History of the inductive sciences, from the earliest to the present time

by William Whewell

HISTORY
OF THE
INDUCTIVE SCIENCES.

---

VOLUME I.

HISTORY
OF THE
INDUCTIVE SCIENCES,
FROM
THE EARLIEST TO THE PRESENT TIME.

BY WILLIAM WHEWELL, D. D.,

MASTER OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

THE THIRD EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOLUME I.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
549 & 551 BROADWAY.
1875.

TO SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL,
K.G.H.

---

My dear Herschel,

It is with no common pleasure that I take up my pen to dedicate these volumes to you. They are the result of trains of thought which have often been the subject of our conversation, and of which the origin goes back to the period of our early companionship at the University. And if I had ever wavered in my purpose of combining such reflections and researches into a whole, I should have derived a renewed impulse and increased animation from your delightful Discourse on a kindred subject. For I could not have read it without finding this portion of philosophy invested with a fresh charm; and though I might be well aware that I could not aspire to that large share of popularity which your work so justly gained, I should still have reflected, that something was due to the subject itself, and should have hoped that my own aim was so far similar to yours, that the present work might have a chance of exciting an interest in some of your readers. That it will interest you, I do not at all hesitate to believe.

If you were now in England I should stop here: but when a friend is removed for years to a far distant land, we seem to acquire a right to speak openly of his good qualities. I cannot, therefore, prevail upon myself to lay down my pen without alluding to the affectionate admiration of your moral and social, as well as intellectual excellencies, which springs up in the hearts of your friends, whenever you are thought of. They are much delighted to look upon the halo of deserved fame which plays round your head but still more, to recollect, [6] as one of them said, that your head is far from being the best part about you.

May your sojourn in the southern hemisphere be as happy and successful as its object is noble and worthy of you; and may your return home be speedy and prosperous, as soon as your purpose is attained.

Ever, my dear Herschel, yours,

W. Whewell.

March 22, 1837.

P.S. So I wrote nearly ten years ago, when you were at the Cape of Good Hope, employed in your great task of making a complete standard survey of the nebulæ and double stars visible to man. Now that you are, as I trust, in a few weeks about to put the crowning stone upon your edifice by the publication of your “Observations in the Southern Hemisphere,” I cannot refrain from congratulating you upon having had your life ennobled by the conception and happy execution of so great a design, and once more offering you my wishes that you may long enjoy the glory you have so well won.

W. W.

Trinity College, Nov. 22, 1846.

PREFACE
TO THE THIRD EDITION.

---

IN the Prefaces to the previous Editions of this work, several remarks were made which it is not necessary now to repeat to the same extent. That a History of the Sciences, executed as this is, has some value in the eyes of the Public, is sufficiently proved by the circulation which it has obtained. I am still able to say that I have seen no objection urged against the plan of the work, and scarcely any against the details. The attempt to throw the history of each science into Epochs at which some great and cardinal discovery was made, and to arrange the subordinate events of each history as belonging to the Preludes and the Sequels of such Epochs, appears to be assented to, as conveniently and fairly exhibiting the progress of scientific truth. Such a view being assumed, as it was a constant light and guide to the writer in his task, so will it also, I think, make the view of the reader far more clear and comprehensive than it could otherwise be. With regard to the manner in which this plan has been carried into effect with reference to particular writers and their researches, as I have said, I have seen scarcely any objection made. I was aware, as I stated at the outset, of the difficulty and delicacy of the office which I had undertaken; but I had various considerations to encourage me to go through it; and I had a trust, which I [8] have as yet seen nothing to disturb, that I should be able to speak impartially of the great scientific men of all ages, even of our own.

I have already said, in the Introduction, that the work aimed at being, not merely a narration of the facts in the history of Science, but a basis for the Philosophy of Science. It seemed to me that our study of the modes of discovering truth ought to be based upon a survey of the truths which have been discovered. This maxim, so stated, seems sufficiently self-evident; yet it has, even up to the present time, been very rarely acted on. Those who discourse concerning the nature of Truth and the mode of its discovery, still, commonly, make for themselves examples of truths, which for the most part are utterly frivolous and unsubstantial (as in most Treatises on Logic); or else they dig up, over and over, the narrow and special field of mathematical truth, which certainly cannot, of itself, exemplify the general mode by which man has attained to the vast body of certain truth which he now possesses.

Yet it must not be denied that the Ideas which form the basis of Mathematical Truth are concerned in the formation of Scientific Truth in general; and discussions concerning these Ideas are by no means necessarily barren of advantage. But it must be borne in mind that, besides these Ideas, there are also others, which no less lie at the root of Scientific Truth; and concerning which there have been, at various periods, discussions which have had an important bearing on the progress of Scientific Truth;—such as discussions concerning the nature and necessary attributes of Matter, of Force, of Atoms, of Mediums, of Kinds, of Organization. The controversies which have taken place concerning these have an important place in the history of Natural Science in [9] its most extended sense. Yet it appeared convenient to carry on the history of Science, so far as it depends on Observation, in a line separate from these discussions concerning Ideas. The account of these discussions and the consequent controversies, therefore, though it be thoroughly historical, and, as appears to me, a very curious and interesting history, is reserved for the other work, the Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. Such a history has, in truth, its natural place in the Philosophy of Science; for the Philosophy of Science at the present day must contain the result and summing up of all the truth which has been disentangled from error and confusion during these past controversies.

I have made a few Additions to the present Edition; partly, with a view of bringing up the history, at least of some of the Sciences, to the present time,—so far as those larger features of the History of Science are concerned, with which alone I have here to deal,—and partly also, especially in the First Volume, in order to rectify and enlarge some of the earlier portions of the history. Several works which have recently appeared suggested reconsideration of various points; and I hoped that my readers might be interested in the reflections so suggested.

I will add a few sentences from the Preface to the First Edition.

“As will easily be supposed, I have borrowed largely from other writers, both of the histories of special sciences and of philosophy in general.[1] I have done this without [10] scruple, since the novelty of my work was intended to consist, not in its superiority as a collection of facts, but in the point of view in which the facts were placed. I have, however, in all cases, given references to my authorities, and there are very few instances in which I have not verified the references of previous historians, and studied the original authors. According to the plan which I have pursued, the history of each science forms a whole in itself, divided into distinct but connected members, by the Epochs of its successive advances. If I have satisfied the competent judges in each science by my selection of such epochs, the scheme of the work must be of permanent value, however imperfect may be the execution of any of its portions.

[1] Among these, I may mention as works to which I have peculiar obligations, Tennemann’s Geschichte der Philosophie; Degerando’s Histoire Comparée des Systèmes de Philosophie; Montucla’s Histoire des Mathématiques, with Delalande’s continuation of it; Delambre’s Astronomie Ancienne, Astronomie du Moyen Age, Astronomie Moderne, and Astronomie du Dix-huitième Siècle; Bailly’s Histoire d’Astronomie Ancienne, and Histoire d’Astronomie Moderne; Voiron’s Histoire d’Astronomie (published as a continuation of Bailly), Fischer’s Geschichte der Physik, Gmelin’s Geschichte der Chemie, Thomson’s History of Chemistry, Sprengel’s History of Medicine, his History of Botany, and in all branches of Natural History and Physiology, Cuvier’s works; in their historical, as in all other portions, most admirable and instructive.

“With all these grounds of hope, it is still impossible not to see that such an undertaking is, in no small degree, arduous, and its event obscure. But all who venture upon such tasks must gather trust and encouragement from reflections like those by which their great forerunner prepared himself for his endeavors;—by recollecting that they are aiming to advance the best interests and privileges of man; and that they may expect all the best and wisest of men to join them in their aspirations and to aid them in their labors.

“‘Concerning ourselves we speak not; but as touching the matter which we have in hand, this we ask;—that men deem it not to be the setting up of an Opinion, but the performing of a Work; and that they receive this as a certainty—that we are not laying the foundations of any sect or doctrine, but of the profit and dignity of mankind:—Furthermore, [11] that being well disposed to what shall advantage themselves, and putting off factions and prejudices, they take common counsel with us, to the end that being by these our aids and appliances freed and defended from wanderings and impediments, they may lend their hands also to the labors which remain to be performed:—And yet, further, that they be of good hope; neither feign and imagine to themselves this our Reform as something of infinite dimension and beyond the grasp of mortal man, when, in truth, it is, of infinite error, the end and true limit; and is by no means unmindful of the condition of mortality and humanity, not confiding that such a thing can be carried to its perfect close in the space of one single day, but assigning it as a task to a succession of generations.’—Bacon—Instauratio Magna, Præf. ad fin.

“‘If there be any man who has it at heart, not merely to take his stand on what has already been discovered, but to profit by that, and to go on to something beyond;—not to conquer an adversary by disputing, but to conquer nature by working;—not to opine probably and prettily, but to know certainly and demonstrably;—let such, as being true sons of nature (if they will consent to do so), join themselves to us; so that, leaving the porch of nature which endless multitudes have so long trod, we may at last open a way to the inner courts. And that we may mark the two ways, that old one, and our new one, by familiar names, we have been wont to call the one the Anticipation of the Mind, the other, the Interpretation of Nature.’—Inst. Mag. Præf. ad Part. ii.

CONTENTS
OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

———⎯◆−◆−◆———⎯

				Page
~Preface to the Third Edition.				[7]~
~Index of Proper Names.				[23]~
~Index of Technical Terms.				[33]~
Introduction.				[41]
BOOKI.
HISTORY OF THE GREEK SCHOOLPHILOSOPHY, WITH REFERENCE TO PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
Chapter I.—Prelude to the GreekSchool Philosophy.
Sect.	1.	First Attempts of the Speculative Faculty in PhysicalInquiries.		[55]
Sect.	2.	Primitive Mistake in Greek Physical Philosophy.		[60]
Chapter II.—The Greek SchoolPhilosophy.
Sect.	1.	The General Foundation of the Greek SchoolPhilosophy.		[63]
Sect.	2.	The Aristotelian Physical Philosophy.		[67]
Sect.	3.	Technical Forms of the Greek Schools.		[73]
			1. Technical Forms of theAristotelian Philosophy.	[73]
			2. Technical Forms of thePlatonists.	[75]
			3. Technical Forms of thePythagoreans.	[77]
			4. Technical Forms of theAtomists and Others.	[78]
Chapter III.—Failure of thePhysical Philosophy of the Greek Schools.
Sect.	1.	Result of the Greek School Philosophy.		[80]
Sect.	2.	Cause of the Failure of the Greek PhysicalPhilosophy.		[83]
[14]
BOOKII.
HISTORY OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES INANCIENT GREECE.
Introduction.				[95]
Chapter I.—Earliest Stages ofMechanics and Hydrostatics.
Sect.	1.	Mechanics.		[96]
Sect.	2.	Hydrostatics.		[98]
Chapter II.—Earliest Stages ofOptics.				[100]
Chapter III.—Earliest Stages ofHarmonics.				[105]
BOOKIII.
HISTORY OF GREEK ASTRONOMY.
Introduction.				[111]
Chapter I.—Earliest Stages ofAstronomy.
Sect.	1.	Formation of the Notion of a Year.		[112]
Sect.	2.	Fixation of the Civil Year.		[113]
Sect.	3.	Correction of the Civil Year (Julian Calendar).		[117]
Sect.	4.	Attempts at the Fixation of the Month.		[118]
Sect.	5.	Invention of Lunisolar Years.		[120]
Sect.	6.	The Constellations.		[124]
Sect.	7.	The Planets.		[126]
Sect.	8.	The Circles of the Sphere.		[128]
Sect.	9.	The Globular Form of the Earth.		[132]
Sect.	10.	The Phases of the Moon.		[134]
Sect.	11.	Eclipses.		[135]
Sect.	12.	Sequel to the Early Stages of Astronomy.		[136]
Chapter II.—Prelude to theInductive Epoch of Hipparchus.				[138]
[15]
Chapter III.—Inductive Epoch ofHipparchus.
Sect.	1.	Establishment of the Theory of Epicycles andEccentrics.		[145]
Sect.	2.	Estimate of the Value of the Theory of Eccentrics andEpicycles.		[151]
Sect.	3.	Discovery of the Precession of the Equinoxes.		[155]
Chapter IV.—Sequel to theInductive Epoch of Hipparchus.
Sect.	1.	Researches which verified the Theory.		[157]
Sect.	2.	Researches which did not verify the Theory.		[159]
Sect.	3.	Methods of Observation of the Greek Astronomers.		[161]
Sect.	4.	Period from Hipparchus to Ptolemy.		[166]
Sect.	5.	Measures of the Earth.		[169]
Sect.	6.	Ptolemy’s Discovery of Evection.		[170]
Sect.	7.	Conclusion of the History of Greek Astronomy.		[175]
Sect.	8.	Arabian Astronomy.		[176]
BOOKIV.
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE IN THEMIDDLE AGES.
Introduction.				[185]
Chapter I.—On the Indistinctnessof Ideas of the Middle Ages.
	1.	Collections of Opinions.		[187]
	2.	Indistinctness of Ideas in Mechanics.		[188]
	3.	Indistinctness of Ideas shown in Architecture.		[191]
	4.	Indistinctness of Ideas in Astronomy.		[192]
	5.	Indistinctness of Ideas shown by Skeptics.		[192]
	6.	Neglect of Physical Reasoning in Christendom.		[195]
	7.	Question of Antipodes.		[195]
	8.	Intellectual Condition of the Religious Orders.		[197]
	9.	Popular Opinions.		[199]
Chapter II.—The CommentatorialSpirit of the Middle Ages.				[201]
	1.	Natural Bias to Authority.		[202]
	2.	Character of Commentators.		[204]
	3.	GreekCommentators of Aristotle.		[205]
[16]
	4.	GreekCommentators of Plato and Others.		[207]
	5.	Arabian Commentators of Aristotle.		[208]
Chapter III.—Of the Mysticism ofthe Middle Ages.				[211]
	1.	Neoplatonic Theosophy.		[212]
	2.	Mystical Arithmetic.		[216]
	3.	Astrology.		[218]
	4.	Alchemy.		[224]
	5.	Magic.		[225]
Chapter IV.—Of the Dogmatism ofthe Stationary Period.
	1.	Origin of the Scholastic Philosophy.		[228]
	2.	Scholastic Dogmas.		[230]
	3.	Scholastic Physics.		[235]
	4.	Authority of Aristotle among the Schoolmen.		[236]
	5.	Subjects omitted. Civil Law. Medicine.		[238]
Chapter V.—Progress of the Artsin the Middle Ages.
	1.	Artand Science.		[239]
	2.	Arabian Science.		[242]
	3.	Experimental Philosophy of the Arabians.		[243]
	4.	RogerBacon.		[245]
	5.	Architecture of the Middle Ages.		[246]
	6.	Treatises on Architecture.		[248]
BOOKV.
HISTORY OF FORMAL ASTRONOMY AFTER THESTATIONARY PERIOD.
Introduction.				[255]
Chapter I.—Prelude to theInductive Epoch of Copernicus.				[257]
Chapter II.—Induction ofCopernicus. The Heliocentric Theory asserted on Formal Grounds.				[262]
[17]
Chapter III—Sequel toCopernicus. The Reception and Development of the CopernicanTheory.
Sect.	1.	First Reception of the Copernican Theory.		[269]
Sect.	2.	Diffusion of the Copernican Theory.		[272]
Sect.	3.	The Heliocentric Theory confirmed by Facts. Galileo’sAstronomical Discoveries.		[276]
Sect.	4.	The Copernican System opposed on TheologicalGrounds.		[286]
Sect.	5.	The Heliocentric Theory confirmed on PhysicalConsiderations. (Prelude to Kepler’s Astronomical Discoveries.)		[287]
Chapter IV.—Inductive Epoch ofKepler.
Sect.	1.	Intellectual Character of Kepler.		[290]
Sect.	2.	Kepler’s Discovery of his Third Law.		[293]
Sect.	3.	Kepler’s Discovery of his First and Second Laws.Elliptical Theory of the Planets.		[296]
Chapter V.—Sequel to the Epochof Kepler. Reception, Verification, and Extension of the EllipticalTheory.
Sect.	1.	Application of the Elliptical Theory to thePlanets.		[302]
Sect.	2.	Application of the Elliptical Theory to the Moon.		[303]
Sect.	3.	Causes of the further Progress of Astronomy.		[305]
———⎯◆−◆−◆———⎯
THE MECHANICALSCIENCES.
BOOKVI.
HISTORY OF MECHANICS, INCLUDING FLUIDMECHANICS.
Introduction.				[311]
Chapter I.—Prelude to the Epochof Galileo.
Sect.	1.	Prelude to the Science of Statics.		[312]
Sect.	2.	Revival of the Scientific Idea ofPressure.—Stevinus.—Equilibrium of Oblique Forces.		[316]
Sect.	3.	Prelude to the Science of Dynamics.—Attempts at theFirst Law of Motion		[319]
[18]
Chapter II.—Inductive Epoch ofGalileo.—Discovery of the Laws of Motion in SimpleCases.
Sect.	1.	Establishment of the First Law of Motion.		[322]
Sect.	2.	Formation and Application of the Motion of AcceleratingForce. Laws of Falling Bodies.		[324]
Sect.	3.	Establishment of the Second Law ofMotion.—Curvilinear Motions.		[330]
Sect.	4.	Generalization of the Laws of Equilibrium.—Principle ofVirtual Velocities.		[331]
Sect.	5.	Attempts at the Third Law of Motion.—Notion ofMomentum.		[334]
Chapter III.—Sequel to the Epochof Galileo.—Period of Verification and Deduction.				[340]
Chapter IV.—Discovery of theMechanical Principles of Fluids.
Sect.	1.	Rediscovery of the Laws of Equilibrium of Fluids.		[345]
Sect.	2.	Discovery of the Laws of Motion of Fluids.		[348]
Chapter V.—Generalization of thePrinciples of Mechanics.
Sect.	1.	Generalization of the Second Law of Motion.—CentralForces.		[352]
Sect.	2.	Generalization of the Third Law of Motion.—Centre ofOscillation.—Huyghens.		[356]
Chapter VI.—Sequel to theGeneralization of the Principles of Mechanics.—Period ofMathematical Deduction.—Analytical Mechanics.				[362]
	1.	Geometrical Mechanics.—Newton, &c.		[363]
	2.	Analytical Mechanics.—Euler.		[363]
	3.	Mechanical Problems.		[364]
	4.	D’Alembert’s Principle.		[365]
	5.	Motion in Resisting Media.—Ballistics.		[365]
	6.	Constellation of Mathematicians.		[366]
	7.	TheProblem of Three Bodies.		[367]
	8.	Mécanique Céleste, &c.		[371]
	9.	Precession.—Motion of Rigid Bodies.		[374]
	10.	Vibrating Strings.		[375]
	11.	Equilibrium of Fluids.—Figure of the Earth.—Tides.		[376]
	12.	Capillary Action.		[377]
	13.	Motion of Fluids.		[378]
	14.	Various General Mechanical Principles.		[380]
	15.	Analytical Generality.—Connection of Statics andDynamics.		[381]
[19]
BOOKVII.
HISTORY OF PHYSICALASTRONOMY.
Chapter I.—Prelude to theInductive Epoch of Newton.				[385]
Chapter II.—The Inductive Epochof Newton.—Discovery of the Universal Gravitation of Matter,According to the Law of the Inverse Square of the Distance.				[399]
	1.	Sun’sForce on Different Planets.		[399]
	2.	Forcein Different Points of an Orbit.		[400]
	3.	Moon’s Gravity to the Earth.		[402]
	4.	Mutual Attraction of all the Celestial Bodies.		[406]
	5.	Mutual Attraction of all the Particles of Matter.		[411]
		Reflections on the Discovery.		[414]
		Character of Newton.		[416]
Chapter III.—Sequel to the Epochof Newton.—Reception of the Newtonian Theory.
Sect.	1.	General Remarks.		[420]
Sect.	2.	Reception of the Newtonian Theory in England.		[421]
Sect.	3.	Reception of the Newtonian Theory Abroad.		[429]
Chapter IV.—Sequel to the Epochof Newton, continued. Verification and Completion of the NewtonianTheory.
Sect.	1.	Division of the Subject.		[433]
Sect.	2.	Application of the Newtonian Theory to the Moon.		[434]
Sect.	3.	Application of the Newtonian Theory to the Planets,Satellites, and Earth.		[438]
Sect.	4.	Application of the Newtonian Theory to SecularInequalities.		[444]
Sect.	5.	Application of the Newtonian Theory to the newPlanets.		[446]
Sect.	6.	Application of the Newtonian Theory to Comets.		[449]
Sect.	7.	Application of the Newtonian Theory to the Figure of theEarth.		[452]
Sect.	8.	Confirmation of the Newtonian Theory by Experiments onAttraction.		[456]
Sect.	9.	Application of the Newtonian Theory to the Tides.		[457]
Chapter V.—Discoveries Added tothe Newtonian Theory.
Sect.	1.	Tables of Astronomical Refraction.		[462]
Sect.	2.	Discovery of the Velocity of Light.—Römer		[463]
[20]
Sect.	3.	Discovery of Aberration.—Bradley.		[464]
Sect.	4.	Discovery of Nutation.		[465]
Sect.	5.	Discovery of the Laws of Double Stars.—The TwoHerschels.		[467]
Chapter VI.—The Instruments andAids of Astronomy during the Newtonian Period.
Sect.	1.	Instruments.		[470]
Sect.	2.	Observatories.		[476]
Sect.	3.	Scientific Societies.		[478]
Sect.	4.	Patrons of Astronomy.		[479]
Sect.	5.	Astronomical Expeditions.		[480]
Sect.	6.	Present State of Astronomy.		[481]
———⎯◆−◆−◆———⎯
ADDITIONS TO THE THIRDEDITION.
Introduction				[489]
Book I.—TheGreek School Philosophy.
The Greek Schools.
The Platonic Doctrine of Ideas.				[491]
Failure of the Greek PhysicalPhilosophy.
Bacon’s Remarks on the Greeks.				[494]
Aristotle’s Account of the Rainbow.				[495]
BookII.—The Physical Sciences in Ancient Greece.
Plato’s Timæus and Republic.				[497]
Hero of Alexandria.				[501]
BookIII.—The Greek Astronomy.
Introduction.				[503]
Earliest Stages ofAstronomy.
The Globular Form of the Earth.				[505]
The Heliocentric System among theAncients.				[506]
The Eclipse of Thales.				[508]
[21]
BookIV.—Physical Science in the Middle Ages.
General Remarks.				[511]
Progress in the Middle Ages.
Thomas Aquinas.				[512]
Roger Bacon.				[512]
BookV.—Formal Astronomy.
Prelude to Copernicus.
Nicolas of Cus.				[523]
The Copernican Theory.
The Moon’s Rotation.				[524]
M. Foucault’s Experiments.				[525]
Sequel to Copernicus.
English Copernicans.				[526]
Giordano Bruno.				[530]
Did Francis Bacon reject the Copernican Doctrine?				[530]
Kepler persecuted.				[532]
The Papal Edicts against the Copernican Systemrepealed.				[534]
BookVI.—Mechanics.
Principles and Problems.
Significance of Analytical Mechanics.				[536]
Strength of Materials.				[538]
Roofs—Arches—Vaults.				[541]
BookVII.—Physical Astronomy.
Prelude to Newton.
The Ancients.				[544]
Jeremiah Horrox.				[545]
Newton’s Discovery of Gravitation.				[546]
[22]
The Principia.
Reception of the Principia.				[548]
Is Gravitation proportional to Quantity of Matter?				[549]
Verification and Completion of theNewtonian Theory.
Tables of the Moon and Planets.				[550]
The Discovery of Neptune.				[554]
The Minor Planets.				[557]
Anomalies in the Action of Gravitation.				[560]
The Earth’s Density.				[561]
Tides.				[562]
Double Stars.				[563]
Instruments.
Clocks.				[565]

CONTENTS
OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

———⎯◆−◆−◆———⎯
THE SECONDARY MECHANICALSCIENCES.
BOOKVIII.
HISTORY OF ACOUSTICS.
				Page
Introduction.				[23]
Chapter I.—Prelude to theSolution of Problems in Acoustics.				[24]
Chapter II.—Problem of theVibrations of Strings.				[28]
Chapter III.—Problem of thePropagation of Sound.				[32]
Chapter IV.—Problem of DifferentSounds of the Same String.				[36]
Chapter V.—Problem of the Soundsof Pipes.				[38]
Chapter VI.—Problem of DifferentModes of Vibration of Bodies in general.				[41]
BOOKIX.
HISTORY OF OPTICS, FORMAL ANDPHYSICAL.
Introduction.				[51]
[8]
FORMAL OPTICS.
Chapter I.—Primary Induction ofOptics.—Rays of Light and Laws of Reflection.				[53]
Chapter II.—Discovery of the Lawof Refraction.				[54]
Chapter III.—Discovery of theLaw of Dispersion by Refraction.				[58]
Chapter IV.—Discovery ofAchromatism.				[66]
Chapter V.—Discovery of the Lawsof Double Refraction.				[69]
Chapter VI.—Discovery of theLaws of Polarization.				[72]
Chapter VII.—Discovery of theLaws of the Colors of Thin Plates.				[76]
Chapter VIII.—Attempts toDiscover the Laws of other Phenomena.				[78]
Chapter IX.—Discovery of theLaws of Phenomena of Dipolarized Light.				[80]
PHYSICALOPTICS.
Chapter X.—Prelude to the Epochof Young and Fresnel.				[85]
Chapter XI.—Epoch of Young andFresnel.
Sect.	1.	Introduction.		[92]
Sect.	2.	Explanation of the Periodical Colors of Thin Plates andShadows by the Undulatory Theory.		[93]
Sect.	3.	Explanation of Double Refraction by the Undulatory Theory.		[98]
Sect.	4.	Explanation of Polarization by the Undulatory Theory.		[100]
Sect.	5.	Explanation of Dipolarization by the Undulatory Theory.		[105]
[9]
Chapter XII.—Sequel to the Epochof Young and Fresnel.—Reception of the Undulatory Theory.				[111]
Chapter XIII.—Confirmation andExtension of the Undulatory Theory.				[118]
	1.	Double Refraction of Compressed Glass.		[119]
	2.	Circular Polarization.		[119]
	3.	Elliptical Polarization in Quartz.		[122]
	4.	Differential Equations of Elliptical Polarization.		[122]
	5.	Elliptical Polarization of Metals.		[123]
	6.	Newton’s Rings by Polarized Light.		[124]
	7.	Conical Refraction.		[124]
	8.	Fringes of Shadows.		[126]
	9.	Objections to the Theory.		[126]
	10.	Dispersion, on the Undulatory Theory.		[128]
	11.	Conclusion.		[128]
BOOKX.
HISTORY OF THERMOTICS ANDATMOLOGY.
Introduction.				[137]
THERMOTICSPROPER.
Chapter I.—The Doctrines ofConduction and Radiation.
Sect.	1.	Introduction of the Doctrine of Conduction.		[139]
Sect.	2.	Introduction of the Doctrine of Radiation.		[142]
Sect.	3.	Verification of the Doctrines of Conduction and Radiation.		[143]
Sect.	4.	The Geological and Cosmological Application of Thermotics.		[144]
			1. Effect ofSolar Heat on the Earth.	[145]
			2. Climate.	[146]
			3. Temperatureof the Interior of the Earth.	[147]
			4. Heat of thePlanetary Spaces.	[148]
Sect.	5.	Correction of Newton’s Law of Cooling.		[149]
Sect.	6.	Other Laws of Phenomena with respect to Radiation.		[151]
Sect.	7.	Fourier’s Theory of Radiant Heat.		[152]
Sect.	8.	Discovery of the Polarization of Heat.		[153]
[10]
Chapter II.—The Laws of Changesoccasioned by Heat.
Sect.	1.	Expansion by Heat.—The Law of Dalton and Gay-Lussacfor Gases.		[157]
Sect.	2.	Specific Heat.—Change of Consistence.		[159]
Sect.	3.	The Doctrine of Latent Heat.		[160]
ATMOLOGY.
Chapter III.—The Relation ofVapor and Air.
Sect.	1.	The Boylean Law of the Air’s Elasticity.		[163]
Sect.	2.	Prelude to Dalton’s Doctrine of Evaporation.		[165]
Sect.	3.	Dalton’s Doctrine of Evaporation.		[170]
Sect.	4.	Determination of the Laws of the Elastic Force of Steam.		[172]
Sect.	5.	Consequences of the Doctrine ofEvaporation.—Explanation of Rain, Dew, and Clouds.		[176]
Chapter IV.—Physical Theories ofHeat.
Thermotical Theories.				[181]
Atmological Theories.				[184]
Conclusion.				[187]
———⎯◆−◆−◆———⎯
THE MECHANICO-CHEMICALSCIENCES.
BOOKXI.
HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY.
Introduction.				[191]
Chapter I.—Discovery of Laws ofElectric Phenomena.				[193]
Chapter II.—The Progress ofElectrical Theory.				[201]
Question of One or Two Fluids.				[210]
Question of the Material Reality of the ElectricFluid.				[212]
[11]
BOOKXII.
HISTORY OF MAGNETISM.
Chapter I.—Discovery of Laws ofMagnetic Phenomena.				[217]
Chapter II.—Progress of MagneticTheory.
Theory of Magnetic Action.				[220]
Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism.				[224]
Conclusion.				[232]
BOOKXIII.
HISTORY OF GALVANISM, OR VOLTAICELECTRICITY.
Chapter I.—Discovery of VoltaicElectricity.				[237]
Chapter II.—Reception andConfirmation of the Discovery of Voltaic Electricity.				[240]
Chapter III.—Discovery of theLaws of the Mutual Attraction and Repulsion of VoltaicCurrents.—Ampère.				[242]
Chapter IV.—Discovery ofElectro-Magnetic Action.—Oersted.				[243]
Chapter V.—Discovery of the Lawsof Electro-magnetic Action.				[245]
Chapter VI.—Theory ofElectrodynamical Action.
Ampère’s Theory.				[246]
Reception of Ampère’s Theory.				[249]
Chapter VII.—Consequences of theElectrodynamic Theory.				[250]
Discovery of Diamagnetism.				[252]
[12]
Chapter VIII.—Discovery of theLaws of Magneto-Electric Induction.—Faraday.				[253]
Chapter IX.—Transition toChemical Science.				[256]
———⎯◆−◆−◆———⎯
THE ANALYTICALSCIENCE.
BOOKXIV.
HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY.
Chapter I.—Improvement of theNotion of Chemical Analysis, and Recognition of it as the SpagiricArt.				[261]
Chapter II.—Doctrine of Acid andAlkali.—Sylvius.				[262]
Chapter III.—Doctrine ofElective Attractions.—Geoffroy. Bergman.				[265]
Chapter IV.—Doctrine ofAcidification and Combustion.—PhlogisticTheory.
Publication of the Theory by Beccher and Stahl.				[267]
Reception and Application of the Theory.				[271]
Chapter V.—Chemistry ofGases.—Black. Cavendish.				[272]
Chapter VI.—Epoch of the Theoryof Oxygen.—Lavoisier.
Sect.	1.	Prelude to the Theory.—Its Publication.		[275]
Sect.	2.	Reception and Confirmation of the Theory of Oxygen.		[278]
Sect.	3.	Nomenclature of the Oxygen Theory.		[281]
Chapter VII.—Application andCorrection of the Oxygen Theory.				[282]
[13]
Chapter VIII.—Theory ofDefinite, Reciprocal, and Multiple Proportions.
Sect.	1.	Prelude to the Atomic Theory, and its Publication byDalton.		[285]
Sect.	2.	Reception and Confirmation of the Atomic Theory.		[288]
Sect.	3.	The Theory of Volumes.—Gay-Lussac.		[290]
Chapter IX.—Epoch of Davy andFaraday.
Sect.	1.	Promulgation of the Electro-chemical Theory by Davy.		[291]
Sect.	2.	Establishment of the Electro-chemical Theory by Faraday.		[296]
Sect.	3.	Consequences of Faraday’s Discoveries.		[302]
Sect.	4.	Reception of the Electro-chemical Theory.		[303]
Chapter X.—Transition from theChemical to the Classificatory Sciences.				[305]
———⎯◆−◆−◆———⎯
THE ANALYTICO-CLASSIFICATORYSCIENCE.
BOOKXV.
HISTORY OF MINERALOGY.
Introduction
Sect.	1.	Of the Classificatory Sciences.		[313]
Sect.	2.	Of Mineralogy as the Analytico-classificatory Science.		[314]
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
Chapter I.—Prelude to the Epochof De Lisle and Haüy.				[316]
Chapter II.—Epoch of Romé DeLisle and Haüy.—Establishment of the Fixity of CrystallineAngles, and the Simplicity of the Laws of Derivation.				[320]
Chapter III.—Reception andCorrections of the Hauïan Crystallography.				[324]
[14]
Chapter IV.—Establishment of theDistinction of Systems of Crystallization.—Weiss and Mohs.				[326]
Chapter V.—Reception andConfirmation of the Distinction of Systems ofCrystallization.
Diffusion of the Distinction of Systems.				[330]
Confirmation of the Distinction ofSystems by the Optical Properties of Minerals.—Brewster.				[331]
Chapter VI.—Correction of theLaw of the Same Angle for the Same Substance.
Discovery of Isomorphism.—Mitscherlich.				[334]
Dimorphism.				[336]
Chapter VII.—Attempts toEstablish the Fixity of Other PhysicalProperties.—Werner.				[336]
SYSTEMATICMINERALOGY.
Chapter VIII.—Attempts at theClassification of Minerals.
Sect.	1.	Proper Object of Classification.		[339]
Sect.	2.	Mixed Systems of Classification.		[340]
Chapter IX.—Attempts at theReform of Mineralogical Systems.—Separation of the Chemical andNatural History Methods.
Sect.	1.	Natural History System of Mohs.		[344]
Sect.	2.	Chemical System of Berzelius and others.		[347]
Sect.	3.	Failure of the Attempts at Systematic Reform.		[349]
Sect.	4.	Return to Mixed Systems with Improvements.		[351]
———⎯◆−◆−◆———⎯
CLASSIFICATORYSCIENCES.
BOOKXVI.
HISTORY OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY ANDZOOLOGY.
Introduction.				[357]
[15]
Chapter I.—Imaginary Knowledgeof Plants.				[358]
Chapter II.—UnsystematicKnowledge of Plants.				[361]
Chapter III.—Formation of aSystem of Arrangement of Plants.
Sect.	1.	Prelude to the Epoch of Cæsalpinus.		[369]
Sect.	2.	Epoch of Cæsalpinus.—Formation of a System ofArrangement.		[373]
Sect.	3.	Stationary Interval.		[378]
Sect.	4.	Sequel to the Epoch of Cæsalpinus.—Further Formationand Adoption of Systematic Arrangement.		[382]
Chapter IV.—The Reform ofLinnæus.
Sect.	1.	Introduction of the Reform.		[387]
Sect.	2.	Linnæan Reform of Botanical Terminology.		[389]
Sect.	3.	Linnæan Reform of Botanical Nomenclature.		[391]
Sect.	4.	Linnæus’s Artificial System,		[395]
Sect.	5.	Linnæus’s Views on a Natural Method.		[396]
Sect.	6.	Reception and Diffusion of the Linnæan Reform.		[400]
Chapter V.—Progress towards aNatural System of Botany.				[404]
Chapter VI.—The Progress ofSystematic Zoology.				[412]
Chapter VII.—The Progress ofIchthyology.				[419]
Period of Unsystematic Knowledge.				[420]
Period of Erudition.				[421]
Period of Accumulation of Materials.—ExoticCollections.				[422]
Epoch of the Fixation of Characters.—Ray andWilloughby.				[422]
Improvement of the System.—Artedi.				[423]
Separation of the Artificial and Natural Methodsin Ichthyology.				[426]
———⎯◆−◆−◆———⎯
ORGANICAL SCIENCES.
BOOKXVII.
HISTORY OF PHYSIOLOGY AND COMPARATIVEANATOMY.
Introduction.				[435]
[16]
Chapter I.—Discovery of theOrgans of Voluntary Motion.
Sect.	1.	Knowledge of Galen and his Predecessors.		[438]
Sect.	2.	Recognition of Final Causes in Physiology.—Galen.		[442]
Chapter II.—Discovery of theCirculation of the Blood.
Sect.	1.	Prelude to the Discovery.		[444]
Sect.	2.	The Discovery of the Circulation made by Harvey.		[447]
Sect.	3.	Reception of the Discovery.		[448]
Sect.	4.	Bearing of the Discovery on the Progress of Physiology.		[449]
Chapter III.—Discovery of theMotion of the Chyle, and Consequent Speculations.
Sect.	1.	The Discovery of the Motion of the Chyle.		[452]
Sect.	2.	The Consequent Speculations. Hypotheses of Digestion.		[453]
Chapter IV.—Examination of theProcess of Reproduction in Animals and Plants, and ConsequentSpeculations.
Sect.	1.	The Examination of the Process of Reproduction in Animals.		[455]
Sect.	2.	The Examination of the Process of Reproduction inVegetables.		[457]
Sect.	3.	The Consequent Speculations.—Hypotheses ofGeneration.		[459]
Chapter V.—Examination of theNervous System, and Consequent Speculations.
Sect.	1.	The Examination of the Nervous System.		[461]
Sect.	2.	The Consequent Speculations. Hypotheses respecting Life,Sensation, and Volition.		[464]
Chapter VI.—Introduction of thePrinciple of Developed and Metamorphosed Symmetry.
Sect.	1.	Vegetable Morphology.—Göthe. De Candolle.		[468]
Sect.	2.	Application of Vegetable Morphology.		[474]
Chapter VII.—Progress of AnimalMorphology.
Sect.	1.	Rise of Comparative Anatomy.		[475]
Sect.	2.	Distinction of the General Types of the Forms ofAnimals.—Cuvier.		[478]
Sect.	3.	Attempts to establish the Identity of the Types of AnimalForms.		[480]
[17]
Chapter VIII.—The Doctrine ofFinal Causes in Physiology.
Sect.	1.	Assertion of the Principle of Unity of Plan.		[482]
Sect.	2.	Estimate of the Doctrine of Unity of Plan.		[487]
Sect.	3.	Establishment and Application of the Principle of theConditions of Existence of Animals.—Cuvier.		[492]
———⎯◆−◆−◆———⎯
THE PALÆTIOLOGICALSCIENCES.
BOOKXVIII.
HISTORY OF GEOLOGY.
Introduction.				[499]
DESCRIPTIVEGEOLOGY.
Chapter I.—Prelude to SystematicDescriptive Geology.
Sect.	1.	Ancient Notices of Geological Facts.		[505]
Sect.	2.	Early Descriptions and Collections of Fossils.		[506]
Sect.	3.	First Construction of Geological Maps.		[509]
Chapter II.—Formation ofSystematic Descriptive Geology.
Sect.	1.	Discovery of the Order and Stratification of the Materialsof the Earth.		[511]
Sect.	2.	Systematic Form given to DescriptiveGeology.—Werner.		[513]
Sect.	3.	Application of Organic Remains as a GeologicalCharacter.—Smith.		[515]
Sect.	4.	Advances in Palæontology.—Cuvier.		[517]
Sect.	5.	Intellectual Characters of the Founders of SystematicDescriptive Geology.		[520]
Chapter III.—Sequel to theFormation of Systematic Descriptive Geology.
Sect.	1.	Reception and Diffusion of Systematic Geology.		[523]
Sect.	2.	Application of Systematic Geology.—GeologicalSurveys and Maps.		[526]
Sect.	3.	Geological Nomenclature.		[527]
Sect.	4.	Geological Synonymy, or Determination of GeologicalEquivalents.		[531]
[18]
Chapter IV.—Attempts to discoverGeneral Laws in Geology.
Sect.	1.	General Geological Phenomena.		[537]
Sect.	2.	Transition to Geological Dynamics.		[541]
GEOLOGICALDYNAMICS.
Chapter V.—Inorganic GeologicalDynamics.
Sect.	1.	Necessity and Object of a Science of Geological Dynamics.		[542]
Sect.	2.	Aqueous Causes of Change.		[545]
Sect.	3.	Igneous Causes of Change.—Motions of the Earth’sSurface.		[549]
Sect.	4.	The Doctrine of Central Heat.		[554]
Sect.	5.	Problems respecting Elevations and Crystalline Forces.		[556]
Sect.	6.	Theories of Changes of Climate.		[559]
Chapter VI.—Progress of theGeological Dynamics of Organized Beings.
Sect.	1.	Objects of this Science.		[561]
Sect.	2.	Geography of Plants and Animals.		[562]
Sect.	3.	Questions of the Transmutation of Species.		[563]
Sect.	4.	Hypothesis of Progressive Tendencies.		[565]
Sect.	5.	Question of Creation as related to Science.		[568]
Sect.	6.	The Hypothesis of the Regular Creation and Extinction ofSpecies.		[573]
			1. Creation of Species.	[573]
			2. Extinction of Species.	[576]
Sect.	7.	The Imbedding of Organic Remains.		[577]
PHYSICALGEOLOGY.
Chapter VII.—Progress ofPhysical Geology.
Sect.	1.	Object and Distinctions of Physical Geology.		[579]
Sect.	2.	Of Fanciful Geological Opinions.		[580]
Sect.	3.	Of Premature Geological Theories.		[584]
Chapter VIII.—The Two AntagonistDoctrines of Geology.
Sect.	1.	Of the Doctrine of Geological Catastrophes.		[586]
Sect.	2.	Of the Doctrine of Geological Uniformity.		[588]
[19]
ADDITIONS TO THE THIRDEDITION.
BookVIII.—Acoustics.
Sound.
The Velocity of Sound in Water.				[599]
BookIX.—Optics.
Photography.				[601]
Fluorescence.				[601]
Undulatory Theory.
Direction of the Transverse Vibrations inPolarization.				[603]
Final Disproof of the Emission Theory.				[604]
BookX.—Thermotics.—Atmology.
The Relation of Vapor andAir.
Force of Steam.				[606]
Temperature of the Atmosphere.				[607]
Theories of Heat.
The Dynamical Theory of Heat.				[608]
BookXI.—Electricity.
General Remarks.				[610]
Dr. Faraday’s Views of Statical ElectricalInduction.				[611]
BookXII.—Magnetism.
Recent Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.				[613]
Correction of Ships’ Compasses.				[616]
[20]
BookXIII.—Voltaic Electricity.
Magneto-Electric Induction.
Diamagnetlc Polarity.				[620]
Magneto-optic Effects and MagnecrystallicPolarity.				[621]
Magneto-electric Machines.				[623]
Applications of Electrodynamic Discoveries.				[623]
BookXIV.—Chemistry.
The Electro-chemical Theory.
The Number of Elementary Substances.				[625]
BookXV.—Mineralogy.
Crystallography.				[627]
Optical Properties of Minerals.				[629]
Classification of Minerals.				[630]
BookXVI.—Classificatory Sciences.
Recent Views of Botany.				[631]
Recent Views of Zoology.				[634]
Book XVII.—Physiological andComparative Anatomy.
Vegetable Morphology.				[636]
Animal Morphology				[638]
Final Causes.				[642]
BookXVIII.
Geology.				[646]