Niebuhr's lectures on Roman history, Vol. 1 (of 3)

by Barthold Georg Niebuhr

Niebuhr twice delivered a course of lectures on Roman History at Bonn,—the first in the winter term of 1826-27, and the second in the winter of 1828-29, and in the following summer. In the latter of these, he went down to the fall of the Western Empire, whereas the course of 1826 was broken off at the times of Sylla, owing to his having entered rather fully into critical disquisitions.

The form in which these Lectures are here given, is that of the later course. Everything, however, that was important or interesting in the earlier series, has been inserted. Dr. Isler moreover assures us, that in his compilation, not a thought, and indeed hardly a word is to be found, which Niebuhr had not really spoken. As Niebuhr lectured quite extemporaneously, the only sources for this work are the notes taken by his hearers, several of which have been collated to ensure correctness.

Although, from the nature of things, the result cannot be looked upon as a finished and elaborate history, yet, no one who reads it can fail to be struck with its great value, even for those who are acquainted with Niebuhr’s other writings; for as Dr. Isler remarks, there are many things set forth in these Lectures more clearly, more precisely, and more at length than in the greater work. Of this, we may find examples in the introduction on the sources of Roman History, and in the account of the Saturnian verse. They also give us the last opinions of Niebuhr. The first volume of his Roman History dates most of it from the year 1826, and the additions in the third edition from 1827; but a mind like his was always active, and he went on with his investigations, even when all the leading points were settled. In several instances, fragments of ancient authors which had newly come to light, have led him to modify his views. This is particularly the case with that part of the Roman History treated in his third volume, which had been originally arranged for the press in 1812, and therefore would, if he had been spared to revise it, have undergone many qualifications.

Royal Military College, Sandhurst.

CONTENTS.

	Page
INTRODUCTION,	[1]
SOURCES OF ROMAN HISTORY,	[2]
Its authenticity,	[2]
The use of letters of great antiquity among the Romans,	[4]
Annales maximi, Annales pontificum,	[5]
Fasti,	[9]
Commentarii pontificum,	[10]
Libri pontificum, augurales,	[10]
Laudationes funebres,	[11]
Poetical traditions,	[12]
Family chronicles,	[15]
Cn. Nævius,	[16]
Q. Fabius Pictor,	[18]
Numerius Fabius Pictor,	[21]
Other historians, bearing the name of Fabius, or Pictor,	[21]
L. Cincius Alimentus,	[22]
C. Acilius, A. Postumius Albinus, Cn. Aufidius,	[23]
Q. Ennius,	[23]
M. Porcius Cato,	[26]
L. Cassius Hemina,	[26]
Servius Fabius Pictor,	[27]
Cn. Gellius. Vennonius,	[28]
L. Calpurnius Piso,	[29]
Q. Claudius Quadrigarius,	[30]
Q. Valerius Antias,	[32]
C. Licinius Macer,	[33]
Junius Gracchanus. Fenestella,	[34]
Forged historians,	[34]
Q. Ælius Tubero. T. Pomponius Atticus,	[35]
Cicero,	[35]
C. Sallustius Crispus,	[36]
L. Cornelius Sisenna,	[37]
Diodorus Siculus,	[37]
Dionysius of Halicarnassus,	[38]
T. Livius,	[45]
Velleius Paterculus,	[57]
Fabius Rusticus,	[58]
Epitome of Livy. L. Annæus Florus. Eutropius,	[58]
Orosius. Plutarch,	[59]
Appian,	[60]
Dio Cassius Cocceianus,	[61]
Xiphilinus,	[64]
Joannes Zonaras,	[65]
The middle ages,	[66]
The modern times,	[68]
Glareanus, Panvinius, Sigonius,	[68]
Stephen Pighius,	[69]
John Freinsheim,	[70]
James Perizonius, Montesquieu, Bayle,	[71]
Beaufort, Rollin, Hooke, Ferguson,	[72]
Levesque, Micali,	[73]
Auxiliary sciences. Geography, Mannert, Cluverius,	[75]
D’Anville,	[76]
Reichardt,	[77]
IMPORTANCE OF ROMAN HISTORY,	[78]
MANNER IN WHICH THE EARLY HISTORY OF ROME ORIGINATED,	[79]
Impossibility of the earliest history,	[80]
Numerical system in the chronological statements,	[82]
Sæcula of the Etruscans,	[83]
Ancient lays,	[85]
Etruscan historical works. Emperor Claudius,	[87]
The Saturnian verse,	[89]
Neniæ,	[91]
Epic poems, family records, family vanity,	[92]
National vanity, spirit of caste,	[93]
THE EARLIEST HISTORY,	[94]
Pelasgians, their spreading,	[95]
Samothrace,	[96]
Siculians, Italians,	[97]
Œnotrians, Peucetians, Liburnians, Tyrrhenians,	[98]
Opicans, Apulians, Volscians, Æquians, Sabellians,	[98]
Umbrians,	[99]
Siculians in Italy, Aborigines,	[100]
Latins,	[101]
The same traditions often told in contradictory ways,	[101]
Cascans,	[103]
Sacranians, ver sacrum, Priscans, Prisci Latini,	[104]
Origin of the Latin language,	[105]
Traditions concerning the Troian origin of Rome,	[106]
Alban chronology,	[107]
Alba longa. Populi Albenses,	[107]
Thirty Latin towns,	[108]
Roma, town on the Palatine mount,	[110]
Romulus. Tradition concerning his descent,	[111]
Interpretations of the legend,	[113]
Romulus and Remus. Remuria,	[114]
Asylum,	[116]
Rape of the Sabines,	[117]
Union of the Romans and Sabines,	[118]
End of Romulus,	[118]
Organic division of the population,	[119]
Sabines,	[120]
Towns on the Palatinus and the Quirinal,	[121]
Double state,	[122]
Union of the two states,	[123]
Numa Pompilius,	[125]
Tullus Hostilius,	[125]
War with Alba,	[126]
Formular of the declaration of war,	[127]
Third tribe of the population,	[129]
Ancus Martius,	[131]
War with the Latins,	[131]
Foundation of Ostia,	[132]
Origin of the Plebes,	[133]
Tarquinius Priscus. His Greek descent,	[133]
His Latin origin,	[135]
Building of the Cloaca maxima,	[138]
Traces of a powerful Roman state,	[139]
The number of the centuries doubled,	[140]
Etruscans,	[141]
Tyrrhenians,	[143]
Cæles Vibenna,	[154]
Servius Tullius. Mastarna,	[155]
Constitution of Servius Tullius,	[157]
Gentes,	[159]
Curies,	[161]
Clients,	[170]
Tribes,	[172]
Centuries,	[174]
Census,	[179]
Further legislation of Servius Tullius,	[184]
Relation to the Latins,	[185]
Enlargement of the city,	[187]
Tunnel,	[189]
Wall of Servius Tullius,	[190]
The legend of Mastarna criticised,	[190]
L. Tarquinius Superbus,	[193]
War with the Latins,	[195]
Alliance with Carthage,	[195]
Military system,	[197]
THE REFUGIUM. ROME A REPUBLIC,	[198]
L. Junius Brutus,	[198]
Abolition of the regal dignity,	[202]
The consulate,	[203]
Valerius Poplicola. The Valerian laws,	[207]
Porsena,	[208]
War of the Etruscans against Rome,	[210]
Mucius Scævola,	[210]
Peace of Porsena. Reduction of the tribes,	[212]
The Latins take the position of equals,	[214]
Battle at the Regillus,	[216]
Isopolity,	[219]
League of Sp. Cassius; union of the Romans, Latins and Hernicans,	[219]
Dictatorship,	[221]
War with the Auruncians,	[222]
SECESSION OF THE PLEBES. LAW OF DEBT. INSTITUTION OF THE TRIBUNATE,	[224]
Counter-revolutionary attempts,	[224]
Law of debt,	[226]
Nexum,	[230]
Refractoriness of the Plebes,	[232]
Secession of the Plebeians,	[236]
Peace between the two orders. Tribuni Plebis,	[239]
WARS WITH THE VOLSCIANS AND ÆQUIANS. LEAGUE WITH THE HERNICANS,	[244]
The legend of Coriolanus shown to be out of place here,	[244]
Division of the Volscian wars,	[245]
Alliance with the Hernicans,	[246]
Sp. Cassius,	[248]
THE AGRARIAN LAW. SP. CASSIUS. EMIGRATION OF THE FABII. THE PUBLILIAN ROGATIONS,	[249]
The agrarian law,	[250]
Difference between ownership and possession,	[254]
Lex Cassia,	[256]
Execution of Sp. Cassius,	[257]
Elections of the consuls exclusively performed by the senate and the curies,	[259]
Consular elections divided between the curies and the centuries,	[261]
War against the Veientines,	[261]
The Fabii pronounce themselves for the plebeians,	[262]
Settlement of the Fabii at the Cremera,	[262]
Defeat at the Cremera,	[263]
Consuls arraigned by the tribunes,	[265]
Murder of Cn. Genucius,	[267]
Volero Publilius. Rogations of Publilius,	[268]
Public proceedings in the popular assemblies,	[269]
Opposition of Appius Claudius,	[272]
WARS WITH THE VOLSCIANS AND ÆQUIANS. PLAGUE. CINCINNATUS. CÆSO QUINCTIUS. CORIOLANUS,	[274]
Wars with the Volscians and Æquians,	[274]
Plague in Rome,	[276]
C. Terentilius Harsa. Lex Terentilia,	[277]
Cæso Quinctius,	[280]
Cincinnatus,	[281]
Surprise of Appius Herdonius,	[283]
Condemnation of Volscius,	[284]
Coriolanus,	[285]
Peace with the Volscians,	[293]
Changed relation of the Latins to Rome,	[293]
Fermentations in Rome. P. Mucius,	[294]
LEGISLATION OF THE TWELVE TABLES,	[295]
Embassy to Athens,	[295]
Hermodorus,	[296]
First decemvirate. The rights of the patricians and plebeians balanced,	[298]
Second decemvirate. New constitution,	[299]
Unrestricted right to make a will,	[301]
Law of debt,	[303]
Centuries, general national tribunal,	[304]
Tyranny of the decemvirs,	[307]
Death of Virginia,	[310]
Secessio of the Plebes. Overthrow of the Decemvirs,	[311]
The old constitution restored,	[312]
Veto of the tribunes. Patrician tribunes,	[314]
Death of Appius Claudius and Sp. Oppius,	[316]
Imprisonment,	[317]
Penal laws of the Romans,	[318]
Amnesty,	[319]
LEX HORATIA VALERIA. FURTHER CHANGES IN THE CONSTITUTION. MILITARY TRIBUNATE. CENSORSHIP. SP. MÆLIUS. VICTORY OF A. POSTUMIUS TUBERTUS OVER THE VOLSCIANS AND ÆQUIANS. CONQUEST OF FIDENÆ AND VEII,	[320]
Lex Horatia Valeria,	[320]
Growth of the constitution, the later Publilian law, the Hortensian law,	[321]
Victories over the Æquians and Sabines,	[324]
Quæstors elected by the centuries,	[325]
Quæstores parricidii, Quæstores classici,	[325]
Intermarriage between patricians and plebeians allowed. Canuleian law,	[326]
Military tribunes,	[327]
Censorship,	[332]
Famine in Rome. Sp. Mælius,	[337]
Executive power of the consuls,	[339]
Quæstorship thrown open to the plebeians,	[340]
The right of deciding on war and peace passes from the curies to the centuries,	[340]
Plebeian senators,	[340]
The people of the Campanians forms itself,	[341]
Victory of Postumius Tubertus over the Æquians,	[344]
Agrarian law,	[345]
Coloniæ Romanæ. Mutiny of the soldiers,	[346]
War with Veii,	[347]
Destruction of Fidenæ,	[348]
Manner of warfare,	[350]
Pay of the army,	[351]
Siege of Veii,	[354]
Draining the Alban lake,	[357]
Conquest of Veii,	[360]
Quarrels of the patricians and plebeians after the taking of Veii,	[361]
War with the Faliscans, with the Vulsinians,	[361]
Camillus,	[362]
His banishment,	[363]
MIGRATION OF THE GAULS. CONQUEST OF ROME,	[363]
Migration of the Gauls,	[364]
Invasion of the Gauls into Italy,	[371]
Embassy of the Romans to the Gauls,	[372]
Manners of the Gauls,	[374]
Battle at the Alia,	[376]
The Gauls in Rome,	[379]
Peace with the Gauls; their departure,	[383]
RESTORATION OF THE CITY. MANLIUS CAPITOLINUS. THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS. CONFUSION IN THE CHRONOLOGY. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRÆTOR URBANUS AND OF THE ÆDILIS CURULIS,	[385]
Consequences of the Gallic conquest,	[385]
Rebuilding of the town,	[387]
Fœnus unciarium,	[388]
Etruscan wars with Rome,	[389]
Four new tribes formed,	[391]
Usury. Manlius Capitolinus takes the part of those oppressed,	[393]
His execution,	[395]
Tribunate of C. Licinius and of L. Sextius Lateranus,	[396]
The Licinian Rogations,	[396]
Confusion with regard to the chronology,	[399]
Dictatorship of Camillus. Temple of Concordia,	[402]
The consulate divided between the patricians and plebeians. The prætorship established,	[403]
Ædilis curulis. One day added to the Ludi Romani,	[405]
INVASION OF THE SENONIAN GAULS. LEAGUE WITH THE LATINS AND HERNICANS. CHANGES IN THE DOMESTIC AFFAIRS OF ROME,	[407]
Triumviri rei publicæ constituendæ,	[407]
Invasion of the Senonian Gauls,	[409]
Alliance with the Latins and Hernicans,	[409]
Alliance with the Samnites,	[411]
War in Etruria. Arrangement of the debts,	[413]
Third invasion of the Gauls into Italy,	[414]
Enlargement of the rights of the plebeians,	[415]
C. Marcius Rutillus, first plebeian dictator,	[415]
THE FIRST WAR WITH THE SAMNITES. PROGRESS OF LEGISLATION,	[416]
Position of the colonies,	[417]
Origin of the Samnites,	[418]
Rising in Capua,	[419]
Constitution of the Samnites,	[420]
Outbreak of the war,	[422]
M. Valerius Corvus,	[425]
Battle near the Mount Gaurus,	[427]
P. Decius Mus saves the Roman army,	[429]
Military insurrection of the Romans,	[430]
Progress of the legislation,	[432]
Military system of the Romans,	[434]
THE WAR AGAINST THE LATINS. THE LAWS OF THE DICTATOR Q. PUBLILIUS PHILO. FURTHER EVENTS,	[436]
Peace with the Samnites. Relations with the Latins,	[436]
War with the Latins,	[438]
T. Manlius,	[440]
Organisation of the Roman army,	[441]
Battle on the Veseris. P. Decius,	[443]
Battle near Trifanum,	[444]
Conditions of the submission of the Latins,	[445]
Q. Publilius Philo. His laws,	[446]
End of the Latin war,	[448]
Municipia,	[448]
Latin colonies,	[451]
The prætorship thrown open to the plebeians,	[454]
War with the Sidicinians,	[455]
Colonies in Cales and Fregellæ,	[455]
New relations,	[456]
Rome’s relation to the Greeks,	[457]
Tarentum,	[459]
Alexander of Epirus,	[463]
Rebellion of Privernum,	[465]
Peace with the Gauls,	[468]
Embassy to Alexander of Macedon,	[468]
THE SECOND SAMNITE WAR,	[470]
Palæopolis and Neapolis,	[470]
Outbreak of the second Samnite war,	[474]
M. Valerius Corvus, L. Papirius Cursor, Q. Fabius Maximus,	[481]
Victory of Fabius over the Samnites,	[483]
Fabius flees from Papirius,	[484]
Death of Papius Brutulus,	[486]
Defeat near Caudium,	[487]
The Romans break the peace,	[491]
Defeat of the Romans near Lautulæ,	[494]
Progress of the Romans. Colony in Luceria,	[496]
The Romans build a fleet,	[498]
Fine arts flourishing among the Romans,	[498]
Rising of the Etruscans,	[499]
Conquest of Bovianum,	[500]
Papirius Cursor appointed dictator,	[501]
The northern confederation pronounces itself in favour of the Samnites,	[501]
War of the Romans with the Hernicans,	[502]
Subjection of the Hernicans,	[503]
Battle near Bovianum. End of the war,	[504]
The Æquians conquered,	[505]
Alliance of Rome with the Marsians,	[505]
THE ETRUSCAN WAR. OTHER EVENTS DOWN TO THE THIRD SAMNITE WAR,	[505]
The Ciminian forest,	[506]
Battle near Sutrium,	[507]
Fabius breaks through the Ciminian forest,	[508]
End of the war,	[509]
Colony at Narnia,	[510]
Cleonymus,	[510]
Appius Claudius the Blind,	[511]
Via Appia, Aqua Appia,	[518]
Cn. Flavius,	[519]
Jus Flavianum,	[521]
The Nexum abolished,	[522]
Lex Ogulnia,	[523]
THE THIRD SAMNITE WAR,	[524]
The war is transferred into Etruria,	[525]
Battle near Sentinum,	[528]
P. Decius devotes himself to death,	[531]
End of the war,	[534]
WAR WITH THE SABINES. AGITATIONS AT HOME. LEX HORTENSIA. LEX MÆNIA,	[535]
War with the Sabines. M’. Curius,	[535]
Embassy to Epidaurus,	[536]
Draining of the Velinus, waterfall of Terni,	[538]
The Mænian law,	[539]
The Hortensian law,	[540]
Triumviri capitales,	[543]
EXTERMINATION OF THE SENONIAN GAULS. C. FABRICIUS LUSCINUS. WAR WITH TARENTUM. PYRRHUS OF EPIRUS. EVENTS IN SICILY DOWN TO THE FIRST PUNIC WAR,	[544]
War with the Senonian Gauls,	[546]
C. Fabricius Luscinus. M’. Curius Dentatus,	[547]
Ti. Coruncanius,	[548]
Outbreak of the war with Tarentum,	[549]
Pyrrhus of Epirus,	[552]
Cineas,	[558]
Battle near Heraclea,	[558]
Pyrrhus tries to march against Rome,	[560]
Pyrrhus sends Cineas to Rome,	[561]
Pyrrhus returns to Tarentum,	[562]
Roman embassy to Pyrrhus,	[563]
Battle near Asculum,	[564]
Pyrrhus goes to Sicily,	[566]
Siege of Lilybæum. Pyrrhus returns to Italy,	[567]
Battle near Taurasia (Beneventum),	[568]
Pyrrhus’ death. Peace with Samnium,	[569]
Tarentum falls into the hands of the Romans,	[570]
Subjection of Italy,	[571]
Campanian legion at Rhegium,	[573]
Earlier history of Sicily,	[574]
Mamertines in Messana. Hiero,	[577]
Hiero and the Carthaginians defeated by the Romans,	[581]
Peace with Hiero,	[581]

LECTURES ON ROMAN HISTORY.

INTRODUCTION.

Ancient history divides itself into the history anterior to the rule of Rome, which has many centres, and into the history of Roman rule, wherein there is but one centre, Rome, the action of which extends on all sides. Other nations, like the Egyptians, have acted by their intellectual power upon the foreigner, but were deficient in mind; others, as the barbarian nations of the Celts and other races, became important merely by the mightiness of their conquests; Greece, by her mind; but Rome combines every thing, the greatest political perfection, might, and mind. Here is an influence which has become still more lasting and ineffaceable than that of Greece: it continues to the latest centuries, even to this very day. The Roman history has to exhibit the greatest characters, achievements, and events; it is the development of the whole life of a people, the like of which is unknown in all the rest of history. Of the history of the East, as far as regards the stages of its progress, we know nothing whatever. The Egyptians we find already in castes, consequently in fixed forms, in which they abide throughout every century; they exist unalterable, of which their mummies are the emblem, and all the changes which we remark in them are a mere dying away. The Romans we see almost growing under our eyes; indeed, they also are early moulded into fixed forms, but their origin is no riddle to us. The other nations are as buds still folded up in their petals; they grow, but before they expand, they die away or only open imperfectly, as it also ever occurs with individuals, that among many thousands few only are not checked in their development. In modern history the English alone have had a career like that of the Romans. In a cosmopolitical point of view therefore, these two histories must ever remain the most important ones.

Here now the whole history of the twelve ages, which in the legend of Romulus have also been foretold as the duration of Rome, is to be set forth;—in the beginning the history of the nation and the town, then that of the empire and the aggregate of people who bore the name of Romans.