The occasion and cause of the Second Crusade was the fall of Edessa in 1145 into Mohammedan hands. Jerusalem was next threatened by the Moslems and was in grave danger of meeting a similar fate. The western Christians, inspired by thrilling accounts of the survivors of the First Crusade, and actuated by the usual variety of motives, were eager to imitate the earlier heroes. Great enthusiasm was aroused through the preaching of St. Bernard[496:2] (b. 1091-d. 1153), the son of a Burgundian knight slain in the First Crusade, and a fanatic in ascetic severities, who, when Edessa fell, had been commissioned by the Pope to preach a Crusade. His fiery addresses, kindling a crusading mania in France and Germany, were supplemented by a letter from Pope Eugenius III. to western Christendom.[496:3] The leaders of the Second Crusade were Louis VII. of France and Conrad III. of Germany, who rallied their forces at Mainz and Ratisbon. Conrad III. took
the old route through Hungary and crossed to Asia without entering Constantinople, because he suspected the duplicity of the Eastern Emperor. After him came the French over the same ground. Nothing was accomplished, however, and after a miserable failure the monarchs with their few survivors returned home.
The occasion for the Third Crusade was the capture of Jerusalem in 1187 by Saladin, the bravest and most honoured of all the Saracen rulers. Once more Europe was aroused to a pitch of pious frenzy.[497:1] The leadership of the enterprise was assumed by Richard I. of England, Philip Augustus of France, and Frederick Barbarossa of Germany. In England Richard I. prepared for the undertaking by selling tithes, royal dignities, and lands; by robbing the Jews; by taxing all classes[497:2]; and by even threatening to sell the city of London. Equal zeal was shown in France and Germany. Richard and Philip with one hundred thousand men took the sea route from Marseilles and Genoa, while Frederick took the usual overland route. Frederick Barbarossa met his death in this pious undertaking and this led to the failure of the German effort. The estrangement of Richard and Philip resulted, after the fall of Acre, July 12, 1191, in the return of Philip to France. Richard alone remained and succeeded in 1192 in concluding a truce with Saladin by which Christian pilgrims were permitted to visit the holy places with safety and comfort.[497:3]
The Fourth Crusade was due largely to the personal
influence of Innocent III.[498:1] Additional causes were the abortive effort of Emperor Henry VI. (1196-1197) and the preaching of the priest Fulk, of Neuilly. The leaders of the movement at the outset were French nobles, who lacked money with which to finance the enterprise and therefore made a contract with the Venetians who agreed to supply ships and food for a stipulated sum.[498:2] But when the Crusaders reached Venice, being unable to raise the amount agreed upon, the Venetians proposed that in lieu of the payment the Crusaders assist in reducing to submission the rebellious city of Zara. That was accomplished in November, 1202, in the face of papal opposition, and then the expedition moved on to the capture and sack of Constantinople in April, 1204. The Latin Empire of Constantinople was then created and a Venetian elected as patriarch, but the Holy Land was not even reached. Of all the Crusades this appears to have been the most mercenary and the least fruitful of results.[498:3]
Of the minor Crusades the fifth was inspired by the zeal of Pope Innocent III.; the sixth was due to the ambition of Emperor Frederick II.; the seventh was occasioned by the fall of Jerusalem and the pious enthusiasm of Louis IX.[498:4]; and the eighth resulted from the vow of Louis IX. and a dream of Prince Edward. The leaders of these later Crusades were all kings. The
fifth and seventh resulted in defeat and failure in Egypt; the sixth captured Jerusalem and a few other cities; the eighth recovered Nazareth and secured a treaty favourable to Christians. The end of the Crusade period practically came when in 1291 Acre, the last city held by the Christians, was captured by the Mohammedans. The later Popes of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries repeatedly called upon Christendom to arm against the Moslems. Several of the kings of France even took the cross and proclaimed Crusades, but it was done usually only to squeeze a tax out of the people. The Crusades had failed after millions in life and money had been lost. The people at length lost faith in the movement. Crusades in Europe, not so dangerous as those against the Holy Land, were declared to be as efficacious as those of a more hazardous character. The rise of national states kept kings and subjects occupied at home. International relations made it dangerous for countries to send huge armies abroad. There had come about a gradual decline of fanatical crusading zeal—"The flame of fanaticism had slowly burned out." The religious needs were now satisfied by the relics, Gethsemanes, Via Dolorosas, and Calvaries found in Europe. The sale of indulgences made it unnecessary to go to Jerusalem to win religious peace for sinful souls. The marvellous development of Europe in every direction caused her to forget all about the Holy War and left no surplus energy for such far-away undertakings. The warrior became the trader.
The failure of the Crusade movement was due to many influences. There was an utter lack of organisation and the various movements seemed lawless and mob-like, due perhaps to the feudalistic basis.
The able leaders were too few and the frequent petty quarrels among those in command demoralised the forces. The common good was sacrificed in too many cases to personal, political, and commercial greed. The struggle between the German Emperor and the Pope prevented concerted action on the part of Europe. The treachery and inactivity of the Eastern Emperor had much to do with the final outcome. The difficulty of colonising so large an area and of absorbing the Mohammedan population, or of even controlling it, was an important factor in the result. Then, too, the strength and activity of the Mohammedan forces, an element usually overlooked, played no small part. As time passed the gradual indifference and the loss of interest in the enterprise account for the unfortunate ending.
The Crusades are not so important because of the character of the movement, but because of the significance of their results and influences.[500:1] Perhaps the most important results were along religious lines. Temporarily the Latin Church was extended to the Holy Land and Constantinople, while the Pope was made the head of united Christendom, although ultimately the breach between the Greek and Latin churches was widened and never again effectually healed. The Crusade movement enabled Innocent III. to largely attain the ideal of Hildebrand as absolute master of Christendom. The longest, bloodiest, and most destructive religious war in all history was originated by the head of the Church. Through the power thus gained the Pope was able to make himself the dictator of Emperors, kings, and nobles. As never before he regulated the life of all Europe for two centuries and