Arnold[1138] carried to its furthest limit the method of arranging lichens ecologically, in his account of those plants from the neighbourhood of Munich. He gives “formation” lists, not only for particular substrata and in special situations, but he recapitulates the species that he found on the several different trees. It is not possible to reproduce such a detailed survey, which indeed only emphasizes the fact that the physical characters of the bark are the most important factors in lichen ecology: that on smooth bark, whether of young trees, or on bark that never becomes really rugged, there is a preponderance of species with a semi-immersed thallus, and very generally of those that are associated with Trentepohlia gonidia, such as Graphidaceae or Pyrenulaceae, though certain species of Lecidea, Lecanora and others also prefer the smooth substratum.

Bruce Fink[1139] has published a series of important papers on lichen communities in America, some of them similar to what we should find in the British Isles.

On trees with smooth bark he records in the Minnesota district:

On rough bark he records:

Finally, as generally representative of the commonest lichens in our woods of deciduous trees, including both smooth- and rough-barked, the community of oak-hazel woods as observed by Watson[1140] in Somerset may be quoted:

And on the soil of these woods: