FOOTNOTES:
[14] For the sake of convenience the nasal sounds, in producing which the breath does not also pass out through the mouth, i.e. which are not nasal vowels (see § 8), are included under "stops."
[15] Sounds in phonetic transcript are enclosed in square brackets.
[16] Also called labial.
[17] Also called dental.
[18] Also called palatal.
[19] Also called velar (from velum, for which see § 8) and more usually, but less accurately, guttural.
[20] An oral stop followed by [h] is called an aspirate. Aspirates are common in German, but practically unknown in standard French.
[21] Examples in the conventional spelling are printed in italics.
[22] i.e. at the end of a word, before a pause.
[23] When the aspiration is strongly marked, it forms a characteristic of the speech of the lower middle class in London and some home counties.
[24] The point stops are also called teeth or dental stops.
[25] On the other hand, in Somerset clean, clod are sometimes pronounced with [tl-].
[26] See footnote 8 on page [29].
[27] See footnote 8 on page [29].
[28] In standard English; in certain dialects the ending-ing is always pronounced [iŋg].
[29] The educated commonly say [buloun]; [bulɔin] is also heard.
[30] The hushing and hissing sounds are also called sibilants.
[31] See also § 45.
[32] Some speakers say [ə´souʃieit] but [ə´sousieiʃən], [i´nʌnʃieit] but [i´nʌnsieiʃən].
[33] In a great many cases lisping is due to an over-long tongue; or the tongue may be "tied," in which case the ligature is easily cut.
[34] The back of the tongue may also be raised to some extent; how does this explain the substitution of [w] for [r] which is sometimes heard?
[35] The rule may also be stated thus: r is only heard when a vowel follows in the same or the next word. "Vowel" must here be taken to include [j].
[36] The term "dark" here implies a deep and obscure resonance, with little friction.
[37] Contrast the [l] of will and willing (where its position between front vowels leads to forward formation).
[38] Some pronounce this word [sælv].
[39] Some pronounce this word [fɔlkən].
[40] These are modifications of the Scotch form of the word.
[41] [h] is described as voiceless; but it may also be produced with voice. We have seen that the vocal chords consist of a fleshy and a cartilaginous part: it is possible to let the former vibrate, while the latter is left open, and the breath passing through produces [h]. Try to utter this sound.
[42] The "neutral" vowel [ə], for which see § 38, requires less effort.
[43] Notice the faulty tendency to raise the tongue too high in uttering the first part of this diphthong; see § 40.
[44] However, there is a pronunciation of are, intermediate between the emphatic [ɑː] and the unstressed [ə], which may be described as short [ɑ]. The a in the unstressed prefix trans-, and the second a of advantageous also have the sound of [ɑ] sometimes.
[45] Especially when it is final.
[46] Many cultivated people pronounce girl as [gɛəl]; but [gəːl] is to be preferred. Clerk, sergeant have [ɑː], not [əː]; also Derby, Berkshire, Hertfordshire.
[47] It is heard on the stage and in public speaking generally; in ordinary conversation it suggests the speech of a foreigner, especially if the [ɑ] element of the diphthong is lengthened.
[48] The first part is still more open in a common vulgar pronunciation of tea, please.
[49] For [ɔː] see the diagram on p. [125].
[50] Exceptions are borrow, etc., work, attorney, etc.
[51] To pronounce this [ə] distinctly in such words as law, saw is a mistake.
[52] It is absurd to speak of fort and caught, morn and dawn as "cockney" rimes; they are perfectly good rimes in standard English; and a southern Englishman only shows ignorance by speaking of them as bad. Considering, however, that standard English is by no means universal, the would-be poet is advised to avoid these rimes.
[53] For [ö] see the note on p. [68].
[54] In the case of this diphthong as well as in that in name, pail, etc. (see § 41), untrained singers usually betray themselves by passing too soon to the second part of the diphthong.
[55] For [o] see the diagram on p. [124].
[56] [ö] is [o] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of French eu or German ö; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.
[57] The pronunciations [wində, pilə] for window, pillow are, however, avoided by educated speakers.
[58] [ü] is pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of French u or German ü; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.
[59] For see the diagram on p. [124].
[60] See also § 29.