created a religious enthusiasm which sanctioned all his acts and pretensions. The wealth of the Church was multiplied through the foreclosing of countless mortgages; through large gifts from the living and the dying; and through conquests of lands and cities. Many innovations were introduced into the Church. The legatine power of the Pope was developed; bishops in partibus in fidelium were appointed in the East and after the failure of the Crusades fled to Rome where they were made vicar-generals; the sale of indulgences became a regular traffic; heretics in Europe were dealt with by crusades and the Inquisition; and the Mohammedan idea of salvation was introduced. The Crusades brutalised the Church and developed the spirit of intolerance, bigotry, and persecution. For two hundred years the deeds of the Crusaders were sanctioned by the Pope as pleasing to God. The persecution of Jews in Europe was somewhat common and apparently approved of by the Church.[501:1] Certain it is that the Pope ordered crusades in Europe against heretics, like the Albigenses, and instituted the Inquisition to suppress them; against pagans in the north-east; and against one refractory prince by another.
Superstition and credulity were increased and the traffic in relics was something enormous. "The Western world was deluged by corporeal fragments of departed saints." "Every city had a warehouse of the dead." A belief in the miraculous and in the number of miracles was greatly increased. The worship of saints and of images became so wide-spread and general that there was a veritable craze for the shrines of saints and pilgrimages in Europe were greatly multiplied.
Through the Crusades monasticism and chivalry were combined to form new religious orders like the Hospitalers, Templars, and Teutonic Knights. A marked effect was left upon the theology of the Middle Ages. The "Suffering Christ" developed, as is seen in the pictures and crucifixes, because hundreds of thousands had seen where Christ was born and crucified and hence had excited the imagination of western Europe. The Crusades led likewise to a reformation within the Church by producing a general intellectual awakening, by sanctioning many abuses which soon produced a reaction, and by leading to a denunciation of all the corruption of the Church developed through its wealth and power. This reformation was carried on largely by the Franciscans and Dominicans. Mohammedanism was prevented from making further aggressions on Europe for nearly four centuries and many Christians came to regard that faith more sympathetically, if not with some degree of respect, for the Koran was translated into Latin in the middle of the twelfth century.[502:1]
Politically the Crusades settled the question whether Europe or Asia should rule the world. They failed to free the Holy Land, but did free Europe from Islam. They established the western rule in the East at least temporarily, first in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099-1291) and secondly in the Latin Kingdom of Constantinople. They prolonged the life of the Eastern Empire three hundred and fifty years and taught the Greeks to use the Latin methods of warfare. For a time at least they subjected the political powers of Europe to the Papacy under Innocent III., but
a reaction soon followed. They helped the rise of national states on a monarchial basis. Kings were able to emphasise national unity and to increase their power and popularity by leading Crusades in person. Many powerful feudal lords, who divided sovereign power with the king, were killed or returned impoverished and were unable to recover their power. Patriotism was developed and national hatreds accentuated. The abolition of private wars through the "Truce of God" promoted the growth of nationality. By the close of the period Spain, France, and England were well on their way toward the rise of a national state, while even Germany and Italy felt the yearnings of nationality. The Crusades tended to overthrow feudalism by the death of so many feudal lords; by detaining some of the most powerful as rulers in the East; by causing the loss of property through unredeemed mortgages; by the increasing power of kings; by the rise of free cities; by the emancipation of serfs and vassals; by the formation of standing armies; and by the new civilisation which resulted. Since the Crusades were European movements against a common foe, a new meaning was given to international relations. For two hundred years after the close of the holy wars Europe was blessed with international peace. The respect and hatred of each nation for the others were strengthened by the associations and quarrels of kings and peoples. The estrangement between the Eastern Empire and the West became more pronounced. Many important changes were made in the art and practice of war.[503:1] There was a marked revival of the study of law as a result of the creation of law colleges and court lawyers soon became numerous and powerful. The freedom
of the common people was promoted by the overthrow of the feudal system; by the growth of free towns and cities which usually formed an alliance with the crown against the nobles; and by the emancipation from serfdom which resulted from assuming the cross. The kings, as a matter of self-interest, championed the cause of the common people. Louis VII. of France (1131-1180) declared that all men had "A certain natural liberty, only to be forfeited through crime." Bologna in 1256 gave liberty to all within her walls because "None but the free should dwell in a free city." Florence in 1280 followed the example of Bologna. Louis X. in 1315 enfranchised all since "By the law of nature all ought to be free." And Philip VI. (1293-1350) made the same declaration "In the name of equality and natural liberty." A similar wave was felt in England.[504:1] The House of Commons, created in England in 1295, marks the beginning of representative government and in 1302 the third estate was given a voice in France.
Intellectually western Europe was far behind the Greeks and Arabs in education, culture, literature, science, and art, hence intercourse for two hundred years with these peoples made a marked difference in European civilisation. The minds of the Crusaders were liberalised by seeing different peoples, lands, customs, and civilisations often superior to their own. The fanatical hate and bigotry of the early Crusades were modified by coming to know the Mohammedan religion and the eastern ideas.[504:2]
The knowledge of the West was increased in
geography and led indirectly to travels eastward by Marco Polo and westward by Columbus, Magellan, De Gama, and others; in sociology, trade, agriculture, and manufacturing; in political science; in mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, zoölogy, medicine and drugs; in literature by bringing back traditions about great events like the fall of Troy, tales of heroes like Solomon and Alexander the Great, reports about crusading deeds of valour, an infinite number and variety of miracles, saintly tales, and pious acts, and Greek books like Aristotle and Arabic poetry translated into Latin; in art and architecture by carrying Eastern styles and types to western Europe. The Crusaders preserved the monuments of Greek learning from destruction at the hands of the Turks until western Europe was advanced enough to receive and appreciate them, though, as a rule, the Crusaders disdained the language and literature of both Arabs and Greeks. The Latin language was again diffused over Greece and Palestine. Indirectly the Crusades produced the Renaissance.
The social results, while not so immediate and pronounced, were nevertheless very important. The destruction of feudalism tended to break down social barriers and draw social extremes more closely together; to abolish many social abuses; and to improve the social condition of the masses. The rise of free cities tended to associate social equality with municipal liberty. Through the Crusades serfs were emancipated by assuming the cross; by being made day labourers in the absence of free men; and by passing into the hands of free cities, the Church, or the king. At the same time social distinctions and barriers were weakened by making all Crusaders members of a common army under the Pope and by the common enthusiasm, experiences,