Lowth informs us, that, when hypothesis, conditionality, or contingency is implied, the mood should be subjunctive; if certainty, or something determinate and absolute be signified, the verb should be indicative. Now surely, if the sense require a form different from the indicative, the verb cannot be said to be under the government of the conjunction; for the verb assumes that form, not because preceded by the conjunctive term, or because it is under its government, but because the sentiment to be expressed requires that phraseology. Whether the conditional, or what Lowth terms the subjunctive, be a distinct form of the verb, or only an elliptical mode of expression, we have already inquired. See [p. 126].
Note 2.—Mr. Harris says, that the chief difference between prepositions and conjunctions is, that the former couple words, and the latter sentences. This opinion is erroneous; for conjunctions frequently couple words, as in the following example: “A man of wisdom and virtue is a perfect character.” Here it is not implied, that “a man of wisdom is a perfect character;” but “a man of wisdom combined with virtue, or a man of wisdom and virtue.” That conjunctions, indeed, do not couple at all, in that sense, at least, in which grammarians have understood the term, Mr. Tooke seems to have incontestably proved. That they sometimes couple sentences, or that instances may be produced, in which Harris’s definition will appear correct, the following example will serve as an evidence: “You, and I, and John rode to town;” i.e. “you rode,” “and I rode,” “and John rode.” But to assert, that this is their distinctive property, is to affirm what may be disproved by numberless examples. If we say, “two and two are four.” Are two four, and two four? “A B, B C, and C A, form a triangle.” Is A B a triangle? or B C? or C A? “John and Mary are a handsome couple.” Is John a couple? and Mary a couple? The common theory, therefore, is false; nor is it to be doubted, that conjunctions are, in respect to signification, and were originally in regard to their regimen, verbs, or words compounded of nouns and attributives. In explaining them, however, I divided them, as the reader may remember, into the several classes of adversative, concessive, conditional, &c. This I did, not only in conformity to general usage, and that he might not be a stranger to the names assigned to them; but likewise for this reason, that, though they originally formed no distinct species of words, but were either verbs, or compounds of nouns and verbs, they have now assumed another character, and are construed in a different manner. It is necessary, however, that he should be acquainted not only with their present use, but also with their primitive import, and classification.
How these words were degraded from their original rank, and deemed insignificant, while some, perhaps, lost their syntactical power, is a matter, I conceive, of no difficult inquiry. For, when the verbs, to which any of these words belonged, became obsolete, the words themselves, thus separated from their parent stock, and stripped of that consequence and authority which they thence derived, their extraction becoming daily more dubious, and their original value more obscure, sunk by degrees into inferior note, and at last dwindled into comparative insignificance. Besides, many of them, doubtless, were transplanted into our language without the radices; their etymology, therefore, being little known, their primitive character, and real import, would soon be involved in increasing darkness.
It is to be considered, also, that those who have dispensed the laws of grammar in our language, or assumed the office of critics, have been generally such as, though perhaps sufficiently conversant in Greek and Latin, were entirely unacquainted with the Northern languages. Accustomed, therefore, to render the conjunctions and prepositions in Greek or Latin, by synonymous English words, and unacquainted with the true character of these vernacular terms, their etymons being obsolete, or having never been used in our language, it is easy to conceive how they would naturally assign to the English words the same character and the same name which were affixed to the synonymous Latin terms. Nay, this has been so much the case, that we have ascribed an ambiguous character to several English words, referring them now to one class, then to another, merely because they agree in signification with certain Greek and Latin terms, which have been severally referred by classical grammarians to different orders. That the word whether has uniformly, in our language, the same import and the same character, denoting “which of the two,” there can be no doubt; yet, because this word answers sometimes to an, anne, num, and sometimes to uter, grammarians and lexicographers have accounted it both a conjunction and a pronoun. Utrum in Latin has shared the same fate. So far, indeed, has this spirit been carried, that we will not admit except, according, concerning, respecting, with many similar terms, to be verbs or participles, because præter, secundum, de, are prepositions. It is from this propensity to assimilate ours with the Latin language, that all these errors have arisen.
That the words now termed prepositions and conjunctions were originally verbs, or nouns, or compounds of these, Tooke has, in my judgment, incontrovertibly proved. This being admitted, it appears to me highly probable, that they were primitively construed as such, joined either with the nominative or the objective case, as the verbs had either a transitive or intransitive meaning; and that they were followed by either single words or clauses. This, however, is merely conjecture, founded indeed in the nature of the words, but not supported by any evidence. In process of time, in consequence of that assimilation which naturally takes place between a living language and a dead one, much read, much written, and much admired, these words, when their origin became obscure, would, as I have remarked, be divested of their primitive character, and be considered as belonging to those classes, to which the synonymous Latin words were referred. Hence their regimen would likewise undergo a change. It would appear awkward and vicious to say now, “I saw nobody but he;” is not improbable, however, that the mode of expression was originally, “I saw nobody, be out he,” i.e. “he be out.” But I am now indulging in conjecture, the very error which chiefly has misled us in our grammatical researches. One thing, however, is certain, that several words, which were originally employed as prepositions or conjunctions indifferently, have now acquired a more fixed character, and are used but seldom in a double capacity. Of this the word without is an example. Thus, it was not unusual to say, “without you go, I will not,” where the term of exclusion, though in truth a preposition prefixed to a clause, was considered as a conjunction synonymous with nisi. This usage, unless in conversation, is now almost entirely relinquished; and the term without is now generally employed as a preposition, being prefixed to single words. It is likewise certain that in respect to signification there is no difference between conjunctions and prepositions: vidi neminem nisi eum, is equivalent to vidi neminem præter eum. In like manner, “I saw nobody but him,” is synonymous with “I saw nobody besides him;” in which examples the conjunctions nisi and but are perfectly synonymous with præter and besides, which are termed prepositions.
It may be asked, if then prepositions and conjunctions be alike verbs, or nouns, or compounds of these, and if many prepositions and conjunctions be in point of meaning identical, what forms the ground of distinction between them? It is simply this, that the former are prefixed to single words only, as nouns and pronouns, or to clauses involving an infinitive mood[133], the infinitive being strictly the name of the verb; and that they have a regimen; while the latter are prefixed to clauses, and have no regimen. This is the only distinction between prepositions and conjunctions as discriminated in modern use. Their original character is sufficiently established by Mr. Tooke.
I have said that some of these words have, in our language, an ambiguous character, being employed both as prepositions and conjunctions. Of this the word than is an example. Priestley seems to consider it as a preposition, and pleads in favour of the following expression, “you are taller than him,” not “taller than he.” “Since it is allowed,” says the Doctor, “that the oblique case should follow prepositions, and since the comparative degree of an adjective, and the particle than, have certainly between them the force of a preposition, expressing the relation of one word to another, they ought to require the oblique case of the pronoun following, so that, greater than me will be more grammatical than greater than I.” Here I cannot concur with the learned author. The same argument would prove that major quam me, would be more grammatical than major quam ego; a conclusion which is opposed by universal authority. The truth is, than must be either a conjunction or a preposition, or both. If a conjunction, it can have no government, any more than the Latin quam; unless we confound the distinction which has been just now explained, and is universally admitted, namely, that conjunctions are distinguished from prepositions, by their having no government. If it be a preposition, no argument is necessary to prove that it may be joined with an objective case; for such is the distinguishing character of prepositions. If it be either a preposition or a conjunction, it follows, that it may be construed either with or without a regimen. Lowth, with greater propriety, considers it as a conjunction; and Campbell, in his “Rhetoric,” recommends this usage as the only means of preventing that ambiguity, which necessarily arises from the employment of this word as a preposition only. For, if we use it as a preposition, we should say, “I love you better than him,” whether it be meant “I love you better than I love him,” or “I love you better than he does.” By using it as a conjunction, the ambiguity is prevented. For, if the former sentiment be implied, we say, “I love you better than him,” i.e. “than I love him;” if the latter, we say, “I love you better than he,” i.e. “than he loves you.” Whatever may have been the original character or syntax of this word, since usage is now divided, some writers employing it as a conjunction, and others as a preposition, the grammarian may, consistently with his duty, plead for that usage only, which prevents ambiguity.
The rule here recommended is generally violated, when than is joined with the relative pronoun, as, “Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned.” “Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none higher sat.” Salmon has attempted to account for this almost universal phraseology, by saying, that the expression is elliptical, being the same as, “than compared with whom.” This explanation is forced and unnatural. It is likewise unnecessary. The simple fact is, that the word than was formerly used as a preposition, and, I believe, more frequently than it is now. Hence, doubtless, arose this phraseology.
Rule XXII.—Derivatives are generally construed like their primitives; as, “it was a happy thing for this country, that the Pretender was defeated;” or “happily for this country the Pretender was defeated.” Thus also, “to compare with,” and “in comparison with riches;”—“to depend on,” and his “dependence on the court.”