Industrial Arts Design / A Textbook of Practical Methods for Students, Teachers, and Craftsmen

by William H. Varnum

CONTENTS

CHAPTER		PAGE
I.	Divisions of Industrial Arts Design	[7]
II.	The Primary Mass and Its Proportions	[13]
III.	Horizontal Major Divisions of the Primary Mass	[19]
IV.	Vertical Major Divisions of the Primary Mass	[33]
V.	Appendages and the Rules Governing Them	[43]
VI.	Enrichment of the Contours or Outlines of Designs in Wood	[57]
VII.	Enrichment of the Contours or Outlines of Designs in Clay	[77]
VIII.	Enrichment of the Contours or Outlines of Designs in Base and Precious Metals	[87]
IX.	Surface Enrichment of Small Primary Masses in Wood	[99]
X.	Surface Enrichment of Small Primary Masses in Wood. (Continued)	[117]
XI.	Surface Enrichment with Minor Subdivisions of Large Primary Masses in Wood	[133]
XII.	Surface Enrichment of Clay	[145]
XIII.	Surface Enrichment of Precious Metals. Small Flat Planes	[160]
XIV.	Surface Enrichment of Large Primary Masses in Base and Precious Metals	[179]
XV.	Color: Hue, Value, and Chroma; Stains	[194]
XVI.	Color and Its Relation to Industrial Arts Design. Large Surfaces of Wood; Wall and Ceiling Areas	[201]
XVII.	Color and Its Relation to Industrial Arts Design. Small Surfaces in Clay and Metal	[209]
	Complete Summary of Rules	[218]
	Appendix	[223]
	(a) A Complete Course of Study for the Applied Arts in Thin Base and Precious Metals. Relation of the Rules to the Problems	[224]
	(b) A Complete Course of Study for the Applied Arts in Pottery. Relation of the Rules to the Problems	[237]
	Index	[245]

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INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN

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Chapter I
DIVISIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN

Non-technical Criticism

This book has been written with the view of presenting design from the standpoint of the industrial arts. An instructor generally experiences difficulty in finding the exact word to use when criticizing a student's drawing. The student has equal difficulty in understanding the criticism. There is little wonder that he is confused, when the rather ambiguous terms "good-looking," "ugly," "squatty," and "stiff" are used to express qualities that can be expressed only in terms of design.

Intelligent Analysis

The lack of understanding between the pupil and the teacher may be compared to the attitude of the average individual "who knows what he likes." He is on an equally insecure footing regarding industrial design. His reason for liking or disliking a certain thing may depend upon some whim or fancy, the popular fashion of the times, or a desire to possess a duplicate of something he has seen. As a consumer with purchasing power, he should have the ability to analyze intelligently the contents of catalogs and store windows with the thought of securing the best in industrial art—something that may be accepted as standard one hundred years from now.

It is, therefore, the intention to present design of industrial character in its simplest form, freed from technicalities or ambiguous statements. It is intended to give the average individual not particularly interested in drawing or design a knowledge of the subject, based upon principles that have survived for hundreds of years in architectural monuments and history.

Plate 1

Results of Clear Criticism

It is possible that the presentation of these principles may enable the instructor in the public schools to guide his pupil away from the heavy and expensive stereotyped designs, and by clear and simple criticism, lead him to better forms of construction. He may also be helped to lead the pupil to design problems in harmony with his home surroundings and thus avoid the introduction of an inharmonious element into what may possibly be a harmonious setting. The teacher, pupil, or layman should use his knowledge of the subject as a basis for criticism or appreciation of the field of the industrial arts.

Requirements of an Industrial Problem

In order to start successfully upon a design, it is necessary to know what qualities a good industrial article should possess. Whether one is designing a bird-house, a chocolate set, or a gold pendant, the article must meet three needs: (1) It must be of service to the community or to the individual; (2) It must be made of some durable material; (3) It must possess beauty of proportion, outline, and color.

Ruskin said that a line of beauty must also be a line of service. The "stream line body" in automobile construction is the result of the automobile maker's attempt to combine beauty with service. This is the attitude that should govern the union of beauty and service in all of the industrial arts.

Divisions in Design Evolution and Enrichment

There are three divisions or phases in the designing of a structure and its enrichment. These are: (1) Structural Design; (2) Contour Enrichment; (3) Surface Enrichment. Some objects are carried through only one of these divisions, while others are developed through all three of them.

First Major Division

[Plate 1], illustrative of the first division, deals naturally enough with the planning of the constructive or utilitarian lines of an object and its parts. It may be termed Structural or Constructive Design. Questions of how high or how long an object should be, to harmonize with its width, the proper placing of rails, shelves, and brackets, the determination of the greatest and least diameter of vase forms have to be decided in this period of Proportions and Space Relations.

The knowledge of tools and materials, and of the manner in which they may be used for constructive purposes, influences the solution of these questions and others which we shall shortly discuss. Strictly utilitarian objects are seldom carried past this stage of development.

Second Major Division

[Plate 2] indicates the next logical division—Contour Enrichment—or the period of the enrichment of the structural outline or contour. The bounding lines, or contours, of the structure may be enriched in many ways, as, for example, curving certain portions to soften the severity of the plain structure. The garden urn and small stool have contours treated in this manner. Chippendale, Sheraton, and Hepplewhite furniture, simplified to the accepted range of shop technic, vary the straight lines of mission furniture and come within the possible developments of this division.

Plate 2

Effects of Second Division

The cement fence post at C, [Plate 2], is a strict utilitarian problem without interest. The post at D, enriched by a bevel, has equal utilitarian and increased aesthetic interest and value.

Third Major Division

[Plate 3] illustrates the last division of evolution and concerns itself with the application of design to the surface of the otherwise complete structure. This division is commonly called applied surface design or decorative design. It is readily seen that this division should be considered after the structure has been carefully planned. To separate this division from the period of structural or contour enrichment we will call it Surface Enrichment.

Steps in Design Evolution

It may be seen from the foregoing discussion that a design may be carried through the following steps: (1) Blocking in the enclosing lines of the design, as at Figure B, [Plate 2], adding to this whatever may be needed for structural purposes, keeping the lines as nearly vertical and horizontal as possible; (2) Enriching and varying the outline or contour. It is well for elementary wood workers to use this step with extreme caution, while less reserve is necessary in clay and metal; (3) After careful consideration in determining the need of additional decoration, the last step, surface enrichment, should be used. The following chapters will take up these steps in the order stated above.

Ideal Correlation

The ideal method of developing the principles set forth in this chapter includes correlated activity in the shop by working out the project in the required material. As the technic of the individual improves, the larger range of design principles will be found to accompany and parallel his increasing skill.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What three requirements should be met in a well designed industrial article?

2. State three major divisions in industrial arts design.

3. State briefly the problems to be considered in each division.

4. What is the last and ideal step for the designer?

Plate 3

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Chapter II
THE PRIMARY MASS AND ITS PROPORTIONS

The Architectural Method

Upon first observing a building, one seldom notices details of structure. He sees the large mass as it is silhouetted against the sky. Nearer approach discloses mouldings, cornices, and doorways; while careful analytical study shows the technical points of construction. The architect, in his original planning, thinks in terms of masses, widths, and heights, disregarding at first the details and color. As architecture stands for parent design principles and represents some of the world's best examples of composition and design, industrial design should be based upon the best examples of architectural design. To a certain degree, also, the methods of the industrial arts designer should be those of the architect.

The Industrial Arts Method

It is necessary to think at first of our problem as a single mass or solid, bounded by enclosing dimensions of width, height, and thickness. Details like a mirror, handles, brackets, or knobs may project outside of this mass, but for the time being, they may be disregarded. Figure B, [Plate 2], shows this manner of thinking, and will enable us to regard the problem as a big, simple mass so that the entire object, unobstructed by small details, may be seen.

The Primary Mass

This is the method of thinking about the problem which should precede the drawing. To further describe this mass, which will be called the single or Primary Mass, it is necessary to think of the intended service of the project. A rather hazy idea of making a vase or a stool to be put to no particular use, may have been the original motive. Now the exact service should be defined as it will have a marked effect upon the shape of this primary mass.

Plate 4

Service
Horizontal and Vertical Primary Masses

Rule 1a. A primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal according to the intended service, unless prohibited by technical requirements. Service is an important factor inasmuch as it limits the intended use of the mass. A mass is horizontal when its largest dimension is horizontal. When the horizontal dimension of this mass is reduced until the main vertical dimension is longer than the main horizontal one, it becomes a vertical mass. As an example, a davenport is generally a horizontal mass intended to hold a number of people. When the mass is narrowed to the point where the vertical dimension exceeds the horizontal, it becomes a chair for one person. A low bowl may be intended for pansies, but as soon as the service changes and we design it for goldenrod, it becomes a vertical mass. The fable of the fox who, upon being invited to dine with the stork, found the tall vases unfitted for his use illustrates the change of mass with the change of service.

[Figures 1] and [4], [Plate 4], are examples of horizontal masses with the dark lines indicating the dominance of the horizontal lines and planes. The shelter house contains a long bench, making necessary the long horizontal lines of the building. The calendar holder has to be a horizontal mass because of the restrictions imposed by the shape of the calendar pad.

[Figures 2] and [3] are vertical masses. The vase is intended for tall flowers, while the chair, as has already been mentioned, must meet the needs of a single person. Utility and service then have been found to give the primary mass a given direction or dominance.

Drawing the Primary Mass

The designer now represents this mass by drawing a rectangle similar to the block outline of Figure B, [Plate 2]. It is now necessary to see if the foundation stones of this rectangle have been laid correctly; in other words, to test the proportions of the primary vertical or horizontal mass.

Proportions of the Primary Masses

Rule 1b. A primary mass should have the ratio of one to three, three to four, three to five, five to eight, seven to ten, or some similar proportion difficult for the eye to detect readily and analyze. Proportions are generally expressed in terms of ratios. A surface of five by eight inches would give a ratio of five to eight; ten by sixteen feet is reducible to the same ratio. Certain ratios are monotonous and offend the eye by their lack of variety. Ratios such as one to one or one to two are of this class and should be avoided. If these ratios could speak they would resemble people talking in a low monotonous tone of voice.

Plate 5

Unsatisfactory Ratios

Certain other ratios are weak and indeterminate, showing a lack of clear thinking. They are like people with no definite or cleancut ideas upon a subject they discuss. Examples in this class show ratios of two to two and one-eighth, or three to three and one-fourth, neither positively square nor frankly rectangular. They hide around the corner, as it were, waiting to be anything. [Figure 5], [Plate 5], is an example of unsatisfactory proportionate ratios of the primary mass. The blotting tablet is nearly square, while the candlestick and sconce, which should have been designed with strongly vertical masses, lack the type of definite thinking that results in a decided vertical dimension.

Disregarding the improvement in technic, [Figure 6] shows problems designed with a definite knowledge of proportion. The metal objects are refined in their dimensions, and pleasing to the eye. Tests have been made with the idea of determining what the eye considers perfectly natural and agreeable proportion. This has been found to be the ratio of two to three. Consequently, it is clear why [Figure 6] shows objects more pleasing than those in [Figure 5].

It may be felt that too much space is being given to this subject of proportion. It should be remembered, however, that the industrial arts are intimately associated with daily life and that unless proportions are pleasing to our aesthetic sense, many articles of common use shortly become intolerable.

Preliminary Thinking in Terms of Design

This preliminary portion of the designer's task has been given to thinking out the problem and drawing one rectangle. There is a tendency to start the design by pushing the pencil over the paper with a forlorn hope that a design may be evolved with little mental effort. This should be regarded as illogical and unworthy of the desired end. A rectangle of the most prominent surface of the problem, based upon the desired service of the project, and the best proportions which our knowledge of design and understanding of the limitations of construction will permit, should be the final result of the first study. From now on through the succeeding steps, the details of the problem will become more and more clear, as the technical limitations of the tools and materials governing the designer's ideas and controlling and shaping the work are better understood, until all governing factors become crystallized in the form of a working drawing or model. This is a strictly professional practice as illustrated in [Figure 7], which shows the skilled Rookwood potter developing a vase form, the definite embodiment of correct thinking in terms of the material which is constantly before him.

SUMMARY OF RULES

Rule 1a. A primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal according to the intended service, unless prohibited by technical requirements.

Rule 1b. A primary mass should have the ratio of one to three, three to four, three to five, five to eight, seven to ten, or some similar proportion difficult for the eye to readily detect and analyze.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. How does the architect first plan his elevations?

2. How should the designer first think of his problem?

3. Define a horizontal primary mass.

4. Define a vertical primary mass.

5. State some desirable ratios to be used in designing the proportions of the primary mass. Explain.

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Chapter III
HORIZONTAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS

In the [second chapter] we discussed the nature of the primary mass in its relation to the intended service or duty it has to perform. It was found that the demands of service usually cause the primary mass to be designed with either a strong vertical or horizontal tendency.

Divisions of the Primary Mass

It now becomes imperative to carry the designing processes still further and divide the vertical or horizontal primary mass into parts or divisions, demanded either by structural requirements or because the appearance of the object would be materially improved by their presence. This latter point is sometimes referred to as the aesthetic requirement of the problem. There are two simple types of divisions, those crossing the primary mass horizontally and those crossing the primary mass in a vertical direction. This chapter will be limited to the subject of horizontal divisions.

Nature and Need of Horizontal Space Divisions

If a city purchases a piece of land for park purposes, presumably a landscape architect is assigned the task of laying out the paths and drives. He does this by crossing his plan at intervals with lines to represent paths connecting important points. Under favorable conditions the architect is free to curve his path to suit his ideas. He has considerable freedom in selecting his design but the paths or roads must dip and curve in sympathy with the contour of the land and in accord with the aesthetic requirements.

While the landscape designer has a broad latitude in his treatment of land divisions, the industrial designer or architect is restricted, on the other hand, by the structural requirements of the object and by his materials. He must cross his spaces or areas by horizontal shelves, or rails, or bands of metal that hold the structure together. As architecture is of fundamental importance in industrial design, let us see what the architect has in mind in designing a structure.

Plate 6

Architectural Horizontal Divisions

The architect has the surface of the ground with which to start. This gives him a horizontal line as the base of his building. He considers it of major importance in his design. We find him crossing the front of his building with horizontal moulding or long bands of colored brick, paralleling the base line and otherwise interestingly dividing the vertical face of the front and sides. His guide is the bottom line of his primary mass or the line of the ground which binds the different parts of the building into a single unit. It can be readily seen that if he shifted the position of his mouldings up or down with the freedom of the landscape architect in locating his roads, he would not be planning his horizontal divisions in sympathy with the structural requirements of his primary mass.

These horizontal divisions or lines have a tendency to give apparent added length to an object. Thus by their judicious use a designer may make a building or room look longer than it really is.

Let us now turn to the simpler objects with which we may be more directly concerned. The piano bench has horizontal lines crossing it, giving an effect quite similar to that of horizontal mouldings crossing a building. There may also be ornamental inlaid lines crossing the bench and intended to beautify the design, but it is to be remembered that at present we are considering the structural divisions only.

Designing Objects with Horizontal Divisions

[Plate 6] represents a concrete example of the methods to be used in designing the horizontal divisions of a piano bench. The steps may be divided as follows:

(a) The height of a piano bench may be determined either from measurement of a similar bench or from one of the books on furniture design now on the market. The scale of one inch or one and one-half inches to the foot may be adopted. Two horizontal lines should be drawn, one for the bottom and one for the top of the bench. The distance between these lines we will arbitrarily fix at twenty inches.

Plate 7

(b) Many objects are designed within rectangles which enclose their main or over-all proportions. With this in view, and keeping in mind the width of the bench necessary to the accommodation of two players and the requirements of a well proportioned primary mass (Rule 1b), the lines are now drawn completing the rectangular boundaries of the primary mass. The limitations of service and the restrictions of good designing give the width of the primary mass so designed as three feet and two inches, with a ratio of height to length of five to eight and one-half. It is simpler to design first the most prominent face of the object to be followed by other views later in the designing process.

(c) By observing benches similar to the one being designed it will be seen that the horizontal divisions will take the form of a rail and a shelf, making two crossings of the primary mass dividing it into three horizontal spaces. Several trial arrangements of these structural elements are now made with the thought of making them conform to the rule governing three horizontal spaces. Rule 2b. We shall later discuss this rule and its applications fully.

(d) By selecting the best sketch of many which the designer will make he has the basis for the application of Rule 2b for the structural elements. The project now begins to take on concrete form. The top board may project slightly beyond the primary mass without materially affecting the value of the designed proportions.

Value of a Full Size Drawing

(e) The last step is the designing of the side view in relation to the front view. This enables the designer to comprehend the project as a whole. It is strongly urged that the final or shop drawing be of full size. In more elaborate designs the finer proportions are lost in the process of enlargement from a small sketch, often hurriedly executed in the shop. Again much time is lost by necessary enlargement, whereas a full size curved detail may be quickly transferred to wood by carbon paper or by holes pricked in the paper. It is not expensive or difficult to execute full size drawings; it is in accord with shop practice and the custom should be encouraged and followed on all possible occasions. See [Figure 102a].

The process of designing round objects is identical to that just described as illustrated by the low round bowl in [Plate 7]. It should be designed in a rectangle of accepted proportions. Rule 1b. The primary mass may have excellent proportions and yet the vase or bowl may remain devoid of interest. It may be commonplace.

Plate 8

As will shortly be shown, the rules governing horizontal divisions serve as a check on the commonplace. A horizontal division generally marks the point where the outward swell of the vase contour reaches its maximum width. If this widest point in the primary mass (X-[Plate 7]) is pleasingly located between the top and bottom of a vase form the contour will be found satisfactory.

Architectural Precedent for Horizontal Divisions

It is possible to continue ad infinitum with these illustrations but horizontal space divisions are nearly always present in some form, due to structural necessity or aesthetic requirements. It is an easy matter to say that these lines must divide the primary mass into "interesting" spaces, well related to each other, or "pleasingly located," but the designer must have some definite yet flexible rule to govern his work. From the analysis of many famous historic buildings and well designed industrial projects it has been found that all horizontal masses may be analyzed as dividing the primary mass into either two or three divisions or spaces, regardless of the complexity of the project.