THE SOUNDS CONSIDERED SEPARATELY
Consonants—stops.
21. The sounds which present least difficulty to the student are the stops, in producing which the flow of breath is completely checked. We have already seen in § 11 that every stop, strictly speaking, consists of three parts, the closing and the opening of the passage and the pause between, and that only the closing or only the opening need be heard for the ear to distinguish the sound. The interval between the closure and the opening may be noticeable, in which case we call the consonant double.
Stops may be voiced or voiceless, that is, they may be produced with or without vibration of the vocal chords (see § 7).
Stops may be produced by stopping the breath at some point in the mouth and then letting it burst through the obstacle; these are oral stops.
The breath, stopped at some point in the mouth, may be allowed to pass out through the nose; the sounds thus produced are called nasal.[14]
Utter the following sounds, and determine whether they are voiced or voiceless, oral or nasal:
[p, g, n, t, b, k, m, d, ŋ.][15]
According to the place of articulation we distinguish lip[16] stops, point[17] stops, front (palate)[18] stops and back (palate)[19] stops.
22. Lip stops.—When the breath is stopped at the lips, three different sounds may be produced.
1. [p], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.
In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the opening of the passage to give the effect of [h][20]; thus Pay, pay![21] [pͪei, pͪei]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, and sometimes finally[22]: I hope [ai houpͪ].[23]
[p] is written p or pp; rarely ph (as in a common pronunciation of diphtheria [dipθiːᵊriə], for which see § 27).
Notice the spelling of hiccough [hikʌp].
2. , when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.
is written b or bb.
3. [m], when the velum is lowered and part of the breath passes out through the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when it is immediately followed by a voiceless sound, it may be partly voiced, then voiceless (phonetic sign: mˑ). Then lamp is strictly [læmmˑp]. We may say: [m] is unvoiced or devocalized before a voiceless stop.) Notice the difference in length of [m] in lamb, hammer, glum, moon; in which of these words is it short?
In comfort, triumph the [m] is often labiodental: the breath is stopped by the upper teeth and lower lip, not by both lips.
In prism, schism the m may have syllabic value; it then does the work usually performed by a vowel. We say [prizəm] or [prizm̩], where [m̩] is the sign for syllabic m.
[m] is written m or mm.
23. In the production of the lip stops the tongue plays no part, except by leaving a free passage; but it is active in the production of the stops we next have to consider. This is therefore the right place to give the names by which we designate the various parts of the tongue. We distinguish
the point,
the blade (above and behind the point when the tongue lies flat),
the front (yet further behind), and
the back; also
the ridge or dorsum (an imaginary line drawn along the middle of the top of the tongue from end to end), and
the rim (running all round the edge of the tongue when it lies flat).
When the narrowing or closure of the passage is made by the front rim of the tongue, we say it is of apical formation; when it is made by the surface of the tongue behind the front rim, we say it is of dorsal formation.
24. Point stops.[24]—The breath is stopped by the action of the point of the tongue touching the teeth (in which case we have true dentals) or the upper gums (this is known as alveolar articulation, "alveoli" being the learned word for the gums). In English the point of the tongue rarely touches the teeth; usually it touches the upper gums, sometimes the hard palate (this should be avoided), in which case it approaches [k]. See the diagram on p. [126].
Hence in careless speech at last sometimes becomes [ə´klɑːst].[25] Little children are heard to say [ikl] for little; compare also the change from Latin tremere to French craindre.
Three different sounds may be produced with this stoppage:
1. [t], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.
In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the opening of the passage to give the effect of [h]; thus take it! [tʰeik it]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, and sometimes finally; he sent me such a charming note [hi sent mi sʌtʃ ə tʃɑːmiŋ noutʰ].[26]
In certain kinds of uneducated southern English speech [t] is occasionally dropped between vowels, in such words as water, butter.
[t] is written t or tt; d in the ed of verbs after voiceless sounds, as in stopped [stɔpt]; rarely th, in words of foreign origin.
2. [d], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.
[d] is written d or dd.
3. [n], when the velum is lowered and the breath passes out through the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when it is immediately preceded or followed by a voiceless sound, it may become voiceless (n̥) in part. Then sneer is strictly [sn̥niə], hint [hinn̥t].) Notice the difference in length of [n] in mine, own, manner, an, name; in which of these words is it long?
In month, anthem the [n] is a true dental: the tongue touches the teeth.
In listen, open we may have syllabic n [n̩]. Compare what was said about syllabic m in § 22.
[n] is written n or nn.
25. Front and back stops.—The breath is stopped by some part of the ridge of the tongue meeting
the front or hard palate, giving front stops; or
the back or soft palate, giving back stops.
Say [ku] and then [ki]; now whisper them. In which case is the closure more forward in the mouth? Compare with these the place of closure when you say [kɑ].
From these examples it will be seen that the effect for the ear is very much the same, and we shall here make use of the same signs for front and back stops.
In cockney speech there is a distinct tendency to make the closure so far forward that the [k, g] are perceptibly modified. (This pronunciation is suggested by the spelling gyarden, kyind, employed by those who try to represent cockney speech.) The "palatalizing" tendency is not to be encouraged; a more effective [k] is produced by distinctly backward articulation. Slight variations in the place of closure due to the place of articulation of neighbouring sounds in a word are inevitable.
Three different sounds may be produced with this stoppage.
1. [k], when there has been no vibration of the vocal chords.
In precise or emphatic speech, sufficient breath escapes after the opening of the passage to give the effect of [h]; thus come, come! [kʰʌm, kʰʌm]. This occurs mostly before accented vowels, sometimes finally, give him a good shake! [giv im ə gud ʃeikʰ].[27]
[k] is written c, k, ck, cc (as in accuse [ə´kjuwz]), ch (as in chord [kɔːd]), q (as in queen [kwijn]); [ks] as ks, cc, x, xc.
2. [g], when there has been vibration of the vocal chords.
Sometimes [g] is pronounced with the tip of the tongue so that it sounds like [d]; thus glory becomes dlory [dlɔːri]. The way in which [l] is produced (see § 33) explains this.
[g] is written g and gg; rarely gh (as in ghost [goust]). For [ks] and [gz] written x see § 30.
3. [ŋ], when the velum is lowered and the breath passes out through the nose. (Generally speaking, this sound is voiced; but when it is immediately followed by a voiceless sound, it may be at first voiced, then voiceless [̇ŋ̇]; the [ŋ] may be unvoiced (see § 23, 3) before a voiceless stop. Then length is strictly [leŋŋ̇θ] or [leŋŋ̇kθ].) Notice the difference in length of [ŋ] in sing, singer, drink, bang; in which of these words is it short?
[ŋ] is written ng, as in long [lɔŋ], and n before g, k, or x, as in longer [lɔŋgə], lank [læŋk], lynx [liŋks]. What does ng represent in singer? in finger? in English?
The "dropping of g" is really an incorrect term. There is no [g] in the ending-ing [iŋ];[28] what does take place is the substitution of [n] for [ŋ]. This occurs in baby speech, in vulgar speech, and in the speech of some sections of society. It is on no account to be tolerated.
The opposite mistake is made only by the uneducated, who pronounce kitchen as [kitʃiŋ], chicken as [tʃikiŋ], and sudden as [sʌdiŋ].
Notice the substitution of this sound by the uneducated for the unfamiliar palatal nasal [ɲ] in Boulogne [bulɔɲ], the uneducated [bulɔŋ],[29] and for the equally unfamiliar nasal vowel [ɑ̃] in the French word continent [kɔ̃tinɑ̃], the uneducated [kɔntinɔŋ].
For [n] becoming [m] or [ŋ] by assimilation, see § 49.
26. Consonants—continuants.
It will be seen that the articulations of these sounds are more difficult to analyse than those of the stops. There is, roughly speaking, only one way of closing a passage entirely; but there are various ways of closing it partially.
The continuants usually go in pairs, one being voiceless, the other voiced.
Lip continuants.—The breath passes between the two lips (hence the term bilabials); the tongue is in a position somewhat closer than the position, i.e. bunched up at the back (see § 43), and we may therefore call these sounds lip-velar continuants.
The voiced sound [w] is that commonly used in standard English, whether the spelling be w or wh. In northern English and in Scotch the voiceless [ʍ] is used where the ordinary spelling has wh.
It is very doubtful whether [ʍ] has a right to be regarded as a normal sound in standard English. It is taught by professors of elocution, and is therefore commonly heard at recitals and also at amateur theatricals. On the regular stage it is by no means the rule, and in the pulpit it is probably the exception. If it comes naturally to pupils, who bring it with them from the North, they need not be interfered with; there is certainly no good reason why it should be forced on speakers of southern English, who generally produce a grossly exaggerated and quite ludicrous travesty of the northern sound. Which do you use yourself? If [ʍ], is it natural to you, or acquired? Do the rest of your family use it? Any of your friends? What proportion of children in your class?
It may be noted that after voiceless sounds [ʍ] sometimes takes the place of [w], even in standard English; twenty is pronounced [twenti] or [tʍenti] and swim [swim] or [sʍim]. Sometimes also the sound [ʍ] is heard in where pronounced with great emphasis, in the case of speakers who do not ordinarily use it.
It should be noted that these sounds are not continuants in the strict sense of the term, for the lips are gradually brought nearer and gradually drawn apart. The sounds do not continue in the same position at all; hence they have been described as "gliding," not "held."
The word conquer is sometimes pedantically pronounced [kɔŋkwə] instead of [kɔŋkə]; but it is the rule to sound the [w] in conquest. Compare liquor [likə], exchequer [eks´tʃekə].
A w has often influenced a following a. Consider the following cases:
was, warm, squabble, quality, quack, quarrel, quaff, wasp, water, waft, walk, swallow.
27. Lip teeth continuants.—The breath passes between the lower lip and the upper teeth (also between the interstices of the upper teeth); the sounds produced in this way are also called labiodentals.
The voiceless sound [f] is usually written f or ff, also ph (in words taken from Greek); note also the gh in laugh, etc.
Notice our reluctance to pronounce phth [fθ], as shown in the dropping of ph in phthisis, and the frequent substitution of p for ph in diphtheria, diphthong, naphtha, ophthalmia, which is, however, avoided by careful speakers.
The voiced sound [v] is usually written v.
Sounds very like [f, v] can be produced with both lips. Though they do not ordinarily occur in English, it will be good practice for you to produce them.
When [v] is final, it is not voiced to the end, but passes into whispered [v] (symbol v̥), which sounds very much like voiceless [f]; in other words, the vocal chords cease to vibrate before the breath ceases to pass between the lower lip and the upper teeth. We may say: final [v] is devocalised.
Observe thief, but thieves and to thieve; loaf, but loaves; shelf, but shelves and to shelve.
The ph in nephew is pronounced [v], but [f] is heard in dialects.
28. Point continuants.—We have seen above (§ 24) that in English the tongue, as a matter of fact, rarely touches the teeth in the case of point stops. Similarly the narrowing of the passage which leads to the production of point continuants (except [θ,ð]) is not necessarily between the tongue and the teeth; in some cases it is indeed a good deal farther back.
The point continuants include:
1. The hushing, hissing,[30] and lisping sounds, and the r sounds, in which the place of articulation is along the middle line of the mouth (medial formation); and
2. The l sounds, the narrowing for which is between the side rim or rims of the tongue and the side teeth (lateral formation).
The r sounds and the l sounds are sometimes called liquids.
29. The hushing sounds.—For the production of the sh sounds the passage is narrowed between the blade (see § 23) of the tongue and the hard palate. A broad current of air is broken against the edge of the teeth. There is some friction between the tongue and the gums, but that against the front teeth is more noticeable.
Watch a Frenchman uttering these sounds, and see what he does with his lips. Do you use your lips in the same way?
The voiceless [ʃ] is usually written sh; also s after consonants (as in tension [tenʃən], censure [senʃə]). It is written ss, c or t before a front vowel (e or i), (as in passion [pæʃən], capricious [kə´priʃəs], station [steiʃən]). In all these cases [ʃ] arose from [sj].
Observe the colloquial pronunciation of this year as [ðiʃ jəː]; six years [sikʃ jəːz].
The combination [tʃ] is very common, and is usually written ch or tch. In some cases it arises from [tj], when t follows the chief accent of the word and precedes either a front vowel (e or i) or u[31] which goes back to [juː] (as in righteous [raitʃəs], nature [neitʃə]). The combination [kʃ] similarly goes back to [ksj] in anxious [æŋkʃəs] (notice anxiety [æŋ(g)´zaiəti]). Luxury is [lʌkʃəri], but luxurious is [ləg´zuːriəs] or [ləg´zjuːriəs], sometimes [ləg´ʒuːriəs].
The pronunciation of associate as [ə´sousieit],[32] officiate as [o´fisieit], instead of [ə´souʃieit, o´fiʃieit], is pedantic; [pro´pisieit] is also faulty for [pro´piʃieit].
The voiced [ʒ] standing alone between vowels is not common in English, being found only where s is followed by a front vowel, or by u which goes back to [juː]. Here the development is from [sj] to [zj] and then to [ʒ]. Examples are vision [viʒən], measure [meʒə]. The spelling z is found only in azure [æʒə] or [eiʒjə], sometimes [æʒjuə].
Observe the careless pronunciation of as usual as [æʒ juwʒuəl], praise ye the Lord as [preiʒ jij ðə lɔːd]. India rubber is generally pronounced [indʒə rʌbə].
On the other hand, the combination [dʒ] is quite common. This is written j (as in jet [dʒet]), g before e or i. (as in gem [dʒem], gin [dʒin], age [eidʒ]; observe also gaol [dʒeil]), and sometimes dg (as in edge [edʒ]). It is spelled ch in ostrich, sandwich, Greenwich, Harwich, Woolwich, and in spinach.
What is the value of ng in the following words:—hang, longing, lounging, language, engage, hunger, hinge, ungraceful?
30. The hissing sounds.—Distinguish clearly the voiceless as in seal and the voiced [z] as in zeal. Compare the manner of production of the hissing and the hushing sounds: utter [ʃ] and . (Why will these show the distinction more clearly than [ʒ] and [z]?) You will find that the breath is more widely diffused when you utter [ʃ]; in producing your tongue forms a narrow channel and the breath is thus directed against a point. See the diagram on p. [126].
The usual spelling of both voiceless and voiced [z] is s. Notice that
1. The s of inflections is [z] after a voiced sound: compare fills [filz], glances [glɑːnsiz], dogs [dɔgz], faces [feisiz], but hits [hits], cats [kæts].
2. The final s of some words of one syllable is [z]: as, has, is, his, was; but this, us.
3. Sometimes the verb has [z], the substantive or adjective :
| use [juwz] | use [juws] |
| diffuse [di´fjuwz] | diffuse [di´fjuws] |
| close [klouz] | close [klous] |
| lose [luwz] | loose [luws] |
(Notice the difference in the length of the vowel.)
4. Notice also that we have
| [z] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| in | reserve | in | research |
| disease | disobey | ||
| dissolve | dissolvent, dissolute | ||
| presumption | presuppose |
Find other examples (there are many). How do you pronounce disarm?
5. x represents [ks] in exercise, excellent, and in extra, exceed, express, extol, but [gz] in exert, examine, anxiety, exult, exonerate, exorbitant, exotic.
Do you agree with this statement?
Try to find a rule for the pronunciation of x.
In exile both pronunciations of x may be heard, [ks] being perhaps the more common.
For the dropping of h in compounds with ex- see § 47.
The voiceless is usually written s, but also ss, and c or sc before e and i (as in city, scene, but not in sceptic [skeptik]).
Say which of the sounds [ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, s, z] occur in the following words:
church, machine, ledger, leisure, seizure, cease, ease, scissors, chisel, lesion, legion, singe, excessive, example.
Notice that final [z] is unvoiced towards the end; thus is is strictly [izz̥]; compare what was said about final [v] in § 27.
The term lisping is given to various mispronunciations of the s sounds. It may be due to a lasting or a passing malformation of the teeth, palate, or tongue,[33] or it may be simply a bad habit. A slight habitual lisp is often heard, and parents and friends have been known foolishly to encourage a child in the belief that the lisp is "pretty"; it is important to drive this idea out of the child's head. The treatment of lispers is varied; generally they can produce the right sound after some experimenting. When the right sound has been found and distinguished by the child, the rest is entirely a matter of perseverance. There must be frequent repetition in many combinations. The exercises should be practised sparingly at first, and gradually increased, otherwise the strain may be too great and interfere with the child's regular work.
31. The lisping sounds.—Distinguish clearly the voiceless [θ] as in thistle, and the voiced [ð] as in this. Compare the manner of production of the lisping and the hissing sounds: utter [θ] and . You will find that in the case of [θ] the breath is not passing through a narrow channel, and issues between the tips of the upper teeth and of the tongue. The tongue may be between the teeth, and the sounds are accordingly sometimes called interdental; but this is by no means essential. Our English lisping sounds are usually formed between the point of the tongue and the back of the front upper teeth; part of the tongue fills up the small gap between the teeth, without advancing beyond their back surface.
Which of the following words have [θ] and which have [ð]?
thorn, thou, bath*, baths*, bathe*, then, think, clothe*, cloth*, with, father, thump, lethal, leather, lath, lathe, lithe, loath*, loathe*, breath*, breathe*, heathen, heath, heaths, wreathe*, wreath*, wreaths*, seethe, truth*, truths*.
What do you notice with regard to the words marked with an asterisk? Of what does it remind you in connection with the hissing sounds?
Notice that final [ð] is unvoiced or whispered towards the end; compare what has been said about final [v] and final [z].
A fault, common especially in bad southern English, and found almost invariably in baby speech, is the substitution of [v, f] for [ð, θ]. The baby says [fʌm] for [θʌm], the cockney [nafiŋk] for [nʌθiŋ], [fevə] for [feðə]. This fault should on no account be tolerated; the child (we are of course not referring to the baby) can produce the lisping sounds without difficulty. It need only be told to place the tongue between the teeth. When once the difference in the manner of production of [f] and [θ] is known, the child can also hear the difference; all that is now required is perseverance.
In careless speech [h] is sometimes substituted for [θ], thus I think so becomes [ai hiŋk sou]. This also has its parallel in baby speech, e.g. [hugə] for sugar.
32. The liquids.—This designation comprises the r sounds and the l sounds.
The sounds written r are extremely varied, and are likely to give some trouble to the student. He should in the first place ascertain from his friends (we are assuming that these speak standard English) whether they notice anything peculiar about his r. If they do not, it is probable that he uses the untrilled r. (The phonetic sign for this is [ɹ], but it is customary to use [r], unless exceptional accuracy be desired.)
This sound is produced by allowing the breath to pass between the raised point of the tongue and the ridge of the upper gums.[34] When the breath makes the tip of the tongue vibrate, we have the trilled or rolled [r]. Can you roll your r? Does anyone you know habitually do so? Have you noticed whether Frenchmen or Germans ever do it?
Another kind of r is that produced at the back of the mouth, by the help of the uvula (see § 8), and called the throat r or uvular r (phonetic sign: [R]), as distinguished from the tongue or teeth r (lingual or dental r). It is not a normal sound in standard English, but is occasionally found. It used to be frequent in Durham and Northumberland (the "Northumbrian burr"), but is dying out there now.
Notice that after [t] and [d] the narrowing for [r] is particularly small, and therefore the friction of the breath particularly noticeable. Say such words as dry, drink, droll, try, trill, trap, and carefully observe the nature of the [r]. Notice also that after voiceless sounds the [r] often becomes voiceless [r̥], as in praise, try, increase. Sometimes tried almost sounds like chide, because the passage of the breath is not stopped and the vocal chords have not begun to vibrate. Try to utter a voiceless [r̥] by itself; practise the series [r r̥ r r̥ r].
There is also a peculiar variety of r found after g, as in great, green, grass. This r is a kind of palatal blade continuant, and its use should be avoided, as it is generally held to be affected.
In standard English the written r is only pronounced initially (as in red), between a consonant and a vowel (as in bread, angry), and between vowels, the second of which is not only written, but actually pronounced (as in very).[35]
It is not pronounced between a vowel and a consonant (as in arm, lord), nor when it is final in the spelling or followed by a vowel which is only written and not actually pronounced (as in bar, bare). Its place is in many cases taken by the neutral vowel [ə] (see § 38).
Observe that a final r is pronounced when the next word begins with a vowel. (Is there anything like this in French?) Thus we say better [betə], but [betər ən betə]; ever [evə], but [fər evər ənd evə]; here [hiə], but [hiᵊr ən ðɛːə]; stir up [stəːr ʌp], but [stəː ðə faiə]. There is, however, nowadays a tendency to leave even this r unpronounced.
The fact that such words as better have two forms, with and without [r], has led to the addition of [r] when there is no justification for it. Even educated people are often heard to pronounce the idea of it as [ði aidiər əv it]; The India Office sometimes becomes [ði indjər ɔfis]; china ornaments becomes [tʃainər ɔːnəmənts]; and clergymen have been known to say [vik´tɔːjər auə kwijn]. Similarly, in vulgar speech [ðə windər iz oupən], [pə´pɑːr əz gɔn aut], etc., are quite common.
There is an affected pronunciation of this [ə] which makes it approximate to a deep [ɑ]; the comic papers represent my dear fellow as "my deah fellah" to indicate the speech of a swell.
The substitution of [w] for [r] is a mannerism which should not be tolerated; it is the result of a bad habit, not of any defect of the organs of speech.
When a word contains the letter r twice, careless speakers incline to drop one of them; February becomes [febjuəri], temporarily [tempərili], library [laibri], literary [litəri], supernumerary [sjuwpənjuwməri], contemporary [kəntempəri]. Veterinary usually becomes [vetənri] or [vetnəri].
33. In order to produce the sound of [l], we let the breath pass out between the side rims of the tongue and the side gums and teeth; the point of the tongue touches the roof of the mouth somewhere along the middle line.
Utter [l] with the point of the tongue drawn back as far as possible; then utter [l] several times, gradually bringing the point of the tongue forward, until it eventually touches the teeth. You will notice a difference in the quality of the sound: the sound is "dark"[36] when the tongue is farther back, "clear" when it is forward in the mouth. Notice that when the tongue is drawn back, it is bunched up behind. In standard English the [l] is frequently pronounced with the tongue fairly back in the mouth; the "darkness" of the [l] is particularly noticeable when it comes at the end of a word.[37]
Excessive withdrawal of the tongue tip is not to be encouraged in children; they should rather practise the "clear" [l], though they need not go so far as actually to "let the tongue touch the teeth." This is, however, a good rule, and if instilled in the children will do something to counteract any tendency to "darkness" of the [l]. It is not likely that they will acquire the habit of actually touching the teeth when they say [l]; but a sufficiently "clear" [l] can be obtained if the point of contact is at the upper gums, and even a little farther back than that. It should be noted that the [l] may be "dark," even when the point of the tongue touches the teeth, if the back of the tongue is raised.
In cockney speech the [l] is sometimes lost, through no contact taking place; tail is pronounced [tæjɔ] or something similar, with a very open [ɔ] (see § 43) in place of [l], and after consonants also the final l, as in giggle, is very liable to disappear. This recalls the treatment of final r in standard English. In careless speech the [l] also disappears in only and in all right.
Colonel is pronounced [kəːnəl]; the older spelling coronel explains this.
Notice that when [l] comes next to a voiceless sound, it may become partly or wholly voiceless [l̥]. Thus clear becomes [kl̥iːə], halt [hɔl̥t]. The friction becomes noticeable then; try to utter [l̥] and observe this. The voiceless sound is the familiar Welsh ll.
In bubble, riddle, etc., we may have syllabic l [l̩]. Compare what was said about syllabic m in § 22, and about syllabic n in § 24.
The l is not pronounced in calf, half, salve,[38] balk, caulk, chalk, falcon,[39] folk, stalk, talk, walk, yolk, almond, alms, balm, calm, palm, psalm, qualm, salmon, solder, should, would, could (where it is not etymologically justified); golf is usually [gɔlf], but also [gɔf][3], and rarely [gɔːf].[40]
It was said above that for [l] we let the breath pass out at both sides of the mouth; but, as a matter of fact, most people let it out only on one side. On which side does it pass out in your own case? Is the same true of your whole family? Ascertain which is the usual side in the case of friends.
34. Front continuants.—Watch with your mirror what the tongue does when you utter the word he. You see that it rises in front. Raise it a little more, until the passage becomes quite narrow; the vowel will pass into the sound which we have at the beginning of yes [jes], and which we also have in sue [sjuːw], for which see § 45. As a rule the friction is very slight, and indeed hardly perceptible to the ear; but in the slowly uttered, deliberate yes the friction can often be heard very distinctly. The sound is also noteworthy as being, like [w] and [ɹ], "gliding," not "held" (see §§ 26, 32). In careless speech it sometimes passes into [ʒ] after [d]; during is pronounced [dʒuwriŋ] instead of [djuwriŋ], the dew becomes [dʒuw], it made you start [it mei dʒu stɑːt]. Soldier is regularly pronounced [souldʒə], not [souldjə]; and verdure, grandeur, have both pronunciations, [djə] being preferred by careful speakers.
After voiceless sounds, as in Tuesday, tube, [j] occasionally passes into the corresponding voiceless [ç], which is the consonant sound in the German ich; and sometimes it even becomes [ʃ], compare the careless pronunciation of don't you know [dountʃənou], last year [lɑːs tʃiə], he'll meet you [hijl mijtʃu]; I shall hit you is in vulgar speech [ɑi ʃəl itʃə]. For this development in unstressed syllables, see § 45.
Back continuants.—When we utter the vowel sound of who the back of the tongue is raised; if we raise it a little higher, there is friction, and we obtain the back continuants. These do not normally belong to standard English. The voiceless [x] is, however, not uncommon in the pronunciation of words taken from Scotch, Welsh, or German; even in such words [k] is generally substituted. The Scotch loch is pronounced [lɔx] or [lɔk]; the German Hoch(heimer) is always spelt and pronounced hock [hɔk]. In Scotch [x] occurs normally.
Throat r (uvular r).—This sound, which does not normally belong to standard English, has been referred to in § 32.
35. The h sounds.—We considered the glottis (the interval between the vocal chords) in § 6. We saw that when it is quite open, the breath passes through without producing any audible sound. When, however, the glottis is somewhat narrowed, the breath brushes past the vocal chords, and an h is produced; this we may call a voiceless glottal continuant.[41]
Now there may be various kinds of glottal [h]. The passage between the vocal chords may be more or less narrow, and it may remain uniform or gradually grow narrower or wider. The current of breath may be strong or weak; it may be of uniform force, or gradually grow stronger or weaker. When there is a strong current of breath, and the opening is very narrow, we call it "wheezing."
In standard English the h is a glottal continuant only when there is precise and emphatic utterance. Ordinarily it is produced in the mouth passage. When we say ha, the vocal chords are not drawn together until the vowel is sounded; the mouth, however, gets into position for uttering the vowel a little before the time, and the breath as it passes through produces an h sound. In [hɑ] then, we practically have a voiceless [ɑ] followed by the ordinary voiced [ɑ]; in he, a voiceless followed by the ordinary vowel; in who, a voiceless followed by the ordinary . Whisper these words, and also hay and hoe; and after each, whisper the [h] only. Notice that the ear detects an actual difference in these h sounds.
A good deal depends on the current of breath with which the [h] is uttered. In standard English the current does not keep on growing in volume until the vowel is sounded; it distinctly diminishes before the vowel appears. This may be graphically represented by the signs [<h>].
If the current of breath does not diminish in this way, but starts weakly and does not reach its maximum force until the vowel is reached, the ear does not receive the impression of a distinct [h]. This sound may be written [h<] or simply [<]. This (the "soft breath") precedes initial vowels in standard English; it is the sound which in cockney speech commonly represents the more distinct [<h>]; those who use it are said to "drop their h's." Conscious of the defect, they often prefix a full, even an exaggerated [h] to words which have no h. It need hardly be said that carelessness in the use of h is not to be tolerated. It is interesting to note that no h is ever dropped in the speech of Americans, except in the weak forms of he, him, her.
[h] occurs in standard English only before stressed vowels. Initial h before unstressed vowels is only pronounced when preceded by a pause.
Notice that:
1. Written h is not pronounced in heir, honest, honour, hour, and words derived from these.
It is now pronounced in standard English in herb, hospital, humble, humour (a fair number of educated speakers still pronounce this word without [h]).
2. It is regarded as correct to say a history, but an historical novel; a habit, but an habitual action; many, however, pronounce the h in both cases.
3. Certain words drop the h when they occur in an unstressed position in the sentence; this is a regular feature of standard colloquial speech, and does not convey the slightest suggestion of vulgarity. It must be recognised that such words have two forms, weak and strong, according as they are used without or with emphasis. Compare the following sentences:
| Tom | has | been | there. | Has | he | though? | |
| tɔm | əz | bijn (bin) | ðeːə. | hæz | i | ðou? | |
| I | gave | her | a | book. | What, | to | her? |
| ai | geiv | ər | ə | buk. | wɔt, | tu | həː? |
Find as many words having strong and weak forms as you can by observing the ordinary speech of those around you. Then compare the list given in § 47.
For the dropping of h in the second part of compound words, see § 47.
36.
VOWELS
We have considered the sounds produced when the passage through which the breath passes is closed (stops) or narrowed (continuants); we now have to consider the sounds produced when the passage is wide enough for the breath to pass through without audibly brushing against the sides. These sounds are the vowels.
"Voice," produced by the vibration of the vocal chords, may be said to give body to the vowel; the shape of the passage through which the breath passes determines the features that distinguish one vowel from another, i.e. its quality. The shape of this passage is capable of almost infinite variation, which leads to a corresponding variety of resonances, and these determine the quality of the vowels.
Picture to yourself the inside of the mouth, and consider how the cavity may become larger or smaller, according as you separate or draw together the jaws; see what a difference it makes if you raise the tongue at the back, or in the middle, or in the front; bear in mind that the position of the lips may also modify the sound, as you will notice if, for instance, you utter as in who, first with the lips forming a long narrow slit, and again with the lips forming a very small circle (of the same size as the end of a lead pencil).
37. Of the well-defined vowels that which is articulated with least effort is [ɑ].[42] It is the earliest vowel sound uttered by the baby, before it has acquired control over the muscles of the tongue. It is also common as an interjection. Utter it, and watch the tongue with your mirror; you will see that the middle of the tongue ridge is slightly raised. The opening of the mouth is generally larger than in the case of the other vowels. See the diagram on p. [125].
Utter the standard English sound of a in hat, for which the sign is [æ]. Say several times [ɑ æ] and watch the tongue as you do so; you will see that it moves forward and is a little higher in front and lower at back for [æ]. The opening of the mouth is often quite as large for [æ] as for [ɑ].
Now try to produce the sound which lies between the two, with the tongue occupying an intermediate position; you will obtain the sound [a], which is the northern English vowel in hat, and the vowel in the French word chat; in standard English it occurs only as the first part of the diphthongs in bite [bait] and bout [baut].[43] This [a] is sometimes called the "clear" a sound. See the diagram on p. [123].
Next, draw the tongue a little back, and you will obtain a variety of [ɑ] which is "dark" and has a suggestion of the vowel in all [ɔːl]. This sound is commonly substituted for the "pure" or "neutral" [ɑ] in cockney speech, so that fast is made to sound like [fɔːst], park like [pɔːk].
This "darkening" of the a sound should not be permitted; in order to counteract it, it may be advisable to make the class utter [ɑ] singly and in chorus, until they are quite clear as to the nature of the required sound.
It is sometimes found that precise speakers, through an excessive desire to avoid any suspicion of cockney leanings in their speech, substitute [a] for [ɑ], saying, for instance, [faːðə] in place of [fɑːðə]; it is particularly ladies of real or would-be refinement who commit this mistake. A mistake it is, like every other deviation from what is generally recognised by the educated.
In other cases the "clear" pronunciation of a is often heard, e.g., in glass, bath, past, answer, demand, grant, everlasting. Both [a] and [æ] occur, particularly in the speech of ladies. What is the American pronunciation of half?
In standard English there is practically no short [ɑ],[44] but only the long [ɑː], which should be neither "dark" nor "clear." If we analyse it carefully, we often find[45] that it is not a single vowel of uniform value, only the first part being "pure" [ɑ], the rest being a faint variant; but for practical purposes we may regard it as uniform in quality, as in good speech it is a pure long vowel.
38. There is a short sound closely akin to it (in position, but not in sound), which we have in but, much, etc., and for which the sign is [ʌ]. The back of the tongue is raised a little in the production of this sound, and sometimes the front also; and in consequence there are several varieties of it. It occurs only in syllables having some stress; we have [ʌ] in teacup, unfit, until; but not in welcome, which is not felt to be a compound. When it is unstressed, it becomes the dull vowel [ə]; unstressed but is [bət]. Observe the vulgar pronunciation of just as [dʒest].
The dull vowel [ə] occurs very commonly in ordinary speech; most unstressed syllables contain this vowel or the variety of mentioned below. It is found, for instance, in the italicised syllables of vowel, variety, carpenter, ordinary. The long [əː] is variously written; we have it in fern, fir,[46] fur, word. (In northern English there is some variety in the [ə], according to the written vowel which it represents.) Notice the precise and the ordinary pronunciation of such words as paternal, polite, potato. The uneducated often insert [ə] in such words as Henry [henəri], umbrella [ʌmbərelə]; and sometimes they substitute for [ə], as in miracle, wrongly pronounced [mirikl̩], philosopher, wrongly pronounced [fi´lɔsifə], and in oracle, pigeon.
The letters e, i, and y in unstressed syllables represent a very laxly articulated sound, for which the sign is used in this book. It varies somewhat in different speakers; several sounds intermediate between the open [ɪ] and the middle [e] may be heard. This serves to explain the uncertainty of spelling in such cases as ensure and insure, enquire and inquire.
Sometimes the vowel disappears altogether, as in business, medicine, venison.
The letter o in unstressed syllables preceding the chief stress is usually [ə], but in precise speech an o-sound is heard in such words as conceive, official, possess. After the chief stress [ɔ] is rarely heard; but epoch [ijpɔk] and other uncommon words keep the [ɔ].
39. The front vowels.—Utter the word he and notice what the tongue does. You can do so by looking into your mirror, or by putting a finger just inside your front upper teeth, or by whispering the sound, and feeling what happens.
You will generally find that you can analyse vowels best if you whisper them, because the "voice" does not interfere with your appreciation of the mouth resonances. By this time your muscular consciousness (see § 9) should be considerably developed, and you should be conscious of what your tongue, lips, etc., are doing, without having recourse to a mirror.
You will find that you are raising your tongue very high in front: [ɑ] and are extremes; in the one case the front of the tongue is practically as low as it can be, in the other it is raised as high as possible. You might raise the tongue farther, but the resulting sound would not be a vowel. The passage would be too narrow, there would be friction, and a continuant would be the result (see § 34).
Utter a pure [ɑ] and gradually raise the front of the tongue until you reach . You may either keep your vocal chords vibrating all the time, or you may whisper the sounds; but see that the tongue moves slowly and steadily. You will realise that very many sounds lie between [ɑ] and ; as they are all produced with the raising of the front of the tongue, they are called front vowels.
We have already noticed clear [a], and have met with [æ], which is the vowel sound in hat [hæt]. When unstressed the [æ] gives place to [ə]; that [ðæt] becomes [ðət].
The uneducated sometimes substitute a closer sound (the middle e) for [æ]; they say [keb] for cab, [ketʃ] for catch, [θeŋks] for thanks, [beŋk] for bank. The same mistake may also be heard in the pronunciation of carriage, radish, January. In any, many the first vowel is always [e]. What is it in manifold?
The sound [æ] is only found short. There is a kindred long sound [ɛː], as in fair, for which the tongue is rather higher. It is often called the open [ɛ], [æ] being a still more open sound.
A difference in the formation of [æ] and [ɛː] must be noticed; it is not confined to this pair of vowels. In uttering a vowel sound we may adjust the articulations so favourably that the resulting sound is clear and decided; this may be called tense articulation, producing tense vowels. If we do not trouble to adjust the articulations carefully, if we have lax articulation, we obtain lax vowels. In standard English we do not articulate tensely, except in precise and emphatic speech. (Notice how tensely the French and the Germans articulate their accented long vowels.) In teaching children the terms tight and loose may be used.
The articulation of [ɛː] is relatively tense, that of [æ] is lax. For [ɛ] see the diagram on p. [123].
Notice that [ɛː] is always followed by a more or less distinct [ə]; there is [ðɛːə], Mary is [mɛː(ə)ri]. Consider the value of -ear- in bear and bearing.
There is a vulgar pronunciation of I dare say as [ai desei], instead of [ai dɛːə sei].
40. The diphthongs in bite and bout are pronounced by the uneducated in many ways not permissible in standard English. The first element should be "clear" [a]. A "pure" [ɑ] would not be offensive here, though it is much less common;[47] but any pushing forward of the tongue beyond the [a] limit, any substitution of [æ] for [a], is not to be tolerated. The nasalising of these diphthongs adds to the unpleasant effect. Probably the best means of counteracting these tendencies is to insist on [ɑi] and [ɑu]; if the pure [ɑ] has been practised, as was suggested above, it will form a stepping-stone to the acquisition of good diphthongs.
Notice how a German pronounces these diphthongs; you will find that he dwells much longer on the first element than we do, and that it is more open.
The ending -ile in agile, docile, fertile, futile, hostile, puerile is pronounced [ail], and not [il] as used to be the case.
41. The next sounds in the series, obtained by raising the tongue a little higher than for [ɛ], are "middle" [e] and "close" [e]. The vowel in pen, get, fell is usually the middle [e]; some speakers (perhaps mostly ladies) use the close [e] here, but the very close [e], heard in French été, is not found in standard English. For ordinary purposes the sign [e] may serve to designate both [e] and [e], as they are so closely connected. When unstressed, the [e] gives place to [ə]; thus unstressed them is [ðəm]. Notice that 'em really goes back to the old form hem.
For [e] see the diagram on p. [122].
Observe the colloquial tendency to pronounce get as [git].
A fairly close [e] is in standard English the first element of the diphthong in laid, tame, late, etc. There is not one uniform vowel sound in these words; pronounce aid quite slowly, and you will notice that the tongue rises before the consonant is reached. The diphthong is long when a voiced sound follows it, short before a voiceless sound. Thus laid [leid] is longer than late [leit]. Test this statement by finding other words containing the diphthong, and pronouncing them to yourself or getting others to pronounce them. What is the quantity of the [ei] when the diphthong is final?
In vulgar speech the first element of the diphthong tends to [ɑ], sometimes almost to [ɔ].
Listen to a foreigner's pronunciation of English words containing this diphthong; what do you notice?
The vowel in says and said is short [sez, sed], as also in ate [et]. The pronunciation of -ain as [ein] in such words as fountain, captain, bargain, is a pedantic affectation.
How do you pronounce villain, curtain?
42. Two front vowels remain to be considered, the i sounds. Say bid and bead. You recognise that one is longer than the other; are they otherwise the same? Say bid and repeat it with the same vowel drawn out; then say bead, and repeat it with the vowel shortened. If you are careful in each case to change only the length, and not the quality of the vowel, you will perceive that the vowels in bid and in bead are different.
The vowel in bid is laxly articulated and is known as the open [ɪ]. In unstressed syllables (see § 38) it is often very open indeed, and when it is final, as in very, the tongue is raised very little higher than for close or even middle e. The sign for this sound is [e˔] or [ɪ˕]. (Here ˔ means more close, ˕ more open.) Can you hear any difference between the two vowels of lily?
The great phonetician Ellis remarked that the pronunciation of the i in six is the touchstone of foreigners, especially of those belonging to the Romance nations; they usually articulate it too tensely. Ask a Frenchman to say fini, and compare his sounds with those in finny.
Notice the frequent cockney pronunciation of -y as [ei], e.g., in windy [windei].
Often [ə] is substituted for this sound, as in unity, ability, pronounced [juwnəti, ə´biləti], also in April, visible; but this is avoided by some speakers.
The in the diphthongs [ai] and [ɔi], as in buy, boy, is very low.
In bead we have not a single vowel, but a kind of diphthong. If you utter it slowly, you will find that the tongue does not remain in a uniform position, but rises a little towards the end, the sound becoming closer. It may begin close, in which case the further rising reduces the passage so much that we have [j]; bead in this case is [bijd]. Or the vowel may begin fairly open and rise to the close position; then bead is [bɪid].[48] When the diphthong is followed by a voiceless sound, it is shortened; beat [bijt] [bɪit] is shorter than bead. Compare also seed, seat, sit; feed, feet, fit. Careful speakers pronounce been like bean, not like bin; most speakers, however, use the shortened form in ordinary speech.
For see the diagram on p. [122].
In dear, fear, etc., we have a rather open vowel, of varying length, followed by [ɔ]; we may write [diə], but strictly it is [dɪə, dIˑə] and sometimes [dIːə]. Before [r], as in dearest, the [ə] becomes faint or disappears. Standard English contains no as close as the French and the German [iː]. Convince yourself of this by asking foreigners to pronounce words containing these sounds, in their own language or in English.
Notice the frequent pronunciation of ear, year, as [jəː], and that of dear as [djəː].
We are now able to give the whole series of vowels from to [ɑ] occurring in standard English.
close i (diagram, p. [122])
\
open ɪ
\
close e (diagram, p. [122])
\
middle e
\
open ɛ (diagram, p. [123])
\
more open æ
\
clear a (diagram, p. [123])
\
ɑ (diagram, p. [125])
It will be good practice for you to utter this series of sounds, from [ɑ] to and vice versa, and long as well as short.
The raising of the tongue for the sounds is best seen if the upper and lower teeth are kept well apart.
43. The back vowels.—When the front vowels have been carefully differentiated, the back vowels will be found to present little difficulty. Owing to the fact that the back of the tongue does not admit of so much variety of movement as the front of the tongue, the number of sounds in the series [ɑ] to is smaller than in the series [ɑ] to .
You will see that there is some resemblance between the sounds of the two series. Thus we had a lax [æ] and a tense [ɛː] in the front vowels; and there are corresponding open o sounds when the tongue is raised a little at the back.
The articulation of these sounds is often unsatisfactory owing to the lower jaw not being moved down sufficiently, the teeth being hardly separated. The back vowels gain in quality (cp. § 36) if they are produced with lip rounding. The opening is large in the case of the sounds in which the tongue is only slightly raised; as it rises higher, the opening of the lips grows smaller, until for it is only the size of the end of an ordinary lead pencil. This lip rounding is rare with southern English speakers who have not had special voice training; they usually bring together or separate the lips without rounding.
The short vowel sound in not, what, etc., is a laxly articulated, open [ɔ], much more open than any o in French or German, with the front of the tongue even lower than for [ɑ]. It is lengthened a little before a voiced final consonant, as in dog [dɔg]; but it should never be made quite long. The pronunciation [gɔːd] for God is detestable. Before ss , st [st], sp [sp], th [θ], and f, ff, or ph [f], the long sound is occasionally heard. Determine whether in the following words you use the long or the short sound: loss, ost, froth, cross, cough, soft, coffee, off, officer, cloth, moss, gospel. Extend the inquiry to your friends.
When the short [ɔ] is in an unstressed syllable it either disappears entirely (as in lesson, where the [n] is syllabic, see § 24), or it may become [ə], as in minor [mainə], or it may become the sound [ö], which will be explained in § 44. Thus October is [ɔk´toubə] or [ök´toubə]; connect is [kɔ´nekt] only in precise speech, but usually [kö´nekt] or [kə´nekt].
The long [ɔ] in law, laud, lord is rather tensely articulated, certainly not so laxly as the short [ɔ].[49] Before voiceless sounds the vowel is somewhat shortened, as in short (compare shawl and shot). It is in standard English the only sound of stressed or (or oar) before a consonant;[50] there is no difference in sound between laud and lord, fought and fort, stalk and stork, cawed and cord. It is true that some speakers try to make a distinction. The long [ɔː] is not a simple long vowel, but really a diphthong of which the second element is [ə][51]; and in words containing a written r, these precise speakers somewhat lengthen the [ə] element. Thus they will say [lɔːᵊd] for laud, and [lɔːəd] for lord. It may be added that they generally do so only if the distinction has been spoken about, and they have expressed their firm belief in its existence; then, for a while, the [ɔːə] may be heard. A simple test, which the student should apply to his friends, is that of asking them to write down the word he utters. If he says [fɔːt], meaning fought, most people will write down fort, because the sound gives them no guidance, and the substantive is likely to occur to them first. Similarly, if he says [lɔːd], meaning laud, they will write down lord.[52]
The word lore, which hardly occurs in ordinary speech, is often pronounced [lɔːə] in order to distinguish it from law, the [ə] sound being much more distinct than in law, more, bore, etc. Consider the value of -ore- in more water, and in more ink.
There is much variation in the pronunciation of the words daunt, flaunt, gaunt, gauntlet, haunch, haunt, jaundice, jaunt, launch, laundry, paunch, saunter, staunch, taunt, vaunt. The general tendency seems to be in favour of [ɔː], not [ɑː].
When unstressed, the sound is often shortened to [ɔ] or [ö][53]; thus autumnal becomes [ɔ´tʌmnəl] or [ö´tʌmnəl]; or when stressed is [ɔː], unstressed [ɔ] or [ö] or [ə].
A variety of the open [ɔ], not equally open in all speakers of standard English, is the first element in the diphthong found in boy [bɔi]. The pronunciation [böi[53]] is also heard.
In vulgar speech [ɔi] sometimes becomes [ɑi]; thus boil is pronounced [bɑil]. Only in choir (also written quire) is this pronunciation current in good speech.
44. Utter the sound usually called "long o" and found in bode, boat, etc,; you will observe that the sound is not uniform, as the tongue rises a little before the consonant is reached.[54] Indeed the action of the tongue is quite similar to what we noticed in the case of [ei] in § 41; and also to [iːj] or [Iːi] in § 42, where, however, it is less obvious to the ear. The diphthongal character of the "long o" is so essential, that when a stranger merely says [oːnoː] for oh no! we at once recognise that he is not English.
The first element of this diphthong is a middle [o], sometimes a fairly close [o]; in standard English the [o] is never so close as in French [o] or in German [ɔː].[55] (Watch foreigners when they utter these sounds; notice how tensely they articulate, and how much more they round their lips than we do.) In cockney speech the first element is pronounced with the tongue lower and raised in front.—The second is a u sound; place a finger against the interval between the upper and lower teeth, and notice how they are brought a little closer towards the end of the diphthong. Observe also the action of the lips. The diphthong is longer before voiced than before voiceless continuants; verify this statement by saying, or getting others to say, bode and boat, goad and goat, robe and rope, brogue and broke.
In syllables that are weakly stressed, the first part of the diphthong becomes [o], [ö][56] or even [ə], the second part disappearing altogether. Thus fellow is in precise speech [feloːu], but in ordinary speech [felo, felö], and in careless (but not necessarily vulgar) speech [felə].[57] In "ladies' speech" the [öü] occurs even in stressed syllables, and may then be confidently described as a sign of affectation.
The prefix pro-, when stressed, is generally pronounced [prou]. In process and progress [prɔ] is sometimes heard; in the substantives project and produce it is the rule.
45. The u sounds are clearly parallel to the i sounds. In both cases we have a laxly articulated short sound, and a diphthong in which the tongue rises towards the end.
The short sound in would, book, etc., is open, and the sign for it is [ᴜ]. Do you notice any difference in the length of the vowel sound in the words should and put, pull and cook? Observe others, if you are uncertain in your own case. (You will sometimes find it hard to determine what is your natural, instinctive way of pronouncing a word, when once you have grown accustomed to watching your own speech.)
When this [ᴜ] is unstressed it becomes [ü][58] or [ə], or is dropped altogether. Thus helpful becomes [helpfül, helpfəl], and should becomes [ʃüd, ʃəd, ʃd, ʃt].
The vowel sound in who is not uniform. (See what was said about the corresponding i sound in § 42). It may begin as close [59], in which case the further rising towards the end reduces the passage so much that we have [w]; who in this case is [huːw]. Or the vowel may begin fairly open and rise to the close position; then who is [hUːu]. When the diphthong is followed by a voiceless sound, it is somewhat shortened; hoot is [huwt] or [hᴜut]; compare root with rude. A half-long vowel is now generally heard in room; some speakers make it quite short.
In unstressed syllables the first element is shortened and often becomes [ü]; thus July is [dʒüw´lai].
Before [ə] the diphthong loses its second element; cruel is [kruəl]. When the [ə] represents a written r, the first element often changes to a vowel with lower tongue position. Thus poor is pronounced [pᴜə, poə], and some educated speakers of southern English even say [pɔː], riming with door, floor; but this can hardly be considered standard English. Notice also the various pronunciations of your, sure. Before spoken [r], as in poorest, enduring, the [ə] becomes very faint or disappears.
The so-called "long u" in such words as due, dew, dude consists of three parts. The second and third are the vowel sounds in do, which have just been discussed; the first is [j], which after voiceless sounds tends to become the voiceless [ç] and even [ʃ], as was mentioned in § 34. Thus tune is in ordinary speech [tjuwn], and often [tçuwn]; in careless speech it may even become [tʃuwn].
The -ture in nature, creature, forfeiture, etc., is generally pronounced [tʃə][60]; the pronunciation [tjə] or [tjü] sounds affected in ordinary speech. Venture is usually [ventʃə], sometimes [venʃə], [ventjə], or [ventjü]. Censure is always [senʃə].
In allude, *allusion, lute, lucent, luminous, *flute, salute,*absolute, *absolution, dissolute, *dissolution, *superstition, *Susan both [uw] and [juw] may be heard; [uw] is probably more common in the words marked with an asterisk. Precise speakers prefer [juw] in all the words given. In assume, presume [juw] is regularly heard. As a rule [j] is not inserted after [r], [ʃ], [ʒ], or consonant plus [l].
Notice the pronunciation of casual [kæʒuəl] or [kæʒwəl], sensual [senʃuəl], usual [juwʒuəl] or [juwʒəl], visual [vizjuəl]. Educate is [edjukeit] or [edʒukeit]; careful speakers prefer the former.
As the "long u" begins with a consonantal sound it is correct to say a uniform, a university, a union, a European, a eulogy. To write an before such words is a gross mistake.
We find the element changed in unstressed syllables; thus value becomes [væljü], regular becomes [regjülə, regjələ], and, very colloquially, [reglə].
We are now able to give the whole series of vowels from to [ɑ] occurring in standard English:
ü close u (diagram, p. [124])
/
open ᴜ
/
close o (diagram, p. [124])
/
ö middle o
/
open ɔ (diagram, p. [125])
/
dark ɑ
Practise this series, as was suggested in § 42, in connection with the to [ɑ] series.