CHAPTER XVII.
From Cabul to Jallalabad and Peshawur.
October 7th.—Proceeded to Bhootkhak, nine and a half miles from Cabul, and seven from our camp: the direction lay easterly. A canal and a river were both crossed by bridges, the latter of stone, but much needing repairs: the country generally marshy: the marshes were crossed by a causeway of stones, rough and broken here and there. The road is one apparent continued slope to this, but the Barometer gives no indication of any difference of level. The march proving uninteresting, and the country an uniform brown and barren tract.
8th.—Proceeded to Koord Cabul valley, the distance of which from the place we left being eleven miles: first having rounded a spur extending from the south boundary of Cabul valley, we then entered a narrow ravine, chiefly occupied by a small stream, which we crossed several times. The mountains being chiefly of limestone, then becoming slaty, very precipitous, rugged, and barren; on emerging from this very tedious ravine, we entered on some sward with plenty of Tamarisk, and Salix vimenea. Koord Cabul valley is a frightfully barren, and very stony place; the chief vegetation of the valley, as also of the ravine, being Artemisiæ, in which there is abundance of Carduacea subspicata from Baber’s tomb.
The road throughout is indifferent, but only so from the stones, the largest of which would require removal, and there are not more than two or three difficult rocks in the way, these however might be avoided by keeping in the bed of the stream. There are two ruined stone walls thrown across the ravine, the remains merely of the very few villages of Koord Cabul. A high truncated mountain stands to the south, on which some patches of snow are visible.
The mountain forming the east wall of the ravine is the subconical one, seen to such advantage from Arghundee, it is of limestone, quite precipitous, with a few large bushes of, I do not know what; none of them being within reach,—Ilex, and Cupressus.
9th.—To Tazeen, the road for seven miles extends over somewhat undulated ground, generally good; but here and there stony, with a gradual but almost imperceptible ascent, until the top of the pass is reached; from this, the view of Tazeen valley, and the summit of the Sofaid-Koh is good.
Thence the road extends over ascents and descents, three of which have considerable, and stony inclinations, then it enters the ravine drained by a small stream, and continues down it until we enter Tazeen valley.
Two streams are passed in the ascent; the first, near the former halting place, flowing, where it is crossed, between slaty cliffs of no height; the second one, small, frozen, and not sufficient to supply a large party: there is however a spring a short way below the summit, although very small. Temperature 58°. The rocks forming the narrow ravine are very rough and slaty: limestones presenting the usual characters.
This march has been said to present a very bad road, but it is not the case, at least in comparison with many of the Affghan roads, distance twelve and a half miles, the time it takes for camels to perform the journey is six hours. The road, where not stony, is very well beaten.
No change is observed in the features of the country until the opposite side of Tazeen valley is seen, and the summit of the Sofaid-Koh: here, wonderful to relate! are abundance of firs extending down and along the ridge to some distance, but not forming forests.
Otherwise the vegetation consists of Senecionoides, Astragali, Rosa, Statice 2-3, Artemisiæ, and Plectranthus, which last is very common in the ravine leading to Tazeen valley, which is drained by a small stream. Here also Carduacea, and Onosmoid angustifolia occur!
In this ravine, Xanthoxylon of Kojhuk, a willow, Rosa, and a distinct Ilex, occur, forming chiefly a shrubby vegetation. Ilex is also, so far as can be judged from appearance, the bushy thing seen on the limestone hill at our last halt, also Cupressus, a fine specimen of which I found on limestone at about the height of the top of the pass, (22.76 Bar.) Ther. 60°, with a very small Spiræa.
The large-winged vultures of Arghundee are common here. Some ruined villages were passed, a mosque stood near one of these, two and a half miles from last halt, little cultivation in the Tazeen valley, and in the centre of this, two villages with orchards are visible.
9th.—Tried to get to the firs, but failed.
The lower hills, and indeed the range between the valley and the fir range, are conglomerate, easily disintegrated, then limestone, which often occurs quite vertical. Some of the hills are red, others brown, in one instance the coloured substance is interposed between strata of limestone, which last have alone withstood the effects of climate, this range is as high as the Koord Cabul pass.
Ilex very common, and much used for charcoal, the trunk being eight to ten inches in diameter; almost all are pollarded. Pomacea common at 500 feet above this, Plectranthus, Senecionoides.
Artemisiæ, Astragali, Statices, Rosa, bastard indigo, Cerasus. The orchards are now assuming their autumnal tint, Salvia pinnata, Canus aliusque, Ruwash. Chough, ravens, nuthatch, and chakor here occur. Heavy snow is observed on the eastern portions of Hindoo-koosh, which are quite barren. The best way to the fir tract I find on enquiry will be to follow the bed of the stream up to it. Fields are being now ploughed and sown. Thermopsides very common here in old cultivation: it affords decent fodder for camels.
10th.—To Barikab, distance ten and a half miles; the road extending down the Tazeen ravine, over a tract with a considerable descent for about nine miles; on passing a long dark looking rock and its spur, the road then leaves the bed, and ascends over low undulations of easily detachable conglomerate, and sand; then a short but rather steep ascent occurs for 200 feet, passing over an easily friable sandstone, either existing as grains slightly adherent, or caked; thence the descent passes over the preceding sort of conglomerate, to an abominably barren ravine, drained by a very small stream.
The road only once leaves the bed of this ravine, but soon rejoins it before finally turning off.
The mountains present the same features; where no outcrop of strata occurs, they are rounded, brown, and very barren, with here and there an Ilex; towards the end of the raviny part in one or two places, more wood than usual occurs, forming scattered thickets. Fraxinus, the older branches of which have much smaller leaves, Thymelia of Chiltera, Cerasus canus, and alius, Senecionoides, Compositæ, Artemisiæ, Polygonum frutescens, which last is not uncommon throughout. Equisetoides becomes common towards the black rock.
Where the road turns off from the ravine, a Khubar or tope occurs, shaded with two or three large Xanthoxyleæ now in fruit, called Khinjuk.
Snow visible from Barikab to the north, but generally in ravines. The country continues abominably barren, we passed the entrance of the Lutabund pass, near the black rock, but without seeing it: no difficulty occurs on the road, except from the jolting of stones. There is however no forage to be had at the halt, and but little fodder. A sprinkling of holly-looking bushes are seen extending over the lower ranges of Hindoo-koosh.
11th.—Jugdulluck, ten and a half miles from our last encampment; on leaving Barikab we commenced ascending, winding over undulating ground for a short distance, until we reached the main ascent, which is short, but moderately steep: thence we descended steeply for perhaps 500 feet, hitherto the road extended over sand hills, with quantities of stones. On reaching the foot of the steep descent, we then descended gradually over a long stony inclined plane, then entered undulating ground, descending from which the road took us over a small stream, which we followed up, soon entering a gorge, up which we continued till we reached Jugdulluck. This gorge is the finest and boldest we have seen, the rocks forming precipitous cliffs 2,400 feet high, which often hem in the road, and confine it to a breadth of a few feet, sufficient merely for a gun to pass.
On emerging from this we reached the tope of Jugdulluck, now a grove of mulberry trees, surrounded by the remains of a wall.
The country, until we entered the gorge, presented the same features as before, being frightfully barren. Passed a spring of water at the foot of the main descent where there is level ground sufficient for a small party, afterwards we passed a smaller spring containing less water, but situated in much better ground than Barikab.
The vegetation of undulated ground continues unchanged, very poor and stunted; in ravines below the main descent, Stipa is very common; in others, a large Andropogon occurs near the mouth of the gorge along the bed of the river, also Jhow in patches, and one patch of Donax.
The vegetation of the gorge is more varied; two small trees occur, one the Khinjuk, and it is the commonest, the other a Terebinthacea; Thymelæa of Chiltera is common, Ephedra, Ilex occurs but is less common than on hills.
Along the water to which it gives exit, and which is abundant, the usual Cyperaceæ, Junceæ, Gnaphalium, Potentilla, and Epilobium occur as at Cabul; the place is chiefly remarkable for two or three Saccharoid grasses, Stipa common, Polypogon, Donax, Dracocephala of Quettah and the Bolan pass, Spiræa, Typha, young Tamarisks.
Chakor, large vulture, ravens; a woodcock rose from a dripping rock, covered with a tropical Andropogon in dense patches. Adiantum, Rubus, Erythrea, Labiatæ two, common; Salix.
The gorge appears to be a distinct formation of sandstone, slate, and limestone: on the way to it, we continued over the sand and conglomerate hill, which again recur at Jugdulluck, with plenty of Holly.
The Sofaid-Koh is visible from the main ridge: it is a ridge running perhaps SW. to NE., tolerably covered with snow, as barren as any others: a few fir trees are found in the direction of Tazeen: are these confined to the sandstone formation? little grass, a few rice fields, bad forage.
12th.—Halted at Jugdulluck. Small partridges are common: observed a curious Certhioid creeper, whose flight is like that of the Hoopoe; it is scandent over rocks.
13th.—To Soorkhab, twelve and a half miles over a similar country: region of Hollys continues; we first passed up a ravine, then over undulating ground, until the summit of the pass is reached. From this a fine view of Sofaid-Koh is obtained, the lower ranges in some places being black with firs; thence a continued descent, varied here and there by small ascents over undulating ground, we at length came to a ravine filled with bulrushes: we followed this, leaving it near the halting place, and winding over rocky ground and a bad road, we descended to the bed of the river. The road good, though stony here and there, but nowhere so, to such an extent, as the previous marches.
Hills precisely similar to those already passed, either sandy, easily friable, or conglomerate, held together by sandy cement. Vegetation continues the same; Baloot, or oak, is said to be abundant though I did not see it; Daphne, and Xanthoxylon, compose the chief shrubby vegetation; Saccharum here and there. Small partridge very common. The greatest ascent is 5,600 feet. No grass for forage; several very small streamlets were passed en route, so that a small party might halt anywhere.
The beautiful Himalaya looking range Sofaid-Koh, runs east and west; it is very high, in the back ranges with very heavy snow on both ridges, and peaks. The view from the pass shows a rapid fall in the country to the eastward, which still continues hilly, and very very bare. Large coarse grapes are had here, also pomegranates: some seedless rice cultivation occurs since we descended to Jugdulluck.
14th.—We proceeded nine and a quarter miles, throughout until reaching a grove near Gundamuck: the road lay over undulating ground, is more sandy than stony, and in two or three places it is raviny, and requires to be made. Then the road emerges into a fine sort of valley, dipping down to a small stream with many sedges. In the bed of the stream, willows occur, and mulberries about it: we then ascended and halted just beyond the ascent. Water and dhoob grass are both plentiful, as well as supplies of grain, pomegranates, and grapes, as yesterday; Bajree.
A fine view is obtained of Sofaid-Koh, which forms the southern boundary of the valley; many villages, with cultivation in a very sandy soil. Small partridge very abundant. A fox observed. The ravines wherever there is water, crowded with Typha, and Saccharum; oaks are seen in abundance on the mountain to the south; left the Soorkhab river after fording it near yesterday’s camp; the bridge is quite useless for cattle, as the ground is rocky and broken on this side, no pains having been taken to carry the work to the road; cypresses, planes and mulberry trees in the gardens: Cannabis, also one patch of cotton cultivation was passed.
No descent, but rather small ascent on the whole, say 200 feet, the ascent from the principal nullah crossed being equal, though much shorter than the descent to it.
15th.—We halted: many rivulets descend near us from the Sofaid-Koh; and the water in these is beautifully clear; many villages and mills with several beautiful spots occur, well shaded with trees, poplars, mulberries, and figs. The objects of cultivation are millet, Indian-corn, rice, and wheat; this last just sprung up: many bedanah pomegranates, but none I think of superior quality.
All the low hills here, and indeed between us and the boundary ranges of the valley, are of sandstone, generally very slightly held together, here and there more firm, and distinctly stratified towards the upper surface. The surface consists of conglomerate, formed of boulders imbedded in the same kind of sandstone as that below; often very friable, occasionally it is as hard as flint. In the sandstone below, a few stones occur here and there; but I saw no fossils. The upper surface of these hills is remarkably stony, all the stones being more or less rounded.
Several new plants were found in these ravines, a Lythrum, a very aromatic species of Compositæ, Samolus in some of the swamps with Typha, which swarms in every ravine and ravinelet, Rubus, Clematis, Bergia, Ammannia, Lythraria, Chara, Xanthium.
The plants of tropical forms are, Celosia of Digera! Polanisia, Andropogons, two or three.
The tropical cultivation consists of cotton, the usual annual sort; Indian-corn, Pennisetum, and rice.
The fish are, four kinds of Cyprinidæ, including one Oreinus, and one loach.
16th.—Proceeded to Futtehabad, eleven and a half miles. The road leaves the valley after crossing a stream with a ruined bridge, like that at Soorkhab, but of two arches, and ascending a little way, then winding along over undulating very stony ground; this continues until we descend steeply and along the Neemla valley, a mere ravine, historically interesting, as the field on which Shah Soojah lost his kingdom in 1809, and for a fine tope of trees: then crossing a streamlet, we ascend a little way over sandstone, then another stream, which we follow for 500 yards, and ascending a little, we proceed thence to camp, along a slight slope of very stony, generally very level ground, where we halted on a rivulet with a wide grassy bed, Lythrum growing around.
No change appears in the vegetation: the surface very barren in stony parts, chiefly Artemisia, Saccharum, Andropogon albus, in ravines, Capparis common, also Ærua and Lycionoides.
The northern boundary of the valley is comparatively low, and from Sofaid-Koh to this is an uniform slope, broken by ravines; here and there by small hills; ravines occasionally dilating into small valleys, the only parts in which cultivation is to be seen. This is so far different from the usual formation where the valleys occupy the level tract between the slopes from either boundary range. Neemla is a very confined space for any thing like the battle said to have taken place here, the rising grounds inclosing the small space being too much broken for cavalry.
The rocks consist of conglomerate at top, below sandstone, layers of both alternating near the surface: a break occurs (nearly opposite) in the hills, this break is minutely undulated. [{417}] Rock pigeons were seen on the march by Thomson, and small partridges. I find that though to our senses there was comparatively but little descent, that the barometer and thermometer indicate one of 1,500 feet. The Neemla river must be the boundary between the hot and cold countries alluded to by Burnes.
In spite of this descent, and our small altitude, about 3,000 feet, but little change if any occurs in the vegetation, and none in the general features of the country; the Apocynea of Dadur and Bolai (Nerioides) has re-appeared.
At this season (October), throughout the way we came from Cabul, there is a curious white efflorescence covering the Shootur Kari, I do not know what it is, but it is not Conferva. A good deal of forest is seen on some of the ranges to the north of this, bearing from camp about NNE., certainly not firs, perhaps oaks.
19th.—Yesterday we went to the Soorkhab, which runs east and west along the northern boundary of the valley; half the distance down the bed of this stream the ground is strewed with boulders, thence to the hills, and excepting the bed of the Soorkhab, is one sheet of cultivation, consisting of large quantities of cotton and sugar-cane, this latter of small size, and not very juicy, castor-oil plant, Corchorus (Pat), Sun, Tel., radish, and among the other plants cultivated, the Mudar is common: Nerioides of Dadur; Epilobium sp. is the chief Boreal form. This is one of the richest districts I have seen.
Trees—Bukkhien, [{418}] Furas, Ficus, Cupressus, with much rice cultivation.
The vines are trained on mulberries, as Burnes says, or the Lilyoak. Pomegranates are also to be mentioned among the fruits of this place.
The Soorkhab river is not seen after leaving the place of the same name; after it crosses the road, it runs due north through the mountains, in a narrow, almost inaccessible bed; its waters are of a reddish colour.
The villages here are larger, and not so fortified as those about Cabul. Balabagh stands on a high bank of conglomerate, overhanging the Soorkhab, and is in danger of being cut away by the river. The peasantry are civil, and unarmed. Ravens, quails, minas, sparrows, and a beautiful swallow were seen about the Soorkhab river; the latter, with metallic blue on the back of the head, crown of head tawny, tail short, two exterior feathers elongated into beautiful almost setaceous bodies, exceeding the length of the bird. This swallow, or one with a similar tail, was seen by Sanders on the Helmund, at Girishk.
20th.—We proceeded to Sultanpore, eight and a half miles, passed Futtehabad, thence a gradual descent over a very stony slope to the halting place, where the valley becomes narrow, and water plentiful in a small stream. Willows, mulberries, ashes. Two large pollards at Futtehabad.
The vegetation consists of Gramineæ in patches, Ærua Nerioides, and Mudar.
Sultanpore, is a village of some size, situated about a mile north from the road, and contains many Hindoos. All villages here crowded with highish two or three-storied houses, something like Shikarpore: they are surrounded with gardens and mud walls, apricots, mulberries, greengages, pomegranates in profusion; the cultivation very rich as yesterday, and there is an air of repose about the villages unusual in this country. Tobacco. The rice-pounder or dekhee I observe is here lifted by treading on it with the foot, as in Hindoostan. The country hereabout, has the advantage of being well watered. Isain, Dolichos sp. occurs.
Trees as before: the plane flourishes, fine ones were seen growing around a Hindoo Zearut, where there is a double spring of water with a copious ebullition of gas. The temperature of this is said to be hot in winter. Salsola common, Joussa, a curious Ericoid plant was observed, Typha angustifolia, latifolia ceased since we left Gundamuck; Isachne, Pulicaria, Epilobium, Sagittaria, Cyperaceæ, Marsilea! Polygonum, Ranunculus sceleratus, Lythrum, Lemna, Alisma, Menthoid, a Cuscuta common on cotton plants, as at Futtehabad, several tropical grasses, Aristida, Poa, and Andropogon appear.
Descent though almost unappreciable, yet amounts to 1,000 feet. Bulbul and Parus common, as well as doves and ravens; quails are scarce.
21st.—To Jallalabad, eight and a half miles, the road keeping along the southern edge of the valley, occasionally extending over small undulations sometimes stony, more often sandy.
Typha latifolia occurs in profusion along parts of Futtehabad nullah, general features the same otherwise, Ærua and Nerioid are common on stony parts, and fewer coarse grasses.
Cypresses in gardens, also khujoors. Starlings.
The entrance to Jallalabad, or rather to its suburbs, presents the usual desolate, disorderly appearance, of such places in this country; the ruined walls to the city; the sandy barren soil, and the odious looking low hills between it and the Sofaid-Koh, present as sad and melancholy a picture as could well be met with. The same desolate, disorderly, dirty appearance is to be met with in most Asiatic capitals, particularly those that have been subjected to independent misrule: while the more distant surrounding villages look cheerful, and as clean as can be expected: the appearances immediately around the chief towns are always bad. To what is this owing? is it to their being more completely under the thumb of a rapacious governor? to the insecurity of property, or to defect in the laws? or to all these causes together?
At Cabul it was just the same, particularly on the Peshawur side, where stagnant pools, half destroyed mosques, and mutilated trees present a total contrast to the smiling valley of Kilah-i-Kajee.
At Shikarpore the same.
The most common fruit tree in the gardens here is a sweet lime: grapes are brought in from the villages of Sofaid-Koh, they are the same sort as those at Gundamuck: Narcissus, Rosa, Cerasi sp., Mirabilis, stock, Cupressus, mulberry also in gardens, Bheir of waste places, Salsola, Artemisiæ, two or three: Kochia villosa, Peganum, Ærua, Croton of Candahar, Ricinus, Joussa of wet places, Lippia, Typha latifolia, angustif., Azolla, Riccia, Cyperaceæ, several Lythrarieæ, Potamogeton, three species. The fish here will not take a fly, and the bottoms are too foul and stony for worm-fishing, the largest sort of fish is somewhat like a Barbel. Jackdaws and Corvus, alter atratus, dorso ventre griseo: very few quails. Furas common.
27th.—To Ali-Baghan, distance six and a half miles, road winding, generally good: after it crossed the dry bed of the nullah, it then becomes rather undulated extending over raviny ground; it then crosses the broad bed of the stream, in which there are swarms of bulrushes, then the same sort of sandy ground leads to camp, which is near the village Ali-Baghan.
The river here is much increased, much more deep; banks alluvial, steep; soil deep. Chenopodium sp., very common, but too much eaten up to be recognized, also Salsolæ sp.
Nothing new observed. We passed the break above-mentioned in the northern hills, whence issues the Coomur Nuddee. Serratuloides very common in sandy undulations. Porcupines and foxes. Beds of grass in islands of the river Barikab.
28th.—We proceeded to Bankok, twelve and a half miles from the encamping ground, having turned nearly due south, in order to avoid the slope, which is seen in this direction from Jallalabad; then a valley, with low hills on either side, is passed; then the road ascends over undulating ground, until 500 feet is gained; then a long and gradual descent is traversed over a very stony plateau.
No water nor cultivation on the road, nothing can exceed its barrenness. Ærua Nerioides, Lycioides, Andropogon albus, are the principal plants on the plateau; Kochia common, and a few straggling Bheirs, small rock pigeons. Geology unchanged, sandstone and conglomerate, with enormous boulders.
We passed the gorge through which the Cabul river runs. The road, by this is said to be only six miles, but is only passable by pedestrians and horsemen.
One village of some size is situated in the south towards Sofaid-Koh; from the plateau as well as from our camp, a curious and characteristic scene is visible to the north, showing a barren lofty range with peculiar undulations at the base, as well as the isolated hills jutting up above its surface: the trees and villages being confined to the course of the river which may be thus traced by its fertility. In this last direction there is a good deal of Abadi, but nothing comparable to that about Jallalabad.
At camp Serratuloid australasicus, very common, as indeed it was yesterday; foliis verticalibus in consequence of both surfaces being stomatose, the base of the leaf is so twisted as to present each surface equally to the light. It is curious that all such leaves have the veins prominent on both surfaces, showing a relation between the veins and the stomata, the more stomata the larger veins.
29th.—To Bassoollah, eight and a half miles, the road for guns is good throughout; better perhaps than any yet met with, from the soil being sandy. We came by a straighter road, and a very bad one, instead of diverging to the south, and rounding a range of hills, we entered these, and passing through a gorge coming upon marshy ground, running for some distance along the Cabul river, to which we were here quite close. Passed several villages about the mouth of the gorge, which is a short one.
The general features of the country continue the same; we crossed a nullah near the camp, and another near the gorge, six miles from camp, towards this last, grass covers the plains, though of a coarse kind; Ærua Nerioides most common on the barren ground.
We observed on the way a new Pterocles, and passed an old tope situated on a low ridge.
The gorge is rather pretty; the Cabul river runs close, along the foot of a range, forming the northern boundary of the place, where Bassoollah is situated, this is also a pretty place, with much good grassy ground for encamping on.
The country under Sofaid-Koh presents a long strip of cultivation, with many villages: hills barrener than ever, chiefly limestone. Very little snow here observed as on the eastern face of the high peaks of Sofaid-Koh, compared with the quantity visible on the face towards Jallalabad.
About half-past two, a slight shock of an earthquake was felt, presenting a rumbling noise, very audible, proceeding from east to west.
Between the village and the river, an extensive strip of level land occurs, with sandy soil well adapted to rice, of which quantities are grown. The crops are now ready for the sickle, and some partly cut: much of this land is occupied by a marsh choked with bulrushes of both sorts, Typha latifolia being the most common; Cyperaceæ abound, Marsilea in profusion, Azolla, Mentha, Epilobii sp. as before, Lemna, Valisneria verticillata? Sium., Sagittaria, Pulicaria, Chara, Lippia, Monniera, Jhow.
The river runs close under the hills, which are very barren, its course is rapid, cataracts also are of frequent occurrence transmitting a great body of water; no fish are visible. Some cotton and maize and Toot cultivation. Furas the only trees.
The mountains slope off from Sofaid-Koh in distinct groups, and are seen to advantage, broken in some places into undulations: about the centre of the slope an irregular strip of village forts and cultivation is extended. The course of the Cabul river in many places is curious; flowing between singularly round ranges. Snipe common; quail rare. Erythræa common on moist sward.
30th.—Proceeded to Lalpore, the country undulating, the road skirting the stony portions of the plain is bad to Hizarnow, three miles from thence it is very stony, thence continuing on the skirts of the hills, which are principally slate, and passing through a small ravine, it then extends over sandy or stony ground, until the Chota Khyber is reached: this is a narrow, but short, and not very steep pass; slate rocks compose the upper parts, and are entirely disintegrated, thence they descend at once into the plain opposite Lalpore; the distance of the march is eleven miles, the road generally decent.
Much rice cultivation occurs, and much land, it must be confessed, also occupied by marshy ground, Typha, etc. The same plants continue; Butomus trigonifolius not uncommon.
On the slate rocks of Buttencote Kochia recurs, Heliotropium luteum, Nerioides, and Lycioides of Shikarpore are found.
Near Hizarnow, Serissa, Acaciæ sp., which is the black wood of Madras; Sissoo, and Bheirs. Hizarnow is a large place, curiously occupying receding slopes of the base of a low range of hills, but it must be dreadfully hot. We passed several Kaburistans with pollarded, stunted, excavated Furas trees. One mile before Hizarnow, a curious hill of slate occurred, covered with boulders.
The road is very winding in consequence of its following the bases of the hills forming the southern boundary of the valley. The Cabul river is visible almost throughout the whole march.
All houses in the villages are now roofed in this part of the country with straw. Starlings observed in swarms.
31st.—Halted at Lalpore, this is a very busy large place: the houses are one-storied, and flat-roofed. The only peculiarity being occasional square towers. The river is here quite open for commerce downwards, and is well adapted to small canoes: the stream is rapid and crossed by a ferry.
On rocks under which the river flows near this, a species of Fissidens occurs, where the rocky surface has passed into sand. Glycyrrhiza, Rubus, Artemisia, Asparagus, Pommereulla, Andropogon albus, Arundo, Cyrthandracea, an Hyoscyamus of the Bolan Pass, Beebee Nanee, Heliotropium flavum.
It would be curious to enquire why the powers of variation change so completely in the different families? Thus for instance in Orchideæ, no character can be taken from the vegetation with some limitations, and none from the fruit or seeds; two products in most orders very fruitful in discriminating marks. This leads one to the idea that in monocotyledonous plants, the fruit is very generally of limited powers of variation; witness Orchideæ, Gramineæ, Smilacineæ, etc. this idea deserves to be followed out as much as possible. The river at the ferry is 100 yards wide, and twelve feet in the deepest part, the current five miles an hour, but confined to one and a half towards its centre.
November 1st.—Marched ten miles: the road from the camp extended up an acclivity, the ground becoming more broken than usual to the mouth of the ghat, which is four miles distant; thence up to the ghat which resembles much the Bolan Pass, it extends up an inclined plane over a shingly road. The ghat is rather wide throughout, and all the features are the same as the Bolan Pass, slate rocks most common. We passed on the way a large and a deep but dry well, ascribed to the kafirs; and near it the ruins of a fort built half-way up a small mountain, the top of which is level with the ghat.
Vegetation to the ghat unchanged. In the ghat Capparis as before, Lycioides, Chamærops, Andropog. albus, Schænanthus, Bheir, Nerioides, Pommereullioid, Andropogonea, appear at once, Ærua, Asparagus.
At 300 feet up, Mimosæ sp., foliis tomentosis, occurring here and there. Heliotropium flavum, Plectranthus lavandulosus, Scrophulariæ sp.
At 500 feet, Dodonæa: this is very common, and being very green, gives the ghat a pretty appearance.
At 600 feet, a curious pomaceous looking Rhamnaceous plant is found.
The most common plants are Nerioides, Andropogon albus, Bheir, Chamærops, Dodonæa.
The bed of the ghat is formed of debris from the boundary hills, this bed is very thick, and the particles have the appearance of being carried to their present situation by water.
Our halting place is a confined irregular piece of ground, water abundant, but no grass, except coarse Andropogon; no fodder, except Bheir and Mimosa.
I ascended in the evening the ridge to the south, and which is 1,200 feet above the road, to the ruins that run along the summit. The ridge, like all others in this neighbourhood, is rugged and much distorted, the top is limestone, much varied and weathered; then slate masses of greenstone occur towards the base.
The vegetation is chiefly at the summit. Schænanthus, Periploca, Dodonæa, an arbuscula nova, Euonymus, Chenopodiaceæ. Below this, (but the elevation is scarcely sufficient to form any difference,) and along the water, Euonymus, Adhatoda, Buddlæa cana or Syringia, Rhamnacea, Periplocea, Linaria, Labiatæ, 2-3, Pistacea, Roylea, Acanthoides, Urticea! habitu, U. pendulifloræ, Vitex, Convolvulus spinosus of Bolan, Sempervivum, Stapelioides used as a vegetable, and for fever by Hindoos, Artemisiæ, Solanum sp.
Along water, Adiantum, Mentha, Epilobium, Verbena officinalis, Solanum nigrum, Jacquinifol. pinnatif. spinosus about cultivation.
On slaty rocks which form the bed of the ravine or ghat, Dodonæa, Hyoscyamus, and Cyrthandracea are found.
The building consists of a wall near the edge of a ridge, which terminates some twenty feet from the steep precipice of 300 to 500 feet: it is 200 to 300 yards in length, and is terminated at either end by two towers, both of which are ruinous, it is built of slabs and rough blocks of limestone, between which are layers of slate, much like the Bactrian pillar, and very superior to modern buildings: what its use was, it would be difficult to conjecture as it is out of musket shot of the ghat, which it only commands by being above it. There is no water on the top, nor is there any well-marked path up to it: curious mortar-like excavations were observed in a mass of limestone just below, probably for pounding rice. Up the ravine are remains of terraces formerly used for cultivation, but now mostly disused. At 700 to 800 feet above the ghat the ravine abounds with the Ficus of Gundamuck; this and the Adhatoda or Rooss are perhaps cultivated: the ravine is pretty well entangled with Ficus and brushwood. It consists of metamorphosed rocks and excavated limestone; some mosses occur, and Adiantum abounding.
From the ridge, a rather extensive view to the south is obtained, extending to the Khyber fort, which is of the ordinary square form, and just below it, a tower and house. To the east, and all around a good deal of cultivation occurs; also several high ridges, say 7,000 feet; one terminating 4,000 feet above us, presents a very rugged outline with the appearance of rather large trees. The road up to the ghat is visible, as well as the Choky and a fort, with a small sheet of cultivation to the eastward. Beyond this a ravine, then two other ridges, of which the nearer one is high. The Cabul river passes to the NNW., and Lalpoor lies to the north. One peak and a small piece of ridge of Hindoo-koosh, white with snow, is seen very distinctly though distant, it must therefore be very lofty; far more so than any part we have seen to the westward.
Description of the annexed map of the Khyber Pass.
A. Kumdhukta. By this is Abkhanah route.
B. Little Khyber ghat, on Peshawur side.
C. Khyber ghat, entrance on the Jallalabad side.
D. Kurraha route.
E. Direction of Sofaid-Koh in the distance.
F. Flagstaff in the middle of the Pass.
The ground between the dotted lines and river, on the south, is, or has been cultivated. The ground near the river on the north side is covered here and there with brown grass. About the Flagstaff, sand and short dried up grass occur.
The general character of the hills in every direction except the snowy range, is bluffly rounded, very bare, and brown, with here and there a shrub.
That which Burnes calls Noorgil, is the range of Kareaz, and is distinct from Koonur. Kashgur lies beyond the snowy range.
The inhabitants of the mountains, like those of Lalpoor, wear sandals made of the fibres of Chamærops, which is common: one plant of Ephedra used for snuff?
3rd.—Proceeded to one mile beyond Ali-Musjid. The ascent commences immediately where the Choky is seen from the camp, by a very good road cut out of slate rock; the rocks are steep on both sides, and very zig-zag; a short partial descent in one place occurs to a small pool of water. From the Choky, a descent takes place by a similar road for perhaps two miles, until the ravine which we left at camp is turned; this is thence followed, occasionally leaving it where the road is bad and runs through low rugged hills. The road then after passing some of the old ruins opens out into a space with cultivation. Close to this is the highest spot of the pass, surrounded by low hills, none higher than 500 feet. Cultivation occurs especially at Lal-Ghurry Beg, a space of some size, containing several villages, of the usual Khyberry form, namely, surrounded by low, quadrangular walls, with a thin square tower and very broadly projecting eaves. A short distance from its summit, just after passing the villages, and before entering the ravine which leads us to our present camp is a Khyberry tower, built on a fine Bactrian tope, which is nearly half ruined; on the top of this a dome of good proportions is built on a double-terraced foundation.
This gives a rude idea of what the tope was originally, now half the dome has fallen down.
The entrance to the ravine gradually becomes narrower, the bed is stony, very winding, and narrow. Bold precipices of limestone cliffs ascend on either side of Sir-i-Chushme; then a little below, very copious springs issue from limestone. The temperature of the principal spring is 75°; it contains abundance of fish—a loach and cyprinoid. Passed some ruined fortifications on the right, leading down to water, evidently kafir works; then we enter a narrow but short gorge, occupied by the stream; a few more turns and you come on Ali-Musjid. No change occurs in the vegetation, bare rocks at the summit of which the Bar. stood at 26.72. Andropogons and Artemisiæ are the chief plants.
In the gorge downwards, Acacia occurs in abundance, with Adhatoda, and otherwise the shrubs of Lundyakhana occur in abundance, and Adiantum about the spring.
After passing the fort, the rocks open out into a ravine, with low undulated hills on every side, covered with the usual vegetation; Astragalus one species.
At Lal-Ghurry Beg, one Khinjuck tree, Elæagnus, occurred; and grass in very small stacks, well pressed and covered with a thatch of bushes and a layer of dirt.
There is excellent fishing in the stream. Loaches, Perilamps, and especially an Oreinus? swarming at Sir-i-Chushme, and taking worms very greedily.
No forests whatever visible in this direction; the arborescent vegetation being confined to scattered and small trees.
5th.—We halted near Jumrood, after a march of ten miles and one furlong. This place is situated at the mouth of the pass, within sight of the Seikh camp at Jumrood. Marched down to the ghat, which is generally speaking narrow and very strong, opening out here and there, into easier parts extending down the stream all the way; this stream loses itself suddenly, but after a little distance it is replaced by another from the right, where ravines enter: here the pass is well adapted for pillage, elsewhere the sides are so steep, that robbers could not dispose of their plunder. At the mouth, the pass opens out into a good breadth, with an even, small, shingly bottom. At Kuddun the Seikh troops were drawn up to compliment the C. in C., one regiment met us shortly before to protect the baggage. Maize cultivated. At the mouth, the Khyber is more difficult than any other pass, except the Bolan: perhaps it is much narrower than that, except just above Sir-i-Bolan.
No change in vegetation, one or two new plants occurred, viz. a Labiata, and a treelet, foliis linearibus oppositis, Jasminacea aspectu, Baloot, Vitex common, Salix, and shrubs as before, Veronica, etc.
The Khyber mountains viewed from the mouth of the pass are brown, and dotted with peculiar looking trees.
6th.—Proceeded six and a half miles to near the ruins of an old tope; first, down the nullah, then by the fort of Futtygurh, a Hindoostanee mud fort with high parapets, two lines of works, and a pucka citadel with embrasures for guns on a commanding mound: thence we passed over a gentle slope with a good many scattered Bheirs, Kureels, Ærua, Mudar, etc. to camp, where the ground is very rough and stony, abundant water obtained from a cut with sheets of maize cultivation. Fossil shells, Pterocles, found in arenaceous limestone (Durand).
7th.—To Peshawur, eight and a half miles, over a sandy plain; road bad, intersected with cuts and ravines; three canals had to be crossed by small bridges which occasioned a good deal of delay to the camels. Passed the Seikh lines, between the fort and north face of town, and encamped on east face opposite the Governor’s house: three gibbets were passed, with twelve persons hanging from them, some of old date.
In the evening we had a gay party at M. Avitabili’s, who is a fine looking man, with an intelligent Italian countenance.
In a room gaudily decorated and painted, was the following very appropriate motto—
Donec eris felix multos numerabis amicos.
Tempora si fuerunt nubila, solus eris.
If this was true in Rome, and is true in Europe, to what extent does its truth not reach in this country. In the evening we were entertained with dancing and fireworks; excellent dinner and admirable bread.
14th.—To-day the atmosphere is hazy, but the snowy range is not topped with clouds. It is curious enough that the part which is most exposed to our view, and which bears about north-east, is generally clouded throughout the hotter parts of the day, while apparently equally high peaks in other directions remain clear.
It is curious that in Khorassan remarkably few climbing plants occur, and of these, the chief form is Cuscuta.
Botany here at this season is a non-entity, in the marsh close to the fort, there occur some few plants, the chief European forms being Veronica. Ranunculus sceleratus is now coming into flower, Typha angustifolia abounds, with Arundo, also Sparganium, Sium, Butomus trigonifolius common; otherwise Cyperaceæ, Epilobium out of season! Ranunculus aquaticus is most abundant; two species of Chara, or rather 1 Chara, and 1 Nitella, the last a beautiful species, Marsilea in profusion, Azolla common, Lemna two or three species, one new, a floating Marchantiacia, Nelumbium occurs, but only as a cultivated plant.
Of two Boreal, or European forms found in sub-tropical countries, that form is the most northern which flowers, etc. in the coldest season, hence Veronica and Ranunculus are more northern than Epilobium in this particular district. The most elevational plant at Cabul is Cardaminoidea, floribus luteis, this flowers at high altitudes in August and September, and at Cabul shows no symptom of flowering even in October; it is there a winter plant? The same is true of Hippuris, which to flower at Cabul requires a greater degree of cold than is obtainable during the summer months.
What I have said of Epilobium above, is true of Typha and Arundo, both now passed flowering, and both found in India, to a considerable extent.
Royle’s idea of the comparatively greater extent of distribution of water plants is not I think correct, in the sense he seems to entertain it; to be so, the species should be the same, which they are certainly not. It is only with pre-eminently aquatic forms that the annual temperature can be more equalised than obtains with strictly terrestrial plants. The humidity which may appear connected with the rapid evaporation in these countries, and which obtains? in the vicinity of all bodies of water, may account for the appearance here of Arundo, etc. All genuine aquatic types have leaves involute in vernation?
The least valuable of all northern forms, are those associated with cultivation, especially if they be annuals, because in the first place they may be acclimated species, a circumstance of great importance; and in the second, because if annual, they are confined to the cold season. All such forms have probably migrated into these countries, they have come from the westward: this shows us why at almost equal elevations they are most common, the nearer we approach to the elevated regions towards the west, because it is self-evident that the nearer we approach the regions whence they have migrated, the more abundant and diversified will the migrating plants be, only particular species having the power of extending the range of migration.
When all the Indian plants hitherto met with, have been tabulated; when all their respective heights at which they have been found have been determined; when their more strictly geographical sites have been fixed; when we have some data as to the quantity of humidity pervading their localities; then, and not till then, shall we be able to legislate for the geography of Indian botany.
The Botanist who travels without the means of determining these points, destroys half the value of his collections.
December 16th.—Yesterday was very raw and cloudy, to-day clear as usual, towards 1 P.M. a strong north-east wind occurred for a short time as usual, because once or twice before, it occurred after threatening weather.
Rationale.—It blows from the nearest snow to supply the rarefied air in the valley heated by the sun, even now tolerably powerful; it blows for some days so long as a vacuum is formed, and discontinues when clouds again appear; hardly so, as it before only blew for three or four days, although several more elapsed before clouds re-appeared: it may however be dependent on each fresh fall of snow in the hills.
26th.—Cloudy morning, forenoon fine, clear and calm.
Mosses are the analogues of Zoophytes; these analogies are to be looked for in the most striking and most constant parts of the organization of the divisions of nature.
Marchantiaceæ are the representatives of radiate animals, another reason why Jungermanniaceæ are to be separated from them.
Hence, Radiata, = Marchantiaceæ.
“ Zoophyta, = Musci.
I am quite convinced that the true subordinate groups of Acotyledones are far from being discovered.
Are the sheaths found on certain radicles strictly confined to monocotyledonous plants. There is this certain about them, that they depend on the presence of vascular tissue, from which the radicles or the divisions of each root originate: see young Hyacinth roots, grown in water.
Although the sheaths cannot exist without a positive cuticle, their existence does not depend so much on its presence as on the direction of the adhesive powers of its component parts: witness certain forms of Marchantiaceæ, and the vaginate forms, as Azolla, Lemna, etc. Also the sheath may not have adhesive powers at its apex to prevent the escape of the radical at that point: witness Hyacinth roots? We may imagine a case in which the primary radicle may be without a sheath, while its divisions shall have them, this depending on the want of adhesion of the cuticle over the original one.
The emerged and immersed leaves of plants are well worthy of examination, since Microphytum proves that stomata do not depend on the presence of a cuticle as Brongniart supposes: their presence is united with, or allied to an amount of density in the cellular tissue, sufficient to prevent the due aeration of the inner cellules, without direct communication with the atmosphere. Vide Musci!! Hence the inner tubes of the leaves of the generality of aquatic plants, (exception Eriocaulon fluitans.)
What is the cause of the plurality of radicles in certain species of Lemna, and their blank in others? It will be necessary on this point to examine well the sheaths of Azolla, and to look at the Mergui Æschynanthus.
The formation of Affghanistan is very curious: it consists of a wide extent of country, variously elevated steppes being separated by ridges usually very accessible, generally isolated. The mountainous part varies as to its formation, but there is no variety in the declivities and acclivities forming the lower elevations, which are composed of conglomerate; nor is there much in the usually narrow strip at the lowest portion of each steppe or valley, which is very generally the only cultivatable portion.
In the Khyber ghat the ridges are either of limestone or slaty rocks, between which conglomerate occurs of various thicknesses; this being dependent on the angle of the mountains forming the sides of the ghat: it is from this conglomerate in such places consisting usually of a loose texture that the very excellent roads (for mountainous passes) are naturally made by the draining streams, which are only periodical. The conglomerate consists of water-worn stones of all sizes, even boulders are not unfrequent, yet the wearing is such as occurs in courses now filling the beds of torrents. The conglomerate increases in density and adhesion towards Lalpoor, and in many places is exceedingly hard.
Whatever the country may have been previously, one might explain its present appearance by supposing it to have consisted of a tolerably level extent of conglomerate, with here and there a strip of soil in the lowest part of each portion, and that the elevation of the mountain ridges was of subsequent occurrence: this would account for the formation of the lower slopes, and the frequent isolation of small eminences of the same character as the neighbouring mountains. It will account for the appearance of the conglomerate in every ravine until the top of the culminating point is reached.
As the mountains were elevated, portions of conglomerate would be detached, and these resting again on all suitable places, would account for the existence of conglomerate on certain parts which are flatter than usual.
Whirlwinds are common about Cabul, commencing as soon as the sun has attained a certain degree of power.
In all cases they assume the shape of a cone, the point of which being a tangent on the earth’s surface: the cone varies in shape, is generally of a good diameter, occasionally much pulled out, some being 2,300 feet in height, the currents are most violent at the apex.
They come and go in all directions, even after starting, not always preserving the original direction. They are less common on days in which winds prevail from any given direction, and vary much in intensity from a mere breeze, lightly laden with dust and with no tortuosity, to a violent cone of wind, capable of throwing down a soldari.
Northerly winds are prevalent here from 1 or 2 P.M. until 8 or 9 P.M., occasionally they only commence in the evening, when they are obviously due to the rarefaction of the air of the valleys by the great heat of the sun, amounting now to 100° at 3 P.M., and the vacuum being supplied by gusts from the high mountains to the north and north-east.