LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
| PAGE | ||
| [Fig. 1.—] | A. Skull of one of the non-poisonous Colubridæ (Ptyas mucosus) | 7 |
| B. Skull of one of the poisonous Colubridæ (Naja tripudians) | 7 | |
| C. Skull of one of the poisonous Colubridæ (Bungarus fasciatus) | 7 | |
| D. Skull of one of the Viperidæ (Vipera russellii) | 7 | |
| E. Skull of one of the Viperidæ Crotalinæ (Crotalus durissus) | 7 | |
| F. Skull of one of the Colubridæ Hydrophiinæ (Hydrophis pelamis) | 7 | |
| [Fig. 2.—] | A. Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the Viperidæ (Vipera russellii) | 8 |
| B. Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the Colubridæ (Naja tripudians) | 8 | |
| C. Maxillary bone and fangs of one of the Colubridæ (Bungarus fasciatus) | 8 | |
| D. Maxillary bone and teeth of one of the non-poisonous Colubridæ (Ptyas mucosus) | 8 | |
| [Fig. 3.—] | A. Fang of one of the Viperidæ (Vipera russellii) | 8 |
| D. Transverse section of the fang | 8 | |
| [Fig. 4.—] | B. Fang of one of the Colubridæ (Naja tripudians) | 9 |
| E. Transverse section | 9 | |
| [Fig. 5.—] | C. Fang of one of the Hydrophiinæ (Hydrophis pelamis) | 9 |
| F. Transverse section | 9 | |
| [Fig. 6—] | Three transverse sections of a poison-fang of one of the Colubridæ | 9 |
| [Fig. 7—] | Marks produced on the skin by the bites of different species of snakes | 10 |
| [Fig. 8—] | Poison-gland and fangs of a venomous snake (Naja tripudians) | 11 |
| [Fig. 9—] | Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of Vipera russellii | 12 |
| [Fig. 10—] | Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of Vipera russellii | 12 |
| [Fig. 11—] | Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of Naja tripudians | 13 |
| [Fig. 12—] | Muscular apparatus and poison-gland of Naja tripudians | 13 |
| [Fig. 13—] | Arrangement of the scales of the head in one of the non-poisonous Colubridæ (Ptyas mucosus) | 14 |
| [Fig. 14—] | Arrangement of the scales of the head in one of the poisonous Colubridæ (Naja tripudians) | 15 |
| [Fig. 15—] | Feeding a poisonous snake (first stage) | 18 |
| [Fig. 16—] | Feeding a poisonous snake (second stage) | 18 |
| [Fig. 17—] | Capture of a Naja tripudians (first stage) | 19 |
| [Fig. 18—] | Capture of a Naja tripudians (second stage) | 20 |
| [Fig. 19—] | Hindu carrying two captured Cobras in “chatties” | 21 |
| [Fig. 20—] | Maxillary bone, mandible, and head of Cœlopeltis monspessulana | 23 |
| [Fig. 21—] | (1) Vipera berus; (2) Vipera aspis; (3) Vipera ammodytes; (4) Vipera ammodytes | 25 |
| [Fig. 22—] | Vipera aspis, from the Forest of Fontainebleau | 28 |
| [Fig. 23—] | Skull of Bungarus | 31 |
| [Fig. 24—] | Bungarus fasciatus (India) | 32 |
| [Fig. 25—] | Skull of Naja tripudians | 34 |
| [Fig. 26—] | Naja tripudians (Cobra-di-Capello) on the defensive, preparing to strike | 35 |
| [Fig. 27—] | Naja tripudians (Cobra-di-Capello) | 36 |
| [Fig. 28—] | Vipera russellii (Daboia) | 45 |
| [Fig. 29—] | Pseudocerastes persicus | 47 |
| [Fig. 30—] | Echis carinatus (India) | 48 |
| [Fig. 31—] | Ancistrodon hypnale (Carawalla, of Ceylon) | 50 |
| [Fig. 32—] | Lachesis okinavensis | 52 |
| [Fig. 33—] | Lachesis flavomaculatus | 55 |
| [Fig. 34—] | Skull of Dendraspis viridis | 65 |
| [Fig. 35—] | Skull of Causus rhombeatus | 68 |
| [Fig. 36—] | Skull of Bitis arietans (Puff Adder) | 70 |
| [Fig. 37—] | Bitis arietans (Puff Adder) | 71 |
| [Fig. 38—] | Bitis cornuta | 73 |
| [Fig. 39—] | Bitis rasicornis | 74 |
| [Fig. 40—] | Cerastes cornutus | 75 |
| [Fig. 41—] | Echis coloratus | 77 |
| [Fig. 42—] | Skull of Atractaspis aterrima | 79 |
| [Fig. 43—] | Skull of Glyphodon tristis (Australian Colubrine) | 83 |
| [Fig. 44—] | Pseudelaps krefftii | 85 |
| [Fig. 45—] | Pseudelaps harriettæ | 85 |
| [Fig. 46—] | Pseudelaps diadema | 85 |
| [Fig. 47—] | Diemenia psammophis | 86 |
| [Fig. 48—] | Diemenia olivacea | 86 |
| [Fig. 49—] | Diemenia textilis | 86 |
| [Fig. 50—] | Diemenia nuchalis | 87 |
| [Fig. 51—] | Pseudechis porphyriacus (Black Snake) | 87 |
| [Fig. 52—] | Denisonia superba (Copperhead) | 89 |
| [Fig. 53—] | Denisonia coronoides | 89 |
| [Fig. 54—] | Denisonia ramsayi | 90 |
| [Fig. 55—] | Denisonia signata | 90 |
| [Fig. 56—] | Denisonia maculata | 91 |
| [Fig. 57—] | Denisonia gouldii | 91 |
| [Fig. 58—] | Hoplocephalus bitorquatus | 94 |
| [Fig. 59—] | Notechis scutatus (Tiger Snake) | 95 |
| [Fig. 60—] | Skull of Acanthophis antarcticus (Death Adder) | 96 |
| [Fig. 61—] | Acanthophis antarcticus | 97 |
| [Fig. 62—] | Rhynchelaps australis | 98 |
| [Fig. 63—] | Skull of Furina occipitalis | 99 |
| [Fig. 64—] | Furina occipitalis | 99 |
| [Fig. 65—] | Skull of Elaps marcgravii | 101 |
| [Fig. 66—] | Elaps fulvius (Harlequin Snake) | 105 |
| [Fig. 67—] | Head and Skull of Crotalus horridus (Horrid Rattle-snake) | 109 |
| [Fig. 68—] | Ancistrodon piscivorus (Water Viper) | 110 |
| [Fig. 69—] | Lachesis lanceolatus (Fer-de-Lance) | 112 |
| [Fig. 70—] | Lachesis neuwiedii (Urutù) | 116 |
| [Fig. 71—] | Sistrurus catenatus (Prairie Rattle-snake) | 121 |
| [Fig. 72—] | A. Horny appendage (rattle) of a Crotalus horridus | 122 |
| B. Horny appendage, longitudinal section | 122 | |
| C. Separated segments of the appendage | 122 | |
| [Fig. 73—] | Crotalus terrificus (Dog-faced Rattle-snake) | 123 |
| [Fig. 74—] | Crotalus scutulatus (Texas Rattle-snake) | 126 |
| [Fig. 75—] | Crotalus confluentus (Pacific Rattle-snake) | 128 |
| [Fig. 76—] | Crotalus cerastes (Horned Rattle-snake) | 130 |
| [Fig. 77—] | Skull of Hydrus platurus | 132 |
| [Fig. 78—] | Hydrus platurus | 133 |
| [Fig. 79—] | Hydrophis coronatus | 134 |
| [Fig. 80—] | Hydrophis elegans | 135 |
| [Fig. 81—] | Skull of Distira | 137 |
| [Fig. 82—] | Enhydrina valakadien (E. bengalensis) | 138 |
| [Fig. 83—] | Skull of Platurus colubrinus | 139 |
| [Fig. 84—] | Platurus laticaudatus (P. fischeri) | 140 |
| [Fig. 85—] | Collecting venom from a Lachesis at the Serotherapeutic Institute of São Paulo (Brazil) | 154 |
| [Fig. 86—] | Chloroforming a Cobra in order to collect venom at Pondicherry (first stage) | 155 |
| [Fig. 87—] | Chloroforming a Cobra in order to collect venom at Pondicherry (second stage) | 157 |
| [Fig. 88—] | Collecting Cobra-venom at Pondicherry (third stage) | 158 |
| [Fig. 89—] | Mongoose seized by a Cobra | 225 |
| [Fig. 90—] | Indian Snake-charmer at Colombo (Ceylon) | 230 |
| [Fig. 91—] | Indian Snake-charmer at Colombo (Ceylon) | 231 |
| [Fig. 92—] | Musical instrument used by Indian snake-charmers to charm Cobras | 232 |
| [Fig. 93—] | Vaccinating a horse against venom at the Pasteur Institute, Lille | 244 |
| [Fig. 94—] | Aseptically bleeding a horse, vaccinated against venom, in order to obtain antivenomous serum, at the Pasteur Institute, Lille | 245 |
| [Fig. 95—] | Technique of injecting antivenomous serum beneath the skin of the abdomen | 264 |
| [Fig. 96—] | Lactrodectus mactans | 275 |
| [Fig. 97—] | Scorpio occitanus | 277 |
| [Fig. 98—] | Scolopendra morsitans | 280 |
| [Fig. 99—] | Poison-apparatus of the bee | 281 |
| [Fig. 100—] | Interior of the gorget of the Bee | 282 |
| [Fig. 101—] | Synanceia brachio var. Verrucosa | 291 |
| [Fig. 102—] | Cottus scorpius (Sea Scorpion, or Father Lasher) | 292 |
| [Fig. 103—] | Scorpæna grandicornis | 293 |
| [Fig. 104—] | Scorpæna diabolus | 294 |
| [Fig. 105—] | Pterois artemata | 295 |
| [Fig. 106—] | Pelor filamentosum | 296 |
| [Fig. 107—] | Trachinus vipera (Lesser Weever) | 297 |
| [Fig. 108—] | Operculum and opercular spine of the Lesser Weever | 298 |
| [Fig. 109—] | Callionymus lyra (Dragonet) | 300 |
| [Fig. 110—] | Batrachus grunniens | 302 |
| [Fig. 111—] | Thalassophryne reticulata | 302 |
| [Fig. 112—] | Lophius setigerus | 303 |
| [Fig. 113—] | Serranus ouatabili | 304 |
| [Fig. 114—] | Holacanthus imperator | 305 |
| [Fig. 115—] | Tetrodon stellatus | 306 |
| [Fig. 116—] | Tetrodon rubripes | 306 |
| [Fig. 117—] | Chilomycterus orbicularis | 307 |
| [Fig. 118—] | Chilomycterus tigrinus | 307 |
| [Fig. 119—] | Silurus glanis | 308 |
| [Fig. 120—] | Muræna moringa | 310 |
| [Fig. 121—] | Salamandra maculosa (Spotted Salamander) | 314 |
| [Fig. 122—] | Triton marmoratus (Marbled Newt) | 314 |
| [Fig. 123—] | Cryptobranchus japonicus (Great Japanese Salamander) | 315 |
| [Fig. 124—] | Heloderma horridum | 322 |
| [Fig. 125—] | Ornithorhynchus paradoxus (Duck-billed Platypus) | 324 |
VENOMS.
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL NOTES ON POISONOUS ANIMALS—POISONOUS SNAKES: GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND ANATOMO-PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS.
I.—General Notes on Poisonous Animals.
A large number of animals possess special glandular organs capable of secreting toxic substances called venoms.
Sometimes these substances are simply discharged into the surrounding medium, and serve to keep off enemies (toad, salamander); sometimes they mingle with the fluids and digestive juices, and then play an important part in the nourishment of the animal that produces them (snakes); in other cases, again, they are capable of being inoculated by means of stings or teeth specially adapted for this purpose, and then they serve at once as a means of attack or defence, and as a digestive ferment (snakes, spiders, scorpions, bees).
An animal is said to be venomous when it possesses the power of inoculating its venom.
Venomous species are met with in almost all the lower zoological groups, in the Protozoa, Cœlenterates, Arthropods, Molluscs, and in a large number of Vertebrates (fishes, amphibians, and reptiles).
The reptiles are best endowed in this respect, and it is in this class of creatures that we meet with the species most dangerous to man and to mammals in general. The study of their venom, too, is of considerable interest, since it should lead to the quest of means of protection sufficiently efficacious to preserve us from their attacks.