In the next chapter, we shall give an outline of the few facts which can be ascertained about this small fierce world in the nucleus of the atom. Optical spectra have told us about the outer electrons, X-rays about the inner rings of electrons; about the nucleus itself we know very little except what can be learnt from radio-activity.
[9] Op. cit. p. 109.
XI.
THE STRUCTURE OF NUCLEI
THE facts known about the structure of nuclei are not sufficient to enable us to be very definite as to the way in which they are built up. Let us begin by setting forth the facts, and then see what is to be inferred in the way of theory.
The most important facts for our purpose are those of radio-activity, which we consider in the previous chapter. We know from these facts that the nuclei of certain heavy atoms contain helium nuclei and electrons; that the loss of a helium nucleus diminishes the atomic number by two and the atomic weight by four, while the loss of an electron increases the atomic number by one and has no appreciable effect upon the atomic weight. We know also that it is possible for several different elements to exist with the same atomic number, but different atomic weights; in radio-activity these can be seen in process of formation, but they are found to exist among lighter atoms which show no discoverable trace of radio-activity. It is possible that radio-activity, in a very slight degree, exists among elements which appear to us perfectly stable; the amount of it may be so small that we cannot hope to detect it. This may be the reason for the existence of isotopes; but there is at present no positive evidence in favour of this view.
Another fact of immense importance has been experimentally established by Rutherford. Some elements, but not others, when submitted to a very intense bombardment by
-particles, give off rays which are found to be hydrogen. The element in which this result has been established with the greatest certainty is nitrogen (atomic number 17). But it is also fairly certain as regards a number of elements—broadly speaking, those which have odd atomic numbers. Rutherford is led to the conclusion that hydrogen nuclei can be detached from the nuclei of other elements, unless their atomic weight is a multiple of 4, which is the atomic weight of helium. This, together with the fact that in radio-activity helium nuclei, but not hydrogen nuclei, are thrown off, leads irresistibly to the view that every nucleus is composed, as far as it can be, of helium nuclei. Thus, phosphorus, which has the atomic weight 31, may be supposed to consist of seven helium nuclei, each having atomic weight 4, and three hydrogen nuclei, each having atomic weight 1. The three hydrogen nuclei could, with luck, be detached by bombardment, but the helium nuclei are to be regarded as incapable of being destroyed by an
-particle, so that if they are detached they are detached as wholes. Consequently, when the atomic weight divides by 4, the nucleus can be supposed to consist wholly of helium nuclei, and there will be no odd hydrogen nuclei to be broken off. It is impossible to know whether Rutherford’s bombardment breaks off helium nuclei, because they could not be distinguished from his projectiles, which are also helium nuclei.