CONTENTS
| PAGE | |
| Glossary | [xix] |
| Errata | [xxii] |
| Introduction | [xxiii] |
| [CHAPTER I] HISTORY OF LICHENOLOGY | |
| A. Introductory | [1] |
| B. Period I. Previous to 1694 | [2] |
| C. Period II. 1694-1729 | [5] |
| D. Period III. 1729-1780 | [6] |
| E. Period IV. 1780-1803 | [9] |
| F. Period V. 1803-1846 | [10] |
| G. Period VI. 1846-1867 | [15] |
| H. Period VII. 1867 and after | [18] |
| [CHAPTER II] CONSTITUENTS OF THE LICHEN THALLUS | |
| I. LICHEN GONIDIA | |
| 1. GONIDIA IN RELATION TO THE THALLUS | |
| A. Historical account of Lichen Gonidia | [21] |
| B. Gonidia contrasted with Algae | [22] |
| C. Culture Experiments with the Lichen Thallus | [24] |
| D. Theories as to the Origin of Gonidia | [25] |
| E. Microgonidia | [26] |
| F. Composite Nature of Thallus | [27] |
| G. Synthetic Cultures | [27] |
| H. Hymenial Gonidia | [30] |
| I. Nature of Association between Alga and Fungus | [31] |
| a. Consortium and symbiosis | |
| b. Different forms of association | |
| J. Recent views on Symbiosis and Parasitism | [36] |
| 2. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SYMBIONTS | |
| A. Nutrition of Lichen Algae | [39] |
| a. Character of algal cells | |
| b. Supply of nitrogen | |
| c. Effect on the alga | |
| d. Supply of carbon | |
| e. Nutrition within the symbiotic plant | |
| f. Affinities of lichen gonidia | |
| B. Nutrition of Lichen Fungi | [44] |
| C. Symbiosis of other Plants | [45] |
| II. LICHEN HYPHAE | |
| A. Origin of Hyphae | [46] |
| B. Development of Lichenoid Hyphae | [47] |
| C. Culture of Hyphae Without Gonidia | [49] |
| D. Continuity of Protoplasm in Hyphal Cells | [51] |
| III. LICHEN ALGAE | |
| A. Types of Algae | [51] |
| a. Myxophyceae associated with Phycolichens | |
| b. Chlorophyceae associated with Archilichens | |
| B. Changes induced in the Alga | [60] |
| a. Myxophyceae | |
| b. Chlorophyceae | |
| C. Constancy of Algal Constituents | [63] |
| D. Displacement of Algae Within the Thallus | [64] |
| a. Normal displacement | |
| b. Local displacement | |
| E. Non-gonidial Organisms associated with Lichen Hyphae | [65] |
| F. Parasitism of Algae on Lichens | [65] |
| [CHAPTER III] MORPHOLOGY | |
| I. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF LICHEN STRUCTURE | |
| ORIGIN OF LICHEN STRUCTURES | |
| A. Forms of Cell-Structure | [67] |
| B. Types of Thallus | [68] |
| a. Endogenous thallus | |
| b. Exogenous thallus | |
| II. STRATOSE THALLUS | |
| 1. CRUSTACEOUS LICHENS | |
| A. General Structure | [70] |
| B. Saxicolous Lichens | [70] |
| a. Epilithic lichens | |
| aa. Hypothallus or protothallus | |
| bb. Formation of crustaceous tissues | |
| cc. Formation of areolae | |
| b. Endolithic lichens | |
| c. Chemical nature of the substratum | |
| C. Corticolous Lichens | [77] |
| a. Epiphloeodal lichens | |
| b. Hypophloeodal lichens | |
| 2. SQUAMULOSE LICHENS | |
| A. Development of the Squamule | [79] |
| B. Tissues of Squamulose Thallus | [81] |
| 3. FOLIOSE LICHENS | |
| A. Development of foliose Thallus | [82] |
| B. Cortical Tissues | [82] |
| a. Types of cortical structure | |
| b. Origin of variation in cortical structure | |
| c. Loss and renewal of cortex | |
| d. Cortical hairs | |
| C. Gonidial Tissues | [87] |
| D. Medulla and Lower Cortex | [88] |
| a. Medulla | |
| b. Lower cortex | |
| c. Hypothallic structures | |
| E. Structures for Protection and Attachment | [91] |
| a. Cilia | |
| b. Rhizinae | |
| c. Haptera | |
| F. Strengthening Tissues of Stratose Lichens | [95] |
| a. Produced by development of cortex | |
| b. Produced by development of veins or nerves | |
| III. RADIATE THALLUS | |
| 1. CHARACTERS OF RADIATE THALLUS | |
| 2. INTERMEDIATE TYPES OF THALLUS | |
| 3. FRUTICOSE AND FILAMENTOUS THALLUS | |
| A. General Structure of Thallus | [101] |
| Cortical Structures | |
| a. The fastigiate cortex | |
| b. The fibrous cortex | |
| B. Special strengthening Structures | [103] |
| a. Sclerotic strands | |
| b. Chondroid axis | |
| C. Survey of Mechanical Tissues | [105] |
| D. Reticulate Fronds | [106] |
| E. Rooting Base in Fruticose Lichens | [108] |
| IV. STRATOSE-RADIATE THALLUS | |
| 1. STRATOSE OR PRIMARY THALLUS | |
| A. General Characteristics | [111] |
| B. Tissues of Primary Thallus | [112] |
| a. Cortical tissue | |
| b. Gonidial tissue | |
| c. Medullary tissue | |
| d. Soredia | |
| 2. RADIATE OR SECONDARY THALLUS | |
| A. Origin of the Podetium | [114] |
| B. Structure of the Podetium | [114] |
| a. General structure | |
| b. Gonidial tissue | |
| c. Cortical tissue | |
| d. Soredia | |
| C. Development of the Scyphus | [117] |
| a. From abortive apothecia | |
| b. From polytomous branching | |
| c. From arrested growth | |
| d. Gonidia of the scyphus | |
| e. Species without scyphi | |
| D. Branching of the Podetium | [119] |
| E. Perforations and Reticulation of the Podetium | [120] |
| F. Rooting Structures of Cladoniae | [121] |
| G. Haptera | [122] |
| H. Morphology of the Podetium | [122] |
| I. Pilophorus and Stereocaulon | [125] |
| V. STRUCTURES PECULIAR TO LICHENS | |
| 1. AERATION STRUCTURES | |
| A. Cyphellae and Pseudocyphellae | [126] |
| a. Historical | |
| b. Development of cyphellae | |
| c. Pseudocyphellae | |
| d. Occurrence and distribution | |
| B. Breathing-Pores | [129] |
| a. Definite breathing-pores | |
| b. Other openings in the thallus | |
| C. General Aeration of the Thallus | [132] |
| 2. CEPHALODIA | |
| A. Historical and Descriptive | [133] |
| B. Classification | [135] |
| I. CEPHALODIA VERA | |
| II. PSEUDOCEPHALODIA | |
| C. Algae that form Cephalodia | [136] |
| D. Development of Cephalodia | [137] |
| a. Ectotrophic | |
| b. Endotrophic | |
| c. Pseudocephalodia | |
| E. Autosymbiotic Cephalodia | [140] |
| 3. SOREDIA | |
| A. Structure and Origin of Soredia | [141] |
| a. Scattered soredia | |
| b. Isidial soredia | |
| c. Soredia as buds | |
| B. Soralia | [144] |
| a. Form and occurrence of soralia | |
| b. Position of soraliferous lobes | |
| c. Deep-seated soralia | |
| C. Dispersal and Germination of Soredia | [147] |
| D. Evolution of Soredia | [148] |
| 4. ISIDIA | |
| A. Form and Structure of Isidia | [149] |
| B. Origin and Function of Isidia | [151] |
| VI. HYMENOLICHENS | |
| A. Affinity with other Plants | [152] |
| B. Structure of Thallus | [153] |
| C. Sporiferous Tissues | [154] |
| [CHAPTER IV] REPRODUCTION | |
| I. REPRODUCTION BY ASCOSPORES | |
| A. Historical Survey | [155] |
| B. Forms of Reproductive Organs | [156] |
| a. Apothecia | |
| b. Perithecia | |
| C. Development of Reproductive Organs | [159] |
| 1. DISCOLICHENS | |
| a. Carpogonia of gelatinous lichens | |
| b. Carpogonia of non-gelatinous lichens | |
| c. General summary | |
| d. Hypothecium and paraphyses | |
| e. Variations in apothecial development | |
| aa. Parmeliae | |
| bb. Pertusariae | |
| cc. Graphideae | |
| dd. Cladoniae | |
| 2. PYRENOLICHENS | |
| a. Development of the perithecium | |
| b. Formation of carpogonia | |
| D. Apogamous Reproduction | [174] |
| E. Discussion of Lichen Reproduction | [177] |
| a. The Trichogyne | |
| b. The Ascogonium | |
| F. Final Stages of Apothecial Development | [181] |
| a. Open or closed apothecia | |
| b. Emergence of ascocarp | |
| G. Lichen Asci and Spores | [184] |
| a. Historical | |
| b. Development of the ascus | |
| c. Development of the spores | |
| d. Spore germination | |
| e. Multinucleate spores | |
| f. Polaribilocular spores | |
| II. SECONDARY SPORES | |
| A. Reproduction by Oidia | [189] |
| B. Reproduction by Conidia | [190] |
| a. Rare instances of conidial formation | |
| b. Comparison with Hyphomycetes | |
| C. Campylidium and Orthidium | [191] |
| III. SPERMOGONIA OR PYCNIDIA | |
| A. Historical Account of Spermogonia | [192] |
| B. Spermogonia as Male Organs | [193] |
| C. Occurrence and Distribution | [193] |
| a. Relation to thallus and apothecia | |
| b. Form and size | |
| c. Colour | |
| D. Structure | [196] |
| a. Origin and growth | |
| b. Form and types of spermatiophores | |
| c. Periphyses and sterile filaments | |
| E. Spermatia or Pycnidiospores | [201] |
| a. Origin and form | |
| b. Size and structure | |
| c. Germination | |
| d. Variation in pycnidia | |
| F. Pycnidia with Macrospores | [204] |
| G. General Survey | [205] |
| a. Sexual or asexual | |
| b. Comparison with fungi | |
| c. Influence of symbiosis | |
| d. Value in diagnosis | |
| [CHAPTER V] PHYSIOLOGY | |
| I. CELLS AND CELL PRODUCTS | |
| A. Cell-membranes | [209] |
| a. Chitin | |
| b. Lichenin and allied carbohydrates | |
| c. Cellulose | |
| B. Contents and Products of the Fungal Cells | [213] |
| a. Cell-substances | |
| b. Calcium Oxalate | |
| c. Importance of calcium oxalate | |
| C. Oil-cells | [215] |
| a. Oil-cells of endolithic lichens | |
| b. Oil-cells of epilithic lichens | |
| c. Significance of oil-formation | |
| D. Lichen-acids | [221] |
| a. Historical | |
| b. Occurrence and examination of acids | |
| c. Character of acids | |
| d. Causes of variation in quantity and quality | |
| e. Distribution of acids | |
| E. Chemical grouping of acids | [225] |
| I. ACIDS OF THE FAT SERIES | |
| II. ACIDS OF THE BENZOLE SERIES | |
| Subseries I. Orcine derivatives | |
| Subseries II. Anthracene derivatives | |
| F. Chemical Reagents as Tests for Lichens | [228] |
| G. Chemical Reactions in Nature | [229] |
| II. GENERAL NUTRITION | |
| A. Absorption of Water | [229] |
| a. Gelatinous lichens | |
| b. Crustaceous lichens | |
| c. Foliose lichens | |
| d. Fruticose lichens | |
| B. Storage of Water | [232] |
| C. Supply of Inorganic Food | [232] |
| a. In foliose and fruticose lichens | |
| b. In crustaceous lichens | |
| D. Supply of Organic Food | [235] |
| a. From the substratum | |
| b. From other lichens | |
| c. From other vegetation | |
| III. ASSIMILATION AND RESPIRATION | |
| A. Influence of Temperature | [238] |
| a. High temperature | |
| b. Low temperature | |
| B. Influence of Moisture | [239] |
| a. On vital functions | |
| b. On general development | |
| IV. ILLUMINATION OF LICHENS | |
| A. Effect of Light on the Thallus | [240] |
| a. Sun lichens | |
| b. Colour-changes due to light | |
| c. Shade lichens | |
| d. Varying shade conditions | |
| B. Effect of Light on Reproductive Organs | [244] |
| a. Position and orientation of fruits with regard to light | |
| b. Influence of light on colour of fruits | |
| V. COLOUR OF LICHENS | |
| A. Origin of Lichen-Colouring | [245] |
| a. Colour given by the algal constituent | |
| b. Colour due to lichen-acids | |
| c. Colour due to amorphous substances | |
| d. Enumeration of amorphous pigments | |
| e. Colour due to infiltration | |
| [CHAPTER VI] BIONOMICS | |
| A. Growth and Duration of Lichens | [252] |
| B. Season of Fruit Formation | [255] |
| C. Dispersal and Increase | [256] |
| a. Dispersal of crustaceous lichens | |
| b. Dispersal of foliose lichens | |
| c. Dispersal of fruticose lichens | |
| D. Erratic Lichens | [258] |
| E. Parasitism | [260] |
| a. General statement | |
| b. Antagonistic symbiosis | |
| c. Parasymbiosis | |
| d. Parasymbiosis of fungi | |
| e. Fungi parasitic on lichens | |
| f. Mycetozoa parasitic on lichens | |
| F. Diseases of Lichens | [268] |
| a. Caused by parasitism | |
| b. Caused by crowding | |
| c. Caused by adverse conditions | |
| G. Harmful Effect of Lichens | [269] |
| H. Gall-Formation | [270] |
| [CHAPTER VII] PHYLOGENY | |
| I. GENERAL STATEMENT | |
| A. Origin of Lichens | [272] |
| B. Algal Ancestors | [273] |
| C. Fungal Ancestors | [273] |
| a. Basidiolichens | |
| b. Ascolichens | |
| II. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS | |
| A. Theories of Descent in Ascolichens | [273] |
| B. Relation of Lichens to Fungi | [275] |
| a. Pyrenocarpineae | |
| b. Coniocarpineae | |
| c. Graphidineae | |
| d. Cyclocarpineae | |
| III. THE THALLUS | |
| A. General Outline of Development of Thallus | [281] |
| a. Preliminary considerations | |
| b. Course of evolution in Hymenolichens | |
| c. Course of evolution in Ascolichens | |
| B. Comparative Antiquity of Algal Symbionts | [282] |
| C. Evolution of Phycolichens | [283] |
| a. Gloeolichens | |
| b. Ephebaceae and Collemaceae | |
| c. Pyrenidiaceae | |
| d. Heppiaceae and Pannariaceae | |
| e. Peltigeraceae and Stictaceae | |
| D. Evolution of Archilichens | [287] |
| a. Thallus of Pyrenocarpineae | |
| b. Thallus of Coniocarpineae | |
| c. Thallus of Graphidineae | |
| d. Thallus of Cyclocarpineae | |
| AA. LECIDEALES | |
| aa. Coenogoniaceae | |
| bb. Lecideaceae and Gyrophoraceae | |
| cc. Cladoniaceae | |
| 1. Origin of Cladonia | |
| 2. Evolution of the primary thallus | |
| 3. Evolution of the secondary thallus | |
| 4. Course of podetial development | |
| 5. Variation in Cladonia | |
| 6. Causes of variation | |
| 7. Podetial development and spore-dissemination | |
| 8. Pilophorus, Stereocaulon and Argopsis | |
| BB. LECANORALES | |
| aa. Course of Development | |
| bb. Lecanoraceae | |
| cc. Parmeliaceae | |
| dd. Usneaceae | |
| ee. Physciaceae | |
| [CHAPTER VIII] SYSTEMATIC | |
| I. CLASSIFICATION | |
| A. Work of Successive Systematists | [304] |
| a. Dillenius and Linnaeus | |
| b. Acharius | |
| c. Schaerer | |
| d. Massalongo and Koerber | |
| e. Nylander | |
| f. Müller-Argau | |
| g. Reinke | |
| h. Zahlbruckner | |
| B. Families and Genera of Ascolichens | [311] |
| C. Hymenolichens | [342] |
| II. NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION | |
| 1. ESTIMATES OF NUMBER | |
| 2. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION | |
| A. General Survey | [343] |
| B. Lichens of Polar Regions | [345] |
| C. Lichens of the Temperate Zones | [348] |
| D. Lichens of Tropical Regions | [352] |
| III. FOSSIL LICHENS | |
| [CHAPTER IX] ECOLOGY | |
| A. General Introduction | [356] |
| B. External Influences | [357] |
| a. Temperature | |
| b. Humidity | |
| c. Wind | |
| d. Human Agency | |
| C. Lichen Communities | [362] |
| 1. ARBOREAL | [363] |
| a. Epiphyllous | |
| b. Corticolous | |
| c. Lignicolous | |
| 2. TERRICOLOUS | [367] |
| a. On calcareous soil | |
| b. On siliceous soil | |
| c. On bricks | |
| d. On humus | |
| e. On peaty soil | |
| f. On mosses | |
| g. On fungi | |
| 3. SAXICOLOUS | [371] |
| a. Characters of mineral substrata | |
| b. Colonization on rocks | |
| c. Calcicolous | |
| d. Silicicolous | |
| 4. OMNICOLOUS LICHENS | [376] |
| 5. LOCALIZED COMMUNITIES | [378] |
| a. Maritime lichens | |
| b. Sand-dune lichens | |
| c. Mountain lichens | |
| d. Tundra lichens | |
| e. Desert lichens | |
| f. Aquatic lichens | |
| D. Lichens as Pioneers | [392] |
| a. Soil-formers | |
| b. Outposts of vegetation | |
| [CHAPTER X] ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL | |
| A. Lichens as Food | [395] |
| a. Food for insects | |
| b. Insect mimicry of lichens | |
| c. Food for the higher animals | |
| d. Food for man | |
| B. Lichens as Medicine | [405] |
| a. Ancient remedies | |
| b. Doctrine of “signatures” | |
| c. Cure for hydrophobia | |
| d. Popular remedies | |
| C. Lichens as Poisons | [410] |
| D. Lichens used in Tanning, Brewing and Distilling | [411] |
| E. Dyeing Properties of Lichens | [411] |
| a. Lichens as dye-plants | |
| b. The orchil lichen, Roccella | |
| c. Purple dyes: orchil, cudbear and litmus | |
| d. Other orchil lichens | |
| e. Preparation of orchil | |
| f. Brown and yellow dyes | |
| g. Collecting of dye-lichens | |
| h. Lichen colours and spectrum characters | |
| F. Lichens in Perfumery | [418] |
| a. Lichens as perfumes | |
| b. Lichens as hair-powder | |
| G. Some minor Uses of Lichens | [420] |
| Appendix | [421] |
| Addendum | [422] |
| Bibliography | [423] |
| Index | [448] |
GLOSSARY
Acrogenous, borne at the tips of hyphae; [see spermatium], [312].
Allelositismus, Norman’s term to describe the thallus of Moriolaceae (mutualism), [313].