Any other changes which led to the intermingling of species whose ranges were usually separate would produce corresponding results. Thus, increased severity of winter or summer temperature, causing southward migrations and the crowding together of the productions of distinct regions, must inevitably produce a struggle for existence, which would lead to many changes both in the characters and
the distribution of animals. Slow elevations of the land would produce another set of changes, by affording an extended area in which the more dominant species might increase their numbers; and by a greater range and variety of alpine climates and mountain stations, affording room for the development of new forms of life.
Geographical Mutations as a Motive Power in Bringing about Organic Changes.—Now, if we consider the various geographical changes which, as we have seen, there is good reason to believe have ever been going on in the world, we shall find that the motive power to initiate and urge on organic changes has never been wanting. In the first place, every continent, though permanent in a general sense, has been ever subject to innumerable physical and geographical modifications. At one time the total area has increased, and at another has diminished; great plateaus have gradually risen up, and have been eaten out by denudation into mountain and valley; volcanoes have burst forth, and, after accumulating vast masses of eruptive matter, have sunk down beneath the ocean, to be covered up with sedimentary rocks, and at a subsequent period again raised above the surface; and the loci of all these grand revolutions of the earth's surface have changed their position age after age, so that each portion of every continent has again and again been sunk under the ocean waves, formed the bed of some inland sea, or risen high into plateaus and mountain ranges. How great must have been the effects of such changes on every form of organic life! And it is to such as these we may perhaps trace those great changes of the animal world which have seemed to revolutionise it, and have led us to class one geological period as the age of reptiles, another as the age of fishes, and a third as the age of mammals.
But such changes as these must necessarily have led to repeated unions and separations of the land masses of the globe, joining together continents which were before divided, and breaking up others into great islands or extensive archipelagoes. Such alterations of the means of transit would probably affect the organic world even more profoundly than the changes of area, of altitude, or
of climate, since they afforded the means, at long intervals, of bringing the most diverse forms into competition, and of spreading all the great animal and vegetable types widely over the globe. But the isolation of considerable masses of land for long periods also afforded the means of preservation to many of the lower types, which thus had time to become modified into a variety of distinct forms, some of which became so well adapted to special modes of life that they have continued to exist to the present day, thus affording us examples of the life of early ages which would probably long since have become extinct had they been always subject to the competition of the more highly organised animals. As examples of such excessively archaic forms, we may mention the mud-fishes and the ganoids, confined to limited fresh-water areas; the frogs and toads, which still maintain themselves vigorously in competition with higher forms; and among mammals the Ornithorhynchus and Echidna of Australia; the whole order of Marsupials—which, out of Australia, where they are quite free from competition, only exist abundantly in South America, which was certainly long isolated from the northern continents; the Insectivora, which, though widely scattered, are generally nocturnal or subterranean in their habits; and the Lemurs, which are most abundant in Madagascar, where they have long been isolated, and almost removed from the competition of higher forms.
Climatal Revolutions as an Agent in Producing Organic Changes.—The geographical and geological changes we have been considering are probably those which have been most effective in bringing about the great features of the distribution of animals, as well as the larger movements in the development of organised beings; but it is to the alternations of warm and cold, or of uniform and excessive climates—of almost perpetual spring in arctic as well as in temperate lands, with occasional phases of cold culminating at remote intervals in glacial epochs,—that we must impute some of the more remarkable changes both in the specific characters and in the distribution of organisms.[[99]]
Although the geological evidence is opposed to the belief in early glacial epochs except at very remote and distant intervals, there is nothing which contradicts the occurrence of repeated changes of climate, which, though too small in amount to produce any well-marked physical or organic change, would yet be amply sufficient to keep the organic world in a constant state of movement, and which, by subjecting the whole flora and fauna of a country at comparatively short intervals to decided changes of physical conditions, would supply that stimulus and motive power which, as we have seen, is all that is necessary to keep the processes of "natural selection" in constant operation.
The frequent recurrence of periods of high and of low excentricity must certainly have produced changes of climate of considerable importance to the life of animals and plants. During periods of high excentricity with summer in perihelion, that season would be certainly very much hotter, while the winters would be longer and colder than at present; and although geographical conditions might prevent any permanent increase of snow and ice even in the extreme north, yet we cannot doubt that the whole northern hemisphere would then have a very different climate than when the changing phase of precession brought a very cool summer and a very mild winter—a perpetual spring, in fact. Now, such a change of climate would certainly be calculated to bring about a considerable change of species, both by modification and migration, without any such decided change of type either in the vegetation or the animals that we could say from their fossil remains that any change of climate had taken place. Let us suppose, for instance, that the climate of England and that of Canada were to be mutually exchanged, and that the change took five or six thousand years to bring about, it cannot be doubted that considerable modifications in the fauna and flora of both countries would be the result, although it is impossible to predict
what the precise changes would be. We can safely say, however, that some species would stand the change better than others, while it is highly probable that some would be actually benefited by it, and that others would be injured. But the benefited would certainly increase, and the injured decrease, in consequence, and thus a series of changes would be initiated that might lead to most important results. Again, we are sure that some species would become modified in adaptation to the change of climate more readily than others, and these modified species would therefore increase at the expense of others not so readily modified; and hence would arise on the one hand extinction of species, and on the other the production of new forms.
But this is the very least amount of change of climate that would certainly occur every 10,500 years when there was a high excentricity, for it is impossible to doubt that a varying distance of the sun in summer from 86 to 99 millions of miles (which is what occurred during—as supposed—the Miocene period, 850,000 years ago) would produce an important difference in the summer temperature and in the actinic influence of sunshine on vegetation. For the intensity of the sun's rays would vary as the square of the distance, or nearly as 74 to 98, so that the earth would be actually receiving one-fourth less sun-heat during summer at one time than at the other. An equally high excentricity occurred 2,500,000 years back, and no doubt was often reached during still earlier epochs, while a lower but still very high excentricity has frequently prevailed, and is probably near its average value. Changes of climate, therefore, every 10,500 years, of the character above indicated and of varying intensity, have been the rule rather than the exception in past time; and these changes must have been variously modified by changing geographical conditions so as to produce climatic alterations in different directions, giving to the ancient lands either dry or wet seasons, storms or calms, equable or excessive temperatures, in a variety of combinations of which the earth perhaps affords no example under the present low phase of