stomach. Oils and fats generally, milk, albumen, wheat-flour, oatmeal, sugar or syrup, have all proved useful in counteracting its effect. Like many other virulent poisons it is a safe and useful medicine, especially in skin diseases, when judiciously employed. It is used as a flux for glass, and also for forming pigments. The arsenite of copper (Scheele's green) and a double arsenite and acetate of copper (emerald green) were formerly largely used to colour paper-hangings for rooms; but as poisonous gases are liable to be given off, the practice has been to a great extent abandoned. Arsenic compounds have been used for colouring confectionery, and other articles, bright green, but their chief industrial use is in the preparation of insecticides. Arsenic is found in crude oil of vitriol, and occasionally in products such as grape-sugar, beer, &c., in the manufacture of which oil of vitriol is employed. Plants die when placed in a solution of arsenic, but corn is often steeped in such a solution, previous to planting, for preventing smut, and the growth of the future plant is not injured thereby.
Arshin (a˙r-shēn´), a Russian measure of length equal to 28 inches.
Arsin´oë, a city of ancient Egypt on Lake Mœris, said to have been founded about 2300 B. C., but renamed after Arsinoë, wife and sister of Ptolemy II of Egypt, and called also Crocodilopolis, from the sacred crocodiles kept at it.
Ar´sis, a term applied in prosody to that syllable in a measure where the emphasis is put; in elocution, the elevation of the voice, in distinction from thesis, or its depression. Arsis and thesis, in music, are the strong position and weak position of the bar, indicated by the down-beat and up-beat in marking time.
Ar´son, in English law, the malicious burning of a dwelling-house or outhouse of another man, which by the common law is felony, and which, if
any person is therein, is capital. Also, the wilful setting fire to any church, chapel, warehouse, mill, barn, agricultural produce, ship, coal-mine, and the like. In Scotland it is called wilful fire-raising, and in both England and Scotland it is a considerable aggravation of the crime if the burning is to defraud insurers.
Art, in its most extended sense, as distinguished from nature on the one hand and from science on the other, has been defined as every regulated operation or dexterity by which organized beings pursue ends which they know beforehand, together with the rules and the result of every such operation or dexterity. Science consists in knowing, art in doing. In this wide sense it embraces what are usually called the useful arts. In a narrower and purely æsthetic sense it designates what are more specifically termed the fine arts, as architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and poetry. The useful arts have their origin in positive practical needs, and restrict themselves to satisfying them. The fine arts minister to the sentiment of taste through the medium of the beautiful in form, colour, rhythm, or harmony. See Fine Arts, Painting, Sculpture, &c.—In the Middle Ages it was common to give certain branches of study the name of arts.—Cf. A. C. R. Carter, History of Art, The Year's Art.
Art Collections. See Collections, Artistic.
Art, Teaching of. With the advent of the present industrial age the teaching of art has undergone a profound change. The fine and the industrial arts have been equally affected. In mediæval times, and in the earlier classic ages, the system of apprenticeship prevailed, and all teaching of the arts and of the artistic crafts was given by masters of the various arts or trades to the apprentices who worked under their guidance as assistants. Standards of excellence were maintained by trade guilds, who enforced rules as to workmanship as well as rules for the economic conditions of each trade or craft. The painter of pictures, or of mural decorations, was trained in the same way as any other craftsman, working as an apprentice under a master.
When, in the last century, machinery driven by steam-power took the place of hand labour in industry, the small independent workshops gradually disappeared, as the industrial centres increased in those localities where coal or raw material was most easily obtained; and, as the processes of each trade or craft became more and more subdivided and specialized, the old system of apprenticeship, which had become unnecessary, broke down. The teaching and tradition of the small independent craft workshops had no counterpart in the new centralized industrial systems. Even the painters of pictures needed no longer to prepare their own materials, for special industries arose, and mechanical processes were developed, for the work which formerly had been done in the artists' workshops by apprentices. The fine arts in this way suffered the loss of their old systems of teaching and instruction.
To meet the need for a revival of art teaching in the crafts and other industries, there arose a movement towards the centralization of teaching in schools of art during the latter half of the nineteenth century. Following the impulse given to that movement by the great exhibition in 1850, the British Government founded the schools of science and art in London and in most of the important provincial towns. Earlier in the century bodies of artists had founded national academies for the teaching of art; and the teaching of drawing was gradually adopted as a part of ordinary school education. Step by step training in schools of art or technical schools took the place of the teaching formerly given during apprenticeship in every craft workshop. The ancient guilds were replaced by the new trades unions, but these took no part in the maintenance of artistic standards nor of quality in workmanship.
At the present time the teaching of art begins with the early school lessons in drawing, and is carried on in special technical classes or schools of art, where teachers of the 'fine arts' and of the artistic crafts give instruction to students preparing for professional work. In a few of the artistic trades the system of apprenticeship still survives, but the teaching given by that means is usually supplemented by attendance at a school of art or technical school. Under the Education Act of 1918 attendance at technical classes in the daytime became compulsory for apprentices in all industrial trades.
The subject of art teaching was formerly disregarded by the universities, but has become definitely within their province since the founding of the Slade professorships at Oxford, Cambridge, and London Universities, and of the professorship of fine art at the University of Edinburgh.
The chief schools of art in Great Britain are the schools of the Royal Academy in London, the Slade School at University College, London, and the Royal College of Art at South Kensington, also the Central School of Arts and Crafts, and the other large metropolitan schools of the London County Council.
In most of the English provincial towns are municipal or other schools of art under the control of the Board of Education.
In Scotland the chief schools are the four central institutions—the Edinburgh College of Art, and the schools of art of Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Dundee. In each of these a diploma is given on the satisfactory completion of a prescribed course of study.
In Ireland the chief schools are those of the Royal Hibernian Academy in Dublin, and the provincial schools of art under the Department of Agriculture and Technology.
On the Continent the chief centre of artistic training has for many years been in Paris. Advanced students from most European and American art schools spend some of the later period of their study in the schools of Paris, in painting, in sculpture, or in architecture. There is, naturally, a valuable incentive and stimulation due to this gathering together of advanced students from all countries, as well as to the high academic tradition and sense of style of the French.
The 'atelier' system, which is followed in the French schools, is simple and personal. The expenses of an 'atelier', or studio, are borne by a group of students by the consent and under the guidance of an artist of reputation, who visits the 'atelier' at stated intervals, but is not concerned in its administration. In this way the relations between the professor and his pupils are extremely direct and personal. Most of the distinguished artists of Paris are attached to some 'atelier' to which chosen pupils are admitted.
There are also in Paris excellent schools for training in the applied arts, schools for furniture-making, printing, jewellery, and other artistic trades. These are on private foundations, but also receive State aid.
The teaching of art that is given at the present day as a part of ordinary general education attempts little more than a training in the elements of drawing, with some practice in the use of colour. The purpose of the drawing lesson is the attainment of skill in the representation of objects rather than the training of the æsthetic sense, or of artistic judgment or taste.
In the schools of art opportunities are provided for training in drawing and painting, sculpture, and architecture, and in the general principles of design in these arts, and in many of the artistic crafts and industrial processes. In some localities, where particular industries or artistic trades are concentrated, special schools for artistic and technical training are provided. The present tendency is towards the development of special schools for particular artistic trades or professions.
A complete system of training in any art must of necessity include: (1) actual technical practice; (2) teaching of the canons of workmanship of the art; (3) acquaintance with its historical development, especially with the notable examples and the highest achievements of past masters in the art.
Arta (ancient Ambracia), a gulf, town, and river of north-western Greece. The town was transferred by Turkey to Greece in 1881 (pop. 8000). It stands on the River Arta, which for a considerable distance above its mouth formed a part of the boundary between Greece and Turkey.—The province of Arta has an area of 395 sq. miles, and a pop. of 52,400.
Artaxerx´es (Old Pers. Artakhsathra, 'the mighty'), the name of several Persian kings:—1. Artaxerxes, surnamed Longimănus, succeeded his father Xerxes I, 465 B.C. He subdued the rebellious Egyptians, terminated the war with Athens, governed his subjects in peace, and died 425 B.C.—2. Artaxerxes, surnamed Mnemon, succeeded his father Darius II in the year 405 B.C. After having vanquished his brother Cyrus he made war on the Spartans, who had assisted his enemy, and forced them to abandon the Greek cities and islands of Asia to the Persians. On his death, 359 B.C., his son Ochus ascended the throne under the name of—3. Artaxerxes Ochus (359 to 339 B.C.). After having overcome the Phœnicians and Egyptians, and displayed great cruelty in both countries, he was poisoned by his general Bagoas.
Arte´di, Peter, a Swedish naturalist, born 1705, drowned at Amsterdam 1735. He studied at Upsala, turned his attention to medicine and natural history, and was a friend of Linnæus. His Bibliotheca Ichthyologica and Philosophia Ichthyologica, together with a life of the author, were published at Leyden in 1738.
Artel, a name for co-operative associations in Russia. These associations were known in ancient Russia as drushina or wataga. The artels originally consisted of bodies of men associating for the purpose of jointly undertaking a piece of work and dividing the profits. Artels were formed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries for the co-operation of their members in hunting and fishing. Inspired and stimulated by the Schulze-Delitzsch associations established in Germany, the Russian artels have extended their activity to various branches of industrial life. There are now consum artels, credit artels, and insurance artels, but the most important are the artisan and industrial artels. Some of the artels, however, are little more than trade guilds with mutual responsibility.
Ar´tĕmis, an ancient Greek divinity, identified with the Roman Diana. She was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto or Latona, and was the twin sister of Apollo, born in the Island of Delos. She is variously represented as a huntress, with bow and arrows; as a goddess of the nymphs, in a chariot drawn by four stags; and as the moon-goddess, with the crescent of the moon above her forehead. She was a maiden divinity, never conquered by love, except when Endymion made her feel its power. She demanded the strictest chastity from her worshippers, and she is represented as having changed
Actæon into a stag, and caused him to be torn in pieces by his own dogs, because he had secretly watched her as she was bathing. The Artemisia was a festival celebrated in her honour at Delphi. The famous temple of Artemis at Ephesus was considered one of the wonders of the world, but the goddess worshipped there was very different from the huntress goddess of Greece, being of Eastern origin, and regarded as the symbol of fruitful nature.
Artemi´sia, Queen of Caria, in Asia Minor, about 352-350 B.C., sister and wife of Mausōlus, to whom she erected in her capital, Halicarnassus, a monument, called the Mausolēum, which was reckoned among the seven wonders of the world.
Artemi´sia, a genus of plants of numerous species, nat. ord. Compositæ, comprising mugwort, southernwood, and wormwood. Certain alpine species are the flavouring ingredient in absinthe. See Wormwood.
Artemi´sium, a promontory in Eubœa, an island of the Ægean, near which several naval battles between the Greeks and Persians were fought, 480 B.C.
Ar´temus Ward. See Browne, Charles Farrar.
Ar´teries, the system of cylindrical vessels or tubes, membranous, elastic, and pulsatile, which convey the blood from the heart to all parts of the body, by ramifications which, as they proceed, diminish in size and increase in number, and terminate in minute capillaries uniting the ends of the arteries with the beginnings of the veins. There are two principal arteries or arterial trunks: the aorta, which rises from the left ventricle of the heart and ramifies through the whole body, sending off great branches to the head, neck, and upper limbs, and downwards to the lower limbs, &c.; and the pulmonary artery, which conveys venous blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, to be purified in the process of respiration.
Arteriot´omy, the opening or cutting of an artery for the purpose of blood-letting, as, for instance, to relieve pressure of the brain in apoplexy.
Arte´sian Wells, so called from the French province of Artois, where they appear to have been first used on an extensive scale, are perpendicular borings into the ground through which water rises to the surface of the soil, producing a constant flow or stream, the ultimate sources of supply being higher than the mouth of the boring, and the water thus rising by the well-known law. They are generally sunk in valley plains and districts where the lower pervious strata are bent into basin-shaped curves. The rain falling on the outcrops of these saturates the whole porous bed, so that when the bore reaches it the water by hydraulic pressure rushes up towards the level of the highest portion of the strata. The supply is sometimes so abundant as to be used extensively as a moving power, and in arid regions for fertilizing the ground, to which purpose artesian springs have been applied from a very remote period. Thus many artesian wells have been sunk in the Algerian Sahara, which have proved an immense boon to the district. The water of most of these is potable, but a few are a little saline, though not to such an extent as to influence vegetation. The hollows in which London and Paris lie are both perforated in many places by borings of this nature. At London they were first sunk only to the sand, but afterwards into the chalk. One of the most celebrated artesian wells is that of Grenelle, near Paris, 1798 feet deep, completed in 1841, after eight years' work. Artesian wells are now common in many countries, and have been sunk to the depth of a mile or more. As the temperature of water from great depths is invariably higher than that at the surface, artesian wells have been made to supply warm water for heating manufactories, greenhouses, hospitals, fish-ponds, &c. They have also been made in the United States and Australia for the purpose of irrigation. Petroleum wells are generally of the same technical description. Artesian wells are now made with larger diameters than formerly, and altogether their construction has been rendered much more easy in modern times. See Boring.
Arteveld, or Artevelde (a˙r´te-velt, a˙r´te-vel-de), the name of two men distinguished in the history of the Low Countries.—1. Jacob van, a brewer of Ghent, born about 1300, was selected by his fellow-townsmen to lead them in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. In 1338 he was appointed captain of the forces of Ghent, and for several years exercised a sort of sovereign power. A proposal to make the Black Prince, son of Edward III of England, Governor of Flanders led to an insurrection in which Arteveld lost his life (1345).—2. Philip, son of the former, at the head of the forces of Ghent gained a great victory over the Count of Flanders, Louis II, and for a time assumed the state of a sovereign prince. His reign proved short-lived. The Count
of Flanders returned with a large French force, fully disciplined and skilfully commanded. Arteveld was rash enough to meet them in the open field at Roosebeke, between Courtrai and Ghent, in 1382, and fell with 25,000 Flemings.
Arthri´tis (Gr. arthron, a joint), any inflammatory distemper that affects the joints, particularly chronic rheumatism or gout.
Arthro´dia, a species of articulation, in which the head of one bone is received into a shallow socket in another; a ball-and-socket joint.
Arthrop´oda, one of the two primary divisions (Anarthropoda being the other) into which modern naturalists have divided the sub-kingdom Annulosa, having the body composed of a series of segments, some always being provided with articulated appendages. The division comprises Crustaceans, Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Insects.
Arthrozo´a, a name sometimes given to all articulated animals, including the arthropoda and worms.
Arthur, Chester Alan, twenty-first President of the United States, born 1830, died 1886, was the son of Scottish parents, his father being pastor of Baptist churches in Vermont and New York. He chose law as a profession, and practised in New York. As a politician he became a leader in the Republican party. During the civil war he was energetic as quarter-master-general of New York in getting troops raised and equipped. He was afterwards collector of customs for the port of New York. In 1880 he was elected Vice-President, succeeding as President on the death of Garfield in 1881.
Ar´thur, King, an ancient British hero of the sixth century, son of Uther Pendragon and the Princess Igerna, wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall. He married Guinevere, or Ginevra; established the famous order of the Round Table; and reigned, surrounded by a splendid Court, twelve years in peace. After this, as the poets relate, he conquered Denmark, Norway, and France, slew the giants of Spain, and went to Rome. From thence he is said to have hastened home on account of the faithlessness of his wife, and Modred, his nephew, who had stirred up his subjects to rebellion. He subdued the rebels, but died in consequence of his wounds, on the Island of Avalon. The story of Arthur is supposed to have some foundation in fact, and has ever been a favourite subject with our romanticists and our poets. It is generally believed that Arthur was one of the last great Celtic chiefs who led his countrymen from the west of England to resist the settlement of the Saxons in the country. But many authorities regard him as a leader of the Cymry of Cumbria and Strath-Clyde against the Saxon invaders of the east coast and the Picts and Scots north of the Forth and the Clyde. See Grail, Merlin, Round Table.—Bibliography: J. Rhys, Studies in the Arthurian Legend; W. Lewis Jones, King Arthur in History and Legend.
Arthur's Seat, a picturesque hill within the King's Park in the immediate vicinity of Edinburgh; has an altitude of 822 feet; descends rollingly to the N. and E. over a base each way of about five furlongs; presents an abrupt shoulder to the S., and breaks down precipitously to the W. It is composed of a diversity of eruptive rocks, with some interposed and up-tilted sedimentary ones; and derives its name somehow from the legendary King Arthur.
Ar´tiad (Gr. artios, even-numbered), in chemistry, a name given to an element of even equivalency, as a dyad, tetrad, &c.: opposed to a perissad, an element of uneven equivalency, such as a monad, triad, &c.
Artichoke (Cynăra Scolўmus), sometimes called 'the Globe Artichoke', a well-known plant of the nat. ord. Compositæ, somewhat resembling a thistle, with large divided prickly leaves. The erect flower-stem terminates in a large round head of numerous imbricated oval spiny scales which surround the flowers. The fleshy bases of the scales with the large receptacle are the parts that are eaten. Artichokes were introduced into England early in the sixteenth century. The Jerusalem artichoke (a corruption of the It. girasole, a sunflower), or Helianthus tuberōsus, is a species of sunflower, whose roots are used like potatoes; it was introduced into England in the early part of the seventeenth century.
Article, in grammar, a part of speech used before nouns to limit or define their application. In English a or an is usually called the indefinite article (the latter form being used before a vowel sound), and the, the definite article, but they are also described as adjectives. An was originally the same as one, and the as that. In Latin there were no articles, and Greek has only the definite article.
Articles, Lords of the, in Scottish history, a committee chosen equally from each estate or division of Parliament to prepare the various measures, which, when completed, were laid before the Parliament for adoption or rejection. They were first appointed in 1369, and gradually became a recognized part of the Scottish legislative machinery. Abolished 1690.
Articles, The Six, in English ecclesiastical history, articles imposed by a statute (often called the Bloody Statute) passed in 1541, the thirty-third year of the reign of Henry VIII. They decreed the acknowledgment of transubstantiation, the sufficiency of communion in one kind, the obligation of vows of chastity, the propriety of private masses, celibacy of the clergy,
and auricular confession. Acceptance of these doctrines was made obligatory on all persons under the severest penalties; the Act, however, was relaxed in 1544, and repealed in 1549.
Articles, The Thirty-nine, of the Church of England, a statement of the particular points of doctrine, thirty-nine in number, maintained by the English Church; first promulgated by a convocation held in London in 1562-3, and confirmed by royal authority; founded on and superseding an older code issued in the reign of Edward VI. The first five articles contain a profession of faith in the Trinity; the incarnation of Jesus Christ, His descent to hell, and His resurrection; the divinity of the Holy Ghost. The three following relate to the canon of the Scripture. The eighth article declares a belief in the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds. The ninth and following articles contain the doctrine of original sin, of justification by faith alone, of predestination, &c. The nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first declare the Church to be the assembly of the faithful; that it can decide nothing except by the Scriptures. The twenty-second rejects the doctrine of purgatory, indulgences, the adoration of images, and the invocation of saints. The twenty-third decides that only those lawfully called shall preach or administer the sacraments. The twenty-fourth requires the liturgy to be in English. The twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth declare the sacraments effectual signs of grace (though administered by evil men), by which God excites and confirms our faith. They are two: baptism and the Lord's supper. Baptism, according to the twenty-seventh article, is a sign of regeneration, the seal of our adoption, by which faith is confirmed and grace increased. In the Lord's supper, according to article twenty-eight, the bread is the communion of the body of Christ, the wine the communion of his blood, but only through faith (article twenty-ninth); and the communion must be administered in both kinds (article thirty). The twenty-eighth article condemns the doctrine of transubstantiation, and the elevation and adoration of the host; the thirty-first rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous; the thirty-second permits the marriage of the clergy; the thirty-third maintains the efficacy of excommunication. The remaining articles relate to the supremacy of the king, the condemnation of Anabaptists, &c. They were ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. All candidates for ordination must subscribe these articles, but they are not binding upon laymen, except judges and certain university officials. This formulary is now accepted by the Episcopalian Churches of Scotland, Ireland, and America.
Articles of Association are the rules framed by a company for the administration of its affairs. Public companies usually have separate articles of their own, but this is not essential. When a registered company has no articles, its business procedure is regulated by the statutory form, found in Schedule 1 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act, 1908, and known as Table A. When separate articles are used they must be printed, signed, stamped, and filed along with the memorandum of association. Unlike the memorandum, the articles may be altered at any time, by special resolution, provided the alteration is within the powers given by the memorandum. Thus, where preferred shares are created by the memorandum, their privileges are more secure than if merely issued under the articles. The articles are intended merely for internal administration, and, while binding in questions between the company and its members as such, they do not affect third parties, unless the company has acted ultra vires and this was discoverable from the articles, which the public can inspect at a nominal fee.—Bibliography: Sir F. B. Palmer, Company Law; A. Coles, Guide for the Company Secretary; A. F. Topham, Principles of Company Law.
Articles of War. See Military Law.
Articula´ta, the third great section of the animal kingdom according to the arrangement of Cuvier, applied to invertebrates such as insects and worms, in which the body displays a jointed structure. The name is now obsolete. See Arthropoda.
Articula´tion, in anatomy a joint; the joining or juncture of the bones. This is of three kinds: (1) Diarthrōsis, or a movable connection, such as the ball-and-socket joint; (2) Synarthrōsis, immovable connection, as by suture, or junction by serrated margins; (3) Symphysis, or union by means of another substance, by a cartilage, tendon, or ligament.
Artificial Limbs. Artificial limbs of a primitive kind have been in use from very early times; but, as the material of which they were made was perishable, few specimens have been preserved. In the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London there is a good specimen of a Roman artificial leg which is believed to date back to the third century B.C. This leg is made of wood, covered with thin bronze; it has an iron sole-plate, and was fastened on by means of a waist-belt.
In Irish legend we are told of Nuada, who led the tribe of the Dananns back to Ireland, having an artificial hand made of silver; from this he received the name of Argetlam or Silver-handed. In mediæval times Goetz von Berlichingen, who lost his right hand at the siege of Landshut (1505), had a hand made of iron to supply its place.
Great improvements have been made in the manufacture of artificial limbs during the last
fifty years. After the Franco-Prussian war the French Government adopted an artificial arm and hand known as the 'Beaufort' and issued it to the soldiers who required it. This hand had a movable thumb controlled by a cord passing up the arm and fastened to a loop band over the opposite shoulder. An Englishman named Heather Bigg invented a hand with a movable thumb which was worked by a piston and controlled by a rubber ball fastened under the arm-pit. These designs have been improved upon from time to time, and an artificial hand can now be made which is capable of opening and closing at will, and of lifting and holding light articles.
Artificial legs vary in design, from the simple pin leg to ingenious contrivances such as the 'Anglesey' leg, which is made of seasoned willow wood with steel ankles and knee-joints. This 'Anglesey' leg is the standard best-quality limb in Great Britain. The German artificial-limb makers use leather instead of wood. These leather legs fit comfortably, but are too heavy, as they have to be supported by steel bands.
Artillery, all ordnance such as guns and howitzers as opposed to small arms and machine-guns. The term is also used for the troops who serve these arms.
Generally speaking, artillery is divided into field, heavy, and siege artillery. For details of organization see Army. The earliest form of artillery was a metal tube which was placed in a convenient position on the ground. The charge of gunpowder was ignited by placing a match to a hole bored at the closed end, and the resulting explosion forced the projectile—a stone—more or less in the required direction. Later on this primitive weapon was provided with wheels. In another form one man fired it while a second man supported it on his shoulder. In the later Middle Ages guns of various calibres were known by the names of birds of prey or reptiles; among such were falcons and falconets, culverins and demi-culverins. The fourteenth century saw the development of artillery for siege purposes—chiefly by the Germans—and in the next century it began to be employed in open warfare; while in 1537 the present Honourable Artillery Company was formed in London to encourage the use of all 'weapons of volley'. These weapons of volley were not even confined to fire-arms, but included bows and cross-bows. The earliest English troops raised as artillery personel were called the Regiment of Firelocks. Of late years artillery science has made almost inconceivable progress, thanks to which, inter alia, it is no longer necessary for the target to be visible from the gun-position. This fact, combined with the use of smokeless powder, makes the locating of hostile batteries exceedingly difficult. All field artillery, by which is meant guns and howitzers, which accompany mobile troops are designed on the quick-firing principle, by which the inevitable recoil at the moment of firing is absorbed by an arrangement known as the recoil-carriage, thus preventing any movement of the gun-carriage proper, and avoiding unnecessary labour for the gun-detachments, while at the same time allowing the men composing it to remain under cover of the shield with which the guns are provided. With the quick-firing gun, propellent and projectile are combined in one cartridge similar to that in use with small arms; with the howitzer they are separated. This difference is due to the fact that whereas guns are designed for a flat trajectory with a deep zone of fire-effect, howitzers are intended for high-angle fire with an almost vertical fall of shrapnel-bullets. This effect is produced by varying the charge for different ranges. A field battery consists of 6 guns or howitzers and 12 ammunition-wagons. Both guns and wagons are of the limbered type, i.e. in two detachable parts, and the weight behind the team of an English gun is approximately 2 tons.
As to tactical principles, it is recognized that the function of artillery is to assist the other arms, that it cannot by itself win a battle, and that its true métier is to prepare the way for and assist the infantry. During 1914-18 some 700,000 officers and men served with the Royal Regiment.
Artillery Company, The Honourable, the oldest existing body of volunteers in Great Britain, instituted in 1537, revived in 1610. It comprises six companies of infantry, besides artillery, and furnishes a guard of honour to the sovereign when visiting the city of London. Previous to 1842 the Company elected their own officers, but since that date they have been appointed by the Crown.
Artillery Schools, institutions established for the purpose of giving a special training to the officers, and in some cases the men, belonging to the artillery service. In Great Britain the artillery schools are at Woolwich and Shoeburyness. The Department of Artillery studies at Woolwich give artillery officers the means of continuing their studies after they have completed the usual course at the Royal Military College, and of qualifying for appointments requiring exceptional scientific attainments. The School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness gives instruction in gunnery to officers and men, and conducts all experiments connected with artillery and stores. The sands at the mouth of the Thames afford ample opportunity for artillery practice and firing at long ranges. The Royal Artillery Institution at Woolwich contains a museum, lecture-room, and printing-press, from which professional and scientific papers are periodically issued.
Artiodac´tyla (Gr. artios, even numbered, daktўlos, a finger or toe), a section of the Ungulata or hoofed mammals, comprising all those in which the number of the toes is even (two or four), including the ruminants, such as the ox, sheep, deer, &c., and also a number of non-ruminating animals, as the hippopotamus and the pig.
Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Act, an English Act of Parliament passed in 1868 to empower town councils and other local authorities to demolish or improve dwellings unfit for human habitation, and to build and maintain better dwellings in lieu thereof. Other Acts for the same object were passed in 1875, 1879, and 1882. See Housing.
Artocarpa´ceæ, a nat. ord. of plants, the bread-fruit order, by some botanists ranked as a sub-order of the Urticaceæ or nettles. They are trees or shrubs, with a milky juice, which in some species hardens into caoutchouc, and in the cow-tree (Brosĭmum Galactodendron) is a milk as good as that obtained from the cow. Many of the plants produce an edible fruit, of which the best known is the bread-fruit (Artocarpus).
Artois (a˙r-twä), a former province of France, anciently one of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, now almost completely included in the department of Pas-de-Calais.
Artois, The Battle of. See European War.
Arts, the name given to certain branches of study in the Middle Ages, originally called the 'liberal arts' to distinguish them from the 'servile arts' or mechanical occupations. These arts were usually given as grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Hence originated the terms 'art classes', 'degrees in arts', 'Master of Arts', &c., still in common use in universities, the faculty of arts being distinguished from those of divinity, law, medicine, or science. See University.
Artsybashev, Mikhail, Russian author, born in 1878. After a number of short stories he wrote, at the age of twenty-five, a novel entitled Sanin, published in 1907, which placed him at once among the most famous contemporary Russian authors. Whatever opinion literary critics may hold of this novel, his wonderful realism, simplicity of style, and psychological analysis cannot be disputed.
Art Unions, associations for encouraging art, an object which they mainly pursue by disposing of pictures, sculptures, &c., by lottery among subscribers. They seem to have originated in France during the time of Napoleon I. They soon afterwards took root in Germany, where they have been very successful. The first art union established in Britain was that at Edinburgh in 1834. Art unions were legalized by the Art Unions Act, 1846 See Lottery.
Artvin, a town in the Republic of Georgia, in the Caucasus, about 35 miles inland from Batum. Pop. 6720.
Aruba (a˙-rö´ba˙), an island off the north coast of Venezuela, belonging to Holland (a dependency of Curaçoa), about 30 miles long and 7 broad; surface generally rock, quartz being abundant, and containing considerable quantities of gold; a phosphate which is exported for manure is also abundant. The climate is healthy. Pop. 9481 (1916).
Aru Islands. See Arru Islands.
A´rum, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Araceæ. A. maculātum (the common wake-robin, lords-and-ladies, or cuckoo pint) is abundant in woods and hedges in England and Ireland, but is rare in Scotland. It has acrid properties, but its corm yields a starch which is known by the name of Portland sago or arrowroot. At one time this was prepared to a considerable extent in Portland Island. All the species of this genus develop much heat during flowering.
Ar´undel, a town in Sussex, England, on the River Arun, 4 miles from its mouth, the river being navigable to the town for vessels of 250 tons. The castle of Arundel, the chief residence of the dukes of Norfolk, stands on a knoll on the north-east side of the town. Pop. (1921), 2741.
Ar´undel, Thomas, third son of Richard
FitzAlan, Earl of Arundel, born 1352, died 1413. He was Chancellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury. He concerted with Bolingbroke to deliver the nation from the oppression of Richard II, and was a bitter persecutor of the Lollards and followers of Wycliffe.
Arundelian Marbles, a series of ancient sculptured marbles discovered by William Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece at the expense of and for Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who lived in the time of James I and Charles I, and was a liberal patron of scholarship and art. After the Restoration they were presented by the grandson of the collector to the University of Oxford. Among them is the Parian Chronicle, a chronological account of the principal events in Grecian, and particularly in Athenian, history, during a period of 1186 years, from the reign of Cecrops (1450 B.C.) to the archonship of Diognetus (264 B.C.).
Arun´do. See Phragmites.
Aruspices (a-rus´pi-sēz), or Haruspices, a class of priests in ancient Rome, of Etrurian origin, whose business was to inspect the entrails of victims killed in sacrifice, and by them to foretell future events.
Aruwimi, a large river of equatorial Africa, a tributary of the Congo, on the north bank.
Arval Brothers (Fratres Arvāles), a college or company of twelve members elected for life from the highest ranks in ancient Rome, so called from offering annually public sacrifices for the fertility of the fields (Lat. arvum, a field).
Arve (a˙rv), a river rising in the Savoyan Alps, passes through the valley of Chamonix, and falls into the Rhone near Geneva, after a course of about 50 miles.
Arvic´ola, a genus of rodent animals, sub-ord. Muridæ or Mice. There are three British species. A. amphibia is the water-vole (or water-rat), and A. agrestis is the field-vole or short-tailed field-mouse. They are prolific animals, having three or four litters in the year, each consisting of from four to ten young.
A´ryan, or Indo-European Family of Languages. See Indo-European Family.
As, a Roman weight of 12 ounces, answering to the libra or pound, and equal to 237.5 grains avoirdupois, or 327.1873 grammes French measure. In the most ancient times of Rome the copper or bronze coin which was called as actually weighed an as, or a pound, but in 264 B.C. it was reduced to 2 ounces, in 217 to 1 ounce, and in 191 to ½ ounce.
A´sa, great grandson of Solomon and third King of Judah; he ascended the throne at an early age, and distinguished himself by his zeal in rooting out idolatry with its attendant immoralities. He died after a prosperous reign of forty-one years.
Asafe´tida, or Asafœtida, a fetid inspissated sap from Central Asia, the solidified juice of the Narthex Asafetida, a large umbelliferous plant. It is used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic, and in cases of flatulency, in hysteric paroxysms, and other nervous affections. Notwithstanding its very disagreeable odour it is used as a seasoning in the East, and sometimes in Europe. An inferior sort is the product of certain species of Ferula.
Asagræ´a. See Sabadilla.
Asa´ma, an active volcano of Japan, about 50 miles north-west of Tokio, 8260 feet high.
A´saph, a Levite and psalmist appointed by David as leading chorister in the divine services. His office became hereditary in his family, or he founded a school of poets and musicians, which were called, after him, "the sons of Asaph". See Psalms.
Asaph, St., a small cathedral city and bishop's see in Wales, 15 miles north-west of Flint; founded about 550 by St. Kentigern or St. Mungo, bishop of Glasgow, and named after his disciple St. Asaph, from whom both the diocese and town took their name. The cathedral was built about the close of the fifteenth century; it consists of a choir, a nave, two aisles, and a transept. Pop. 1833.
Asarabac´ca, a small hardy European plant, nat. ord. Aristolochiaceæ (Asărum europœum). Its leaves are acrid, bitter, and nauseous, and its root is extremely acrid. Both the leaves and root were formerly used as an emetic. It entered into the composition of medicated snuffs recommended in cases of headache.
As´arum. See Asarabacca.
Asben, Air, or Ahir, a kingdom of Africa, in the Sahara. It consists of a succession of mountain groups and valleys, with a generally western slope, and attains in its highest summits a height of over 5000 feet. The valleys are very fertile, and often of picturesque appearance. The inhabitants are Tuaregs or Berbers, with an admixture of negro blood. They live partly in villages, partly as nomads. The country is nominally ruled over by a sultan, who resides in the capital, Agades. Pop. about 60,000.
Asbes´tos, or Asbestus, a remarkable and highly-useful mineral, a fibrous variety of several members of the hornblende family, composed of separable filaments, with a silky lustre. The fibres are sometimes delicate, flexible, and elastic; at other times stiff and brittle. It is incombustible, and anciently was wrought into a
soft, flexible cloth, which was used as a shroud for dead bodies. In modern times it has been manufactured into incombustible cloth, gloves, felt, paper, &c.; is employed in gas-stoves; is much used as a covering to steam boilers and pipes; is mixed with metallic pigments, and used as a paint on wooden structures, roofs, partitions, &c., to render them fire-proof, and is employed in various other ways, the manufacture having recently greatly developed. Some varieties are compact, and take a fine polish, others are loose, like flax or silky wool. Ligniform asbestos, or mountain-wood, is a variety presenting an irregular filamentous structure, like wood. Rock-cork, mountain-leather, fossil-paper, and fossil-flax are varieties. Asbestos is found in many parts of the world, but is chiefly supplied by Italy, Canada, and Australia. Mineralogically it is distinct from chrysotile, which is used for similar purposes.
Asbjörnsen (a˙s´byeurn-sen), Peter Kristen, born 1812, died 1885, a distinguished Norwegian naturalist and collector of the popular tales and legends, fairy stories, &c., of his native country.
Asbury Park, a small town on the coast of New Jersey, United States, a great summer resort. Its population increases during the summer months from 10,000 to 100,000.
As´calon, or Ash´kelon, a ruined town of Palestine, on the sea-coast, 40 miles W.S.W. of Jerusalem. It was occupied by the Crusaders under Richard I after a great battle with Saladin (1192) and by General Allenby's troops in Nov., 1917.
Asca´nius, the son of Æneas and Creusa, and the companion of his father's wanderings from Troy to Italy.
As´caris. See Nematoda.
Ascen´sion (discovered on Ascension Day), an island of volcanic origin belonging to Britain, near the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean, about lat. 7° 55' S.; long. 14° 25' W.; 700 miles north-west of St. Helena; area, about 34 sq. miles. Pop. 196 (1914). It is retained by Britain as a naval sanatorium, coaling and victualling station, and store depot. It has a steam factory, naval and victualling yards, hospitals, and a coal depot. It is celebrated for its turtle, which are the finest in the world. Wild goats are plentiful, and oxen, sheep, pheasants, guinea-fowl, and rabbits have been introduced, and thrive well. The village of Georgetown, the seat of government, stands on the west side of the island, which is governed under the admiralty by a naval officer.
Ascension, Right, of a star or other heavenly body, in astronomy, the arc of the equator intercepted between the first point of Aries and that point of the equator which comes to the meridian at the same instant with the star.
Ascension Day, the day on which the ascension of the Saviour is commemorated, often called Holy Thursday: a movable feast, always falling on the Thursday but one before Whitsuntide.
Ascet´icism and Ascet´ics (from the Gr. askēsis, meaning practice, bodily exercise, or athletic training). The early Christians, who devoted themselves to severe exercises of piety and strove to distinguish themselves from the world by abstinence from sensual enjoyments and by voluntary penances, adopted the name to signify the practice of spiritual things. Ascetics and asceticism have played an important part in the Christian Church, but the principle of striving after a higher and more spiritual life by subduing the animal appetites and passions has no necessary connection with Christianity. Thus there were ascetics among the Jews previous to Christ, and asceticism was inculcated by the Stoics, while in its most extreme form it may still be seen among the Brahmans and Buddhists. Monasticism was but one phase of asceticism. It must also be borne in mind that in the history of asceticism, pagan, Christian, Jewish, and Mohammedan, we are often dealing not only with religious but distinctly abnormal temperaments. See Monasticism.
Asch (a˙sh), a town of Czecho-Slovakia, in the extreme north-western corner of former Bohemia, with manufactures of cotton, woollen, and silk goods, bleachfields, dyeworks, &c. Pop. 21,583.
Aschaffenburg (a˙-sha˙f´en-börh), a town of Bavaria, on the Main and Aschaff, 26 miles E.S.E. of Frankfort. The chief edifice is the castle of Johannisberg, built between 1605 and 1614, and for centuries the summer residence of the Elector. There are manufactures of coloured paper, tobacco, liqueurs, &c. Pop. 29,891.
Ascham (as´kam), Roger, a learned Englishman, born in 1515 of a respectable family in Yorkshire, died 1568. He was entered at St. John's College, Cambridge, 1530, and was elected fellow in 1534 and tutor in 1537. He was Latin secretary to Edward VI and also to Mary. He was tutor to Princess Elizabeth during her girlhood, and he became her secretary after she ascended the throne. In 1544 he wrote his Toxophilus, or Schole of Shooting, in praise of his favourite amusement and exercise—archery. Between 1563 and 1568 he wrote his Scholemaster, a treatise on the best method of teaching children Latin. Some of his writings, including many letters, were in Latin. He wrote the best English style of his time. His life was written by Dr. Johnson to accompany an edition of his works published in 1769.
Aschersleben (a˙sh´ėrz-lā-ben), a town of Prussian Saxony, in the district of Magdeburg,
near the junction of the Eine with the Wipper. Industries: woollens, machinery and metal goods, sugar, paper, &c. Pop. 28,968.
Ascid´ia (Gr. askos, a wine-skin), the name given to the 'Sea-squirts' or main section of the Tunicata, a class of animals of low grade, resembling a double-necked bottle, of a leathery or gristly nature, found at low-water mark on the sea-beach, and dredged from deep water attached to stones, shells, and fixed objects. One of the prominent openings admits the food and the water required in respiration, the other is the excretory aperture. A single ganglion represents the nervous system, placed between the two apertures. Male and female reproductive organs exist in each ascidian. They pass through peculiar phases of development, the young ascidian appearing like a tadpole-body. They may be single or simple, social or compound. In social ascidians the peduncles of a number of individuals are united into a common tubular stem, with a partial common circulation of blood. In these animals evolutionists see a link between the Mollusca and the Vertebrata.
1, Perophora: a, mouth; b, vent; c, intestinal canal; d, stomach; e, common tubular stem. 2, Ascidia echinata. 3, Ascidia virginea. 4, Cynthia quadrangularis. 5, Botryllus violaceus.
Asclepliada´ceæ, an order of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, the distinguishing characteristic of which is that the anthers adhere to the five stigmatic processes, the whole sexual apparatus forming a single mass. The pollination arrangements are peculiar, recalling those of orchids. The members of this order are shrubs, or sometimes herbaceous plants, occasionally climbing, almost always with a milky juice. Many of them are employed as purgatives, diaphoretics, tonics, and febrifuges, and others as articles of food. Asclepias is the typical genus. See Asclepias, Calotropis, Stapelia, Stephanotis.
Ascle´piades (-dēz), the name of a number of ancient Greek writers—poets, grammarians, &c—of whom little is known, and also of several ancient physicians, the most celebrated of whom was Asclepiades, of Bithynia, who acquired considerable repute at Rome about the beginning of the first century B.C.
Ascle´pias, or Swallow-wort, a genus of plants, the type and the largest genus of the nat. ord. Asclepiadaceæ. Most of the species are North American herbs, having opposite, alternate, or verticillate leaves. Many of them possess powerful medicinal qualities. A. decumbens is diaphoretic and sudorific, and has the singular property of exciting general perspiration without increasing in any sensible degree the heat of the body; A. curassavica is emetic, and its roots are frequently sent to England as ipecacuanha; the roots of A. tuberōsa are famed for diaphoretic properties. Many other species are also used as medicines, and several are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.
Asclepios. See Æsculapius.
As´coli, or Ascoli Piceno (ancient, Ascŭlum), a province in Central Italy.—The capital of the province, also called Ascoli Piceno, episcopal see of the Marches (the ancient Ascŭlum), is situated 90 miles north-east of Rome and contains, among several handsome new buildings, the remains of temples, an ancient theatre, &c. It has also many fine pre-Renaissance buildings, such as the Gothic Church S. Francesco and the Palazzo del Commune. At Castel Trosino, near Ascoli, a necropolis of the seventh century was discovered in 1895. Population of the town, 28,882; of the province, 261,835 (1915).
As´coli Satriano (ancient, Ascŭlum Apŭlum), a town of S. Italy, province Foggia. Pop. 9700.
Ascomyce´tes (-tēz), one of the main subdivisions of the Eumycetes or Higher Fungi, distinguished by their principal spores being produced in organs called asci. Typically, an ascus is a cylindrical or club-shaped structure containing at maturity eight ascospores, which are usually liberated explosively and thereafter dispersed by the wind. As a rule numerous asci are massed together in a layer or ascus-hymenium, which is variously disposed on a more or less massive fruit-body, according to the form and structure of which the group is further subdivided into a number of sections and families, the chief being Erysiphales, Plectascineæ, Pyrenomycetes, Discomycetes (q.v.).
Asco´nius (Quintus A. Pedianus), a Roman writer of the first century A.D., who wrote a life of Sallust, a reply to the detractors of Virgil, and commentaries on Cicero's orations, some of which are extant.
As´cot, an English race-course adjacent to the S.W. extremity of the great park of Windsor. The races, which take place in the second week in June, constitute, for value of stakes and quality
of horses, the best meeting of the year, as it is the most fashionable.
As´gard (literally, gods' yard, or the abode of the gods), in Scandinavian mythology the home of the gods or Æsir, rising, like the Greek Olympus, from midgard, or the middle world, that is, the earth. It was here that Odin and the rest of the gods, the twelve Æsir, dwelt—the gods in the mansion called Gladsheim, the goddesses dwelling in Vingulf. Walhalla, in which heroes slain in battle dwelt, was also here. Below the boughs of the ash tree Yggdrasill the gods assembled every day in council.
Asgill (as´gil), John, an eccentric English writer, a lawyer by profession, born 1659, died 1738. In 1699 he published a pamphlet to prove that Christians were not necessarily liable to death, death being the penalty imposed for Adam's sin and Christ having satisfied the law. Having crossed over to Ireland, he was beginning to get into a good practice, and was elected to the Irish House of Commons, when his pamphlet was ordered to be burned by the public hangman, and he himself was expelled the House. His whole subsequent life was passed in pecuniary and other troubles, mostly in the Fleet or within the rules of the King's Bench.
Ash (Fraxĭnus), a genus of deciduous trees belonging to the nat. ord. Oleaceæ, having imperfect flowers and a seed-vessel prolonged into a thin wing at the apex (called a samara). There are a good many species, chiefly indigenous to North America. The common ash (F. excelsior), the only species indigenous to Central and Northern Europe, has a smooth bark, and grows tall and rather slender. The branches are flattened; the leaves have five pairs of pinnæ, terminated by an odd one, dark-green in colour; lanceolate, with serrated edges. The flowers are produced in loose spikes from the sides of the branches, and are succeeded by flat seeds which ripen in autumn. It is one of the most useful of British trees on account of the excellence of its hard tough wood and the rapidity of its growth, but often suffers greatly from a canker caused by the fungus Nectria ditissima. There are many varieties of it, as the weeping-ash, the curled-leaved ash, the entire-leaved ash, &c. The flowering or manna ash (F. Ornus), by some placed in a distinct genus (Ornus), is a native of the south of Europe and Palestine. It yields the substance called manna, which is obtained by making incisions in the bark, when the juice exudes and hardens. Among American species are the white ash (F. americana), with lighter bark and leaves; the red or black ash (F. pubescens), with a brown bark; the black ash (F. sambucifolia), the blue ash, the green ash, &c. They are all valuable trees. The mountain-ash or rowan belongs to a different order.
1, Hermaphrodite flower. 2, Anthers of male flower.
Ash, or Ashes, the incombustible residue of organic bodies (animal or vegetable) remaining after combustion; in common usage, any incombustible residue of bodies used as fuel; as a commercial term, the word generally means the ashes of vegetable substances, from which are extracted the alkaline matters called potash, pearl-ash, kelp, barilla, &c.
Ashan´go, a region in the interior of Southern Africa between lat. 1° and 2° S., and between the Ogowe and the Lower Congo, a mountainous country in the French territory. The inhabitants belong to the Bantu stock, and among them are a dwarfish people, the Obongo, said to be about 4½ feet high at most.
Ashanti´, a British territory in West Africa belonging to the Gold Coast Colony, of which it forms a large inland portion, under a chief commissioner; area about 20,000 sq. miles. It is in great part hilly, well-watered, and covered with dense tropical vegetation, and rich forests with excellent timber trees. The country round the towns, however, is carefully cultivated. The crops are chiefly rice, maize, millet, sugar-cane,
cocoa, and yams, the last forming the staple vegetable food of the natives. Rubber is also a product. The domestic animals are cows, horses of small size, goats, and a species of hairy sheep. The wild animals include the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, lion, hippopotamus, &c. Birds are numerous, and crocodiles and other reptiles abound. Gold is abundant, and mining concessions are now successfully worked. The Ashantis make excellent cotton and silk cloths, articles in gold and other metals, earthenware, leather, &c. Ashanti used to form a kingdom ruled despotically, human sacrifices being very common. It is now under British administration, and attention is given to education, sanitation, agriculture, means of communication, &c. There are Government schools at Coomassie and Sunyani and a number of missionary schools. The chief town is Coomassie (or Kumassi), now reached by a railway from the coast (length 168 miles); its population is 24,000. The British first came in contact with the Ashantis in 1807, and hostilities continued off and on till 1826, when they were driven from the sea-coast. Immediately after the transfer of the Dutch settlements on the Gold Coast to Britain in 1872—when the entire coast remained in British hands—the Ashantis reclaimed the sovereignty of the tribes round the settlement of Elmina. This brought on a war, leading to a British expedition in 1874, in which Coomassie was captured. In 1896 the country became a British protectorate. In 1901 a rebellion had to be put down, and next year Ashanti was fully annexed. Pop. 287,814 (1911).—Cf. R. A. Freeman, Travels and Life in Ashantee and Jaman.
Ash´bourne, a town of England, in Derbyshire, 12 miles N.W. of Derby, with manufactures of cottons and lace. Pop. 4039.
Ash´burton, a town in Devonshire, England, 16 miles S.W. of Exeter, a parliamentary borough till 1868, and till 1918 giving name to a parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), 2362.
Ash´burton, Alexander Baring, Lord, a British statesman and financier, born 1774, died 1848. A younger son of Sir Francis Baring, he was bred to commercial pursuits, which for some years kept him in the United States and Canada, and in 1810 he became head of the great firm of Baring Brothers & Co. He sat in Parliament from 1806 to 1835, when he was raised to the peerage, after being a member of Peel's Government (1834-5).
Ash´burton Treaty, a treaty concluded at Washington, 1842, by Alexander Baring, Lord Ashburton, and the President of the United States; it defined the boundaries between the States and Canada, &c.
Ashby-de-la-Zouch (ash´bi-del-a-zöch´), a town in Leicestershire, England, on the borders of Derbyshire, with manufactures of hosiery, leather, &c. Pop. (1921), 4983.
Ash´dod, a place on the coast of Palestine, formerly one of the chief cities of the Philistines, now an insignificant village.
A´sher, one of Jacob's sons, and founder of the tribe called after him, who occupied a fertile territory in Palestine along the coast between Carmel and Lebanon.
Ashe´ra, an ancient Semitic goddess whose symbol was the phallus. In the Revised Version of the Old Testament this word is used to translate what in the Authorized Version is translated "grove", as connected with the idolatrous practices into which the Jews were prone to fall.
Ash´ford, a thriving town of England, in Kent, situated near the confluence of the upper branches of the River Stour, with large locomotive and railway-carriage works. It gives name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop. (1921), 14,355.
Ashington, an urban district or town of England, Northumberland, north-east of Morpeth, and about 2 miles from the sea, in a district of collieries. Pop. (1921), 29,406.
Ashi´ra, a native race or people of Western Equatorial Africa, to the south of the Ogowe River, in the French Congo Territory.
Ash´land, a city of the United States, in Wisconsin. Pop. (1920), 11,334.—Also a city of Kentucky. Pop. (1920), 14,729.
Ash´lar, masonry consisting of stones squared and smoothed in front and built in regular courses.
Ashley, Lord. See Shaftesbury, First Earl of.
Ashmead-Bartlett, Sir Ellis, English politician, born in 1849. He entered Parliament in 1880, and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from 1885 to 1892. He served in the Græco-Turkish and South African wars, and was knighted in 1892. He died in 1902.
Ash´mole, Elias, English antiquary, born 1617, died 1692. He became a chancery solicitor in London, but afterwards studied at Oxford, taking up mathematics, physics, chemistry, and particularly astrology. He published Theatrum Chymicum in 1652. On the Restoration he received the post of Windsor Herald, and other appointments both honourable and lucrative. In 1672 appeared his History of the Order of the Garter. He presented to the University of Oxford his collection of rarities, to which he afterwards added his books and MSS., thereby commencing the Ashmolean Museum.
Ash´taroth. See Astarte.
Ashton-in-Makerfield, a town of Lancashire, England, 4 miles from Wigan, with collieries, cotton-mills, &c. Pop. (1921), 22,489.
Ashton-under-Lyne, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, England, 6 miles
east of Manchester, on the north bank of the River Tame, a well-built place, with handsome streets and public buildings. The chief employment is the cotton manufacture, but there are also collieries and ironworks, which employ a great many persons. Pop. 51,080; (municipal borough) (1921), 43,333.
Ashton-upon-Mersey, a town or urban district of England, Cheshire, on the south side of the Mersey, several miles south-west of Manchester. Pop. (1921), 7780.
Ashura´da, a small island in the S.E. corner of the Caspian, formed by Russia into a trading station.
Ash-Wednesday, the first day of Lent, so called from a custom in the Western Church of sprinkling ashes that day on the heads of penitents, then admitted to penance. The period at which the fast of Ash-Wednesday was instituted is uncertain; but it probably dates from the eighth century at least. In the Roman Catholic Church the ashes are now strewn on the heads of all the clergy and people present. In the Anglican Church Ash-Wednesday is regarded as an important fast day.
Asia, the largest of the great divisions of the earth; length, from the extreme south-western point of Arabia, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, to the extreme north-eastern point of Siberia—East Cape, or Cape Vostochni, in Behring's Strait—6900 miles; breadth, from Cape Chelyuskin, in Northern Siberia, to Cape Romania, the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, 5300 miles; area estimated at 17,250,000 sq. miles, about a third of all the land of the earth's surface. On three sides, N., E., and S., the ocean forms its natural boundary, while in the W. the frontier is marked mainly by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal, and the Red Sea. There is no proper separation between Asia and Europe, the latter being really a great peninsula of the former. Asia, though not so irregular in shape as Europe, is broken in the S. by three great peninsulas, Arabia, Hindustan, and Farther India, while the east coast presents peninsular projections and islands, forming a series of sheltered seas and bays, the principal peninsulas being Kamtshatka and Corea. The principal islands are those forming the Malay or Asiatic Archipelago, which stretch round in a wide curve on the S.E. of the continent. Besides the larger islands—Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Mindanao, and Luzon (in the Philippine group)—there are countless smaller islands grouped round these. Other islands are Ceylon, in the S. of India; the Japanese Islands and Sakhalin on the E. of the continent; Formosa, S.E. of China; Cyprus, S. of Asia Minor; and New Siberia and Wrangell, in the Arctic Ocean.
The mountain systems of Asia are of great extent, and their culminating points are the highest in the world. The greatest of all is the Himálaya system, which lies mainly between long. 70° and 100° E. and lat. 28° and 37° N. It extends, roughly speaking, from north-west to south-east, its total length being about 1500 miles, forming the northern barrier of Hindustan. The loftiest summits are Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high, Godwin-Austen, 28,265, and Kanchinjinga, 28,156. The principal passes, which rise to the height of 18,000 to 20,000 feet, are the highest in the world. A second great mountain system of Central Asia, connected with the north-western extremity of the Himálaya system by the elevated region of Pamir (about long. 70°-75° E., lat. 37°-40° N.), is the Thian-Shan system, which runs north-eastward for a distance of 1200 miles. In this direction the Altai, Sayan, and other ranges continue the line of elevations to the north-eastern coast. A north-western continuation of the Himálaya is the Hindu Kush, and farther westward a connection may be traced between the Himálaya mass and the Elburz range (18,460) feet, south of the Caspian, and thence to the mountains of Kurdistan, Armenia, and Asia Minor.
There are vast plateaux and elevated valley regions connected with the great central mountain systems, but large portions of the continent are low and flat. Tibet forms the most elevated table-land in Asia, its mean height being estimated at 15,000 feet. On its south is the Himálayan range, while the Kuen-Lun range forms its northern barrier. Another great but much lower plateau is that which comprises Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Persia, and which to the north-west joins into the plateau of Asia Minor. The principal plain of Asia is that of Siberia, which extends along the north of the continent and forms an immense alluvial tract sloping to the Arctic Ocean. Vast swamps or peat-mosses called tundras cover large portions of this region. South-west of Siberia, and stretching eastward from the Caspian, is a low-lying tract consisting to a great extent of steppes and deserts, and including in its area the Sea of Aral. In the east of China there is an alluvial plain of some 200,000 sq. miles in extent; in Hindustan are plains extending for 2000 miles along the south slope of the Himálaya; and between Arabia and Persia, watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, is the plain of Mesopotamia or Assyria, one of the richest in the world. Of the deserts of Asia the largest is that of Gobi (long. 90°-120° E., lat. 40°-48° N.), large portions of which are covered with nothing but sand or display a surface of bare rock. An almost continuous desert region may also be traced from the desert of North Africa through Arabia (which is largely occupied by bare